COLLEGE OF FORESTRY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY MAIN CAMPUS

MARAWI CITY
REVIEW MATERIALS IN FOREST PRODUCTS ENGINEERING
By Forester Deborah C. Achas

NOTES IN WOOD STRUCTURE AND IDENTIFICATION

Characteristics of Commercially Important Woods
Throughout history, the unique characteristics and comparative abundance of wood have made it a natural
material for homes and other structures, furniture, tools, vehicles, and decorative objects. Today, for the
same reasons, wood is prized for a multitude of uses.
All wood is composed of cellulose, lignin, hemicelluloses, and minor amounts (5% to 10%) of extraneous
materials contained in a cellular structure. Variations in the characteristics and volume of these
components and differences in cellular structure make woods heavy or light, stiff or flexible, and hard or
soft. The properties of a single species are relatively constant within limits; therefore, selection of wood
by species alone may sometimes be adequate. However, to use wood to its best advantage and most
effectively in engineering applications, specific characteristics or physical properties must be considered.
The gradual reduction in use of old-growth forests in the Philippines has reduced the supply of large clear
logs for lumber and veneer. However, the importance of high-quality logs has diminished as new
concepts of wood use have been introduced. Second-growth wood, the remaining old-growth forests, and
imports continue to fill the needs for wood in the quality required. Wood is as valuable an engineering
material as ever, and in many cases, technological advances have made it even more useful.
The inherent factors that keep wood in the forefront of raw materials are many and varied, but a chief
attribute is its availability in many species, sizes, shapes, and conditions to suit almost every demand.
Wood has a high ratio of strength to weight and a remarkable record for durability and performance as a
structural material. Dry wood has good insulating properties against heat, sound, and electricity. It tends
to absorb and dissipate vibrations under some conditions of use, and yet it is an incomparable material for
such musical instruments as the violin. The grain patterns and colors of wood make it an esthetically
pleasing material, and its appearance may be easily enhanced by stains, varnishes, lacquers, and other
finishes. It is easily shaped with tools and fastened with adhesives, nails, screws, bolts, and dowels.
Damaged wood is easily repaired, and wood structures are easily remodeled or altered. In addition, wood
resists oxidation, acid, saltwater, and other corrosive agents, has high salvage value, has good shock
resistance, can be treated with preservatives and fire retardants, and can be combined with almost any
other material for both functional and aesthetic uses.

Hardwoods and Softwoods

Trees are divided into two broad classes, usually referred to as hardwoods and softwoods. These names
can be confusing since some softwood is actually harder than some hardwoods, and conversely some
hardwoods are softer than some softwood. For example, softwoods such as longleaf pine and Douglas-fir
are typically harder than the hardwoods basswood and aspen. Botanically, hardwoods are Angiosperms;
the seeds are enclosed in the ovary of the flower. Anatomically, hardwoods are porous; that is, they
contain vessel elements. A vessel element is a wood cell with open ends; when vessel elements are set
one above another, they form a continuous tube (vessel), which serves as a conduit for transporting water
or sap in the tree. Typically, hardwoods are plants with broad leaves that, with few exceptions in the
temperate region, lose their leaves in autumn or winter. Most imported tropical woods are hardwoods.
Botanically, softwoods are Gymnosperms or conifers; the seeds are naked (not enclosed

in the ovary of the flower). Anatomically, softwoods are nonporous and do not contain vessels.
Softwoods are usually cone-bearing plants with needle- or scale-like evergreen leaves.

Structure of Wood
The fibrous nature of wood strongly influences how it is used. Wood is primarily composed of hollow,
elongate, spindle-shaped cells that are arranged parallel to each other along the trunk of a tree. When
lumber and other products are cut from the tree, the characteristics of these fibrous cells and their
arrangement affect such properties as strength and shrinkage as well as the grain pattern of the wood.

Bark, Wood, Branches, and Cambium

Cross section of white oak tree trunk:

(A) outer bark (dry dead tissue), (B) inner bark (living
tissue), (C) cambium, (D) sapwood, (E) heartwood,
(F) pith, and (G) wood rays.
A cross section of a tree shows the following well-defined features (from outside to center): bark, which
may be divided into an outer corky dead part (A), whose thickness varies greatly with species and age of
trees, and an inner thin living part (B), which carries food from the leaves to growing parts of the tree;
wood, which in merchantable trees of most species is clearly differentiated into sapwood (D) and
heartwood (E); and pith (F), a small core of tissue located at the center of tree stems, branches, and twigs
about which initial wood growth takes place. Sapwood contains both living and dead tissue and carries
sap from the roots to the leaves.
Heartwood is formed by a gradual change in the sapwood and is inactive. The wood rays (G), horizontally
oriented tissue through the radial plane of the tree, vary in size from one cell wide and a few cells high to
more than 15 cells wide and several centimeters high. The rays connect various layers from pith to bark
for storage and transfer of food. The cambium layer (C), which is inside the inner bark and forms wood
and bark cells, can be seen only with a microscope.

Sapwood and Heartwood

Sapwood is located between the cambium and heartwood. Sapwood contains both living and dead cells
and functions primarily in the storage of food; in the outerlayers near the cambium, sapwood handles the
transport of water or sap. The sapwood may vary in thickness and number of growth rings. Sapwood
commonly ranges from 4 to 6 cm (1-1/2 to 2 in.) in radial thickness. In certain species, such as catalpa
and black locust, the sapwood contains few growth rings and usually does not exceed 1 cm (1/2 in.) in
thickness.

Growth Rings
In most species in temperate climates, the difference between wood that is formed early in a growing
season and that formed later is sufficient to produce well-marked annual growth rings (Fig. 22). The age
of a tree at the stump or the age at any cross section of the trunk may be determined by counting these

rings. However, if the growth in diameter is interrupted, by drought or defoliation by insects for example,
more than one ring may be formed in the same season. In such an event, the inner rings usually do not
have sharply defined boundaries and are termed false rings. Trees that have only very small crowns or
that have accidentally lost most of their foliage may form an incomplete growth layer, sometimes called a
discontinuous ring.
The inner part of the growth ring formed first in the growing season is called earlywood and the outer part
formed later in the growing season, latewood. Actual time of formation of these two parts of a ring may
vary with environmental and weather conditions. Earlywood is characterized by cells with relatively large
cavities and thin walls. Latewood cells have smaller cavities and thicker walls. The transition from
earlywood to latewood may be gradual or abrupt, depending on the kind of wood and the growing
conditions at the time it was formed.
Growth rings are most readily seen in species with sharp contrast between latewood formed in one year
and earlywood formed in the following year, such as in the native ring porous hardwoods ash and oak,
and in softwoods like southern pines. In some other species, such as water tupelo, aspen, and sweetgum,
differentiation of earlywood and latewood is slight and the annual growth rings are difficult to recognize.

Wood Cells
Wood cellsthe structural elements of wood tissueis of various sizes and shapes and is quite firmly
cemented together. Dry wood cells may be empty or partly filled with deposits, such as gums and resins,
or with tyloses. The majority of wood cells are considerably elongated and pointed at the ends; these cells
are customarily called fibers or tracheids. The length of wood fibers is highly variable within a tree and
among species. Hardwood fibers average about 1 mm (1/25 in.) in length; softwood fibers range from 3 to
8 mm (1/8 to 1/3 in.) in length.
In addition to fibers, hardwoods have cells of relatively large diameter known as vessels or pores. These
cells form the main conduits in the movement of sap. Softwoods do not contain vessels for conducting
sap longitudinally in the tree; this function is performed by the tracheids.
Both hardwoods and softwoods have cells (usually grouped into structures or tissues) that are oriented
horizontally in the direction from pith toward bark. These groups of cells conduct sap radially across the
grain and are called rays or wood rays. The rays are most easily seen on edgegrained or quartersawn
surfaces, and they vary greatly in size in different species. In oaks and sycamores, the rays are
conspicuous and add to the decorative features of the wood.
Rays also represent planes of weakness along which seasoning checks readily develop.
Another type of wood cells, known as longitudinal or axial parenchyma cells, function mainly in the
storage of food.

Species Identification
Many species of wood have unique physical, mechanical, or chemical properties. Efficient utilization
dictates that species should be matched to end-use requirements through an understanding of their
properties. This requires identification of the species in wood form, independent of bark, foliage, and
other characteristics of the tree.
General wood identification can often be made quickly on the basis of readily visible characteristics such
as color, odor, density, presence of pitch, or grain pattern. Where more positive identification is required,
a laboratory investigation must be made of the microscopic anatomy of the wood.

Structural Analysis Equations

Equations for deformation and stress, which are the basis for tension members and beam and column
design. The first two sections cover tapered members, straight members, and special considerations such
as notches, slits, and size effect.
A third section presents stability criteria for members subject to buckling and for members subject to
special conditions. The equations are based on mechanics principles and are not given in the design code
format found in Allowable Stress Design or Load and Resistance Factor Design specifications.

Deformation Equations
Equations for deformation of wood members are presented as functions of applied loads, moduli of
elasticity and rigidity, and member dimensions. They may be solved to determine minimum required
cross-sectional dimensions to meet deformation limitations imposed in design.. Consideration must be
given to variability in material properties and uncertainties in applied loads to control reliability of the
design.

Axial Load
The deformation of an axially loaded member is not usually an important design consideration. More
important considerations will be presented in later sections dealing with combined loads or stability.
Axial load produces a change of length given by:

= PL
AE

Where is
change of length, L length, A cross-sectional area, E modulus of elasticity (EL when grain
runs parallel to member axis), and P axial force parallel to grain.

Wood Preservation and Seasoning

By Forester Deborah C. Achas

Pests that Damage Wood

Under proper use conditions, wood can give centuries of good service. But under unfavorable conditions,
wood may readily be damaged and destroyed by fungi, insects, and marine borers. These pests can attack
in many ways, using the wood for food or shelter. Consequently, wood must be protected to insure
maximum service life when used under conditions favorable to these pests.

Wood-Inhabition Fungi
Wood decay, mold and most sapwood stains, are caused by fungi. These fungi feed on living or dead
wood. The many fungi that develop on or in wood can be divided into two major groups, depending on
the damage they cause:
* wood-destroying fungi (decay fungi),
* wood-staining fungi (sapstaining fungi, mold fungi).
Both of these fungi groups produce spores (analogous to tiny seeds), which are distributed by wind and
water. The spores can infect moist wood during storage, processing and use.
All fungi that grow on wood have certain basic requirements:
* Favorable temperature - usually ranging between 50 degrees and 90 degrees F. The optimum is
about 70 degrees to 85 degrees F. Wood is basically safe from decay at temperatures below 35 degrees F
and above 100 degrees F.
* Adequate moisture - Fungi will not attack dry wood (i.e. wood with a moisture content of 19
percent or less). Decay fungi require a wood moisture content (M.C.) of about 30 percent (the generally
accepted fiber saturation point of wood). Thus, air dried wood, usually with a M.C. not exceeding 19
percent and kiln dried wood with a M.C. of 15 percent or less can usually be considered safe from fungal
damage.
* Adequate oxygen - Fungi cannot live in water saturated wood
* Food source (wood itself).

Wood Destroying Fungi

Both the sapwood and heartwood of most tree species are susceptible to decay. Decay fungi may grow in
the interior of the wood or appear on wood surfaces as fan-shaped patches of fine, threadlike, cottony
growths or as rootlike shapes. The color of these growths may range from white through light brown,
bright yellow, and dark brown. The spore-producing bodies may be mushrooms, shelf-like brackets, or
structures with a flattened, crustlike appearance. Fine, threadlike fungal strands grow throughout the
wood and digest parts of it as food. In time, the strength of the wood is destroyed. Decay will stop when
the temperature of the wood is either too low or too high or when the moisture content is drier than the
fungis requirements. However, decay can resume when the temperature and moisture content become
favorable again.
Wood decay fungi can be grouped into three major categories:
* brown rot,
* white rot, and
* soft rot.
Brown rot - Fungi which cause brown rot are able to break down the cellulose component of wood for
food, leaving a brown residue of lignin. Brown-rotted wood can be greatly weakened even before decay
can be seen. The final stage of wood decay by the brown rots can be identified by:
* dark brown color of the wood
* excessive shrinkage
* cross-grain cracking, and
* the ease with which the dry wood substance can be crushed to powder.

Brown-rot fungi are probably the most important cause of decay of softwood species used in aboveground
construction in the Philippines. Brown-rot, when dry, is sometimes called dry rot. This is a poor term,
because wood must have moisture and will not decay when it is dry. A few fungi that can decay relatively
dry wood have water-conducting strands that are able to carry water from damp soil to wood in lumber
piles or buildings. These fungi can decay wood that otherwise would be too dry for decay to occur. They
sometimes are called the dry rot fungi or water-conducting fungi.
White rot - White-rot fungi, which break down both lignin and cellulose, have a bleaching effect
which may make the damaged wood appear whiter than normal.
Soft rot - Soft rot fungi usually attack green (water-saturated) wood (high M.C.), causing a gradual
softening from the surface inward that resembles brown rot.

The Wood-Staining Fungi

Sap staining fungi - These fungi penetrate and discolor sapwood, particularly of the soft wood
species. Typical sapstain, unlike staining by mold fungi, cannot be removed by brushing or planing.
Sapstain fungi may become established in the sapwood of standing trees, sawlogs, lumber and timbers
soon after they are cut and before they can be adequately dried. Strength of the wood is little affected, but
the wood may not be fit for uses where appearance is important (such as siding, trim, furniture and
exterior millwork that is to be clear-finished). Southern pine beetles often carry blue stain fungi into trees.
This can cause the wood of infected trees to be stained before they are cut.
Mold fungi - These fungi first become noticeable as green, yellow, brown or black fuzzy or powdery
surface growths on softwoods. Freshly cut or seasoned stock, piled during warm, humid weather, may be
noticeably discolored in 5 to 6 days or less. As with sapstains, molds do not reduce wood strength,
however, they can increase the capacity of wood to absorb moisture, thereby opening the door to attack
by decay fungi.

Chemical Stains
Chemical stains may resemble blue or brown stains, but are not caused by fungi. These stains result from
chemical changes in the wood during processing or seasoning. The most important chemical stains are the
brown stains that can downgrade lumber for some uses. They usually can be prevented by rapid drying at
relatively low temperatures during kiln drying.

Insects
Several kinds of insects attack living trees, logs, lumber and finished wood products for food and/or
shelter. These pests include various termites, ants, and beetles.
Termites - Termites use wood for food and shelter and are the most destructive of all wood insects. Ants
cannot use wood for food, but they are often confused with termites because the two look somewhat
similar. However, there are several distinct differences in their physical appearance. Ants have elbowed
antennae; termites do not. Ants have narrow waists whereas termites bodies are broad. Ants wings have
few veins and the hind wings are smaller than the front wings. Both pairs of termite wings are similar in
shape and size and have very small veins.
Termites are divided into three major groups.
* Subterranean or ground-inhabiting termites
* Drywood Termites
* Dampwood Termites
Subterranean Termites - These termites attack wood products in buildings and other wood products
throughout most of continental United States, but most damage occurs in the warm, southern coastal
regions along the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico. At certain seasons of the year, winged males and
females are produced by the termite colony. They swarm, mate, lose their wings, and attempt to begin a
new colony in the soil. Termites build tunnels through earth and around obstructions to get to a source of
food (either sound or decaying wood). They also require a constant source of moisture usually obtained
from the soil.
The presence of subterranean termites may be noted by:
* The swarming of winged, ant-like insects and the discarded wings observed after swarming
* Earthen shelter tubes built over masonry or other foundations to a source of wood
* The presence of white workers when termite shelter tubes are broken open

* The hollowed-out condition of badly infested wood products

Drywood Termites - Drywood termites are found naturally only in Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and in a narrow
strip of land extending from southern California and Texas to Florida and along the Atlantic coast to
Virginia. After swarming, drywood termites enter cracks and crevices in dry, sound wood. In excavating
their galleries, they occasionally discharge oval-shaped fecal pellets through temporary openings in the
wood surface. The ability of the drywood termite to live in dry wood surface. The ability of the drywood
termite to live in dry wood without direct contact with the soil increases its menace. However, it
reproduces slowly and does not destroy wood as quickly as the subterranean termite.
Dampwood Termites - Dampwood termites are a serious pest along the Pacific Coast. They do not require
contact with the soil, but do need wood with high moisture content.

Ants
Carpenter ants may be black or red. They usually live in stumps, trees, or logs, but often damage poles are
structural timbers set in the ground. Elevated portions of buildings, such as windowsills and porch
columns, are susceptible to damage. Carpenter ants use wood for shelter not for food. They usually prefer
wood that is naturally soft or has been softened by decay. The galleries are large, smooth and, unlike
those of termites, are free of refuse and powdery wood. Mounds of sawdust indicate their presence.

Beetles
Powder Post or Lyctus Beetles - Powder post beetles attack both freshly cut and seasoned hardwoods and
softwoods. They attack the sapwood of ash, hickory, oak, and other hardwoods.
Adults lay eggs in the wood pores. The larvae burrow through the wood, making tunnels form 1/16- to
1/12-inch in diameter, packed with a fine powder. after a larval period (from a few months to a year, or
longer - depending on the species) and a much shorter pupal stage, newly formed adults chew holes
through the wood surface and emerge to lay eggs for another brood. Signs of damage by powder post
beetles are:
* small round 1/16' holes in the surface of the wood made by emerging adults, and
* fine powder that falls from the wood.
Anobiid beetles - may attack softwoods in damp and poorly ventilated spaces beneath buildings.
Eliminating the source of moisture will cause the colony to slowly die out.
Roundheaded Borers - A longhorn beetle, commonly known as the old house borer, damages seasoned
pine timbers. The larvae bore through the wood. Over many years their tunneling can weaken structural
timbers, framing members, and other wooden parts of buildings. Contrary to its name, the old house borer
most often infests new buildings. It is found in the Eastern and Gulf Coast States. Larvae reduce sapwood
to a powdery or sawdustlike consistency. They may take several years to complete their development.
While working in the wood, they make a ticking or gnawing sound. When mature, the adult beetle makes
an oval emergence hold about 1/4 inch in diameter in the surface of wood.
Flatheaded Borers - Flatheaded borers infest live trees as well as recently felled and dead, standing
softwood trees. They can cause considerable damage in rustic structures and some manufactured products
by mining into sapwood and heartwood. Typical damage consists of rather shallow, long, winding
galleries that are packed with fine powder. Adults are often called metallic wood-boring beetles because
of their color. They are about 3/4 inch long, with wing covers usually rough, like bark.

Marine Borers
Extensive damage is done to submerged portions of marine pilings, wharf timers, and wooden boats by a
group of animal organisms known collectively as marine borers. In the United States they are especially
active in the warm waters of the Pacific, Gulf, and South Atlantic coasts. Untreated timbers can be
destroyed in less than a year.
The major marine borers are the shipworm and pholad mollusks (related to the clams and oysters), and
the crustacean borers (related to the crabs and lobsters).

CONTROL OF PESTS THAT DAMAGE WOOD

If wood is to be used where it will be subject to pest attack, it must be protected. This protection can be
achieved by:
* control of moisture content
* use of a wood that is naturally resistant to the pests
* chemical treatment
In addition, mechanical barriers (such as metal termite shields and caps on pilings, poles and posts) are
sometimes used, but are usually ineffective.

Moisture Control
The moisture content of living trees and the wood products obtained from them may range from about 30
percent to more than 200 percent. Much of this moisture must be removed for most uses. Green lumber
usually is dried:
* to prevent stain and decay
* to reduce damage by insects,
* to reduce uncontrolled dimensional change (shrinkage),
* to reduce weight and increase strength, and
* to prepare the wood for treatment with chemical preservatives.
The amount of water in wood (its moisture content) is usually expressed as a percentage of its oven dry
weight. The moisture is measured by:
* the ovendrying method-a small sample of wood is weighed, dried, and reweighed until it has
reached a constant weight when subjected to temperatures of 212 degrees - 220 degrees F.
* the electrical method - use of a moisture meter that measures moisture by electrical resistance.
Timber or logs stored for a long time before processing can be protected from fungi and insects by:
* keeping the logs submerged in a pond of water
* keeping them under constant water spray
The water reduces the oxygen content and temperatures necessary for growth of fungi.

Seasoning or Drying - The moisture content of wood is reduced by:

* air drying in a yard, shed or pre-drier
* drying in a kiln, retort or by radio frequency
The most efficient and most widely used system is kiln drying. It offers better control of air movement,
temperature and drying rate than air drying. Although kiln drying is more expensive in terms of capital
investment and energy cost, it is much faster and provides more uniform and better quality drying. Unless
lumber is properly stacked and protected, air drying may result in surface checking, end cracking,
warping, staining and discoloration due to weathering. Even after being well-seasoned, wood may again
reach a moisture level favorable to pests if exposed to rain or prolonged high humidity and favorable
temperatures.

Storage and Handling

To avoid pest induced degrading of lumber during storage or handling, you should:
*Convert logs into lumber as quickly as possible.
*Dry the lumber as quickly as practical, even after pressure treatment with a preservative chemical, to
prevent degrading (surface checking, and end cracking).
*Locate air-drying yards and sheds on well-drained sites with good air circulation, and keep the yards
free of weeds.
* Practice good sanitation by removing debris or rotted wood which serves as source of fungal
infection and insects.
* Inspect stored wood products often. Termites, for example, may invade untreated stacked lumber if
it remains undisturbed for long periods.
* Avoid rough handling of treated wood. Chipping, gouging, or splitting can expose unprotected
interior wood and allow attack by decay fungi.

Use of Naturally Resistant Wood

The sapwood of all native tree species and the heartwood of most species have a low natural resistance to
decay. However, the heartwood of some species is quite resistant. Examples are the heartwood of oldgrowth bald cypress (limited supply), cedar, redwood, and post oak. They are resistant but definitely not
immune to attack by decay fungi and insects. Black locust and resinous southern pine heartwood, called
fatwood or lighterwood is also highly resistant to decay. Unfortunately, some naturally resistant woods
are expensive or unavailable in commercial quantities (i.e. chestnut) or in dimensions needed. Because of
high costs for labor and materials, the variable and undependable resistance of these species should
preclude their use for most high hazard construction applications.

Chemical Control
The proper application of chemical preservatives can protect wood from decay and stain fungi, insects
and marine borers, thus prolonging the service life of wood for many years. The effectiveness of
preservative treatment depends on the chemical formulation selected, method of application, proportion
of sapwood to heartwood, moisture content of the wood, amount of preservative retained, depth of
chemical penetration and distribution. Sapwood of most commercial species accepts preservatives much
better than heartwood, and softwood species are generally more receptive to impregnation than the
hardwoods. Preservative treatment by pressure is usually required for most wood products used for
structure and other applications exposed to high risk of attack by fungi, insects or marine borers.

Type of Preservatives Wood preservatives fall into three broad categories:

* creosote and creosote solutions,
* oilborne preservatives, and
* waterborne preservatives.
Creosote and Creosote Solutions - Creosote, and oily byproduct of making coke from bituminous coal, is
widely used as a preservative for such products as railroad ties, large timbers, fence posts, poles, and
pilings.
Advantages:

* toxic to wood-destroying fungi, insects, and some marine borers,

* low volatility,
* insolubility in water,
* ease of handling and application.
Disadvantages:

* dark color,
* strong odor,
* oily, unpaintable surface,
* tendency to bleed or exude from the wood surface,
* should not be used in homes or other living areas because of toxic fumes.
Oilborne Preservatives - These chemicals are generally insoluble in water. They are usually dissolved in
petroleum or other organic solvents in order to penetrate wood. Research developments have recently
made available oilborne preservatives formulated as water- in -oil emulsions or dispersions in water.
Advantages:

* toxic to fungi, insects and mold,

* can be dissolved in oils having a wide range in viscosity, vapor pressure and color,
* low solubility,
* can be glued depending on the diluent or carrier, and
* ease of handling and use.
Disadvantages:

* can leave an oily, unpaintable surface, depending on the carrier,

* for some applications provides somewhat less physical protection to wood than creosote,
* should not be used in homes or other living areas because of toxic fumes, and,
* its toxic and irritating to plants, animals and humans.
Pentacholrophenol (penta) is the most commonly used oilborne preservative. It is used to commercially
treat poles, lumber, crossarms, timbers, and fence posts.
Penta is also used by do-it-yourselfers to treat a variety of wood products by nonpressure methods such as
brushing, spraying and dipping. These superficial treatments can also temporarily preserve wood during
shipping, storage or in low hazard situations such as millwork and siding. Penta is not recommended for
marine installations, use inside buildings or use close to plants.

Waterborne Preservatives - This class of preservatives includes various metallic salts and other
compounds. The principal compounds used are combinations of copper, chromium, arsenic and fluoride.
Waterborne preservatives have gained increasingly wider usage for lumber, plywood, fence posts, poles,
pilings and timbers.
Advantages:

* treatment presents no hazard from fire or explosion.

* the wood surface is left clean, paintable and free of objectionable odors.
* safe for interior use and treatment of playground equipment.
* leach resistant.
Disadvantages:

* unless re-dried after treatment, the wood is subject to warping and checking,
* does not protect the wood from excessive weathering.
Wood treated with copper-8-quinolinolate has been approved for food contact uses such as for boxes,
crates, pallets, truck decking and related uses involving the harvesting, storage and transportation of food.

APPLICATION OF WOOD PRESERVATIVES

Preparation of Wood for Treatment
For most of the commercial wood treatments in common use, wood must be prepared in some way before
a preservative is applied. This preparation may include peeling, drying, conditioning, incising, cutting,
and framing.
Peeling The bark and cambium must be completely removed before treatment. This allows the
preservative to penetrate into the wood. Bark obstructs penetration, resulting in exposed untreated wood.
Drying In most treating methods, a high moisture content prevents or slows the entrance of the
preservative into the wood cells. Drying the wood allows better penetration of the preservative, reduces
product weight and shrinkage with its potential for warping and checking after treatment. Kiln drying is
one method for accelerating drying under controlled drying conditions.
Conditioning Operators of pressure treating plants can use several other methods besides
conventional
drying to condition wood for treatment. In the steaming and vacuum process, green wood is steamed in a
treating cylinder or retort for several hours and then subjected to a vacuum. The vacuum reduces the
boiling point of the water in the wood and speeds its removal. Then the evaporated water can be replaced
by the preservative, applied under pressure. Another method of conditioning green wood is boiling under
vacuum (Boulton method). The wood is placed in a treating cylinder and submerged in hot oil. Then a
vacuum is applied, removing water from the wood. With this method, wood can be conditioned at a lower
temperature. Consequently, it can be used to avoid damage to a wood species (such as a Douglas fir)
which is sensitive to the higher temperatures of the steaming and vacuum process.
A third method of conditioning is known as vapor drying. In this process green wood is exposed to hot
vapors or an organic compound, such as xylene, which gradually vaporizes and removes the water.
Incising Incising consists of making a series of narrow holes or slits in the wood about 1/2- to 3/4inch deep. This allows preservatives to better penetrate impregnation-resistant wood species (such as
Douglas fir). Incising makes possible a more uniform penetration to at least the depth of holes.
Cutting and Framing Cutting, shaping or drilling wood after treatment can expose untreated
wood. This exposure can be avoided by cutting, shaping or boring the wood for its intended use before
the preservative treatment. The treated wood then can be used without further machining.

Methods of Applying Wood Preservatives

There have been almost as many methods for applying wood preservatives as there are different
preservatives. Only the ones in current use will be discussed. The treating method selected depends
greatly on the ultimate use of the product. The two major types of treatment are pressure and non-pressure
methods. Many variations of these methods are described in the standards and specifications of the
American Wood Preservers Association (AWPA), the Federal Government, and other organizations.
Pressure Processes We might expect wood to treat easily because of its porous structure, but
wood is surprisingly resistant to deep penetration by preservatives. The basic principle of pressure
processes involves the placement of wood materials in an airtight, steel cylinder or retort and immersing it
in a preservative under pressure to force the preservative into the wood. Impregnation of preservatives by

pressure is the most common method used in the commercial treatment of wood. It has several
advantages:
*it gives a deeper and more uniform penetration,
*it allows better control over retention,
*wood can be preconditioned in the chamber,
*it is quicker and more reliable than non-pressure methods, and
*it can comply with the code regulations and engineered specifications.
There are two basic variations of the pressure treatment method: the full-cell process and the empty cell
process. With either method, it is important to closely follow established standards on:
*preparation of the wood product to be treated,
*amount and duration of vacuum and of pressure,
*solution temperature (when critical),
* treating time,
*type of preservative, and
*concentration of the preservative.
Non-Pressure Processes Non-pressure methods may be satisfactory where deep penetration, high
levels of retention and precise treatment are not required. The effectiveness of non-pressure methods
depends on the kind of wood, its moisture content, method and duration of treatment and the preservative
used.
There are many methods of applying preservatives to wood without the use of pressure. Some of the more
widely-used methods are described:
Brushing, Spraying and Pouring Treatments - With these methods, creosotes-oil-borne preservatives, or
water-borne salts are applied to the surfaces of the wood product to be treated. The wood should be
thoroughly air dried before treatment and, if oil borne preservatives are used the wood should be warm
enough to avoid congealing the oil. Penetration by dipping or spraying is superficial, resulting mostly
from capillary action, so only limited protection is afforded. The preservative should be flooded over the
wood surfaces and be allowed to soak in. Two applications are desirable, but the second should not be
applied until the first has dried and soaked into the wood. Brushing, spraying or pouring treatments
probably are most widely used for protecting areas of previously treated wood that have been cut or
machined, thereby exposing untreated surfaces or joints.
Dipping - Treatment by dipping consists of immersing wood in a preservative solution for several
seconds or several minutes. As with brushing - type treatments, the wood should first be well dried before
treatment. Although dipping is better than brushing for penetration of preservatives into the checks and
cracks of wood surfaces, and may add 2 to 4 years of protection over untreated wood, dipping is
unsatisfactory for uses subject to abrasion. Probably the principal use of dipping is for window frames
employing an immersion of 3 minutes.
Cold Soaking - Cold soaking is commonly used for treating round, fence posts and sawn timbers using
pentachlorophenol or other viscous, oil-borne preservatives. The process involves the soaking of dried
wood for 2-7 days in a vat containing the unheated liquid oil preservative. Cold soaking has been popular
for farm use because of its simplicity and low cost.
Steeping - The steeping process employs a waterborne salt preservative solution to either dry or green
wood. It consists of submerging the wood in a tankful of the solution at atmospheric temperature for
several days or weeks (heating the solution would speed up penetration). Absorption is rapid the first 3
days then continues at a decreasing rate almost indefinitely. When treating flat-sawn, wood products
space should be provided between and around each piece of wood to permit complete exposure to the
preservative material.
Hot and Cold Bath (Thermal Process) - The hot and cold bath or thermal process, also called the boilingandcooling or open-tank treating method, is suitable with oil-based and water-borne preservatives. When
used properly, the method provides a reasonably effective substitute for pressure impregnation.
The process is quite simple involving the use of one or two tanks. With two tanks the wood product first
is immersed into a hot solution usually of the preservative, itself, or even boiling water, followed by its
immersion into a tank of cold solution. Most preservative absorption and penetration takes place during
the cold bath. When one tank is used, heating can be discontinued, allowing the wood and preservative to
cool together.
Double Diffusion - Treatment by double diffusion is a two stage dispersing of a preservative liquid into a
piece of wood. An example of the process would be to first soak a green wood product, such as a post, in

a solution of copper sulfate. When a sufficient amount of the chemical has diffused into the wood, it is
then immersed in a second solution consisting of sodium arsenate and sodium chromate. The purpose of
double diffusion is to convert very leachable, chemical salt solutions into fixed and stable preservatives
within the wood.
Vacuum process - In the vacuum process wood products are enclosed in an airtight container from which
air is removed with a vacuum pump. The container then is filled with the preservative without additional
pressure and without the air re-entering. The partial removal of air from the wood, by the vacuum,
followed by addition of the preservative creates a slight pressure that drives the preservative into the
wood. Vacuum treatment works well with penta and easily treatable woods and products like pine,
window stock.
Preservative Pads or Bandages (Treatment on Site) - There are several variations of employing this
treating concept: The preservative can be applied to the surfaces of the wood, can be injected into the
wood or placed into holes drilled in the wood. The preservative used can be water-borne, solvent in oil or
have a consistency of grease or mayonnaise. This method is most often used to extend the life of standing
poles that had previously been treated. Since treated poles are costly, consideration must be given to
replacement costs, including treatment and installation, so a 5-year increase of service life would be a
very worthwhile expenditure for preservative bandage treatment. The major task of this treating process
involves removal of soil from around the pole for a depth of about 18'. This part of the pole, below
ground, and the part 12' above ground is the portion most vulnerable to decay and failure. All decayed
wood and soil must be removed from the pole and the preservative should be applied thoroughly to the
cleaned portion of the pole. This treated area should then be wrapped with a heavy duty, water resistant
paper or plastic film to confine the preservative to the pole.
Sapstain (Blue Stain) Prevention - Sapstain fungi do not decay their wood host, but they degrade lumber
and other wood products and lower their value. Also, sapstain fungi often precede the decay fungi
because conditions favorable for attack (high temperatures and humidity) are comparable for both types
of fungi. To protect green logs, poles and other round timbers, they should be processed soon after trees
are felled. If they cannot be processed promptly, the timbers should be stored submerged in water or be
subjected to a continuous spray of water. When these storage methods are not feasible, protection for
several months can be afforded by application of a chemical spray containing a solution of benzene
hexachloride and penta in fuel oil. The entire log and especially the ends must be sprayed thoroughly
soon after a tree is felled and bucked into logs. With regard to lumber, during prolonged periods of warm,
humid weather, the prospect of staining is almost inevitable in the sapwood of untreated, susceptible
species such as the pines. Since stain can develop within 4 days, under favorable conditions, chemical
treatment should be applied within 24 hours after sawing green logs. Sapstain preventing solutions are
available under various trade names. Protection is usually provided at the sawmill by carrying the rough
sawn, green lumber on the moving green chain through a tank or through the treating solution. Stain
treatments do not provide long-lasting protection. Consequently, after treatment, the lumber should be
stickered and properly piled for rapid air-seasoning or kiln drying.

Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Wood Preservatives

Federal Specifications TT-W-571 and the Standards of the American Wood Preservers Association
(AWPA) are commonly used by the wood preserving industry and consumers of treated wood to regulate
the wood preserving process and better insure its suitability for specific applications.
Penetration The effectiveness of a wood preservative depends on several treatment factors, one of
which is the depth of its penetration into the wood. Inadequate chemical penetration may allow fungi and
insects to enter through checks or cracks in the thin shell of treated wood in order to reach the inner,
unprotected wood. The depth of penetration attainable by a wood preservative depends on the wood
species, the proportion of sapwood to heartwood and the treatment process used. The sapwood of most
species is fairly easily penetrated when well-dried and pressure treated. The treatment of heartwood is
much more variable than sapwood. For instance, the heartwood of southern yellow pine and maple can be
impregnated to depths of about one-fourth to one-half inch. Red oak can be completely penetrated,
whereas it is almost impossible to penetrate the heartwood of white oak or western red cedar with
commercial pressure treating processes.
Retention of Preservatives Even with the proper preservative penetration, good protection cannot be
achieved unless enough preservative stays in the wood. For example, the minimum retention of creosote

for lumber used in coastal (salt) waters is 25 lbs./cu. ft. (AWPA C-2), while for similar wood products in
fresh water only 10 lbs. of creosote/ cu. ft. is required. By contrast, water soluble salt preservatives only
require retentions of 0.2 lbs. to 2.25 lbs./cu. ft. depending on use.
Selection and Conditioning of Wood Federal Specifications TT-W0571 and AWPA Standards
identify the wood species that are acceptable for treatment for various uses. Selection of a species or
grade of wood for a particular use should be based on the applicable grading rules. These rules take into
consideration such properties of the wood as knot sizes, warp, splits and grain which may limit some
uses. The drying and conditioning of wood before treatment significantly influences the effectiveness of
the treatment, as discussed earlier in this chapter.
Handling After Treatment Treated wood should be handled with sufficient care to avoid cutting or
breaking through the treated area and exposing the underlying untreated wood. Throwing, dropping or
gouging treated wood may cause damage that expose untreated wood. When damaged in this way, the
exposed wood should be retreated. This is usually done by in-place treatment (brushing). When treated
wood is machined, thereby exposing untreated wood, such as by boring or cutting the ends of piles after
driving a prescribed preservative should be applied to the exposed wood (AWPA M4 Standards).
End Use Treated wood that is used for a purpose for which it was not intended may result in an
unsatisfactory service life. For example, pilings treated to meet specifications for fresh water should not
be used in marine waters. Some end-uses will place a greater physical stress on treated wood than other
uses and will result in a shorter service life. The cost of replacement for some end-uses may justify
periodic retreatment of wood, on site, to prolong its service life.

PROTECTING HUMAN HEALTH

Most chemicals used to protect wood from insects and decay are toxic in order to be effective. The goal is
to select chemicals and methods that will control the pests without harming the applicator, the user, the
public, or pets. It is the responsibility of the management of any wood preserving operation to ensure that
the proper handling procedures, protective clothing and any necessary equipment (such as respirators) are
supplied to workers in conformance with label instructions to protect their health.
The EPA-approved labeling on pesticide products, including wood preservatives, is the primary source
of information on application methods, precautionary measures for workers, emergency first aid for high
level exposures, and disposal instructions for used pesticide materials and containers. The label has the
force of law, and it is the provisions of the label which are enforced by state regulatory agencies. Thus,
the label for each formulated product used at a wood treatment operation should be readily available, and
all responsible personnel should be familiar with their contents.

Hazards to Applicators
All handlers of wood preservatives need to know about potential hazards and necessary precautions.
Since risks are directly related to degree of exposure, most of the risks associated with wood preservatives
comes from their application and the volatilization that occurs soon after treatment, rather than from use
of the treated wood itself. The decision by EPA to classify three of the major wood preservatives,
creosote, inorganic arsenicals, and pentachlorophenol, for restricted use was based on the potential human
risk from chronic toxicity (exposure over a long period of time). Applicators as a group are the people
most likely to be exposed over long periods, and consequently need to take precautions as a normal and
routine part of working with wood preservatives. Exposure to wood preservatives can occur in a variety
of ways: during handling and mixing the chemicals, entering pressure- treatment cylinders, working
around spray or dip operations, handling freshly treated wood, cleaning/servicing equipment or disposing
of wastes. Closed systems for handling the chemicals and mechanically handling treated wood help to
reduce potential exposure, but do not eliminate the possibility of some routine or accidental exposure for
workers.
Wood preservatives, like other pesticides, can enter the body in three ways.
*oral
*dermal
*respiratory
Since many wood preservatives have a strong odor and taste, it is unlikely a person would swallow a
dangerous amount. The more likely forms of exposure are dermal (skin) contact, or inhalation of vapors,
dust or particles, particularly if protective clothing and other precautions are not observed.

Toxicity
The decision by the Environmental Protection Agency to classify for restricted use the three principal
wood treatment preservatives is based on evidence that:
1. creosote causes cancer in laboratory animals and has been associated with skin cancer in some
workers occupationally exposed to creosote;
2. creosote and inorganic arsenals also cause mutagenic effects (gene defects) in bacteria and
laboratory animals;
3. arsenic has been shown in epidemiology studies to be associated with cancer in humans who either
drank water contaminated with arsenic or who breathed air containing arsenic.
4. pentachlorophenol has produced defects to the offspring of laboratory animals; and
5. a dioxin contaminate (HxCDD) in pentachlorophenol has been shown to cause cancer in laboratory
animals.
Because of the potential hazard of these preservatives, there are new EPA label requirements for their
handling and end use. In addition to the potential hazards of chronic toxicity, a single or short term
exposure can cause the following acute health effects.

Creosote
*can cause skin irritation; vapors and fumes are irritating to the eyes and respiratory tract; and
prolonged and repeated exposure may lead to dermatitis.

Pentachlorophenol:
*Irritating to eyes, skin and respiratory tract.
*Ingestion of penta solutions, inhalation of concentrated vapors or excessive skin contact may lead to
fever, headache, weakness, dizziness, nausea, and profuse sweating. In extreme cases, coordination loss
and convulsion may occur: high levels of exposure can be fatal.
*Prolonged exposure can lead to an acne-like skin condition or other skin disorders, and may cause
damage to the liver, kidneys or nervous system.

Inorganic arsenicals:
*exposure to high concentrations of arsenical compounds can cause nausea, headache, abdominal
pain (if material was swallowed); extreme symptoms can progress to dizziness, muscle spasms, delirium
and convulsion.
*Prolonged exposure can produce chronic, persistent symptoms of headache, abdominal distress,
salivation, low-grade fever, and upper respiratory irritation.
*long term effects can include liver damage, loss of hair and fingernails, anemia and skin disorders.

First Aid
Since accidents do happen, first aid information on the chemical(s) in use must be readily available.
The product label gives basic first aid directions, as do Material Safety Data sheets supplied by chemical
manufacturers. The following general steps are applicable for accidental exposure to wood preservatives.
*In cases of skin contact, first remove contaminated clothing thats in contact with the skin,
immediately wash the affected areas with mild soap and water. Dont irritate the skin with vigorous
scrubbing. Later, if you notice inflamed skin, redness or itching in the affected area, consult a doctor.
*In cases of eye contact, immediately flush the eyes with running water. Lift the upper and lower
eyelids for complete irrigation and continue for fifteen minutes, then see a doctor.
* If accidental inhalation has occurred, move the victim to fresh air and apply artificial respiration as
needed. Get medical help immediately. If chemical preservative has been swallowed, call medical help
immediately:
+ if creosote or penta was swallowed, first give one or two glasses of water, induce vomiting, then
administer two tablespoons of USP Drug Grade activated charcoal in water.
+ If an arsenical chemical has been swallowed, drink large quantities of water, or milk if available.
Get professional medical help immediately.
* Never attempt to give anything by mouth to an unconscious person.
* Never induce vomiting in an unconscious person.

Protecting the Applicator

General
* Good work habits are reflected in the general precautions included on all wood preservative labels.
These basic, common-sense hygiene rules can significantly reduce risks of chronic exposure to wood
preservative chemicals.
For example:
* Dont eat, drink or smoke in the work area - workers hands can transmit residues to what ever they
touch.
* Wash hands often, especially before using the restroom, smoking or eating. gloves, boots and
goggles and head covering) impervious to the wood treatment formulation .
* Exposure to pentachlorophenol during pregnancy should be avoided.
Arsenicals:
* All exposed arsenic treatment plant workers will be required to wear a respirator if the level of
ambient arsenic is unknown or exceeds a Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) of 10 micrograms per cubic
meter of air (ug/m3) average over an 8 hour work day. This PEL is the same as the standard required by
the Occupational Safety and Health Administration.
* Processes used to apply inorganic arsenical formulations shall leave no visible surface deposits on
the wood. Small isolated or infrequent spots of chemical on otherwise clean wood shall be allowed.

Limitations on Use
Recent EPA regulations on wood preservatives include some limitations on treating wood intended for
certain uses, and on certain uses of treated wood. Be sure that the label allows you to use the preservatives
for the specific use you intend. Not all of these limitations are the responsibility of commercial treaters,
but these limitations should be known. The following is a summary of wood preservations use limitations.
* Pentachlorophenol and creosote cannot be applied indoors.
* Pentachlorophenol-or creosote-treated wood must not be used where there may be contamination
of feed, food, drinking or irrigation water.
* Pentachlorophenol cannot be applied to wood intended for use in interiors, except for millwork
(with outdoor surfaces) and support structures which are in contact with the soil in barns, stables, and
similar sites and which are subject to decay or insect infestation. A sealer must be applied in those
instances.
* Creosote cannot be applied to wood intended to be used in interiors except for those support
structures which are in contact with the soil in barns, stables, and similar sites and which are
* Remove gloves to handle paper work, phones or equipment which others may handle with
unprotected hands.
* At commercial treatment plants, protective clothing must be left at the plant. If work clothes must
be laundered at home, wash them separately from other laundry.
* Protective clothing requirements will be specified on the label. These will include use of
impermeable gloves for applying the preservatives and in all situations where dermal (skin) contact is
expected (e.g. handling freshly treated wood and manually opening pressure treatment cylinders). In
certain situations such as spraying the chemicals and working around pressure treatment equipment,
additional clothing may be required. Such clothing may include overalls, jackets, boots, respirators
(properly fitting and maintained, approved by MSHA/NIOSH) goggles and head covering.
Individuals who enter pressure treatment cylinders and other related equipment that is contaminated
with the wood treatment solution (such as cylinders that are in operation or are not free of the solution)
must wear protective clothing, including overalls, jacket, gloves, and boots, impervious to the wood
treatment solution, and a respirator.

Special Precautions
Pentachlorophenol:
* For prilled, powdered or flaked formulations of pentachlorophenol: Until August 31, 1987, a closed
emptying and mixing system must be used or protective clothing, including respirator, gloves, longsleeved shirt and long pants or disposable coveralls, must be worn when emptying and mixing prilled,
powdered or flaked formulations of pentachlorophenol. After September 1, 1987 a closed system must be
used when emptying and mixing such formulations of pentachlorophenol.

*For the spray method of application, spray apparatus must (1) be operated so as to minimize
overspray (i.e., no visible mist) and (2) be free of leaks in the system. Should there be a visible mist, spray
applicators in the zone in which mist is visible must wear respirators and protective clothing (including
overalls, jacket, subject to decay or insect infestations. Two coats of a sealer must be applied.
* The application of pentachlorophenol to logs for construction of log homes is prohibited.
* If creosote or pentachlorophenol is applied to wood intended to be used where it will be exposed to
body contact, sealants must be applied.

Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)

Material Safety Data Sheets are available from the manufacturers and distributors of the wood
preservatives they sell. These sheets contain information on such topics as toxicity and first aid, personal
protection and controls, storage and handling precautions, spill-leak disposal practices, transportation,
physical data and reactivity data. You should have a MSDS on file for each different formulation that you
use. Some states may have right-to-know laws that will require you to do this.

Voluntary Consumer Awareness Program

In order to apprise the consumer of the proper uses of treated wood and the proper precautionary
measures to take when using such wood, the treated wood industry has developed a voluntary Consumer
Awareness Program (CAP). The treated wood industry is committed to the implementation of the CAP
and the education of the consuming public. The treated wood industry will develop a model Consumer
Information Sheet (CIS) containing use site precautions and safe working practices for each of the three
types of preservatives. The CIS will serve as the main vehicle for conveying information about treated
wood to consumers. The focus of the CAP will be on ensuring the dissemination of the CIS at the time of
sale or delivery to end users. The individual wood treaters CIS will, at a minimum, contain the language
agreed to by AWPI, SAWP, NFPA, and EPA on the model CIS to the extent it applies to the wood
preservers product. Wood treaters will be free to add other information to their CISs such as the
members name, address, and logo; but in all cases, the use site precautions and the safe handling
practices information will be separate, legible, and prominent. The primary responsibility for ensuring
that the CIS is disseminated to the consuming public will reside with the wood treaters. This voluntary
program may be modified by EPA at a later date.

Inorganic Arsenical Pressure-Treated Wood

The following wording will appear on the Consumer Information Sheet (CIS) for inorganic arsenical
pressure-treated wood:
Consumer Information
This wood has been preserved by pressure-treatment with an EPA-registered pesticide containing
creosote to protect it from insect attack and decay. Wood treated with creosote should be used only where
such protection is important. Creosote penetrates deeply into and remains in the pressure-treated wood for
a long time. Exposure to creosote may present certain hazards. Therefore the following precautions
should be taken both when handling the treated wood and in determining where to use the treated wood.
Use site Precautions for Inorganic Arsenical Pressure-Treated Wood
Wood, pressure-treated with waterborne arsenical preservatives, may be used inside residences as long as
all sawdust and construction debris are cleaned up and disposed of after construction.
Do not use treated wood under circumstances where the preservatives may become a component of
food or animal feed. Examples of such sites would be structural or containers for storing silage or food.
Do not use treated wood for cutting-boards or countertops.
Only treated wood that is visibly clean and free of surface residue should be used in patios, decks
and walkways.
Do not use treated wood for construction of those portions of beehives which may come into contact
with the honey. Treated wood should not be used where it may come into direct or indirect contact with
public drinking water, except for uses involving incidental contact such as docks and bridges.
Handling Precautions for Inorganic Arsenical Pressure-Treated Wood
Dispose of treated wood by ordinary trash collection or burial. Treated wood should not be burned in
open fires or in stoves, fireplaces, or residential boilers because toxic chemicals may be produced as part

of the smoke and ashes. Treated wood from commercial or industrial use (e.g.,construction sites) may be
burned only in commercial or industrial incinerators or boilers in accordance with State and Federal
regulations. Avoid frequent or prolonged inhalation of sawdust from treated wood. When sawing and
machining treated wood,, wear a dusk mask. Whenever possible, these operations should be performed
outdoors to avoid indoor accumulations of airborne sawdust from treated wood.

Creosote Pressure-Treated Wood

The following wording will appear on the Consumer Information Sheets (CIS) for creosote pressure
treated wood:
Consumer Information - This wood has been preserved by pressure treatment with an EPA-registered
pesticide containing creosote to protect it from insect attack and decay. Wood treated with creosote
should be used only where such protection is important. Creosote penetrates deeply into and remains in
the pressure treated wood for a long time. Exposure to creosote may present certain hazards. Therefore
the following precautions should be taken both when handling the treated wood and in determining where
to use the treated wood.
Use Site Precautions for Creosote Pressure-Treated Wood
Wood treated with creosote should not be used where it will be in frequent or prolonged contact with bare
skin (for example, chairs and other outdoor furniture) unless an effective sealer has been applied.
Creosote-treated wood should not be used in residential interiors. Creosote-treated wood in interiors of
industrial buildings should be used only for industrial building components which are in ground contact
and are subject to decay or insect infestation, and for wood block flooring. For such uses, two coats of an
appropriate sealer must be applied. Sealers may be applied at the installation site. Wood treated with
creosote should not be used in the interiors of farm buildings where there may be in direct contact with
domestic animals or livestock which may crib (bite) or lick the wood. In interiors of farm buildings,
where domestic animals or livestock are unlikely to crib (bite) or lick the wood, creosote-treated wood
may be used for building components which are in ground contact and are subject to decay or insect
infestation, if two coats of an effective sealer are applied. Sealers may be applied at the installation site.
*Do not use creosote treated wood for farrowing or brooding facilities.
*Do not use treated wood under circumstances where the preservative may become a component of
food or animal feed. Examples of such use would be structures or containers for storing silage or food.
*Do not use treated wood for cutting-boards or countertops. Only treated wood that is visibly clean
and free of surface residues should be used for patios, decks and walkways.
*Do not use treated wood for construction of those portions of beehives which may come into contact
with the honey. Creosote-treated wood should not be used where it may come into direct or indirect
contact with public drinking water, except for uses involving incidental contact such as docks and
bridges.
*Do not use creosote-treated wood where it may come into direct or indirect contact with drinking
water for domestic animals or livestock, except for uses involving incidental contact such as docks and
bridges.
Handling Precautions for Creosote Pressure-Treated Wood
Dispose of treated wood by ordinary trash collection or burial. Treated wood should not be burned in
open fires or in stoves, fireplaces, or residential boilers, because toxic chemicals may be produced as part
of the smoke and ashes. Treated wood from commercial or industrial use (e.g., construction sites) may be
burned only in commercial or industrial incinerators or boilers in accordance with State and Federal
regulations.
Avoid frequent of prolonged inhalation of sawdust from treated wood. When sawing and machining
treated wood, wear a dust mask. Whenever possible, these operations should be performed outdoors to
avoid indoor accumulations of airborne sawdust from treated wood.
Avoid frequent or prolonged skin contact with creosote-treated wood. When handling the treated wood,
wear longsleeved shirts and long pants and use gloves impervious to the chemicals (for example, gloves
that are vinyl-coated). When power-sawing and machining, wear goggles to protect eyes from flying
particles. After working with the wood, and before eating, drinking, and use of tobacco products, wash
exposed areas thoroughly.
If oil preservative or sawdust accumulate on clothes, launder before reuse. Wash work clothes separately
from other household clothing. Coal tar pitch and coal tar pitch emulsion are effective sealers for
creosote-treated wood-block flooring. Urethane, epoxy and shellac are acceptable sealers for all creosotetreated wood.

Pentachlorophenol Pressure-Treated Wood

The following wording will appear on the Consumer Information Sheets (CIS) for pentachlorophenol
pressure-treated wood:
Consumer Information- This wood has been preserved by pressure-treatment with an EPA-registered
pesticide containing pentachlorophenol to protect it from insect attack and decay. Wood treated with
pentachlorophenol should be used only where such protection is important. Pentachlorophenol penetrates
deeply into and remains in the pressure-treated wood for a long time. Exposure to pentachlorophenol may
present certain hazards. Therefore, the following precautions should be taken both when handling the
treated wood and in determining where to use and dispose of the treated wood.
Use Site Precautions for Pentachlorophenol Pressure-Treated Wood - Logs treated with
pentachlorophenol should not be used for log homes. Wood treated with pentachlorophenol should not be
used where it will be in frequent or prolonged contact with bare skin (for example, chairs and other
outdoor furniture), unless an effective sealer has been applied. Pentachlorophenol-treated wood should
not be used in residential, industrial, or commercial interiors except for laminated beams or building
components which are in ground contact and are subject to decay or insect infestation and where two
coats of an appropriate sealer are applied. Sealers may be applied at the installation site.
Wood treated with pentachlorophenol should not be used in the interiors of farm buildings where there
may be direct contact with domestic animals or livestock which may crib (bite) or lick the wood.
In interiors of farm buildings where domestic animals or livestock are unlikely to crib (bite) or lick the
wood, pentachlorophenol-treated wood may be used for building components which are in ground contact
and are subject to decay or insect infestation and where two coat of an appropriate sealer are applied.
Sealers may be applied at the installation site.
*Do not use pentachlorophenol-treated wood for farrowing or brooding facilities.
*Do not use treated wood under circumstances where the preservative may become a component of
food or animal feed. Examples of such sites would be structures or containers for storing silage or food.
*Do not use treated wood for cutting boards or countertops. Only treated wood that is visibly clean
and free of surface residue should be used for patios, decks and walkways.
*Do not use treated wood for construction of those portions of beehives which may come into contact
with the honey. Pentachlorophenol-treated wood should not be used where it may come into direct or
indirect contact with public drinking water, except for uses involving incidental contact such as docks and
bridges.
*Do not use pentachlorophenol-treated wood where it may come into direct or indirect contact with
drinking water for domestic animals or livestock, except for uses involving incidental contact such as
docks and bridges.
Handling Precautions for Pentachlorophenol Pressure-Treated Wood
Dispose of treated wood by ordinary trash collection or burial. Treated wood should not be burned in
open fires or in stoves, fireplaces, or residential boilers because toxic chemicals may be produced as part
of the smoke and ashes. Treated wood from commercial or industrial use (e.g., construction sites) may be
burned only in commercial or industrial incinerators or boilers rated at 20 million BTU/hour or greater
heat input or its equivalent in accordance with State and Federal regulations.
Avoid frequent or prolonged inhalation of sawdust from treated wood. When sawing or machining treated
wood, wear a dust mask. Whenever possible, these operations should be performed outdoors to avoid
indoor accumulations of airborne sawdust from treated wood.
Avoid frequent or prolonged skin contact with pentachlorophenol-treated wood; when handling the
treated wood, wear long-sleeved shirts and long pants and use gloves impervious to the chemicals (for
example, gloves that are vinyl-coated). When power-sawing and machining, wear goggles to protect eyes
from flying particles.
After working with the wood, and before eating, drinking and use of tobacco products, wash exposed
areas thoroughly. If oily preservatives or sawdust accumulate on clothes, launder before reuse. Wash
work clothes separately from other household clothing. Urethane, shellac, latex epoxy enamel and varnish
are acceptable sealers for pentachlorophenol-treated wood.

PROTECTING THE ENVIRONMENT

Waste Disposal
Waste from preservative treating operations can kill plant life and harm aquatic life if allowed to enter
waterways. Oils and organic solids damage aquatic life by reducing oxygen supplies.
Some treating plants discharge their wastes into approved municipal sewer systems for processing along
with municipal wastes. Many plants use closed chemical and wastewater recovery systems to contain
wastes that could be harmful. Recovered solutions may be used again. If they are contaminated, they can
be filtered to remove solid wastes. Liquid waste materials may be diverted to settling ponds.
Door sumps should be used under pressure-chamber doors and under hard-surfaced drainage areas.
They will channel into the waste or recovery system any excess chemicals that drip or are rinsed from
freshly treated material. It is also important to contain the runoff from areas where toxic chemicals are
used to protect stored logs, poles, or lumber before processing or during seasoning.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency requires treatment facilities to meet certain disposal standards
and to obtain permits for discharge of excess chemicals. Compliance with these regulations should assure
proper environmental protection.
Remember to read the label carefully for disposal information for the products you are using.

Storage and Disposal of Containers

Packaged chemicals should be stored in a dry, well-ventilated, security locked area. Keep them in wellsealed containers whenever possible. Protect liquid storage against tank rupture.
Whenever spills, leaks, or flooding could occur, be sure that runoff will drain into a recovery or disposal
system (Safeguard concrete vats from freezing, cracking and spillage).
Containers should be thoroughly rinsed and emptied into storage or treating tanks before disposal.
Bury the containers in an approved landfill or dispose of them by other approved means. Be particularly
careful not to contaminate streams or ground water.
Be sure to read and follow label requirements and safety data sheets for each preservative. If you are in
doubt about how to safely store a product or dispose of the empty containers, contact the supplier and
follow his recommendations.

Spills
Correct cleanup procedures depend on the chemical involved. Treating plant personnel should know what
chemicals are being stored and used and should have an advance plan for handling spills. All workers
who might be involved should know what help is available and who to notify in case of a major spill.

Environmental Exposure
Penta
Penta is not uncommon in the aquatic environment. Circumstantial evidence, including the identification
of penta in rain water, indicates that penta may occasionally be present in ambient air. Low levels of this
compound have been detected in both wastewater and surface water. While the source of these residues is
often unclear, it has been suggested that, in addition to direct contamination of water by penta,
degradation of other organic compounds or chlorination of water may result in the chemical production of
the compound. Penta is moderately persistent in the aquatic environment. It was reportedly detected in
lake water and fish 6 months after an accidental spill. The prevailing use patterns of penta, primarily as a
wood preservative, should preclude significant contamination of water as long as spills and industrial
accidents are avoided.
Penta is moderately persistent in the soil. Published data reports that persistence ranges from 21 days to 5
years. Under most conditions, penta will seldom persist in the soil for periods exceeding 9 months and its
half-life will frequently be far less than this. Numerous studies have identified soil microorganisms
capable of degrading penta, but the extent of their distribution is unknown. Since the major use of penta
(wood preservative) does not involve application to the soil, the likeliest source of soil contamination is
the leaching or bleeding of the preservative from treated wood. Such phenomena may result in low levels
of penta contamination in the immediate vicinity (within several inches) of the treated wood.

Available data indicate that penta is not readily translocated by plants and that the compound in rapidly
eliminated by mammals following exposure.
Significant accumulation in plants and mammals is not likely to occur.

Arsenicals
No problems have been found in the literature as to the effects of arsenical wood preservatives on the
environment. Arsenate, the form present in aerobic soils, is bound tightly to the soil components and
becomes unavailable for plant uptake or leaching.

Creosote
There are no recorded reports of wild or domestic animals being injured by creosote. The amount of
creosote as a liquid that enters the environment is relatively small. The fate of creosote in the environment
is not known, but most of its components are quickly biodegraded.

Air Seasoning (Drying) of Wood

Drying, (air seasoning) wood can be complex. The purpose of this guide is to outline some of the
important points in drying small quantities of wood. People who buy green lumber from one of the many
small sawmills in Missouri are often interested in drying and possibly surfacing the lumber. Sawmill
operators and dealers who wish to approach the subject on a larger, more professional scale are referred to
USDA Agriculture Handbook Number 402. "Air Drying of Lumber."

Reasons for air drying wood

There are many reasons for drying wood. Four main reasons include:
*To increase dimensional stability. Wood shrinks across the grain (not along the grain) when it dries.
If wood is cut to size before it is seasoned, it will shrink during drying and thus be undersized in its final
form.
*To reduce or eliminate attack by decay or stain. Wood that is dried below 20 percent moisture
content is not susceptible to decay or sap staining.
*To reduce the weight. The weight of lumber will be reduced by 35 percent or more by removing
most of the water in the wood or, as we say, by "seasoning."
*To increase the strength. As wood dries, the stiffness, hardness and strength of the wood increases.
Most species of wood increase their strength characteristics by 50 percent or more during the process of
drying to 15 percent moisture content.
Piling Lumber for Air Drying
The objective of air drying wood is to remove the water in wood by exposing all surfaces of each piece of
wood to circulating air. In Missouri, wood can be air dried to a minimum of about 15 percent moisture
content, provided the drying time is sufficiently long. It is also necessary to support the wood during
drying to prevent the lumber from warping during the drying process. Lumber is piled in a special way to
maximize the surface exposure of each piece of lumber to the air and at the same time to support each
piece so it will dry straight and without unnecessary warping.
The first consideration is to prepare a strong foundation, 1 to 2 feet above the ground, on which to pile the
lumber. The ground beneath the foundation should be kept free of vegetation or debris that would hinder
air circulation under the pile.
Your lumber probably will be cut in random lengths and widths. For best results, pile each course so that
each board within a layer is well supported and does not protrude at either end of the pile (Figure 1).
This system of piling is called "box piling" and has proven to be the best method of piling random length
lumber. The outside boards of each tier are full length. This is important to tie the pile together and make
it less subject to tilting or falling over. Leave spaces between adjacent boards approximately equal to the
thickness of the boards.

Unsupported ends of boards placed on the inside of the pile will dry with less defect than if allowed to
extend over the end of the pile.
An adequate supply of wooden sticks (spacers) will be needed to separate each layer. It is very important
that the sticks be uniform in thickness. Sticks usually are cut 3/4-inch thick. Note that the stickers are
carefully aligned vertically (Figure 2) so that each layer of lumber will be supported from the base of the
pile. If the stickers are not properly aligned, forces will be created in the drying lumber that will result in
permanent kinking of the lumber.
Finally, cover the pile with old boards, plywood, corrugated metal or any materials that will protect the
top layers of lumber from sun and rain. It is also a good idea to weight the top by placing heavy objects
such as concrete blocks or stones on the roof. This will reduce warping in the top tiers of the pile as well
as secure the roof on the pile.
Drying time
In warm weather (April through October), 1-inch lumber can be dried to 15 or 20 percent moisture
content in 45 to 60 days (2-inch lumber in 60 to 90 days). In the winter months, lumber will require twice
as long to dry. Lumber at 15 percent to 20 percent moisture content is adequate for building unheated
structures such as garages or barns. If the wood is to be used inside a heated structure, further drying in a
commercial kiln is necessary (6 percent to 8 percent moisture content for indoor use in Missouri.)
Wood Drying and Seasoning
Kiln dried, air dried, green, seasoned: all words used to describe the condition of wood. But, what do they
mean? Which is the best for me?
Kiln dried: Heat and air flow is in an enclosed space is used to dry out all the water content very
quickly. This also has the side effect of removing various oils and resins. While this may be OK for
construction grade materials, fine woodworking materials will suffer from the process.
Air dried: As the name implies, this is wood that is dried by air alone. No artificial heat source is
used in the process.
Green: Freshly cut wood. Opposite of seasoned.
Seasoned: Wood that has been dried while retaining various oils and resins. These oils and resins
undergo a chemical transformation where they harden the wood fibers, producing a stronger piece of
wood.
In both kiln dried and air dried wood, you'll see shrinkage of the wood fibers, resulting in warpage of the
wood. Proper stacking and stickering helps to avoid this warpage. However, with air dried wood, the
warpage is generally less severe.
Kiln dried wood has another distinct disadvantage: chemicals removed in the rapid drying process are oils
that allow wood movement. Now, generally, woodworkers don't like wood movement in their projects.
However, this is movement of a different nature. The movement I'm talking about here is the kind that
allows the wood fibers to slip past each other and relieve stress in the wood. The majority of us have
heard war stories of case hardened pieces of wood being ripped on the tablesaw, warping without
warning, and then causing a severe kick-back.
Air dried wood, on the other hand, thanks to the seasoning process, is much more stable. It tends to be
less brittle, take a better finish, and in general be easier to work with. The downside, of course, is that air
drying takes much longer and therefore is much more expensive.

COLLEGE OF FORESTRY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY MAIN CAMPUS
MARAWI CITY

REVIEW QUESTIONS IN WOOD PRESERVATION AND SEASONING

by Forester Deborah C. Achas

1. The basic wood cell is often referred to as a fiber or a longitudinal tracheid.

A. True
B. False
2. Cell walls of wood fiber are made up of:
A. Small bits of cellulose
B. A matrix of hemicellulose
C. Thin layer of lignin
D. All of the above
3. The pits in wood cell structures are important for:
A. Water movement in living trees from cell to cell
B. Movement of water in drying lumber
C. Movement of chemical solutions in impregnation of wood
D. All of the above
4. All wood species have small tissues called rays that weave their way between the longitudinal fibers
from the bark toward the pith.
A. True
B. False
5. Sapwood is:
A. Wood that is located near the cambium layer
B. Made up of inactive cells
C. More dense and drier than heartwood
D. All of the above
6. Heartwood:
A. Consists of inactive cells
B. Includes waste material which darkens wood
C. Is more dense and drier wood
D. All of the above
7. Fungi, which are a simple type of non-chlorophyll containing plants, cause wood decay.
A. True
B. False
8. Fungal growth starts from tiny airborne spores. To continue growth of fungi, they need:
A. Cold temperatures
B. 15-15-15 fertilizer
C. High nitrogen fertilizer
D. Low levels of zinc
E. None of the above
9. The germinating fungal spores cause damage to wood by:
A. Making water circles in the wood
B. Developing microscopic, root-like threads, called hyphae
C. Allowing insects to chew into the wood
D. All of the above

10. There are two major groups of wood inhabiting fungi. Based on the type of damage they cause: wooddestroying and wood-staining.
A. True
B. False
11. The characteristics of decay fungi (wood destroying fungi) are:
A. Both sapwood and heartwood can be affected
B. Fungi may grow in the interior of the wood or appear on the wood surface as fan-shaped patches
C. The color of these growths range from white through light brown
D. The decay will stop when temperatures are either too hot or cold and moisture level too dry or wet
E. All of the above
12. Which fungi are able to break down the cellulose component of wood for food?
A. Brown rot
B. White rot
C. Soft rot
D. None of the above
13. The final stage of wood decay by brown rot can be identified by:
A. The dark brown color of the wood
B. Excessive shrinkage
C. Cross-grain cracking
D. The ease with which the dry wood substance can be crushed to powder
E. All of the above
14. Which rot can break down both lignin and cellulose and have a bleaching effect (causing the wood to
appear whiter than normal)?
A. Brown rot
B. White rot
C. Soft rot
D. Gut rot
15. Which rot attacks green wood?
A. Brown rot
B. White rot
C. Soft rot
D. Foot rot
16. The fungi which cause wood-staining are:
A. Sap staining fungi
B. Brown rot
C. Mold fungi
D. White rot
E. Both A & C
17. Sap-staining fungi:
A. Have little effect on the strength of the wood
B. Destroy the woods appearance for such things as siding and furniture
C. Can be established in sapwood of standing trees, sawlogs, lumber and timbers as soon as they are cut.
D. All of the above
18. What are some of the differences between ants and termites?
A. Ants do not eat wood, termites do
B. Ants have elbow antennae, termites do not
C. Ants have narrow waists, termite bodies are broad
D. All of the above
19. The subterranean termite colony produces winged males and females that begin a new colony in the
soil.
A. True
B. False

20. What are some of the ways subterranean termite presence can be noted?
A. The swarming of winged, ant-like insects and the discarded wings
B. The earthen shelter tubes built over masonry or other foundations to source of wood
C. The presence of white workers when shelter tubes are broken
D. The hollowed-out condition of badly infested wood products
E. All of the above
21. Dry wood termites attack dry wood without direct contact with the soil.
A. True
B. False
22. Damp wood termites require moist wood.
A. True
B. False
23. Carpenter ants use wood for shelter, not for food.
A. True
B. False
24. Signs of damage being done by powderpost beetles are:
A. Small round 1/16" holes made in surface of wood
B. Fine powder that falls from the wood
C. The presence of white workers
D. Both A and B
25. Moisture content of living trees is approximately 500 percent.
A. True
B. False
26. The main reasons that moisture must be removed from green wood are:
A. To prevent stain and decay
B. To reduce damage by insects
C. To reduce shrinkage
D. To reduce weight and increase strength
E. All of the above
27. For storing timber or logs for a long time before processing and protecting them from fungi and
insects, logs should be:
A. Stacked on dry lots very tightly
B. Sprayed with fuel oil
C. Debarked
D. Submerged in a pond of water
E. None of the above
28. For seasoning or drying, the most efficient and widely used system is kiln drying.
A. True
B. False
29. In storing lumber, one management practice is to locate air-drying yards and sheds on a well-drained
site with good air circulation.
A. True
B. False
30. Rotted wood should be removed from the storage yard because it can harbor insect and fungal pests.
A. True
B. False
31. Which of the following tree species have a natural resistance to an attack by decay fungi?
A. Maple
B. Ash
C. Black Locust
D. White Pine
E. Boxelder

32. To determine the effectiveness of a chemical treatment on wood, you should consider the:
A. Age of the tree
B. Chemical formulation selected
C. Moisture content of the wood
D. B & C above
E. None of the above

33. Wood preservatives can fall into the following categories:

A. Creosote
B. Oilborne preservatives
C. Organic carbon preservatives
D. All of the above
E. None of the above
34. Creosote is often called coal tar because of its close relationship to which compounds?
A. Toluene
B. Benzene
C. Tar
D. All of the above
35. Creosote gives off vapors which produce a sunburn-like rash on human skin.
A. True
B. False
36. What characteristics make creosote a popular preservative for the railroad and utility companies?
A. It is unpaintable
B. It is toxic to decay
C. It will not leach
D. It is toxic to insects
E. Both B and D
37. Penta, which can be equal to creosote as a preservative, can be made by dissolving 5 percent penta
salt in:
A. Water
B. Alcohol
C. Liquid fat
D. Petroleum oil
E. Benomyl
38. Penta may be used to treat wood to be used as:
A. Food crates
B. Utility poles
C. Feed troughs
D. None of the above
39. The only preservative approved for wood which is to directly come in contact with human food is:
A. Copper naphthenate
B. Zinc naphthenate
C. Acid copper chromate
D. Copper-8 quinolinolate
E. None of the above
40. What is a disadvantage of waterborne preservatives?
A. They leave an oily, unpaintable surface
B. They are toxic and irritating to plants and animals
C. They have dark color
D. They do not protect the wood from excessive weathering
E. None of the above

41. Wood must be prepared properly before a preservative is applied.

A. True
B. False
42. The bark and cambium layers must be completely removed before thorough penetration of the
preservatives can occur.
A. True
B. False
43. Preservative treatments are more effective if the wood is dried prior to treatment because:
A. There is more space in wood cells for preservatives
B. Checks form before treatment, facilitating penetration of preservative into the wood
C. The chance of checks occurring after treatment exposing untreated wood is much less
D. All of the above
44.With the non-pressure method of brushing, spraying and pouring treatments, one of the major concerns
with the wood is:
A. The wood must be dry
B. The wood must be high in moisture content
C. The wood must be immersed in oil prior to the treatment
D. All of the above
45. With the non-pressure treatment of brushing, spraying and pouring, the second application should be
applied before the first coat is dry.
A. True
B. False
46. The treatment of dipping consists of immersing wood in a preservative solution for several seconds to
several minutes.
A. True
B. False
47. Cold soaking is commonly used for treating round fence posts and sawn timbers using which
preservatives?
A. Creosote
B. Copper-8-quinolinolate
C. Oil-borne preservatives
D. All of the above
48. The steeping process involves which preservatives?
A. Water-borne preservatives
B. Oil-borne preservative
C. Creosote preservative
D. None of the above
49. One of the methods of extending the life of standing poles that have been previously treated is called:
A. Steeping
B. Cold soaking
C. Dipping
D. Preservatives pads
50. Wood preservatives can enter the body through:
A. Mouth
B. Skin
C. Lungs
D. All of the above
51. The more likely forms of exposure are dermal contact and inhalation of vapors or dust particles.
A. True
B. False

52. Creosote vapors can cause:

A. Skin irritations
B. Eye watering
C. Respiratory problems
D. All of the above
53. Pentachlorophenol not only irritates the eyes, skin and respiratory tract, but also:
A. Causes weakness
B. Causes nausea
C. Causes skin disorders
D. May cause damage to liver, kidneys or nervous system
E. All of the above
54. The long term effects of inorganic arsenicals are liver damage, loss of hair and fingernails, anemia
and skin disorders.
A. True
B. False
55. If creosote or penta was swallowed you would first have the victim drink large quantities of milk.
A. True
B. False
56. Pentachlorophenol and creosote can be applied indoors.
A. True
B. False
57. Pentachlorophenol or creosote treated wood may be used around animal feed, food, drinking or
irrigation water supplies.
A. True
B. False
58. Creosote cannot be applied to wood intended to be used in interiors except for those supporting
structures which come in contact with the soil, in which of the following structures:
A. Log homes
B. Restaurants
C. Barns
D. Hospitals
E. All of the above
59. According to CIS, inorganic arsenical pressure-treated wood can not be used for which of the
following:
A. Food storage
B. Cutting boards
C. Burning in fireplace
D. Silage
E. All of the above
60. Inorganic arsenical pressure-treated wood has been preserved by pressure-treatment with an EPAregistered pesticide.
A. True
B. False
61. To be able to use creosote pressure-treated wood for outdoor furniture an effective sealer must be
applied.
A. True
B. False
62. Creosote-treated wood should not be used in:
A. Residential interiors
B. Farm buildings
C. Water troughs
D. All of the above

63. Creosote treated wood can be burned in open fires, stoves and fireplaces.
A. True
B. False
64. You do not need to worry about washing after working with creosote-treated wood.
A. True
B. False
65. Urethane, epoxy and shellac are acceptable sealers for all creosote-treated wood.
A. True
B. False
66. Logs treated with pentachlorophenol may be used for log homes.
A. True
B. False
67 Avoid frequent or prolonged skin contact or inhalation of sawdust from pentachlorophenol treated
wood.
A. True
B. False
68. Oils and organic solids from wood preservatives damage and kill aquatic life by reducing the oxygen
in the water.
A. True
B. False
69. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency requires treatment facilities to meet certain disposal
standards and obtain permits for discharge of excess chemicals into the environment.
A. True
B. False
70. A pesticide storage area should:
A. Have a designated shelf for storing protective clothing and equipment.
B. Be well-insulated and ventilated.
C. Not have any type of constructed floorin case of a spill or leak, a pesticide will be absorbed most
efficiently by the soil itself.
D. All of the above.
71. A substance which when added to wood provides dimensional stability.
A. Fire retardant chemical
B. Wood preservative
C. bulking agent
D. fungicide
72. This preservative, when treated to wood, cannot be painted over satisfactorily.
A. Acid copper chromate
B. Chromated copper arsenate
C. creosote
D. Calcite
73. The most effective method of protecting wood against all types of marine borers is:
A. dual treatment with CCA followed by creosote
B. single treatment with CCA
C. single treatment with creosote
D. single treatment with borax
74. Leave the surface comparatively clean, paintable and free from objectionable odor after treatment:
A. oil-borne preservatives
B. water-borne preservatives
C. tar

D. coal tar
75. Vapors from this preservative are harmful to growing plants:
A. Permithrin
B. Borax
C. CCA
D. Creosote

76. Freshly creosoted timber is susceptible to:

A. Weathering
B. Breakage
C. Fire
D. Rain
77. When maximum absorption of preservative is desired in wood, the process used is:
A. Full-cell process
B. Empty-cell process
C. Vacuum process
D. Lowry process
78. This process aims at maximum penetration with a minimum net absorption by preservative:
A. Full-cell process
B. Empty-cell process
C. On compound
D. Bethel process
79. A tar-oil preservative:
A. creosote
B. pentachlorophenol
C. boron compound
D. synthetic pyrenthroids
80. A fungicide which is banned in developed countries:
A. creosote
B. pentachlorophenol
C. boron compound
D. synthetic pyrenthroids
81. A water-borne preservative:
A. creosote
B. pentachlorophenol
C. boron compound
D. copper naphanate
82. This pressure treatment process is used when the retention of maximum quantity of preservative is
desired:
A. Bethel process
B. Lowry process
C. Rueping process
D. Oscillating pressure method
83. A non-pressure preservative treatment of wood:
A. Bethel process
B. Empty-cell process
C. dip diffusion
D. oscillating pressure method
84. This method can be used for both green and well-seasoned wood:
A. Steeping
B. Dip diffusion

C. Coal soaking
D. Dipping
85. Involves the immersion of seasoned wood for matter of hours, in successive baths of hot and
relatively cold preservative:
A. hot and cold bath
B. gross absorption
C. hot and cold soaking
D. dipping
86. The amount of preservative remaining in the wood immediately after completion of the treatment
process is called:
A. absolute absorption
B. gross absorption
C. retention
D. penetration
87. Treatment of timber under specified condition until the quantity of preservative absorbed in a given
time is not more than a prescribe percentage of the amount already injected is:
A. retention
B. penetration
C. refusal treatment
D. treatment pressure
88. Volume of timber loaded into a cylinder or tank for treatment at a time:
A. Charge
B. Packet
C. Bundle
D. Cord
89. The preliminary treatment of unseasoned or partially seasoned timber to reduce its moisture content
and improve its absorptive properties is:
A. Selection
B. Conditioning
C. Sorting
D. Spacing
90. A generic term applied to distillates of tars within specified temperature carbonization of bituminous
coal is:
A. Creosote
B. Charcoal
C. Calcite
D. Borax
91. A preservative that is applied to wood in the form of solution in oil:
A. water-borne preservative
B. bending preservative
C. oil-borne preservative
D. pressure preservative
92. That portion of a treating operation during which the wood and preservative in a cylinder are
subjected to pressure in excess of atmospheric or initial air pressure which have been used for the purpose
of forcing the preservative in the wood:
A. Pressure period
B. Initial air
C. Refusal period
D. Retention period
93. Can increase preservative penetration in wood:
A. Incising
B. Cupping
C. Bending

D. Steaming
94. A treatment process which requires poles to be in green condition prior to treatment:
A. Cellon process
B. Boucherie process
C. Rueping process
D. Steaming
95. The FPRDI high pressure sap displacement (HPSD) process of treating freshly-cut poles is
basically a:
A. Cellon process
B. Boucherie process
C. Rueping process
D. Boulton process
96. Heartwood of this species is easy to treat:
A. Mangium
B. Dao
C. Agoho
D. Gubas
97. Classified as difficult to treat:
A. Toog
B. Liusin
C. Mangium
D. Almaciga
98. Heartwood of this species has complete penetration of preservative by full-cell process:
A. Para rubber
B. Palosapis
C. Bagras
D. Tuai
99. These are fungi which feeds on easily-digested organic substances found in the ray cells and wood
parenchyma:
A. Molds
B. Staining fungi
C. White rot fungi
D. Brown rot fungi
100. Fungi that attract the cellulose and its associated pentosans leaving a residue of modified partially
degraded lignin:
A. Molds
B. Staining fungi
C. White rot fungi
D. Brown rot fungi
101. Attacks the secondary cell walls of the wood producing cavities or erosion patterns:
A. Molds
B. Staining fungi
C. White rot fungi
D. Brown rot fungi
102. Most favorable moisture condition for fungal growth in wood:
A. Oven-dry condition
B. 100% MC
C. FSP (25-32% MC)
D. EMC
103. Attacks lumber with moisture content of 40% and above:
A. Ambrosia beetle

B. Powder post beetle

C. Lyctidae
D. Dry wood termites
104. Causes pinholes in logs or timber:
A. Termites
B. Ambrosia beetles
C. Molds
D. Mollusks
105. Stain can be prevented by:
A. application of insecticide
B. application of fungicide
C. steaming
D. incising
106. This glue component is classified as a carcinogen by the Europian Union:
A. Phenol
B. Formaldehyde
C. Melamine
D. Urea
107. The chief cause of decay in wood:
A. Fungi
B. Insects
C. Mollusks
D. Pholads
108. Retention of water-borne preservative is calculated as:
A. kilogram per cubic meter
B. kilogram of the dry salt per cubic meter
C. kilogram of the active ingredient per cubic meter
D. kilogram of the wet solution per cubic meter
109. Hardwoods do not treat well by this non-pressure method:
A. Brushing
B. Dipping
C. Steeping
D. Cold soaking
110. Wood and wood products preservative treatment must be:
A. free of sapwood
B. free of moisture
C. free from blemish
D. free from decay and insect attack
111. This defect can be easily wiped or planed off a piece of lumber:
A. Decay fungi
B. Stain
C. Molds
D. Insect attack
112. An example of a mold that attacks lumber:
A. Pinicelium spp.
B. Ceratocystis spp.
C. Lenzites spp.
D. Polyporus spp.
113. A white rot fungus that attacks wood:
A. Fomes spp
B. Fusarium
C. Diplodia spp.
D. Cluvularian spp.

114. Moisture loss in wood below fiber saturation point is often accompanied by:
A. Shrinkage
B. Weight gain
C. Fungi attack
D. Decay
115. Used to monitor progress of drying of a kiln load:
A. Sample board
B. Fascia board
C. Monitor board
D. Sticker board
116. Sample board should be selected from:
A. fastest drying lumber in the kiln load
B. average drying lumber in the kiln load
C. slowest drying lumber in the kiln load
D. thinnest drying lumber in the kiln load
117. Growth of decay fungi in logs can be prevented by:
A. Log ponding
B. Block piling
C. Air drying
D. Dehumidifying
118. A blackish or brownish preservative made by distilling coal tar:
A. Creosote
B. PCP
C. Borax
D. CCA
119. Recommended for treatment of marine piles:
A. Creosote
B. Pentachlorophenol
C. Borax
D. Cislin
120. Which is easier to apply varnish and other coating?
A. Wood with higher moisture content
B. Wood with lower moisture content
C. Wood with low specific gravity
D. Wood with high specific gravity
121. A change in the MC of wood from FSP to oven dry condition will:
A. Increase its electrical resistance and thermal insulating capacity
B. decrease its nail-holding capacity
C. increase its resistance to shock
D. resistant to stain and attack by insect
122. It is essential to season wood to its expected EMC to:
A. improve its anatomical properties
B. minimize shrinkage and swelling
C. increase resistance to penetration of chemicals
D. lower absorption of finishing oil
123. A theoretical state of which all free water has evaporated leaving bound water in the cell wall:
A. EMC
B. FSP
C. Moisture content
D. Shrinkage

124. The ratio of the weight of a given volume of wood to the weight of the same volume of water at
temperature of 4 degree Celsius is:
A. specific gravity
B. density
C. EMC
D. moisture content
125. The moisture content at which a piece of wood neither gains nor loses moisture when surrounded by
air at a given relative humidity and temperature is:
A. specific gravity
B. density
C. EMC
D. anisotropy
126. Water found in the cell cavities is called:
A. bound water
B. free water
C. hygroscopic water
D. imbibed water
127. Internal splitting in wood that develops in drying caused by internal stresses or by closing of surface
checks:
A. honey combing
B. case hardening
C. cupping
D. warps
128. Any distortion in a piece of wood from its true plane that may occur in seasoning:
A. warping
B. burl
C. shakes
D. brashness
129. A term applied to dry lumber with nearly uniform moisture content but characterized by the presence
of residual stresses, tension in the interior of the piece and compression in the outer layers of cells:
A. casehardening
B. reverse casehardening
C. heart shake
D. frost cracks
130. It refers to the dead inner core of wood, usually distinguishable by its darker color:
A. hardwood
B. heartwood
C. hurt wood
D. sapwood
131. Fungi that penetrate into the sapwood and caused staining too deep to be easily removed:
A. true stain
B. molds
C. brown rot
D. dry rot
132. Wood destruction that may be caused by Ascomycetes and Fungi imperfecti:
A. white rot
B. brown rot
C. soft rot
D. pecky dry rot
133. Points where the water is evaporated from the cell cavities:
A. FSP
B. EMC
C. Swelling

D. Shrinkage
134. Type of wood destroying fungi that attack both cellulose and lignin:
A. pecky dry rot
B. white rot
C. brown rot
D. red rot
135. Rots that attack the cell wall carbohydrates:
A. white rot
B. brown rot
C. soft rot
D. pecky dry rot
136. It refers to the decrease in dimensions due to the water loss:
A. Shrinkage
B. Swelling
C. Density
D. Crying
137. It refers to the distortions of wood from the true plane during Collapse drying season:
A. casehardening
B. honeycombing
C. swelling
D. warping
138. Sudden changes of wood happen at one corner but not on the other:
A. Cupping
B. Diamonding
C. Twisting
D. Bowing
139. Refers to the ease with which a species of wood take sin liquid chemicals using vacuum or pressure
process:
A. Hygroscopicity
B. Durability
C. Accessibility
D. Treatability
140. Reduction in dimensions due to lowering the moisture content below fiber saturation point:
A. Swelling
B. Desorption
C. Conduction
D. Shrinkage
141. The mechanical and chemical disintegration and discoloration of the wood surface:
A. Weathering
B. Decay
C. Staining
D. Doze
142. Serious decay occurs only when the MC of wood is:
A. below FSP
B. within FSP
C. above FSP
D. at FSP
143. The fiber saturation point (FSP) of wood is reached when:
A. both cell lumen and cell walls are saturated by water
B. both cell walls and cell lumen are without water
C. cell walls are saturated with water and no water in the lumen
D. all of these

144. Water found in cell cavities is:

A. cavity water
B. cell water
C. bound water
D. free water
145. The wood with greater cell wall and smaller cell cavities have:
A. greater amount of wood elements
B. small amount of wood elements
C. greater amount of wood substances
D. wood substances and cell cavities are equal
146. We used very mild kiln schedules for:
A. bagras, batino, bitaog
B. yakal, dungon, binggas
C. almaciga, dita, gubas
D. toog, malakauayan, igem
147. This group of species is very difficult to treat:
A. almaciga, bolon, liusin
B. African tulip, balete and toog
C. narig, bitaog and bokbok
D. agoho, katmon, and ipil
148. When kiln drying refractory species, change in kiln schedule should be based on:
A. average MC of all sample boards
B. average MC of 3 wettest sample boards
C. average MC of 3 driest sample boards
D. MC of the wettest sample board
149. This process is used when maximum absorption of the preservative is desired:
A. Lowry process
B. Full-cell process
C. Empty-cell process
D. Vacuum process
150. Rapid drying in kiln is achieved by the use of:
A. high temperature and high relative humidity
B. low temperature and high relative humidity
C. low temperature and low relative humidity
D. high temperature and low relative humidity
151. The ratio of a given weight of a given volume of wood to the weight of the given volume of water:
A. specific gravity
B. equilibrium moisture content
C. Moisture content
D. Density
152. Any substance that, for a reasonable length of time, is effective in preventing the development and
action of wood-rotting fungi, borers of various kinds and harmful insects that deteriorate wood is:
A. adhesive
B. preservative
C. extender
D. filler
153. Biodeterioration in wood is caused by the following agents EXCEPT for:
A. fungi
B. wear and tear
C. insects
D. marine borer

154. The determination of preservative retention in a specific zone of treated wood by attraction or
analysis of specified samples:
A. spectrometer
B. culture
C. retention by assay
D. penetration by boring
155. Measures the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere:
A. dew point
B. psychrometer
C. wet-bulb thermometer
D. dry-bulb thermometer
156. Leave the surface comparatively clean, paintable and free from objectionable odor after treatment:
A. water-borne preservative
B. tar
C. oil-borne preservative
D. coal tar
157. Wood dried to a relatively constant temperature in a ventilated oven at 103 + 2 degrees Celsius:
A. shipping dry wood
B. ovendry wood
C. kiln-dried wood
D. air-dried wood
158. Softening wood by hot water, steam or chemical treatment:
A. steaming
B. plasticizing
C. sizing
D. cooking
159. Wood processed to impart properties quite different from those of the original wood by means of
chemical treatment, compression, or treatment with or without heat:
A. modified wood
B. staypack
C. papreg
D. laminated wood
160. A process of treating wood with paraffin or a coke-oven coal tar to increase its resistance to acids:
A. Boulton
B. Rueping
C. Niggerizing
D. Lowry

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS IN WOOD PRESERVATION & SEASONING

by Forester Deborah C. Achas

1. Correct Answer: A
Explanation: Even though wood may seem to be a solid material, it is a plant material made up of plant
cells. The basic wood cell is often referred to as a fiber or longitudinal tracheid.
2. Correct Answer: D
Explanation: All of the above are components of a wood cells wall. The walls are made up of small bits
of cellulose imbedded in a matrix of hemicellulose. All of this is cemented together by a layer of lignin.
3. Correct Answer: D
Explanation: All of the above are important. The cavities between cells are interconnected by
passageways called pits. Pits are important passageways for water to move from cell to cell in living trees.
These passageways are also important in processes such as drying wood and impregnation of wood with
chemical solutions.
4. Correct Answer: A,
Explanation: The answer is true. The rays help conduct sap rapidly across the grain.
5. Correct Answer: A
Explanation: Sapwood is located near the cambium layer and is involved in the storage of nutrients for the
tree as well as in the mechanical transportation of water from the root system to the crown.
6. Correct Answer: D
Explanation: Heartwood is a disposal site for waste products of respiration carried on in other parts of the
tree. Rays seem, to be a means of transporting these products into the heartwood. Heartwood is made up
of inactive cells that have been changed either chemically or physically, from their sapwood cell origin.
These changes cause the cells not to be able to conduct sap. These cells will sometimes contain deposits
of various materials which will cause the heartwood to have a much darker color.
7. Correct Answer: A
Explanation: Wood decay is caused by the growth of fungi. Fungi are extremely small plant-like
organisms that normally can not be seen without the aid of a microscope, except where there may be
extensive growth on the surface of wood. Fungi can not produce its own food; therefore, it relies on the
sugars of the wood cell wall for its survival. In the process of getting the sugars, it breaks down the cell
wall.
8. Correct Answer: E
Explanation: Fungus is a form of plant life. Growth is initiated by movement of the airborne spores by the
wind. The spores germinate like other plant seeds. Continued growth depends on favorable environment
such as warm temperatures and moist conditions. Cold temperature and dry wood prevent the growth of
fungi.
9. Correct Answer: B
Explanation: Fungi develop microscopic root-like threads which penetrate the wood and allow enzymes
to break the cell wall of the wood cells.
10. Correct Answer: A
Explanation: There are only two types of fungi that affect wood; wood-destroying (decay fungi) and
wood staining (sapstaining fungi, mold fungi).
11. Correct Answer: E
Explanation: Wood destroying fungi will attack both the sapwood and heartwood of most trees. The fungi
may grow in the interior of the wood and produce fan-shaped patches of fine threadlike, cottony growths
or as rootlike shapes. The colors of these growths may appear white, yellow or dark brown. Finally,
temperatures and moisture will affect the growth as well.

12. Correct Answer: A

Explanation: Brown rot is able to break down cellulose for food, leaving a brown residue of lignin.
13. Correct Answer: E
Explanation: All of the above are part of the final stages of wood decay by brown rot.
14. Correct Answer: B
Explanation: Gut rot is what happens when you eat your own cooking. The correct answer is white rot.
White rot fungi will break down both the lignin and cellulose. White rot also bleaches the wood, causing
the wood to take a white appearance.
15. Correct Answer: C
Explanation: Soft rot attacks green wood (undried wood which contains sap). This rot causes a gradual
softening from the surface inward and thus resembles brown rot.
16. Correct Answer: E
Explanation: The two wood staining fungi are sapstaining and mold fungi. Sapstaining fungi penetrate
and discolor the wood, particularly the softwood species. Mold fungi first appear as green, brown, or
black, fuzzy or powdery growths on the wood surface. Either of these molds affects the strength of the
wood but do open the door for possible attack from decay fungi.
17. Correct Answer: D
Explanation: Sapstain fungi have little effect on the strength of wood but can destroy its appearance.
18. Correct Answer: D
Explanation: Some of the flying ants and termites look very similar. But there are some differences that
can distinguish them apart. Ants do not eat wood; termites do. When looking at the head of an ant, they
have elbow antennae where termites do not. Ants appear constricted or pinched in the waist compared to
a termites broad body.
19. Correct Answer: A
Explanation: Subterrarian termites reproduce this way. The winged adults are only produced at certain
times of the year. They swarm, mate, lose their wings and begin a new colony in the soil.
20. Correct Answer: E
Explanation: All of the items listed are ways to determine presence of termites.
21. Correct Answer: A
Explanation: The ability of the dry wood termite to live in dry wood without contact with the soil make it
more menacing. However, it reproduces slowly and does not destroy wood as quickly as the subterranean
termite.
22. Correct Answer: A
Explanation: Damp wood termites are a serious pest along the Pacific Coast. These termites do not
require soil but need wood which is high in moisture content.
23. Correct Answer: A
Explanation: Carpenter ants cause a lot of damage as they burrow tunnels in soft or decaying wood. They
can damage poles, structural timbers, damage wood in trees, and around window frames, as they make
galleries for their homes.
24. Correct Answer: D
Explanation: The powder post beetles attack fresh cut wood or seasoned hardwood and softwoods. The
adult beetle lays eggs in the wood pores and larvae burrow through the wood, making tunnels from 1/16
to 1/12 inch in diameter. As the adults emerge from the surface of the wood, they leave small (1/16) inch
size exit holes and a fine powder falls from the holes.
25. Correct Answer: B
Explanation: Moisture content may range from about 30% to more than 200%.

26. Correct Answer: E

Explanation: Moisture content of living trees must be dried to remove the environment for the different
fungi and insects which attack the timber. Removing moisture also reduces shrinkage and weight of the
timber and prepares the wood for chemical treatment.
27. Correct Answer: D
Explanation: Logs being stored for a long period of time before they will be processed need to be either
submerged in a pond of water or under constant water spray. This helps reduce the oxygen content and
temperatures necessary for fungi growth.
28. Correct Answer: A,
Explanation: Kiln drying is the widely used system for seasoning lumber because it offers better control
of air movement, temperature and drying rates.
29. Correct Answer: A
Explanation: Storage of cut lumber in a well-drained site with good air movement will help keep wood in
good shape.
30. Correct Answer: A
Explanation: Practice good sanitation by removing debris and rotten wood (which serve as sources of
fungal infection and insects).
31. Correct Answer: C
Explanation: Black Locust is highly resistant to decay.
32. Correct Answer: D
Explanation: Chemical formulation and moisture content of the wood are just a few of the possible factors
affecting the success of the treatment.
33. Correct Answer: B
Explanation: The three broad categories of wood preservatives are: creosote, oilborne preservatives and
waterborne preservatives.
34. Correct Answers: D
Explanation: Creosote is often called coal tar creosote because of its close relationship to toluene,
benzene and tar. In the process of making coke from coal for the steel industry, benzene, toluene, tar and
creosote are produced. Creosote is the fraction that condenses within certain temperature limits set by the
American Wood Preservers Association.
35. Correct Answer: A
Explanation: Freshly creosoted poles and timbers will give off vapors which have strong odors, and cause
sunburn-like rashes on some humans. These vapors will last up to several years. This becomes a real
disadvantage for creosote.
36. Correct Answers: E
Explanation: Creosotes toxic effect to both insects and decaying fungi make it beneficial for both the
railroad and utility companies. In addition, rain and groundwater will not leach creosote from the wood,
so it is very permanent.
37. Correct Answer: D
Explanation: Pentachlorophenol (Penta) can be produced by dissolving penta salt in petroleum oil. It is
relatively insoluble in water. Because of the oil carrier, it leaves an unpainted (natural look) to the wood
surface.
38. Correct Answer: B
Explanation: Penta is recommended for use on utility poles, fence post, crossarms and timbers. Penta may
not be used around food or feed products. Note!! Because of environmental and health concerns, penta
has been replaced with waterborne preservatives.
39. Correct Answer: D
Explanation: Only copper-8 quinolinolate has been approved for food contact uses such as for boxes,
crates, pallets, truck decking and related uses involving the harvesting, storage and transportation of food.

40. Correct Answer: D

Explanation: One of the disadvantages of waterborne preservatives is that they do not protect wood from
excessive weathering.
41. Correct Answer: A
Explanation: The wood needs to be prepared properly before any commercial wood treatments can be
applied. Some of the preparation that needs to be done include peeling, drying, conditioning, incising,
cutting, and framing.
42. Correct Answer: A
Explanation: The bark and cambium layers must be removed before treatment. This allows the
preservative to be able to penetrate the wood.
43. Correct Answer: D
Explanation: It is important for the wood to be properly seasoned (dried) before applying preservatives.
Drying the wood removes water from the cell cavities to allow space for preservatives. Drying also allows
for some checking in the wood which allows better penetration of the preservative.
44. Correct Answer: A
Explanation: The wood must be completely air dried before treatment, and if oil-borne preservatives are
to be used, the wood should be warmed enough to avoid congealing the oil.
45. Correct Answer: B
Explanation: Before applying the second coat of either creosote-oil-borne preservatives or water-borne
salts the first coat must be dry.
46. Correct Answer: A
Explanation: The definition of dipping as a non-pressure treatment is immersing the wood in a
preservative solution for several minutes.
47. Correct Answer: C
Explanation: Pentachlorophenol or oil-borne preservatives are used. The process involves soaking the
dried wood in a vat containing the unheated oil preservative for 2-7 days.
48. Correct Answer: A
Explanation: The process can be used on either green or dried wood. The process involves submerging
the wood in a tankful of solution at atmospheric temperature for several days or weeks.
49. Correct Answer: D
Explanation: This process becomes an economical decision on whether to replace the poles or to extend
the life of the pole by the process of preservative pads. The process involves removal of the soil around
the pole to a depth of 18 feet. The treatment then involves treating that portion as well as 12 feet above
the ground level as that is where most of that damage occurs. After the treatment there must be a plastic
coating placed around the treated area before the soil is returned.
50. Correct Answer: D
Explanation: The four routes through which wood preservatives can enter the body are dermal, oral,
respiratory and eyes.
51. Correct Answer: A
Explanation: Because wood preservatives have such a strong odor and taste, it is unlikely a person would
swallow any. Therefore, dermal or inhalation are the only logical ways wood preservatives could enter the
body.
52. Correct Answer: D
Explanation: Creosote vapors can cause all of the listed problems.
53. Correct Answer: E
Explanation: Pentachlorophenol causes all of the listed reactions.

54. Correct Answer: A

Explanation: Long term exposure to inorganic arsenical can include liver damage, loss of hair, and finger
nails, anemia and skin disorders.
55. Correct Answer: B
Explanation: First administer one or two glasses of water, induce vomiting, then administer 2 tablespoons
of
ISP Drug Grade activated charcoal in water. If there is any question call medical help immediately.
56. Correct Answer: B
Explanation: Under the limitation use section, penta or creosote should not be applied indoors. It is
always important to take time to read the label.
57. Correct Answer: B
Explanation: Pentachlorophenol or creosote can not be used in such applications. Be sure to always read
and follow the label.
58. Correct Answer: C
Explanation: Creosote can not be applied to wood intended to be used in interiors except for those support
structures which are in contact with the soil in barns, stables, and similar sites.
59. Correct Answer: E
Explanation: All of the above are areas where inorganic arsenical pressure treated wood may not be used.
Inorganic arsenical pressure-treated wood can be used for patios, decks and walkways if it is visibly clean
and free of surface residue. Inorganic arsenical pressure-treated wood may not be used around food for
humans or feed for animals.
60. Correct Answer: A
Explanation: This is how the (CIS) Consumer Information Sheet lists inorganic arsenical pressure treated
wood.
61. Correct Answer: A
Explanation: Wood treated with creosote should not come in contact with bare skin; therefore, the need of
an effective sealer.
62. Correct Answer: D
Explanation: Creosote should not be used in the interiors of residential buildings, industrial buildings, or
farm buildings. In commercial or farm buildings it can be used for building components which are in
ground contact and are subject to decay. It should never be used in connection with drinking water.
63. Correct Answer: B
Explanation: Creosote treated wood should never be burned in open fires, wood stoves or fireplaces
because of the possible toxic chemicals that may be produced as smoke and ashes.
64. Correct Answer: B
Explanation: It is vitally important to wash after working with creosote-treated wood before eating,
drinking or using tobacco products. Be sure to use other protective equipment, such as a dust mask to
prevent breathing dust particles and use goggles to protect the eyes.
65. Correct Answer: A
Explanation: Urethane, epoxy and shellac are accepted sealers for creosote treated wood.
66. Correct Answer: B
Explanation: Pentachlorophenol treated wood should never be used for log homes.
67. Correct Answer: A
Explanation: You need to take extra care when working around pentachlorophenol treated wood. Be sure
to have the right protective equipment, long sleeved shirts and long pants, eye protection, dusk mask, and
vinyl coated gloves.

68. Correct Answer: A

Explanation: Oils and organic solids cause damage to the aquatic environment by reducing oxygen levels
in the water. Therefore, the need to keep spills and discharges out of streams and other bodies of water.
69. Correct Answer: A
Explanation: Before releasing any chemical residues into the environment, proper permits need to be
obtained from the U.S. EPA.
70. Correct Answer: B,
Explanation: Pesticides should be stored in a dry, well ventilated, secured area.
71. B (wood preservative)
72. C (creosote)
73. A (dual treatment with CCA followed by creosote)
74. B (water-borne preservatives)
75. D (Creosote)
76. C (Fire)
77. A (Full-cell process)
78. B. (Empty-cell process)
79. A (creosote)
80. B (pentachlorophenol)
81. C (boron compound)
82. A (Bethel process)
83. C (dip diffusion)
84. B (Dip diffusion)
85. A (hot and cold bath)
86. C (retention)
87. C (refusal treatment)
88. A (Charge)
89. B (Conditioning)
90. A (Creosote)
91. C (oil-borne preservative)
92. A (Pressure period)
93. A (Incising)
94. B (Boucherie process)
95. B (Boucherie process)
96. D (Gubas)
97. C (Mangium)
98. A (Para rubber)
99. B (Staining fungi)
100. D (Brown rot fungi)
101. D (Brown rot fungi)
102. C (FSP (25-32% MC))
103. A (Ambrosia beetle)
104. B (Ambrosia beetles)
105. B (application of fungicide)
106. B (Formaldehyde)
107. A (Fungi)
108. B (kilogram of the dry salt per cubic meter)
109. A (Brushing)
110. D (free from decay and insect attack)
111. C (Molds)
112. A (Pinicelium spp.)
113. A (Fomes spp)
114. A (Shrinkage)
115. A (Sample board)
116. C (slowest drying lumber in the kiln load)
117. A. (Log ponding)
118. A (Creosote)
119. A (Creosote)
120. B (Wood with lower moisture content)
121. A (Increase its electrical resistance and thermal insulating capacity)

122. B (minimize shrinkage and swelling)

123. B (FSP)
124. A (specific gravity)
125. C (EMC)
126. B (free water)
127. A (honey combing)
128. A (warping)
129. A (casehardening)
130. B (heartwood)
131. A (true stain)
132. C (soft rot)
133. A (FSP)
134. B (white rot)
135. B (brown rot)
136. A (Shrinkage)
137. D (warping)
138. C (Twisting)
139. D (Treatability)
140. D (Shrinkage)
141. A (Weathering)
142. C (above FSP)
143. A (both cell lumen and cell walls are saturated by water)
144. D (free water)
145. A (greater amount of wood elements)
146. B (yakal, dungon, binggas)
147. D (agoho, katmon, and ipil)
148. B (average MC of 3 wettest sample boards)
149. B (Full-cell process)
150. D (high temperature and low relative humidity)
151. A (specific gravity)
152. B (preservative)
153. B (wear and tear)
154. C (retention by assay)
155. A (dew point)
156. B (tar)
157. B (ovendry wood)
158. B (plasticizing)
159. A (modified wood)
160. A (Boulton)