Chapter 11 System Design Database, Network, Program and Control

Another way that is suitable for ad hoc data request is by creating a view which is an invisible table that does not exist in physical terms Database Software (DS) Users create a computerized software by using database software. You may add, change and delete data in database You may sort and retrieve data from database Create form and report from data in database

Database Design Guidelines 1. Determine purpose of database - Carry out analysis of all data needed for processing and filling. Analysis need to be accurate so tables are complete and workable 2. Identify entities - Entity any class of objects of which data n info are collected. Can be person, place, thing(product) ,event(sale) - Entities in ERD use rectangular symbols and labeled with singular nouns 3. Determine R/ship among the entities - R/ships used to describe how 2 entities are associated - R/ship in ERD use diamond symbol n labeled with active verbs Types of r/ship One-to-one (1:1) Eg CFO report to CFO

DATABASE DESIGN
Database mgt is important as org have to manage vast volumes of data that they need to process Poorly managed data can cause problem for org in their attempt to respond to changes and to implement business strategies. Part of managing data is how the organization build their database ( ie how org define their data and type data they collect)

DS contains Data Definition Language (DDL) to create and Database is a central source of data that is meant to be shared populate database and describe the logical views of users. It is used together with data dictionary. by many users for variety of application Eg : Integrated system :information are only entered once and can be used in other department Non-Integrated system : information have to be keyed in several separate systems that would result in higher cost and error rate. A carefully designed database makes it easy for user to query the database, modify data and create report Database Types 1. Hierarchical 2. Network 3. Relational ie Microsoft ACCESS 4. Object-oriented 5. Object relational Data Dictionary It keep track of every data field in the database, how they are formatted to into different types of records and how the record types are integrated

Keeps track of where data field are used, who has access to them etc
DS includes programs like : DML (Data Manipulation Language) Insert, delete and update database DQL (Data Query Language) Perform retrieving, sorting, ordering and presenting database in response to users request DQL Generally all users have access DML and DDL Should be restricted to employees with programming and admin responsibilities. Help limit people who have capability to make changes to database DS have programs called application generator make it easy for user to retrieve info, to produce reports, and even build transaction processing application w/out need of technical specialist DS also contain data mgt function such as backup

One-to-many (1:M) Eg supervisor have many employees under him

Many-to-many (M:M) Eg Construction workers *Another eg pg 161 4. Draw the ERD

Hierarchi+Network Old technologies as it offer limited data access and not very flexible Object oriented+Object relational > newer techno
Relational Database (Exhibit 11.1 pg 158) It is a database that allows tables to be related to each other so that changes in one table are reflected in other tables automatically. Table A collection of related information. It contains records that have the same field types.

ERD graphically depicts the contents of a database. It shows various entities and the important relationships among the entities
Act as communion tools btw user and database designer DFD allow users to take a logical look at the way which data flows through the orgs system. But it doesn't show the relationship between various entities that exist in the sys. (*Comparison btw DFD and ERD) Symbols used are : entities rectangles, r/shiplines and diamonds

How to draw ERD 1. Identify the entities 2. Add diamonds to represent important r/ships between the entities 3. Specify the associations of these r/ship How to read ERD (*read pg 162 to u/stand example) ERDs and DFDs DFD is used to model system flows while ERD is used to model system data Both system used to describe same system, must be consistent in their use of system names One model can be used to help develop the other model and check whether the other model is complete Most methodologies start with DFD and then use the data stores and data flows to indicate major system entities for ERD Converting ERD into Relatinal Database 1. Create tables for each entity (table will become database file) 2. Identify attributes for each table (to create attri means to create a field. U need to assign primary key to identify each table. Thus, u need to specify data types n field) Identify keys : Primary keyspurpose is to uniquely identify a record. Every record in file/table shud have it used for accessing the record. Unique means it wud b impossible to access any other record when u use the key Secondary keysA field used to identify a record but it is not unique. Its selection will affect database processing efficiency and information retrieval Concatenated keysits a primary key in a table that is made up of 2 primary keys that comes from other table in the database. *refer Exhibit 11.4 pg 165 Specify data types and field sizes Types of info in a field is determined by its data type. Numeric fields contain only numbers that can b used to calculate totals and other mathematical formulas. Date field only contain date values

3. Normalize table to convert ERD into relational database Normalizationa technique that organizes the database into one of several normal forms to remove ambiguous r/ships btw data n minimize data redundancy. It allows complex r/ship btw entities to be simplified so that all data for an entity can b hold in 2dimensional tables. Data MUST be normalized before being stored in relational database. Normalization process: 1. First Normal form (1NF) 2. Second Normal form (2NF) 3. Third Normal Form (3 NF) and so on Database designer must ensure that tables are at its highest normal form. The forms constitute progression meaning table in 1NF better than unnormalized table, while table in 2NF better than 1NF n so forth. Poorly designed database can cause operational problems : 1. Restricting/not allowing users to access the info needed. 2. Prevent insertion of records 3. Require users to do excessive updates 4. Unintentional deletion of data from table Can result in unrecorded transactions and incomplete audit trails.

NETWORK DESIGN Distributed Information System Each user department must be tied together w/in org framework by communication tech in order to enable fast and effective decision making Ii is highly modular, employs independent but related system arranged as a network. Dispersed over 2 or > geographical location. Made possible by the Internet. Client-Server Architecture Advanced development in multi performing operating system that is capable in working different type of hardware made it possible fully connect/integrate computer n other hardware In a client server system, individual users use client-server workstation normally PCs. Loxal/departmental server is shared by few users with same computing needs. All users share a central/corporate server Intranet Many org apply Internet tech into their own internal networks. Intranet is an internal network that uses internet tech making the orgs info accessible to employees and facilitate working in groups. It is essentially a small version of Internet exist w/in an org.Users update info on intranet by creting and posting a Web page that is similar to method used in internet. Extranet Org uses externet to allow customer/suppliers to access part of it intranet system. Similar to intranet except it is designed to facilitate communication between 2 or > buss partners Eg. Shipping co allow customer to access their intranet to print schedule pickups Network cost 1. Network cost are very high 2. You need to perform cost-benefit analysis on network infrastructure of an org. 3. As a general rule, cost of data communication increase as distance rate increase and as max rate/capacity of link increase. Designer have no control over distance involved. Distance affect speed in terms of productivity.

Data Dictionary
You document structure of database in data dictionary. It is usually maintained automatically by the database software. It is a repository in database that contains data about data (metadata). It contains database component parts and detailed description such as field size, data type and uthorized users and their access privileges.

Evaluating Network (Questions) Functional capabilities and limitations 1. How fast can network respond to instruction n supply requested 2. How long will it likely continue operating w/out errors or unplanned outages 3. How much does it cost per volume traffic or per time period Ease of use 1. How easy it is to learn the instruction for using the network n connecting the devices to it 2. How much effort required to become proficient in using the network Compatibility 1. To what extent does network conform to accepted industry standards 2. To what extent does the network use the same internal coding/external interface as other network must with/substitute for Maintainability 1. Is it possible to significantly increase/decrease capacity w/out major disruptions 2. Is it possible to change important aspects of network operation w/out major disruptions

Ring Topology Each node is connected to an adjacent node in a circular fashion. No central node. Msg are sent through the network. Each node will examine the identification code msg and accepts msg if it has the code. If it doesn't, then the process will continue until msg reach the intended node. Bus Topology All nodes are attached to the bus. Data transmission from one node is sent to every node in the network. Each node will examine the identification code. It will accept msg containing its code and ignore other msgs. Hybrid Topology Most networks are hybrid, , meaning they are combinations of the three topologies. Types of Network 1. LAN 2. WAN LAN A network that interconnects computers and communication devices w/in an office/series of offices, distance between few hundred meters to one km. Part of networks are linked by wired or wireless. It can use any/combination of topology mentioned earlier. Client server application runs on LAN. WAN It is a network that interconnects sites located across states, countries or continents. Info travel over great distances in WAN. Large WANs are possible due to Internet, telephone lines, microwave relay towers and satellite. Internet is a WAN WAN and LAN key differences : 1. Geographical area covered by WAN is larger, not limited to one area.building 2. WAN send data over telecommunication data. LAN uses direct cables 3. WAN use larger computer as file server 4. WAN is often larger than LANs, more terminal/ compute linked to network WAN usually use star topology in order to tightly control the network

Communication Channels 1.Wired Use physicals wires or cables to transmit the data or information from one place to another. . Transmission capacity depends on the distance and on whether the medium is point-to-point or multipoint. There are three types of wired channels: Twisted Pair Made of pairs of solid or stranded copper twisted along and the most popular medium and easy to install. It is also inexpensive and light weight. It also support many different types of network, supports the speed of 100mps and used most in LANs. It is used for voice and text information transmission. Disadvantages of twisted pair Relatively low bandwidth and relatively slow in transmit the data or information and subject to electromagnetic interference. Coaxial It is also made from copper but high transmission speed than twisted pairs. It is used for voice, text information and other type of information such as image and video, so it is more expensive than twisted pair. It contains two conductors that are parallel to each other. The center conductors in the cable usually copper. Advantages : inexpensive, easy to install, easy to expand and moderate level of EMI immunity, higher bandwidth , much less susceptible to interference than twisted pair. Disadvantages : single cable failure can take down an entire network and less susceptible to electromagnetic interference , expensive over long distance and bulky Fiber Optic Made up of thousands of very thin filaments of fiberglass and use light as a digital information carrier. It uses electrical signals to transmit data. Require a light source with injection laser diode (ILD) or light emitting diodes (LED). Advantages : faster in transmitting information, low attenuation, no EMI interference. Greater bandwidth, smaller size and lighter weight, highly secure difficult to tap. Disadvantages of fiber optic: Hard to install, expensive over short distance, requires highly skilled installers, and adding additional nodes is difficult.

Basic Connection Topology Topology Configuration of a network/ How computer is physically linked to another computer. 3 types : star, ring, bus. In determining which topology is to be used, you will need to consider : i. distance between computer Ii. Frequency and volume of data transmission Iii. Processing capability of each computer Iv. Performance of the topo such as delay, speed reliability and network capability to continue in case of sys failure. Star Topology Interconnect many nodes through central computer system ie a server. When sending msg to another nodes, must be sent to server first . Server will receive and retransmit the msg to intended node

2. Wireless A type of cableless or wireless transmission media including microwave transmission, communication satellites, mobile computing and radio and infrared technology that will connect from system to computer network. Communication Channels for WAN Information travels over great distances and cannot be supported by single cable linking one location to another. For WANs, public switch telephone network (PSTN) that is worldwide and reliable, provide an effective services for long distance data and information.

Infrared wireless used with notebooks that send and receive data over short distances. This red light not visible to human eyes. Interconnecting Network to Network Depends whether the networks are of same or different type and whether they are managed by the same software. Choosing the best approach is dependent on type of organization, its data flow needs, volume involved, critical information transmission factors (speed and accuracy). Devices that interconnects networks are bridges, routers and getaways.

PROGRAM DESIGN Using structured techniques, program design is typically completed in a top down manner starting with a development of structure diagram. It breaks overall system into smaller modules and illustrates the necessary passing of info and controls between module. Programs developed using structured design benefits from their simplicity,reliability,readibility, reusability and maintainability Structure Diagram/Hierarchy Chart DFD serve as basic design to Structure Diagram by indicating the sequences of the modules and the modules subordinate to a higher module It is primarily a tool for the internal use of info system dept. It shows the structure of a prog by showing independent modules and r/ship among modules in a hierarchy manner. A good structure diagram should interacy with control module (input process and output operation rather than wif each other. One module should perform one task only rather than many task at one time. *Must refer pg 179 for eg and its explanation. Pseudocode

Two types of PSTN: leased line and dial up line, both are analog. Leased line is always available; security is not shared by others and less subject to snooping. Can accommodate high transmission rates. Dial up line like telephone services, pay only for services used but the lines are busy or connection is poor.
Analog cannot handle high end information. To upgrade performance used digital signaling, the integrated services digital network (ISDN). ISDN can simultaneously transmit video, image and others data at very high speed. Satellite transmission is utilized if network require high availability, covers diverse location scattered over wide area, satellite transmission will disappears the distance in order to transfer data or information and smooth the connection between system and computer network. Communication Channels for LAN Seldom use PSTN (public switch telephone network) or satellite transmission channels. Fiber optic, twisted pair, coaxial is the common method in connecting computers in LAN. Now cableless or wireless connections are becoming popular with LANs. Each computer has a tiny radio transmitter connected to its network port so that it can send and receive data through air. Wireless network usually slower than wired LANs(local area network). Wi-Fi allow multiple computer connect to system and connect to LAN(local area network) through base station up to 150 feet away.

Bridges and routers are devices that interconnect compatible LANs making it possible to send info from a device in a network to another device in another network.
Getaways are devices that Interconnect 2 different nd incompatibles networks by translating from one set of protocol to another. Problems faced as network expand in size and complexity : 1. Passing info via shortest,fastest and most cost effective path 2. Using effective and intelligent routers and getaways to passinfo btw diff network using diff protocol 3. Providing alternative routing so that info are not passed backward and forward between routers and end up going in circles Solution: Use of open system and connectivity. Open sys allow any computing devices to be connected and interact with other computer regardless of size, operating sys or application used. Open sys require connectivity Connectivity Ability of the various computers to communicate with each other through network devices. Network Protocols Rules and standards governing the design of hardware and software that permit users of network manufactured by different vendors to communicate and shares data. It requires manufacturer to observe set of standards that make creation of open system possible ISO had defined a set of network protocol called Open System interface to provide standards to diff manufacturers

Details of each module in SD are documented in pseudocode. Pseudocode is in word form. It fits somewhere between structured English and actual programming. Looks very much like prog language. Theres no universal standard for pseudocode. Note that statement used in pseudocode will depend on prog language which will eventually used in developing a system. Pseudocoe will be transformed into computer prog codes by programmer in System Construction phase. *Please refer pg 180,181 for eg.

CONTROL DESIGN Purpose of system control : 1. to make sure data is input,processed and output correctly 2. Prevent fraud and tampering off the computer system Fraud Intentional deception, manipulation of financial data or misappropriation of org asset. By individuals for personal benefits Tampering Entering false, fabricated or fraudulent data into computer system or changing or deleting existing data. As accountant, must ensure that planned controls are adequate and auditable. As auditor, youll determine adequacy of internal control Design features allows several checks to be performed : 1. Programmed edit check -editing automatically performed on entry of data into computer. Can highlight actual and potential input errors and allows them to be corrected quickly and efficiently 2. Mathematical accuracy od performed on this data where it will compare calculation performed manually and done by compare to determined if documents have been entered correctly. IS must have a security features to ensure safety and confidentiality of info. System admin is responsible to format authority level that the users could assess into the system which will allow authorized person to enter into system.

Encryption Used to encode so that copies of data cannot be made, taken to another computer and accessed. To make unauthorized data unreadable and interpretable Prevent person who doesn't have encryption key from decoding and understanding data. Logging Log any system users and what info, files and equipment they use. Detection method of security system. Analysis of amount of computer time used by a person shud also be considered Data Control It is a quality measure to ensure the accuracy of data entered into the system. Data have to be authorized, recorded, processed accurately in accordance to mgt policies to be acceptable It should be error free and reliable. Processing controls ensure data are complete, valid and accurate when being processed and those programs have been properly executed. Processed in timely manner. Timeliness means data are to be processed efficiently. Captured data containing errors must be able to be detected asap and be fully corrected Data accepted/recorded by IS may be destroyed, misdirected, corrupted or lost intentionally or unintentionally Contingency Planning It lays down procedure to be followed before, during and after an emergency. It ensure continuity of operations and availability of critical computing resources in the event of emergency We cant rely on single large contingency plan. We must develop several of them that address specific contingencies. It shud be written down so it will be effective in case of emergency, kept in safe place, copies given to key managers and plant to be audited periodically. PERFORM A SYSTEM DESIGN WALKTHROUGH When system design is complete, u need to do a walkthrough. Purpose is to ensure that design is free from errors that cud be programmed later on. It helps reduce cost of reprogramming later. Should be scheduled frequently during sys development so that a manageable piece of work can be thoroughly reviewed in 1/2 hours. Begins when logicals model is completed.

First w/through checks for ommissions and inaccuracies. It should detect flaws, weaknesses, errors and ommisions in proposed design. There may be more than 1 w/through in sys project. It is crucial for effectiveness of w/through to be established as a quality assurance tool.

Encompass data security, control and contingency planning.

Data Security Controls to safeguard hardware and software. Unauthorized access may result to loss such as fund embezzlement or disclosure of sensitive data Password Security feature such as password can help in preventing security breaches. Different password are required by different users and possibly different operations even for same user. It restrict access to only who know the password

MICROSOFT ACCESS ACCESS A database software that organizes a collection of related info used for specific purpose Relational Database One in which info is divided into separate stacks of logical info, each of which is stored in a separate table in the file You need : TABLES 1. Enter all data in fields and group relevant data into records 2. R/ship among tables are key to success 3. Create table, Add records to table, Specifying r/ship based on ERD, Print tables FORMS Purpose: 1. Provide a dialog box for access to predesign queries and other forms of report. 2. Provide a dialog box to capture info from a user and use it to carry out an action 3. Create form, Print form Subforms Simple form within forms. To exist, the info from one form must have 1 : M r/ship with info in other form QUERIES 1. Questions of the info provided in the database. Used to ask questions of the data and retrieve a subset of info available. Involve listing specific data from various tables 2. Create Query, Print Query, Create Sum/Count/Cost Query Querying selected records To specify what records we are looking for can be done using Character Data and Wildcards Character based queries work well when u have a specific name or set of characters Queries using Wildcards allow that the user to find such things as field value records or filenames. The asterisk (*) which matches any number characters can be used as the first or last character in character string

Create Validation Rules Improves data integrity and validity. Checks info entered into a database. and test the entry to see if it meets certain criteria. If info enterd pass the test, entry is allowed. If not, a warning is provided and entry is rejected. Also provide specific feedback to user as to why the validation test failed. Performing Calculation Can calculate sum of average of values in one field, multiply values in to fields or calculate the date three months from current date REPORTS It is a way for user to get info out of database in format that helps the analytical process Report need to be properly formatted/sorted/grouped It may need chart, logo, subtotals/grand totals, date, special title, headers or footers It organize ur info according to specification that you set 5 steps to create a report 1. Identify which field u want in your report and in which tables these fields are present 2. Specify group levels if any 3. Specify sort order if necessary 4. Specify report style