4.

1 Elementary Concepts
Voltages can be induced by time-varying magnetic fields. In rotating machines, voltages are generated in windings or groups of coils by rotating these windings mechanically through a magnetic field, by mechanically rotating a magnetic field past the winding, or by designing the magnetic circuit so that the reluctance varies with rotation of the rotor. he flu! lin"ing a specific coil is changed cyclically, and time-varying voltage is generated. Electromagnetic energy conversion occurs when changes in the flu! lin"age result from mechanical motion. # set of such coils connected together is typically referred to as an armature winding, a winding or a set of windings carrying ac currents. In ac machines such as synchronous or induction machines, the armature winding is typically on the stator. $the stator winding% In dc machines, the armature winding is found on the rotor. $ he rotor winding% &ynchronous and dc machines typically include a second winding $or set of windings%, referred to as the field winding, which carries dc current and which are used to produce the main operating flu! in the machine. In dc machines, the field winding is found on the stator. In synchronous machines, the field winding is found on the rotor. 'ermanent magnets can be used in the place of field windings. In most rotating machines, the stator and rotor are made of electrical steel, and the windings are installed in slots on these structures. he stator and rotor structures are typically built from thin laminations of electrical steel, insulated from each other, to reduce eddy-current losses.

4.( Introduction to #C and )C *achines 4.(.1 #C *achines

raditional ac machines fall into one of two categories+ synchronous and induction. In synchronous machines, rotor-winding currents are supplied directly from the stationary frame through a rotating contact. In induction machines, rotor currents are induced in the rotor windings by a combination of the time-variation of the stator currents and the motion of

the

rotor

relative

to

the

stator.

&ynchronous

*achines

,ig. 4.1+ a simplified salient-pole ac synchronous generator with two poles. he armature winding is on the stator, and the field winding is on the rotor. he field winding is e!cited by direct current conducted to it by means of stationary carbon brushes that contact rotating slip rings or collector rings. It is advantages to have the single, low-power field winding on the rotor while having the high-power, typically multiple-phase, and armature winding on the stator. #rmature winding $a,a% consists of a single coil of - turns. Conductors forming these coil sides are connected in series by end connections. he rotor is turned at a constant speed by a source of mechanical power connected to its shaft. ,lu! paths are shown schematically by dashed lines.

#ssume a sinusoidal distribution of magnetic flu! in the air gap of the machine in ,ig.4.1. he radial distribution of air-gap flu! density . is shown in ,ig. 4.($a% as a function of the spatial angle / around the rotor periphery. #s the rotor rotates, the flu! 0lin"ages of the armature winding change with time and the resulting coil voltage will be sinusoidal in time as shown in ,ig 4.($b%. he fre1uency in cycles per second $23% is the same as the speed of the rotor in revolutions in second $rps%. # two-pole synchronous machine must revolve at 4566 rpm to produce a 5623 voltage. -ote the terms 7rpm8 and 7rps8.

the generated voltage for the single-phase generator of ,ig. 4.1. # great many synchronous machines have more than two poles. ,ig 4.4 shows in schematic form a four-pole single-phase generator. he field coils are connected so that the poles are of alternate polarity. he armature winding consists of two coils $a1,9a1%and $a(,9a(%connected in series by their end connections. here are two complete wavelengths, or cycles, in the flu! distribution around the periphery, as shown in ,ig. 4.4. he generated voltage goes through two complete cycles per revolution of the rotor. he fre1uency in 23 is thus twice the speed in rps.

,igure 4.4 &chematic view of a simple, four-pole, single-phase synchronous generator.

,igure 4.4 &pace distribution of the air-gap flu! density in an ideali3ed, four-pole synchronous generator. :hen a machine has more than two poles, it is convenient to concentrate on a single pair of poles and to e!press angles in electrical degrees or electrical radians rather than in physical units. ;ne pair of poles e1uals 456 electrical degrees or ( < electrical radians. &ince there are poles=( wavelengths, or cycles, in one revolution, it follows that

:here
s the angle in electrical units and /a is the spatial angle. he coil voltage of a multipole machine passes through a complete cycle every time a pair of poles sweeps by, or $poles=(% times each revolution. he electrical fre1uency fe of the voltage generated is therefore

where n is the mechanical speed in rpm.-ote that

he rotors shown in ,igs.4.1 and 4.4 have salient, or pro>ecting, poles with concentrated windings. ,ig.4.? shows diagrammatically a nonsalient-pole, or cylindrical, rotor. he field winding is a two-pole distributed winding@ the coil sides are distributed in multiple slots around the rotor periphery and arranged to produce an appro!imately sinusoidal distribution of radial air-gap flu!.

*ost power systems in the world operate at fre1uencies of either ?6 or 56 23. # salient-pole construction is characteristic of hydroelectric generators because hydraulic turbines operate at relatively low speeds, and hence a relatively large number of poles is re1uired to produce the desired fre1uency. &team turbines and gas turbines operate best at relatively high speeds, and turbinedriven alternators or turbine generators are commonly two- or four-pole cylindrical- rotor machines.

,igure 4.? Elementary two-pole cylindrical-rotor field winding. *ost of the worldAs power systems are three-phase systems. :ith very few e!ceptions, synchronous generators are three-phase machines. # simplified schematic view of a three-phase, two-pole machine with one coil per phase is shown in ,ig. 4.5 $a% ,ig. 4.5$b% depicts a simplified three-phase, four-pole machine. -ote that a minimum of two sets of coils must be used. In an elementary multipole machine, the minimum number of coils sets is given by one half the number of poles. -ote that coils $a,a% and $aB,9aB% can be connected in series or in parallel. hen the coils of the three phases may then be either C- or D-connected. &ee ,ig. 4.5$c%.

,igure 4.5 &chematic views of three-phase generators+ $a% two-pole, $b% four-pole, and $c% C connection of the windings.

he electromechanical tor1ue is the mechanism through which a synchronous generator converts mechanical to electric energy. :hen a synchronous generator supplies electric power to a load, the armature current creates a magnetic flu! wave in the air gap that rotates at synchronous speed. his flu! reacts with the flu! created by the field current, and an electromechanical tor1ue results from the tendency of these two magnetic fields to align. In a generator this tor1ue opposes rotation, and mechanical tor1ue must be applied from the prime mover to sustain rotation.

he counterpart of the synchronous generator is the synchronous motor.

#c current supplied to the armature winding on the stator, and dc e!citation is supplied to the field winding on the rotor. he magnetic field produced by the armature currents rotates at synchronous speed. o produce a steady electromechanical tor1ue, the magnetic fields of the stator and rotor must be constant in amplitude and stationary with respect to each other. In both generators and motors, an electromechanical tor1ue and a rotational voltage are produced which are the essential phenomena for electromechanical energy conversion. -ote that the flu! produced by currents in the armature of a synchronous motor rotates ahead of that produced by the field, thus pulling on the field $and hence on the rotor% and doing wor". his is the opposite of the situation in a synchronous generator, where the field does wor" as its flu! pulls on that of the armature, which is lagging behind.

Induction *achines
#lternating currents are applied directly to the stator windings. Eotors currents are then produced by induction, i.e., transformer action. #lternating currents flow in the rotor windings of an induction machine, in contrast to a synchronous machine in which a field winding on the rotor is e!cited with dc current. he induction machine may be regarded as a generali3ed transformer in which electric power is transformed between rotor and stator together with a change of fre1uency and a flow of mechanical power.

he induction motor is the most common of all motors. he rotor windings fre1uently have no e!ternal connections. Currents are induced by transformer action from the stator winding. &1uirrel-cage induction motor+ relatively e!pensive and highly reliable.

he armature flu! in the induction motor leads that of the rotor and produces an electromechanical tor1ue. he rotor does not rotate synchronously.

It is the slipping of the rotor with respect to the synchronous armature flu! that gives rise to the induced rotor currents and hence the tor1ue. Induction motors operate at speeds less than the synchronous mechanical speed. # typical speed-tor1ue characteristic for an induction motor is shown in ,ig.4.F.

 ,igure 4.F ypical induction-motor speed-tor1ue characteristic.

4.(.( )C *achines )C *achines

here are two sets of windings in a dc machine. he armature winding is on the rotor with current conducted from it by means of carbon brushes. he field winding is on the stator and is e!cited by direct current. #n elementary two-pole dc generator is shown in ,ig. 4.G. #rmature winding+ $a,a% , pitch factor + 1G6o he rotor is normally turned at a constant speed by a source of mechanical power connected the shaft.

,igure 4.G Elementary dc machine with commutator. he air-gap flu! distribution usually appro!imates a flat-topped wave, rather than the sine wave found in ac machines, and is shown in ,ig. 4.H$a%. Eotation of the coil generates a coil voltage which is a time function having the same waveform as the spatial flu!-density distribution. he voltage induced in an individual armature coil is an alternating voltage and rectification is produced mechanically by means of a commutator. &tationary carbon brushes held against the commutator surface connect the winding to the e!ternal armature terminal. he need for commutation is the reason why the armature windings are placed on the rotor. he commutator provides full-wave rectification, and the voltage waveform between brushes is shown in ,ig. 4.H$b%.

,igure 4.H $a% &pace distribution of air-gap flu! density in an elementary dc machine@ $b% waveform of voltage between brushes. It is the interaction of the two flu! distributions created by the direct currents in the field and the armature windings that creates an electromechanical tor1ue. If the machine is acting as a generator, the tor1ue opposes rotation. If the machine is acting as a motor, the tor1ue acts in the direction of the rotation.

4.4 **, of )istributed :indings

*ost armatures have distributed windings, i.e. windings which are spread over a number of slots around the air-gap periphery. he individual coils are interconnected so that the result is a magnetic field having the same number of poles as the field winding. Consider ,ig. 4.16$a%. ,ull-pitch coil+ a coil which spans 1G6 electrical degrees. In ,ig. 4.16$b%, the air gap and winding are in developed form $laid out flat% and the air-gap mmf distribution is shown by the stepli"e distribution of amplitude

,igure 4.16 $a% &chematic view of flu! produced by a concentrated, full-pitch winding in a machine with a uniform air gap. $b% he air-gap mmf produced by current in this winding.

4.4.1 #C *achines
It is appropriate to focus our attention on the space-fundamental sinusoidal component of the air-gap mmf. In the design of ac machines, serious efforts are made to distribute the coils ma"ing up the windings so as to minimi3e the higher-order harmonic components. he rectangular air-gap mmf wave of the concentrated two-pole, full-pitch coil of ,ig.4.16$b% can be resolved to a ,ourier series comprising a fundamental component and a series of odd harmonics. he fundamental component

,ig. 4.11$a% shows phase a of the armature winding of a simplified twopole, three-phase ac machine and phases b and c occupy the empty slots. he windings of the three phases are identical and are located with their magnetic a!es 1(6 degrees apart. he winding is arranged in two layers, each full-pitch coil of -c turns having one side in the top of a slot and the other coil side in the bottom of a slot a pole pitch away.

,igure 4.11 he mmf of one phase of a distributed two-pole, three-phase winding with full-pitch coils. he modified form of $4.4% for a distributed multipole winding is

+ number of series turns per phase,

kw+ winding factor, a reduction factor ta"ing into account the distribution of
the winding, typically in the range of 6.G? to 6.H?, pea" amplitude of this mmf wave is he

E1. $4.?% describes the space-fundamental component of the mmf wave produced by current in phase a of a distributed winding. If the result will be an mmf wave which is stationary in space

and varies sinusoidally both with respect to

a and in time.

he application of three-phase currents will produce a rotating mmf wave. Eotor windings are often distributed in slots to reduce the effects of space harmonics.

,ig. 4.1($a% shows the rotor of a typical two-pole round-rotor generator. #s shown in ,ig. 4.1($b%, there are fewer turns in the slots nearest the pole face. he fundamental air-gap mmf wave of a multipole rotor winding is

,igure 4.1( he air-gap mmf of a distributed winding on the rotor of a round-rotor generator.

4.4.( )C *achines
.ecause of the restrictions imposed on the winding arrangement by the commutator, the mmf wave of a dc machine armature appro!imates a sawtooth waveform more nearly than the sine wave of ac machines. ,ig. 4.14 shows diagrammatically in cross section the armature of a two-pole dc machine.

he armature coil connections are such that the armature winding produces a magnetic field whose a!is is vertical and thus is perpendicular to the a!is of the field winding. #s the armature rotates, the magnetic field of the armature remains vertical due to commutator action and a continuous unidirectional tor1ue results. he mmf wave is illustrated and analy3ed in ,ig. 4.14.

,igure 4.14 Cross section of a two-pole dc machine.

,igure 4.14 $a% )eveloped s"etch of the dc machine of ,ig. 4.((@ $b% mmf wave@ $c% e1uivalent sawtooth mmf wave, its fundamental component, and e1uivalent rectangular current sheet. )C machines often have a magnetic structure with more than two poles. he machine is shown in laid-out form in ,ig. 4.1?$b%.

,igure 4.1? $a% Cross section of a four-pole dc machine@ $b% development of current sheet and mmf wave. he pea" value of the sawtooth armature mmf wave can be written as

Ca I total number of conductors in armature winding m I number of parallel paths through armature winding. ia I armature current, #

4.4 *agnetic ,ields In Eotating *achinery

he behavior of electric machinery is determined by the magnetic fields created by currents in the various windings of the machine. he investigations of both ac and dc machines are based on the assumption of sinusoidal spatial distribution of mmf. Eesults from e!amining a two-pole machine can immediately be e!trapolated to a multipole machine.

4.? Eotating **, :aves in #C *achines

o understand the theory and operation of polyphase ac machines, it is necessary to study the nature of the mmf wave produced by a polyphase winding.

4.?.1 **, :ave of a &ingle-'hase :inding -ote that from E1. $4.?%,

:hen the winding is e!icted by a current

MMF pattern for alternating and rotating magnetic field Consider a 2-pole machine or one pair of poles of a P-pole winding. The analysis presented can easily be extended to a poly phase winding with any number of phases. In a electrical 3-phase machine the windings of the in space around the inner

individual phases are displaced from each other by 2! degrees circumference of the stator" as shown by the coils a-a#" bb#" c-c# in $igure3.2% . Consider a 2 pole machine with concentrated full-pitch coils which represent distributed windings.

&a' . (implified 2-pole 3-phase stator winding

&b' Instantaneous 3-phase currents

$ig.3.2%

)hen a current flows through a phase coil" it produces a sinusoidally distributed m.m.f wave centered on the axis of the coil representing the phase winding. If an alternating current flows through the coil" it produces a pulsating m.m.f wave " whose amplitude and direction depend on the instantaneous value of the current flowing through the winding. *ach phase winding will produce similar sinusoidally 2! electrical distributed mmf waves " displaced by

degrees in space from each other. +et us now consider a balanced 3-phase current flowing through the 3-phase windings. The instantaneous currents are , , , t/ ' ---3. ! cos cos cos t t - 2! ' t -2%! ' , --- 3.----- 3.. cos

These instantaneous currents are shown in $igure 3.2% &b'.The reference directions" when positive-phase currents flow through the windings" are shown by dots

and crosses in the coil sides in $igure 3. 0.&a'. )hen these currents flow through the respective phase windings" each produces a sinusoidally distributed m.m.f wave in space " pulsating along its axis and having a pea1 located along the axis. *ach m.m.f wave can be represented by a space vector along the axis of its phase with magnitude proportional to the instantaneous value of the current. The resultant m.m.f wave is the net effect of the three component m.m.f waves" which can be computed either graphically or analytically. 2n analytical expression will be obtained for the resultant m.m.f wave a t any point in the air gap" defined by an angle. The origin of the angle 3 can be chosen be the axis of phase a" as shown in $igure 3.22. &a'. 2t any instant of time " all three phases contribute to the air gap m.m.f along the path defined by 3 & or t'. The mmf along 3 is $&3' , $a&3' / $b&3' / $c&3' --- 2

$ig.3.24. 5otion of the resultant mmf

2t any instant of time" each phase winding produces a sinusoidally distributed mmf wave with its pea1 along the axis of the phase winding and amplitude proportional to the instsntaneous value of the phase current. The contribution from phase a along 3 $a &3' , 6 ia cos 3 ----3.

)here 6 is the effective number of turns in phase 7a#8 ia is the current in phase a 9ecause the phase axes are shifted from each other by 2! electrical degrees" the contributions from phase b and c are" respectively

$b &3' , 6 ib cos &3 - 2! $c &3' , 6 ic cos& 3/ 2! 3. 3

--- 3. 2 ----

The resultant m.m.f a t point 3 is $&3' , 6 ia cos 3 / 6 ib cos &3 - 2! cos& 3/ 2! ---3. % / 6 ic

The currents ia " ib and ic are functions of time and are defined *:uations 2nd thus
cos &3 - 2! $&3" t' , 6Im cos / 6Im cos cos 3 / 6Im cos cos &3 / 2! ----;

+et us define 6Im , $m " and using the following trigonometric identity cos2.cos9 , < coa &2-9' / =2 cos&2/9' ----3. 4

*ach term on the right-hand side of e:uation 3. % can be expressed as the sum of two cosine functions" one involving the difference and the other the sum of the two angles which can be arranged to have $&3 " t' , /

$m cos &

3'

--- 3. 0

*:uation &.' shows that the resultant wave in the air gap has two components> the first component is

termed forward-rotating component whereas the second term the bac1ward ? rotating component. The forward rotating rotates at the constant angular velocity given by speed rotates
" f , supply fre:uency

2t any instant of time" say t " the wave is distributed sinusoidally around the air gap &fig .2' with the positive pea1 acting along 3 , 2t a later instant" say t2" the positive pea1 of the sinusoidally distributes wave is along > that is " the wave has moved by around the air-gap. 3.11 Space Phasor Model The space phasor model of ac machine can be developed using the concept of @space vectorsA. In ac machines the stator has a distributed winding with several coils distributed around the periphery. The 55$ distribution in space therefore "has a stepped waveform" which can be approximated to a sine wave. $or dc current flowing in the 7a# phase of the stator winding" there is sinusoidal distribution of the 55$ and the flux density in space. The pea1 value of this flux density is along the axis of the coil which is considered here as reference axis & ,!'. Bowever "if the 55$ wave of phase 7a# of stator is described by an e:uivalent current phasor ias> it will be assumed to have a magnitude of Ias and direction along the axis of the winding& ,!'.(ince the distribution of 55$ is sinusoidal the effect of this current at an angle will be Ias cos . In three phase induction motor the three phase windings are identical with 2! degree phase displacement between them. Thus if axis 7a# current is ta1en as reference" the current space phasor for phase 7b# and 7c# will have / 2! degree and /2%! degrees &- 2!

degree' from phase 7a#. If dc current is flowing in all the three windings" the current space vectors will have their position

$ig 3.20. Current space vectors with dc current in a"b and c windings

as shown in fig 3.20. The combined stator currents as given by *:uation is also a current vector" called resultant stator current space Vector Is, which can be obtained as = +a + } Where a= ---- 3.1" The current vector can be resolved along d-: axes as , /C ---3 ; cos = [a ! cos = 0+ --3.17 + ={

The current space vector of a three-phase machine has a fixed direction in space for each phase that

is along the axis of the magnetic flux density produced by the 55$ of respective winding. The magnitude of each phase currentspace vector is the magnitude of the current" and the angle is the angle of the axis of the phase winding with the reference axis. If instead of dc " ac current is applied to the three phase windings of the stator" the magnitude of the current space vector will be varying sinusoidally with time" In order to obtain the resultant current spac e vector" the time v ariation of the current is also considered. (uppose = = cos t #; = ----3.$0 Then the resultant current space vector is given as , ----- 3.$1 / + = cos t # cos t;

+%

or

-----3.$$

This means that the stator current space vector has a constant magnitude e:ual to and it rotates with a constant angular speed e:ual to Dad=sec. The current"voltage or flux space phasors are the resultant stator or rotor current" voltage or flux :uantities obtained by ta1ing vector sum of these :uantities in appropriate axes frame.

(imilarly the complex rotor current phasor = -3.$3 In a similar way sinusoidal flux density wave can be described bya pace vector. It is however preferred to choose the corresponding distribution of the flux lin1age with a particular three phase winding as the characteriEing :uantity. 2 ARMATURE W !" !# The armature winding is a vital part of a dc machine. This is where emf is induced and force is developed that results in the turning of the rotor. The design of the armature winding is more critical than the design of other parts of a dc machine. The armature winding is housed on slots made on the armature surface. $ormed coils are placed on slots. The ends of the coils are Coined with commutator segments. 3.2.1 copper Materials Re$%ired for Armat%re Winding conductors. Bard-drawn annealed higher +a + } ----

Coils for the armature winding are made from insulated conductivity copper is used. 2luminum wires are not used because of the restriction on winding space in slots and a

number of other limitations" such as the formation of oxide coating and Cointing problems. $or large industrial machines" however" aluminium may be used for field windings as an alternative to copper. Insulating materials used should have the following characteristics> &i' high dielectric strength at increased temperature" &ii' good thermal conductivity to transfer conductor PR loss to the surrounding structure and coolant" &iii' ease of wor1ing having sufficient mechanical strength" and &iv' resistance to failure by moisture" vibration" abrasion and bending. Fnfortunately" none of the available materials has all the above-mentioned desirable properties. (uperior synthetic materials are now available which are gradually replacing the natural insulating materials. 2vailable insulating materials are classified according to their thermal limits as follows>

ns%lation &lass

Materials

Class G

Cotton" sil1" paper" press board" wood" etcH not impregnated nor oil immersed" PIC with or without plasticiEer" vulcaniEed natural rubber" etc. Cotton" sil1" paper" etc. when impregnated or immersed in a li:uid dielectric such as oil" &in class G material impregnated with natural resins" cellulose esters" insulating oils" etc.'" also laminated wood" varnished paper" cellulose" acetate film" etc. (ynthetic enamels" cotton and paper laminates formaldehyde bonding" etc. resin with

Class 2

Class *

Class 9

5ica" glass fibre" asbestos" etc. with suitable bonding substances" built-up mica" glass-fibre and asbestos laminates Class 9 materials with thermally resistant bonding materials. Jlass fibre" asbestos" built-up mica" etc. with silicon resin binder Jlass fibre" asbestos" built-up mica" etc. with silicon resin binder.

Class $

Class B

Class C

&ond%ctor ns%lation $or small-siEe machines double-cotton-covered copper wires are used. $or medium-siEe machines the conductors are rectangular in shape. *ach conductor is machine-taped with superfine cotton tape" whereas for

large-siEe machines each conductor is machine-taped with one layer of !.2 mm thic1 impregnated cotton tape with half overlap. Slot ns%lation $or slot insulation" leatheroid" manila paper or mica folium of appropriate thic1nesses are used. Kverhangs" i.e. the bac1 portions of the coils not lying in slots" are insulated with varnished and impregnated cotton tape.

$ig.3.%. &a' Cross-sectional view of the armature of

a %-pole dc machine
&b' Incomplete developed diagram of the armature winding

&omm%tator The commutator is made up of a number of commutator segments. Coil-ends are connected to each commutator segment. The segments of the commutator are made of hard-drawn copper and are separated by thin sheets of mica or micanite. The induced emf per conductor in a dc machine is small. The problem is how these conductors are to be connected together so as to form a complete winding. $igure 3.%&a' shows the cross-sectional view of the armature of a four-pole machine.

$or ease of understanding" a developed diagram of armature of $ig. 3.% &a' is drawn as shown in $ig. 3.%&b'. Conductors should be so connected that the total emf is maximum. Therefore" conductor should be connected to conductor 0 shown by dotted line as conductor 0 is placed below conductor 4 so that they occupy identical positions under two adCacent poles. (imilarly conductor 3 should be connected with conductor - and so on. $ig. 3.4 shows the developed winding diagram of the 0 armature conductors of $ig. 3.% &a'. The average pitch Ya bac1 pitch Yb and the front pitch Yf are calculated as>
L
L

Ya =

0 =% %

Ya =

Yb + Y f 2

Yb Y f = 2

$or progressive lap winding

Yb Y f = 2 Yb 4" Y f = 3

$igure 3.4 gives the details of end connections of the conductors" connection of coils with commutator segments" and the position of brushes on the commutator surface with their polarities. This type of winding is called lap winding. In the winding shown in $ig.3.4" single-turn conductors are used. 2s many as 0 conductors ma1e eight coils. The coils are -0" 3--" 4- !"

;- 2" .- %" follows.

- 0" 3-2 and 4-%. The design of a lap is described as

winding of the type shown in $ig. 2.

Fig 3.' Armat%re (inding of a dc machine

3.2.2 )ap Winding In a lap winding" the finishing end of one coil is connected via the commutator segment to the starting end of the adCacent coil situated under the same pole. In this way all the coils are connected. The winding is 1nown as lap winding because the sides of successive coils overlap each other &see $ig.3.4'. 2 coil may consist of any number of turns. The number of slots re:uired on the armature is e:ual to the number of coil-sides if two coil-sides are placed in each slot. )ith two coil-sides in each slot" a two-layer winding is obtained. )hile ma1ing a winding diagram in a two-layer winding" all top coil-sides are numbered odd whereas the bottom coil-sides are numbered even &shown by dotted lines' as shown in $ig.3.0 . $or an eight-coil armature" therefore" eight slots are re:uired

on the armature surface. The following terminologies are re:uired to be understood for preparing an armature winding diagram.

Fig. 3.* Position of coil+sides in slots of a t(o+ la,er armat%re (inding

Pole Pitch It is e:ual to the number of coil-sides per pole. $or a single turn" eight-coil" four-pole armature pole pitch is calculated as> Pole pitch , No.of poles = % = % &oils and &oil+sides The dc armature windings are double-layer type having at least two coil-sides per slot. *ach coil consists of an upper coilside at the top of one slot and a lower coil-side situated at the bottom of another slot. The distance between the two coil-sides of a coil is approximately e:ual to the pole pitch. 2 coil may be of single turn or of many turns. If two coil-sides are placed in one slot" then the number of slots re:uired on the armature of housing the coils is e:ual to the number of coils of the winding. $or low-speed high-voltage winding" however" the number of coil-sides per slot is
No.of coils 2 - 2

more than two. This is because the winding will have a large number of coils and it may not be possible to have an e:ual number of slots on the armature. -ac. Pitch The distance measured in terms of the number of armature conductors &coil sides' between the two coil-sides of a coil measured around the bac1 of the armature" i.e. away from the commutator end of the armature is called the bac1 pitch" Yb&see $ig.3.;'. Front PitchThe distance between two coil-sides connected to the same commutator segment is called the front pitch". Res%ltant PitchIt is defined as the distance in terms of the number of coil-sides between the start of one coil and the start of the next coil to which it is connected. &omm%tator Pitch It is defined as the distance measured in terms of commutator segments between the segment is to which the two ends of a coil are connected.

$ig 3.; shows bac1 pitch Yb L from pitch Y f and commutator pitch Yc in &a' lap winding &b' wave winding $or calculating bac1 pitch Yb and front pitch
Y f for a lap winding" the following relations are used>

&i' Yb Y f = 2m )here

2lso"

Yb =

Z P

m , for simplex winding , 2 for duplex winding

)hen Yb is greater than Y f " the winding is a progressive one" i.e. it progresses from left to right. If Yb is less than Y f the winding is called a retrogressive one" ie. It progresses from right to left. &ii' The bac1 pitch and front pitch must be odd. &iii' The average pitch" Ya =
Yb + Y f 2 " should be e:ual

to the pole pitch" i.e. e:ual to M=P" where E is the number of coil sides. &iv' The commutator pitch is e:ual to m" i.e. e:ual to "2 etc. for simplex" duplex etc. type of winding &v' The number of parallel paths in the armature winding for a simplex lap winding is e:ual to the number of poles" P. &vi' The resultant pitch is always even" being the difference of two odd numbers.

E/ample 3.1 Prepare a layout winding diagram for a simplex lap-type dc armature winding. The winding is for four poles. The armature has 0 slots and 0 commutator segments. (olution 6umber of armature coils , 6umber of commutator segments , 0 6umber of coil,sides &conductors'
Z = 0 2 = 32
Z 32 = P %

9ac1 Pitch

Yb =

, . or ;
Yb Y f = 2 Y f Yb 2

, . - 2 &using Yb ,.' ,;
Yb = .
Yf = ;

(ince Yb > Y f the winding is a progressive one. 2s there are 32 coil-sides and 0 slots" the number of coil-sides per slot is 2. The connection scheme of the coil-slides is shown in $ig.3.-.

Coil-side

is connected to coil-side ! on the is

other side of the commutator &since Yb is ." coil- side connected to coil - side /." i.e. !'.

Coil -side ! is connected to coil-side /." i.e. !'. Coil-side ! is connected to coil side 3 on the commutator end &(ince Gf is ;" coil-side ! is connected to coil-side !-;"i.e. 3' The winding progresses according to the above scheme. It may be noted that each coil is used once and the winding is a closed one.

$ig 3.- (cheme for connections of the coil-sides of a dc armature windings

The layout diagram of the winding along with commutator connections and brush positions is shown in $ig.3... Connections of the coil-sides are made as follows> for connections at the bac1 end of the armature" add the bac1 pitch with the coil-side which is to be connected.

Thus coil-side

is to be connected with coil-side

/ Yb, i.e.

/ . , !. Kn the

commutator end side" coil-side ! is connected to coil-side 3. This is achieved by subtracting Gf"i.e. ; from coil-side number ! & ! -; , 3'. Coil-side 3 is now connected to 3 / Yb, 3 / . , 2. In this way the winding is completed. The positions of the four poles are also shown in $ig. 3... *ight coil-sides placed in four slots are under each pole. 2ssuming a direction of rotation of the armature" say anti-cloc1wise in $ig. 3.." the direction of the induced emf in the armature conductors is determined by applying $lemingLs right-hand rule. The direction of the current in the coil-sides under north poles will be downward and under southL poles upward as shown in $ig. 3... The position of brushes can be determined by tracing the directions of current in various coil-sides. $rom $ig. 3.." it can be observed that directions of current in coil-sides and - are downward and they are connected to commutator will have positive polarity. segment . 2 brush placed on commutator segment

(imilarly in coil-sides . and 0" the current is upwards. The two coil-sides are connected to commutator segment 4. The brush placed on commutator segment 4 will have negative polarity. (imilarly the positions of the other two brushes are fixed. Two positive brushes and two negative brushes are Coined together to output terminals A and B respectively. The number of parallel paths of the armature winding across the output terminals is four &e:ual-to the number of poles' which can be examined as follows> Dedraw the armature winding of $ig. 3.. in a simplified manner as shown in fig. 3. !.

9etween terminals A and B there are four parallel paths shown as M, N, K and P. The total emf generated in the machine is e:ual to the emf generated in one parallel path.

Fig.3.0. The layout diagram of the winding along with commutator connections

$ig.3. ! . &a' 2rmature winding of a dc machine shown in a simplified manner &b' (hows the number of parallel paths in the armature

*:ualiser Connections in +ap )indings> 2s mentioned earlier" a simplex lap winding has as many number of parallel paths as there are poles. The emf induced in each parallel path may not be exactly e:ual due to a number of reasons" such as the difference in the lengths of the air-gap under each pole" the difference in the lengths of the air-gap under each pole" the difference in the field strength due to some error in putting field windings. etc. Fne:ual values of emf generated in the parallel paths will circulate a considerable amount of current in the armature circuit without doing any useful wor1. This circulating current will be large as the armature circuit resistance is generally very low. This circulating current will generate heat and while circulating through the brush contacts will cause commutation difficulties &li1e spar1ing on the commutator surface'. To overcome this problem arising from the circulating current" e:ualiEer connections are made in lap wound armatures. These e:ualiEer connections or e:ualiEers are low-resistance copper conductors which connect those points in the winding which under ideal

conditions should be at e:ual potential. The difference in potential between these points created due to reasons mentioned earlier will be e:ualiEed as a result of flow of current through these low resistance conductors which will bypass the current from flowing through the brushes. 3.2.3 Wa1e Winding In a wave winding a coil-side under one pole is connected to a second coil-side which occupies approximately the same position under the next pole through bac1 connection. The second coil-side is then connected forward to another coil-side under the next pole &in the case of lap winding the second coil is connected bac1 through the commutator segment to a coil-side under the original pole'. The difference in lap and wave winding connections has been illustrated in $ig. 3.; &a' and &b'. The characteristics of a wave winding are &i' 2verage pitch"
Ya = Yb Y f 2 = Z2 P

If Ya is ta1en e:ual to Z/P, as is the case in a lap winding the winding after one round will close itself without including all the coils which is not desirable. Bence the product of the average pitch and the number of pairs of poles must be two greater or less than the number of coil-sides. 2verage pitch should be a whole number.

&ii' 9oth bac1 pitch and front pitch should he odd numbers. &iii' To ma1e the average pitch a whole number" wave winding is not possible with any number of coil-sides. $or example if M , 32 and P , %"
Ya = Z 2 32 2 = =or ; 2 2 P %

Thus wave winding is not possible with 32 coil-sides. In this case the number of effective coil-sides needs to be 3!. E/ample 3.2 Prepare a winding diagram for a four-pole wave-connected armature of a dc generator having 22 coil sides.
Ya = Z 2 22 2 = = 0 or 4 P %

If Ya is ta1en to be odd" i.e. 4" then the front pitch and bac1 pitch will be e:ual. Thus" Ya = Yb = Y f = 4 Connections of the coil sides will be as shown in $ig.3. . The connection diagram is achieved by adding Yband Y with the coil numbers progressing in the forward direction. Coil-side &0/Gf, ' and so on. is connected at the bac1 with coil-side 0 & / Yb = 0'. Coil side 0 is connected at the front with coil-side

$ig 3.

.Connection diagram of the coil-

sides for a dc wave winding

In $ig. 3.

it is to be noted that coil-side

. is connected with coil-side 2. This is obtained by adding Yb to . which gives 2%. Coil-side 2% does not exist as there are in all in all 22 coil-sides. Therefore after 22 count two more numbers starting from . This gives coil-side 2. (imilarly it can be seen that coil-side 2! is connected in the front with coilside 3. 9y adding Y f &= 4' to 2!" the number 24 is

$ig. 3. 2.+ayout diagram for a wave winding

obtained. 2fter 2! five numbers are counted as 2 " 22" " 2" and 3. Thus coil-side 2! should be connected to coil-side 3. In this way the whole winding is completed by connecting all the coil-sides with one another. The actual layout diagram of the winding along with the position of the poles and the direction of induced emf in the coilsides for a particular direction of rotation of the armature are shown in $ig.3. 2.. The positions of the four brushes are also shown in the figure. The positions of brushes are fixed as follows> for ease in understanding" the connection diagram of $ig. 3. by observing the directions from $ig.3. 2. 9y carefully examining the directions of current in the coilsides it is seen that between points P and Q current gets divided in two parallel paths. $rom point P the current flows to Q via two paths" 0- -- 3The point P in $ig. 2. . is the separating point of the emf in the two sections of the winding and therefore corresponds to the position of one of the brushes" viE. the negative brush. $or placing of the positive brush" it is seen from $ig. 3. 3 that at point N current is coming out viE. through - 0-2 ... is reproduced in $ig.3. 3. The directions of current in the coil-sides are also shown

from both the coil-sides. Therefore" point Q corresponds to the position of the positive brush.

$ig 3. 3 Connection diagram for armature winding of figure 3. 2 It may be noted from $ig. 3. 2that coil-sides 0 and ; lie in the interpolar region. The direction of current in these coil-sides will depend upon the direction of current in the other coil side of the respective coils" viE. coils -0 and ;-22. Dummy Coils 2s mentioned earlier wave winding is possible with a particular number of coil-sides. 9ut if standard stampings with a definite number of slots are to be used" the number of coil-sides needed to be placed in all the slots may be more than the re:uired number. In such a case" the extra coils are left unconnected. These coils are called dummy coils. Oummy coils are used so as to ma1e the armature dynamically. A"2A!TA#ES 3F WA2E 32ER )AP W !" !# . 2 wave winding does not usually re:uire e:ualiEer rings.

2. Though wave winding re:uires only two brushes" it is usually fitted with as many brushes as there are poles. 2s such poor contact at any brush does not impair satisfactory operation of the machine. 3. 5ost of the machines are wave wound. +ap windings may be used in high power machines &above 4!!P)' to reduce the current per armature path. E/ample 3.3 The armature core of a 0-poles machine has -% slots. The commutator has 242 segments. The windings are to have six coil ? sides per slot. )hat must be the front and bac1 pitches so that the elements may be insulated in groups of three &i.e." symmetrical winding' a. If the winding is to be a simplex lap. b. If it is to be simplex wave. Sol%tion4 . The number of coil sides Z , 242x2 , 4!% 6umber of coil-sides per slot u , 0 " 6umber of slots 4!%=0 , -% a. Simple lap4 yav , -3 b. Simple (a1e4 yav , is not an integer. Therefore with , -% " yb , -% / , -4 as

is an integer to satisfy the condition of symmetrical. Gf ,

one dummy coil of two sides"

the number of the active coil-sides , 4!2.

yav , E/ample 3.5

, -%" yb , -4" yf , -3 will

ma1e the winding symmetrical.

Calculate the winding pitches and draw developed and se:uence diagrams of the winding for a four-pole wave connected armature winding of a dc generator having seven coils. In the diagram" show the position of poles and the position and polarity of brushes. (olution 6umber of coil-sides
Ya =

= ;2 = %

Z 2 %2 = = 3 or % P %

Ya (hould be an integer" Yb and Y f should be

odd numbers.Therefore we choose

Ya , Yb , Y f ,3

The se:uence and layout diagrams of the winding are shown in $ig". 2.2!.

3.3 Field (indings

3.3.1 MMF pattern of comm%tator (inding 2 characteristic of poly-phase windings is that the phase windings are" in principle"

galvanically separated. The phase windings are connected via terminals to each other" in a star or in a polygon. The armature winding of commutator machines does not start or end at terminals. The winding comprises turns of conductor soldered as a continuum and wound in the slots of the rotor so that the sum of induced voltage s is always Eero in the continuum. This is possible i f t h e s u m of slot voltages is Eero. 2ll the coil sides of s u c h a w i n d i n g c a n b e c o n n e c t e d i n series to form a continuum without causing a current to Qow in the closed ring as a result of the voltages in the coil sides.

Fig%re 3.15. T(o e/amples of comm%tator (inding coil sides mo%nted in the slots. 6a7 T(o coil sides in a slot8 one side in a la,er8U 91. 6:7 Fo%r coil sides in a slot8 t(o coil sides in a la,er8 % 92 E1en+n%m:ered coil

sides are located at the :ottom of the slots. There has to :e a large eno%gh n%m:er of coils and comm%tator segments to .eep the 1oltage :et(een comm%tator segments small eno%gh.

2n external electric circuit is created by coupling the connection pints of the coils to the commutator segments. 2 current is fed to the winding via brushes dragging along the commutator. The commutator switches the coils in turns to the brushes thus acting as a mechanical inverter or rectiRer depending on the operating mode of the ma-chine. This is called commutating. In the design of a winding" the construction of a reliable commutating windings. Kne coil side of each coil is al-ways in the upper layer and the other in the bottom layer approximately at the distance of a pole pair from each other. 9ecause of problems in commutating" the voltage difference between the commutator segments must not be too high" and thus the number of segments and c o i l s h a s a l w a y s t o b e h i g h e n o u g h . K n t h e ot h e r h a n d " t h e n u mb e r o f s l o t s i s r e s t r i c t e d b y the minimum width of arrangement is a demanding tas1 Commutator windings are always double-layer

the teeth. Therefore" usually more than two coil sides are placed in each slot. In the slot of the upper diagram of $igure 2.%%" there are two coil sides" and in the lower diagram the number of coil sides is four. The coil sides are often numbered so that the sides of the bottom layer are even numbers" and the slots of the upper layer are odd numbers. I f t h e n u mb e r o f c o i l s i s M c " 2 M c coil sides have to be mounted in N slots" and thus there are 2u , 2Mc=N sides in a slot. The symbol u gives the number of coil sides in one layer. In each side" there are 6v conductors. The total number of conductors E in the armature is M,N 3. Bere N is the number of slots is the number of conductors in a slot u is the number of coil sides in a layer" is the number of coils" is the number of conductors in a coil side" 2u , ,2u N,2 ----

9ecause 2u

, E=N , 2u

N=N ,

Fig%re 3.1'. 6a7 Principle of a t(o+pole8 do%:le+la,er comm%tator armat%re. The armat%re rotates at an ang%lar speed ; cloc.(ise generating an emf in the conductors in the slots. The emf tends to create the current directions illustrated in the Rgure. &b' 2 coil voltage phasor diagram of the armature. It is afull-pitch winding" which does not

normally occur as a commutator winding. 6evertheless" a full-pitchwinding is given here as a clarifying example. N , 0" u, &one coil side per layer'

Commutator windings may be used both in 2C and OC machines. are" 5ulti-phase commutator rare. 2C OC machines however" becoming

machines" instead" are built and used also in the present-day industry even though OC drives are gradually being replaced by powere lectronic 2C drives. 6evertheless" it is advisable to loo1 brieQy also at the OC windings. The 2C and OC commutator windings are in principle e:ual. $or simplicity" the conRguration of the winding is investigated with the voltage phasor diagram of a OC machine. Bere" it sufRces to investigate a two-pole machine" since the winding of machines with multiple poles is repeated unchanged with each pole pair. The rotor of $igure 3. 4" with N , 0" u , " i s assumed to rotate cloc1wise at an angular speed S in a constant magnetic Reld between the poles 6 and (. The magnetic Reld rotates in the positive direction with respect to the conductors in the slots" That is countercloc1wise. 6ow" a coil voltage phasor diagram is constructed for a winding" in which we have already calculated the difference of the

coil side voltages given by thec oil voltage phasor diagram. 9y applying the numbering system of $igure 3. %. )e have in slot the coil sides 0 and and 32" and ;. )ith this

in slot . the coil sides illustrated as in $igure 3. 4 b.

system" the coil voltage phasor diagram can be

$igure 3. 4 shows that if the induced emf decides the direction of the armature current" the produced tor:ue is opposite to the direction of rotation &countercloc1wise in $igure 3. 4'" and mechanical power has to be supplied to the machine" which is acting as a generator. 6ow" if the armature current is forced to Qow against the emf with the assistance of an external voltage or current source" the tor:ue is in the direction of rotation" and the machine acts as a motor. There are Mc , Nu , 0 T , 0 coils in the winding" the ends of which should next bec onnected to the commutator. Oepending on the way they are connected different 1inds

of w i n d i n g s a r e p r o d u c e d . * a c h c o n n e c t i o n p o i n t o f t h e c o i l e n d s i s c o n n e c t e d t o t h e c o m m u t a t o r . There are two main types of commutator windings> lap

windings and wave windings. 2 lap winding has coils" creating loop-li1e patter ns.
are connected to adCacent The ends of the coils

commutator segments. 2

wave winding has a waveli1e drawing pattern when presented in a plane. The number of commutator segments is given by P ,uN " ---- 3.2 because each coil side begins and e n d s a t t h e c o mm u t a t o r s e g m e n t .

T h e n u mb e r o f c o m mutator segments" therefore" depends on the conductor arrangement in the slot" and eventually on the number of coil sides in one layer. $urther important parameters of commutator windings are> yN -coil span expressed as the number of slots per pole y - bac1-e nd
connector pitch" which is a coil

span expressed as the number of coil sides. $or

the winding" the coil sides of which

are numbered with odd Rgures in the top layer and with even Rgures in the bottom layer" this is y ,2uyN / " ----- 3.3

where the minus sign stands for the coil side numbering as seen in $igure 2.%%" and the plus sign for the numbering where in slot there are coil sides " 2" in slot 2 there are coil sides3" %" there are coil and so on" if u, 8 or in the top layer of slot so on" if u,2. y2 - front-end connector pitch8 it is a pitch expressed as the number of coil sides between the right coil side of one coil and the left coil side of the next coil. y - total winding pitch expressed as the number of coil sides between two left coil sides of two adCacent coils. yc - commutator pitch between the beginning and end of one coil expressed as the number of commutator segments. The e:uation for commutator pitch is a basic e:uation for winding design because this pitch must be an integer yc , nP U a =p ----- 3.%

sides " 3 and in the bottom layer there are coil sides 2" %" and

)here a is the number of parallel paths per half armature in a commutator winding" which means 2a parallel paths for the whole armature. The windings that are most often employed are characteriEed on the basis of n>

.If

n ,! " i t r e s u l t s i n a l a p

w i n d i n g . T h e c o m mu t a t o r pi t c h w i l l b e yc , Ua= p" w h i c h means that 7a 7 is an integer multiple of p to give an integer for the commutating pitch. $or a l a p w i n d i n g 2 a,2 p" t h i s me a n s a,p" yc, U . (uch a winding is called a parallel one. T h e pl u s s i g n i s f o r a pr o g r e s s i v e w i n d i n g m o v i n g f r o m l e f t t o r i g h t " a n d t h e minus sign for a retrogressive winding moving from right to left. If a is a 1 -multiple of the pole pair number" a,1p " t h e n i t i s a 1 -multiplex parallel winding. $or example" for a,2 p" t h e c o mm u t a t o r p i t c h i s yc, U2 " a n d t h i s w i n d i n g i s c a l l e d a d u p l e x p a r a l l e l winding. 2 . I f n, " it results in a wave winding and a commutator pitch" that is yc,P Ua= p ,uN U a =p ---- 3.4

must be an integer. The plus sign is for progressive and the minus sign for retrogressive winding. In the wave winding the number of parallel paths is always 28 there is only one pair of parallel paths" irrespective of the number of poles> 2a ,2 " a, .

6ot all the combinations of P" a" p result in an integer. It is a designer#s tas1 to choose a proper number of slots" coil sides" number of poles and type of winding to ensure an integer commutator pitch. If the number of coils e:uals the number of commutator segments" then" if the coil sides are numbered with odd Rgures in the top layer and even Rgures in the bottom layer" we can write y,y / y2,2 yc ----- 3.0

Therefore" if the commutator pitch is determined" the total pitch expressed as a number of coil sides is given by y,2 yc ---- 3.;
from the number s

and after y is determine d layer u

of slots per pole yN and number of coil sides in a

The front-end connector pitch can be determined as G2 , y-y 3.12 EMF E$%ation

The :uantitative expression will now be derived for the generated emf in synchronous and dc machines armatures. (ome idea of ac windings will be advanced here and certain sweeping statements made.

#enerated 2oltage of A& Winding4 The 9-wave of a synchronous machine &in general multipolar' assumed sinusoidal is drawn in figure 3.2;" and a single full pitched coil cross sectional form.

$ig 3.2; (inusoidal )ave form

The 9-wave moves towards left with a speed ! of elect.rad=sec or rad=sec.

mechanical

2t the orgin of time the coil sides are located in the inter polar region where the full pole flux lin1s the coil. 2t any time t the coil has relatively moved by ,t elect.rad ---3.2% to the right of the 9-wave. The 9-wave can be expressed as in figure. Delative localtion of the 9-wave and armature coil at any time -9 sin<

9 )here

sin6

9Pea1 flux density lin1age

(ince the flux is physically spread over the mechanical angle" the flux the coil can be computed by integrating over the mechanical angle. Thus"

9 )here"

sin6

7lrd

++++ 3.2'

l, active coil-side length&axial stator length' r, mean radius of the stator at the air-gap. (ince 9 *:uation % modifies to

, , 9 2 2

lrsin d lrcos lrcos t, cos t

It is therefore seen that the flux lin1ing the coil varies sinusoidally and has a maximum value of 9 lr 6flux=pole7

2t ,t,!" which indeed is flux =pole. The flux lin1ages of the coil at any time t are ,6,6cost )here 6,6umber of turns of coil Bence the coil induced emf is e, ,6 sin t

The negative sign in the e:uation - accounts for the fact that the assumed positive direction of emf and the current in the coil produces flux along the coil axis causing positive flux lin1ages. In case of transformer the positive direction of emf was assumed such as to cause a current which would produce negative flux lin1ages and therefore the induced emf law used was e, .

It may be absorbed that the spatial flux density wave up on rotation causes time varying flux lin1ages with the coil and hence the production of emf and effect which is produced by a fixed axis time varying flux in a transformer. The time variation factor is introduced by rotation causing the phenomenon of electromechanical energy conversion. The rms value of emf induced in the coil

, The rms value of the generated emf in a full pitched coil is *, *, " where , , 6 = $&'( [=)*+

&f6 , %.%% f6

3.13 Tor$%e e$%ation )hen the stator and rotor windings of a machine both carry current they produce their own magnetic fields along their respective axis which are sinusoidally distributed along the air gap. Tor:ue results from the tendency of these two fields to align them. The flux components setup by the stator and rotor current cross the air gap twice and complete their circuits through the stator and rotor iron. These component fields cause the appearance of 6orth and (outh poles on the stator and rotor surface.

$if.3.2- . The field axis

The field axes being along north-south and out of the 6orth Pole" This is shown in $ig 3.2- $or a 2 pole structure. The tor:ue tending to align the two fields is produced only if the two fields have same number of poles and are stationary with respect to each other. Two relatively rotating fields will produce alternating tor:ue as they cross each other so that the average tor:ue is Eero. 2ll rotating machines are therefore devised to produce interacting fields with Eero relative velocity.

&ertain %nderl,ing ass%mptions are made at this stage 4 . (tator and other mmf#s are sinusoidally space moves" this is sufficiently ensured by distributed windings. 2. Dotor is cylindrical &non salient pole' so that the air gap is uniform throughout. 3. The airgap is narrow so that flux established in it radial and further the flux density does not vary significantly&because the cylindrical area presented to flux does not vary appreciably with radius' along a radial path in the gap. 2s a result" the field intensity B" along any radial path is constant in the airgap. The mmf across the airgap at any space point is $ air-gap,Bg where g is the radial airgap length. %. Deluctance of the iron path of flux is assumed negligible. 2s a conse:uence of a assumption to 3" a sinusoidal space mmf wave produces a sinusoidal flux density wave in space in phase with it. 4. 5ost of the resultant flux is common to both stator and rotor windings i.e. it is mutual flux. The lea1age flux lin1ing either winding produces lea1age inductance as in a transformer. These affect only the net voltage applied to the ideal machine. +et and be the pea1 values of the spatial sinusoidal mmf of the stator and

rotor respectively as shown in fig.3.2. for a 2 pole machine the angle between their respective positive pea1s being denoted by .

2s stated earlier" these mmf can be represented as space vectors with magnitudes corresponding to their pea1 values and angles corresponding to their positive pea1s. The resultant space mmf can be obtained by the vector summation.

$ig.3"2. The pea1 value of the resultant mmf is , / /2 cos ----3.20 (ince the reluctance of the iron path is neglig ible the pea1 value of the resultant field intensity is , The co energy density is , -----3.2;

The average value of the co energy over the airgap volume is , ' ----- 3.2-

$or a sinusoidal distribution 2verage value of , -----3.2. -----3.3!

2verage value of co energy density ,

Iolume of air gap , V Olg )here O is the mean diameter at airgap. The total co energy of the field is then

, , , (ubstituting for , &

2

Olg Olg -----3.3 -----3.32

/2

cos

'

-----3.33

The tor:ue developed is given by T, , sin -----3.3%

$or a machine with poles T,sin -----3.34

$rom e:uation ! it is seen that tor:ue developed is proportional to the pea1 values of the stator and rotor mmf#s and is proportional to the sine of the angle between the axes of the two fields. The negative sign indicates that the tor:ue acts in a direction to reduce i.e. to align the two fields. Kbviously e:ual and opposite tor:ue will act reference to the vector diagram shown sin , The tor:ue e:uation sin ------ 3.30 sin , sin ----- 3.3; ! can be expressed in two alternative forms on the stator and rotor" )ith

T,-

sin T,-

-----3.3sin -----3.3.

PART+A . Oefine the term pole pitch 2. Oefine pitch factor 3. Oefine the term breadth factor %. )rite down the advantages of short pitched coil. 4. )hat is distributed windingW 0. *xplain the following terms with respect to rotating electrical machines. ;. )rite the expressions for the synchronous speed. -. )rite the mmf e:uation of dc machine. .. )hat is meant by electromagnetic tor:ueW !. (tate the tor:ue e:uation for round rotor machine. . Oefine rotating magnetic field. PART+. Oerive the expression for the r.m.s value of emf induced in a.c. machines. & 0' 2. Prove that mmf wave of a single phase ac winding is pulsating or standing. & 0'

3. Prove that the resultant mmf wave of three phase ac winding is rotating in space with speed but its magnitude is constant. & 0' %. Oerive the tor:ue e:uation for round rotor machine. & 0' 4. *xplain the various concepts of magnetic fields in rotating machines. & 0' 0. *xplain with neat diagram the concept of mmf space wave of a single coil. & 0' ;. )rite in detail about mmf space wave of three phase distributed winding. & 0'