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COLLEGE OF FISHERIES MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY MAIN CAMPUS MARAWI CITY

INTRODUCTION TO AQUACULTURE Compiled by Prof. Madid A. Sheik, M.Sc.

Aquaculture maybe defined as the rearing and breeding of aquatic organisms in confined condition which is more or less controllable by man. In the Philippines the main groups of organisms used for aquaculture are !" #infish $ %&. Milkfish, tilapia, carp, catfish' (" Crustaceans $ %&. Prawn, Crab, )iant #reshwater Shrimp' *" Mollusks $ %&. +yster, Mussel' and ," Seaweed $ %&. %ucheuma. -ased on the type of water used aquaculture may be classified as follows a" #reshwater aquaculture $ It uses freshwater supplied by spring, stream or ri.er, rain, deep well, or lake. /he species cultured are tilapia, carp, catfish, mudfish, giant freshwater shrimp and other freshwater species using ponds, cages or pens. b" -rackishwater 0or coastal" aquaculture $ It uses the combination of freshwater and seawater and usually located in the mangro.e areas where ri.er flows and mi&es with the tidal water. Milkfish, black tiger prawn, crab, tilapia and other species are widely cultured in brackishwater ponds. c" Mariculture 0or sea farming" 1 It is usually located in protected coastal areas and uses only sea water. It cultures some fishes like lapulapu, samaral, kitang and other species in fish cages and fish pens. +ysters and mussels are farmed in protected areas while seaweed like %ucheuma are cultured e&tensi.ely in shallow sandy areas. Pearl farming is also a type of mariculture. Classification of aquaculture production methods !. %&tensi.e method $ /he rearing of organisms with minimal stocking density using natural feed and minimal water e&change. (. Semi1intensi.e method $ /he rearing of organisms at moderate stocking density, gi.ing supplemental feed with fertili2er and with partial water e&change. *. Intensi.e method $ /he rearing of organisms with high stocking density, using artificial feed and high water e&change rate and ma&imum aeration system. /he types of fish feeds commonly used are a" 3atural food 0like plankton"' b" Supplemental food 0like rice bran, home1mi&ed feeds" and c" Artificial feed 0like commercially processed fish feeds such as fish pellets" 4efinitions of some commonly used terms in aquaculture Aeration $ /he process by which air and other gases in a medium are renewed or e&changed. -enthos $ +rganisms that li.e on or in the bottom of the ocean or bodies of fresh water from the water5s edge down to the greatest depth' or organisms that attach or rest on the bottom or li.ing in the bottom sediments. 4etritus $ +rganic debris from decomposing plants and animals. %ndemic $ Species of fish that are peculiar to an area. %&otic fish $ #ish species that are introduced from other areas and not indigenous to a gi.en region 6ybrid fish $ /he offspring of fishes of two different species. Carni.orous fish $ #ish that feed on meat or another fish. 6erbi.orous fish $ #ish feeding on plants. +mni.orous fish $ #ish that feed on both plant and animal. -reeder $ Matured fish that is kept for use as parent stock in the production of fry and fingerling. )ra.id $ Pregnant or ripe fish or ready to spawn. Spawner $ )ra.id female fish that is ready to lay eggs. Monose& culture $ 7aising a single se& organism in a pond to pre.ent breeding. Monoculture $ /he raising of only one species of organism in the same pond or compartment. Polyculture $ /he raising of two or more species of fish in the same pond which are usually compatible or do not harm each other nor compete for food and space. Plankton $ /iny plants and animals which drift with the current and most of which ser.e as food of fish. Phytoplankton consists of plant planktons while 2ooplankton consists of animal planktons . 8ab1lab $ 3ame gi.en to a comple& of aquatic plants which includes algae, bacteria, proto2oans, and diatoms. /his forms dense mat on the bottom of ponds and ser.es as food of young milkfish. 8umut $ )reen filamentous algae that ser.es as food of milkfish. Salinity $ /he measure of the amount of salt in the water. /urbidity $ A cloudy condition of water, usually caused by impurities but most often the result of wa.e

action stirring up bottom sediments.

Brief descri !i"# "f s"$e $%&"r %'(%c()!(re s*s!e$s i# !+e P+i)i
A .Milkfish culture

i#es,

Milkfish or -angus which can grow in either salt water or freshwater is cultured mainly in brackishwater ponds and in fish pens in lakes like 8aguna 8ake, /aal 8ake and 8ake -uluan 0in Mindanao". /he brackishwater pond is tide dependent. /he milkfish farm consists mainly of nursery, transition and rearing ponds. /he usual production method is e&tensi.e and semi1intensi.e. /he stock fry comes from fry collectors. 9sually it takes *1, months of culture in rearing pond to grow them into market si2e. Most milkfish ponds apply monoculture although some also try polyculture with prawn. /he har.ested fish is sold mainly in local market. -. Prawn culture Sugpo or the -lack /iger Prawn is cultured mostly in brackishwater ponds under semi1intensi.e system. Some howe.er, apply the intensi.e method using pumps for water supply and paddle wheel for aeration and apply commercial feeds. /he prawn farm consists mainly of grow1out ponds and har.esting canals. /he stock prawn lar.ae or postlar.ae are produced by commercial hatcheries. It takes , months to grow the postlar.ae into market si2e prawn. /he har.ested prawns are sold mainly in the e&port market. Prawn farming is capital intensi.e but also highly profitable. C. /ilapia culture /he species used is 3ile tilapia. 3ew hybrids are recently introduced for bigger and faster production. /he fish is cultured mostly in floating fish cages and in freshwater fishponds. /he common method applied is semi1intensi.e or intensi.e using commercial feeds. /he stock fry or fingerlings are supplied mostly by hatcheries. /he har.ested tilapia is sold mainly in the local market although there is demand in the foreign market. 4. +yster culture /he oyster farm is located in shallow protected and flat coastal areas with clean water and free from hea.y wa.es. It uses as oyster attachments rocks, corals, bamboo stakes and other materials /he oyster feed on plankton. /he product har.ested is sold in the local market. %. Mussel farming /he mussel farm is located in protected and flat coastal areas with clean water and free from hea.y wa.es. It uses bamboo or wooden stakes as attachment. /he mussel feed on plankton. /he har.ested product is sold in the local market. #. Seaweed farming /he seaweed farm is located in protected and flat sandy coastal areas with clean water and free from hea.y wa.es and strong current. /he starter stocks are tied in ropes in long line or floating rafts. /he har.ested seaweed is sold to processing plants that in turn sold their products in the e&port market. /he Philippines is the world5s leading producer of %ucheuma seaweed, And the biggest contiguous area of seaweed farms can be found in /awi1tawi, particularly in the shallow areas of Sitangkay.

INTRODUCTION TO AQUACULTURE ENGINEERING


A good background knowledge on the principles and practices of aquaculture planning and implementation is .ery essential for a successful aquafarm pro:ect. /he time and energy which would be spent in the planning and designing would mean money sa.ed and problems minimi2ed. Many newly de.eloped ad.ances in the technology of aquaculture ha.e made significant impro.ements in aquaculture practices which ha.e resulted in the de.elopment of new techniques, particularly in the intensi.e forms of aquaculture and the aquaculture systems in natural waters. -esides the traditional forms of aquaculture using ponds, the use of tanks, cages and enclosures or pens in natural inland bodies of water and shallow marine co.es are recent aquaculture systems that ha.e e&panded aquaculture production. /hese recently impro.ed technologies are clear indications of the blending of biology skills, engineering know1how and practical skills which make the .arious en.ironments fa.orable for fishfarming acti.ities. /he potentials for the further de.elopment of aquaculture industry in the country are high. /here are still large areas of mangro.e swamps and tidal mudflats that can be suitable sites for de.elopment into fishponds, besides the large areas of lakes and swamplands that could be good sites of freshwater fishponds, pens or cages. 8ikewise, the present production rate of the e&isting aquafarms can be increased easily with better engineering and the use of impro.ed technology of management. 6owe.er, some e&isting engineering problems of the fishponds in the coastal areas need to be sol.ed to really impro.e production. /hese ma:or engineering problems can be classified into three categories, as follows !. Problems due to climate and hydrology /he type of rainfall, occurrences of typhoons, and pre.ailing tidal characteristics in the fishpond location can influence the nature of construction of fishponds in such area. ;here rains are strong and se.ere and where typhoons or tidal wa.es are frequent, the fishpond structures need to be bigger and more firm. Also, areas with high tidal ranges will require bigger dikes and sturdy water control structures. (. %n.ironmental influences /he factors of the en.ironment that influence the engineering of fishponds include the following nature of soil, .egetation, ele.ation of site, topographic characteristics, a.ailability of freshwater supply and occurrences of pollution. *. %ngineering specific problems /hese are the site specific problems that are encountered during actual construction or after the construction of the fishpond. /hese may include the following a" Shifting of management system from one species to another or from monoculture to polyculture, b" Imbalanced cut and fill, c" 4esign of water control structure, and d" 8eakages and seepages.

SELECTION OF FISHPOND SITE


In .enturing into any aquaculture enterprise a lot of time, effort and financial in.estments are needed. -ecause of this a proper e.aluation and study is necessary in selecting the site where such aquaculture pro:ect is proposed. /he criteria or factors to be considered in the selection of fishpond site are the following !. ;ater Supply and <uality $ /he maintenance of an adequate supply of water is essential for the success of aquaculture operations. In brackishwater fishpond this is supplied by tidal water. In freshwater fishponds this can come from ri.ers, streams, lakes, springs or underground water. /he source, quality and adequacy of this water supply ha.e to be properly determined during the sur.ey. /he source should ensure a stable supply throughout the year. In addition, it must be free from any form of pollution.

(. /ype of Soil $ /he type and nature of the soil is an important consideration in selection for both brackishwater and freshwater fishpond sites. Areas with clay soil contribute to natural fertility and yield good .egetation growth. Clay soil also ser.es as good building material for linings and dikes of ponds. Sandy, rocky and gra.elly soils are not as desirable. /hey are more permeable 0the ponds will leak" and can not be as readily used for construction. /hese soils are also generally less fertile and yield poor .egetation growth. *. =egetation $ =egetation is another important consideration in assessing sites for aquaculture. 6ea.ily forested areas with large trees would be difficult and e&pensi.e to de.elop. /he type and .igor of the .egetation will gi.e good clues as to the soil condition and frequency of floods. It may also indicate fertility for proper growth of potential food organisms on the site. ,. 3atural #ertility $ /he natural fertility of the site is dependent on nutrients and food organisms occurring in the water as well as the soil nutrients. /he nature of the e&isting upland or wetland and aquatic .egetation, fauna and flora may be used as an indirect method to determine this quality. >. /opography and 4rainage 1 /he topography and drainage of the site are important factors in the cost of site de.elopment. )enerally, flat area with a slope of about * percent is considered ideal for de.elopment. 6ighly sloping areas will require large e&ca.ations and, therefore, e&pensi.e to de.elop yet this will allow only a .ery limited space for the ponds to be constructed. 8ikewise, undulating areas or those with rough terrain also require grading and filling, 3arrow .alleys also belong to this category. #urthermore, wide flat areas that cannot be drained would be difficult to manage as the stock cannot be easily collected. ?. 3atural Protection@%&posure $ A .ery common ha2ard now a1days is the occurrence of floods in fishpond areas especially if the watershed area is de.oid of the necessary forest co.er. /his has to be properly e&amined and necessary contingency measures should be incorporated in the design of the structures of the farm. ;atershed is the ridge of highland draining towards the lower lands. /he bigger is the area of the watershed the greater the .olume of the run1off. /he factors that affect run1off are a" 4uration of rainfall, b" Intensity and distribution of rainfall in the area, c" Si2e and shape of the watershed, d" ;ater retention capacity of the watershed, and e" /opography and geology of the watershed. A. %conomic and other Considerations $ /he other factors that ha.e to be considered are a" Accessibility and transport facilities to site' b" A.ailability of seed supply or resource to be cultured' c" Presence of market outlets, and d" Indigenous skilled manpower e" Pattern of land and water use f" Peace and order situation Tide %s S"(rce "f W%!er f"r Br%c-is+.%!er Fis+ "#ds /he brackishwater fishponds are primarily dependent on tide. )ood knowledge of tidal characteristics in the site is .ery important in determining its suitability for brackishwater fishponds. /he height of the tide and its range determine the sufficiency of water, height of dikes, ele.ation of pond bottom and water gates, si2e of gate opening, construction cost and others. /he depth of water in pond to be maintained is determined by the height of incoming tide and height or ele.ation of pond bottom based on 2ero tidal datum. ;hene.er possible, the a.ailable tidal range must be able to fill the ponds by gra.ity to the specified depths. In relation to tide ground ele.ation, this depth should allow the most economical construction 0least cut and fill" of pond which would ha.e an ideal pond ele.ation. /he ele.ation of pond bottom is considered ideal if it enables draining of the pond almost any day of the year and floods it with seawater to the desired depth within fi.e days or less during the critical spring tides. /he critical spring tides usually occur in the Philippines during the months of #ebruary, March and April. /he /idal Phenomenon $ /he periodic rising and falling of the water surface of the oceans, seas, bays, mouths of ri.ers, etc. as a result of the gra.itational attraction of the moon and sun on the earth is known as tide or astronomical tide. /he * types of astronomical tides in the ocean a re

>

!. Semi1diurnal tide $ It has a cycle of about one1half a tidal day. (. 4iurnal tide $ It has only one high water and one low water per tidal day. *. Mi&ed tides $ Characteri2ed by ha.ing a large inequality of either the high or low water heights, with two high waters and two low waters usually occurring each tidal day. A mi&ed tide is either predominantly semi1diurnal or predominantly diurnal. /he sources of tidal information $ !. /ide /able $ Published by the go.ernment through the -ureau of Coast and )eodetic Sur.ey, this contains the compilation of tables of predicted time and height of high and low waters each day of the year for the tide stations of the country. /his is based on many years of obser.ations using different tide instruments and statistical e.aluation. /he Philippines' has ? tide stations, namely a" San #ernando, 8a 9nion, b" Manila, c" 8egaspi City, d" Cebu City, e" 4a.ao City, and f" Bolo, Sulu (. Actual tide gauging 0measurement" and@or prediction for the specific area using the tidal differences and constants of the tide table.

SITE SURVEYING
E#/i#eeri#/ S(r0e* E'(i $e#! /he principal equipment for field sur.ey work are composed of the engineer5s transit, le.els, magnetic compass, sur.eying tape, le.eling rod, and range poles. Me%s(re$e#! "f Dis!%#ces 4istances in sur.ey work are measured in either .ertical or hori2ontal plane. =ertical distances or differences in ele.ation in fish farm planning are usually determined by the use of le.el instruments and le.el rods. 6ori2ontal distances are determined in .arious ways depending on the accuracy desired. Among the a.ailable methods are Pacing, /aping, and the Stadia Method. A pace is the normal length of a step or stride of an indi.idual. Pace #actor 0P.#." is defined as the ratio of the measured distance and the number of paces made by an indi.idual to co.er the measured distance. /apes, on the other hand, are used for direct measurements of hori2ontal distances. -ut the quick way of measuring distance is by the stadia method. /he measurement of distance by stadia uses the transit or le.el instruments, ha.ing telescope pro.ided with stadia hairs and le.eling rod. /he stadia hairs are equidistant from the hori2ontal cross hair. Me%s(re$e#! "f A#/)es %#d Direc!i"#s /he direction of any line is measured in terms of angle between the line and some reference line, usually the 3orth1South line in the compass. /he instruments used to measure angles are compass, transit, tapes, plane1table alidade, and se&tant. Angles and directions may be e&pressed in different ways, namely, a" bearing, b" a2imuth, c" interior angles, d" deflection angles, and e" angles to the right. Among these, the first two are commonly used in fish farm sur.ey. -earing is the angle that is referred from the 3orth and South, whiche.er applies. It can ne.er be greater than CDE. /he a2imuth of a line is a clockwise angle measured from a reference direction usually north. Me%s(re$e#! "f Are%s A.ailable methods used in computing areas are the a" planimeter method 1 where boundaries of the farm are plotted to scale and area is determined by the use of planimeter, b" double1meridian1 distance method $ where area is calculated from the coordinates of the farm, c" trape2oidal rule, and d" by plotting the boundaries to scale and di.iding the tract into regular geometric figures 0such as triangles, rectangles, or trape2oids", scaling the dimension of these figures and computing their areas mathematically. Among these methods, the trape2oidal rule and the last method of subdi.iding into regular geometric figures are easily understood.

T" "/r% +ic S(r0e*


/opographic sur.eys are conducted on the farm site to determine the nature of the ground relief or its characteristics, such as differences in ele.ation, location and measurement of boundaries, physical facilities and others. A topographic map pro.ides the basic hori2ontal and .ertical controls in the planning and design of the fishpond. It determines the direction of water mo.ement, locations of water control structures, .olume of earthwork and others.

POND DESIGNING AND LAYOUT


/he designing criteria in the de.elopment of aquaculture farm should be based on the following !. Planned management method 1 /he establishment and structure should create an en.ironment in which the production of aquatic organisms can be impro.ed in quantity and quality. (. -iological considerations 1 /he en.ironmental conditions best suited to the growth of the cultured species should be clarified. *. )eneral features of the area 1 #lood, typhoon ha2ards, area contours and other geographical features must be considered. ,. %conomic and administrati.e requirements 1 /he economic and administrati.e requirements should be gi.en due consideration from the engineering point of .iew. /he important principles of pond designing are the following !. <uantifying the water requirement It is essential that the water requirement should be properly estimated by considering the a" 3ecessary pond water le.el, b" water loss due to seepage and e.aporation, and c" water added due to rain and others. (. Pro.iding adequate drainage facilities 4rainage facilities for a fish farm not only control the water le.el but should also consider the requirement of impro.ing pond soils through periodic draining and pond drying. *. Creating suitable en.ironment for fish and its food organisms Pond designing should be directed towards creating a suitable aquatic en.ironment to meet the ma&imum requirements for the growth of fish and fish food organisms and simultaneously to meet the minimum requirements for the rearing of fish. FISH FARM 1 A fish farm is a comple& of establishments consisting of ponds of .arious kinds, water control structures and supporting facilities. Components of a fish farm A. Pond system !. Pond compartments with specific uses such as nursery ponds, grow1out ponds, etc. and other features like catching ponds. (. ;ater control structures such as gates, pipes, cul.ers, dikes, and water supply or drainage canals. -. Support facilities like farm buildings, farm roads, road dikes, bridges, fish tanks, storage shed, chilling tanks, etc. P"#d is a section of fairly shallow water, used for the controlled farming of fish and other aquatic organisms and laid out in such a way that is may be easily and completely drained. Classifications of freshwater ponds according to water supply !. Spring water pond 1 Pond supplied by a bottom spring or ground water or a nearby spring. (. 7ain water pond $ Ponds supplied with rain water or by run1off water. *. Stream pond $ Ponds supplied by a water course or stream.

/he two types of stream ponds !. -arrage or terrace pond $ All the water course crosses the ponds. (. 4i.ersion ponds $ +nly a part of the water course crosses the ponds. /he sub1classifications of the di.ersion ponds !. 8inked ponds $ /he allowed water flow crosses all the ponds. (. Parallel ponds $ %ach pond has its own indi.idual water supply and outlet. -asic considerations on the shape of ponds a" Square ponds require the least dike to achie.e a ma&imum water surface area, compared with the rectangular and other shapes of ponds. b" #or large ponds with oblong or rectangular shapes the long a&is should be perpendicular to the pre.ailing winds to reduce dike erosion.

c" #or small ponds with oblong or rectangular shapes, the long a&is should be parallel to the pre.ailing winds to take ad.antage of wind aeration. /here are ad.antages of large ponds. It has less construction cost per unit area of water' it takes up less space per unit area of water' more sub:ect to wind action, therefore, less susceptible to o&ygen deficiency' and more conduci.e to rotation with rice or terrestrial crops. /here are also ad.antages of small ponds. It is easier and quicker to har.est' it can be drained and refilled more quickly' it is easier to treat diseases and parasites' less sub:ect to dam and dike erosion by wind' and if for any reason all or part of the stock in one pond is lost, it represents less of a financial loss. 4esirable ratios 0in percent" of the different ponds in a fish farm !. (. *. ,. >. -reeding pond 3ursery ponds #ingerling ponds 7earing ponds +thers 1 D.(> 1 ( 1 > 1 F! 1 ( 1 1 1 1 1 !G *G !D G CD G >G

P"#d Arr%#/e$e#!s %#d L"c%!i"#s, /he pond units should be arranged in such a way that the breeding ponds are usually close to the nursery ponds and the fingerling ponds. 3ursery ponds 1 About ( ft 0.> 1 .A> ." deep. /his must be a series of small ponds whose area and number shall be determined by the number of rearing ponds and the frequency of breeding of the species cultured. 7earing ponds 1 /he si2e and layout of the rearing ponds depends on the fish population management system to be adopted, as a one stage production process 0! rearing pond only" or a two or more stages production process 0( or more rearing pond series". It has a depth of about .A> $ !.(> m. ;ater Control Structures 1 /he water control structures of a fish farm consist of the following !. ;ater gates, dams, pipes and canals for water supply and d rain age' (. 8e.ees or perimeter dikes for protecting the farm land from floods as well as for retaining pond water' *. 4ikes for partitioning indi.idual ponds. Pond 4rainage 1 Pond drainage will be achie.ed smoothly by a ditch system. A principal ditch and se.eral secondary ditches all terminate in a gate situated in the deepest part of the pond bottom. Attached in a gate is a screen that shall pre.ent the fish from escaping, and a series of small wooden boards which regulate the water le.el. Pond si2e 1 /his depends largely on the layout of the ground and the slope or topography of the area. Pond depth $ /he pond must be deep enough to a.oid the in.asion of emergent .egetation and shallow enough to allow submerged plants to grow and de.elop. )enerally, a rearing pond is D.A> to !.(> m. or !.> m. deep. Carp nursery ponds ha.e a depth of D.> to .A> m. /he dike height at ate site must be equal to the water depth plus ,D cm. for clearance. FARM LAYOUT An effecti.e farm layout is the arrangement of all the fish farm facilities and structures in a proposed site based on the physical features of the area as well as the requirements of farm management. Ma&imum ad.antage should be taken of topographical features of the site. /his basic principle intends not only to economi2e on the cost of earthwork in construction, but also to preser.e soil fertility and present a better en.ironment for immediate operation of the farm. )enerally, for a !D to >D ha. pond system, a si2e of , to > ha. for indi.idual rearing ponds would be desirable. /he simplest form of pond layout is that of a single compartment. More recently, impro.ed layouts consisting of multiple combinations of compartments ha.e come to general use. THE SUITABILITY OF LAYOUT FOR CULTURED SPECIES

Pond layouts may be grouped into !" con.entional' (" radiating' *" modular or progression' and ," multiple stock@har.est pond system. All of these, howe.er, are intended for milkfish production and in general maintain shallow water that is required by fish food called Hlab1labI. 6owe.er, combination of deep water for plankton production and shallow water for lab1lab production is also being practiced. /he differences between the con.entional and radiating type of layout is the presence of much longer canal and secondary dikes in the former than the latter. /he short supply canal of the radiating layout is desirable from the .iewpoint of economy in dike construction. It also ser.es as catching pond. #or most of the layouts, the space occupied by the partition and canal dikes is appro&imately !D percent that is e&ceeded when large dikes are constructed. /he traditional shrimp pond usually has shallow depth of water of AD toCD cm. with one inlet water gate at one end and one outlet gate in the other end. /he production is usually (> to CD kg@ha@yr. /his traditional pond is modified by constructing larger ditches, higher dikes and increasing water depth to !DD to !>D cm. and hence, the si2e of pump. -y doing so, production has increased by (DD to *DD kg@ha@yr.

!D

DESIGN OF FISH FARM GATE SYSTEM


T+e E)e0%!i"# "f P"#d B"!!"$ %#d F%r$ G%!es /he bottom ele.ation of fishponds is the primary consideration in the design and is determined based on the design tide cur.e. Primary consideration should be gi.en to both the biological needs of the cultured species and construction aspect such as the minimum and ma&imum water le.el to be maintained in the pond and adequate flow of water into the ponds. 8ikewise, to be economical, the ele.ation of pond bottom should strike a balance between the e&ca.ation or filing work and the tidal range. /he ele.ation of the other structures such as gates, canals and dikes are also based on the design tide cur.e and these should fit properly to the water management and operational requirements of the ponds. C"$ "#e#!s "f W%!er C"#!r") G%!es a" #loor $ /he floor ser.es as the foundation of the structure and its ele.ation for main gates must be lower than the pond bottom ele.ation and as low or slightly lower than the lowest tide in the site, hence, the main gate which rests on a prepared foundation support will not be e&posed e.en during e&treme low tides. b" Apron 1 /his is the broadened and e&tended part of the floor and also generally rests on the foundation piles, which are made of seasoned bamboo or wood dri.en at D.* m. inter.als into the soft soil with the butt end up /he apron ser.es as protection to scouring and future seepage of water at the gate5s sides. c" Cut1off walls $ Cut1off1walls are pro.ided at both ends of the gate floor to pre.ent seepage and undercutting of water within the gate5s foundation. /hey e&tend down into the soil at a minimum of D.?D m. and are an integral part of the gate5s foundation. ;ooden sheet piles may be used as e&tension of concrete cut1off1walls in order to reach deeper depths at reduced cost. d" Side or -reast ;alls $ Side walls define the water way in addition to their being retaining wall. )roo.es for flashboards and screens are built on these walls. /he top of these walls are as high as the top of the dike. e" -uttress $ /his is built against the side walls to support or reinforce it. It also helps in reducing seepage flow along the side walls. f" ;ing walls $ ;ing walls pro.ide the transition from the water way into the main canal in addition to retaining the earth at both sides of the gate. /his transition impro.es the condition of the flow by pro.iding a controlled flow from one bed material to another. g" -ridges or catwalks $ /hese are reinforced concrete slabs or thick wooden planks that connect the side walls. At least two catwalks are pro.ided, at each end of the gate. h" #lashboards $ Slabs or flashboards are generally wooden planks, (.> to > cm thick and *D cm. wide inserted into groo.es. /hey are used to control the amount of water flowing through the gate. i" Screens $ Screens are usually made of bamboo strips or of fine polyethylene meshes attached to a wooden rectangular frame that fit into the groo.es. /he screens are used to pre.ent the e&it of the cultured fish and the entry of predators into the ponds. :" Pillars 1 In wooden gates, these are .ertical supports where wooden walls are nailed. /hey are placed at regular inter.als so that they form a framework for the gate itself. k" -races 1 In wooden gates, these wooden members held or fasten two or more pillars together or in place. /hey keep the opening of a gate rigid. M%i# G%!e /he main gate links the pond system to the source of water. It regulates the e&change of water between the pond system and the tidal stream or sea. Instead of wood, it should be made of concrete for effecti.e control and to last longer. /he main gate is usually situated at the central side of the proposed fishpond facing the source of water. /he following pro.ides some information needed in the design of the main gate. a" /he floor ele.ation of the main gate should be lower than the lowest pond bottom ele.ation desired inside the pond system. It should also be as low or slightly lower than e&treme low tides.

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b" /he height of the main gate depends upon the highest tide and flood and should be the same as the ele.ation of the main dike which is also dependent upon the tidal fluctuation, floods and other factors in the area. c" Main gates may ha.e single, double, or triple or e.en quadruple or more openings. /he opening of the main gate depends upon the area to be flooded. )ates should not ha.e too wide opening so that they would be difficult to manage. +ne to !.( m. wide per opening has been found appropriate for easy handling of wooden slabs and screens. %&perience shows that a single opening of !.D m. for a concrete main gate could flood a !D to !> ha. pond system in a milkfish farm in two or three successi.e high tides. /his opening, howe.er, does not necessarily apply to shrimp farm because of the difference in water depth requirement between shrimp and milkfish. -ased on the computation done a gate with three openings and !.( m. wide each would fill an !!.*> ha. shrimp farm to a minimum depth of one meter in two consecuti.e tide cycle. #or much larger areas and deeper ponds, a double or triple opening gate of proper width may be constructed at one or more spots along the perimeter dike. d" /here must be a separate groo.e for the slabs and screens. It may be necessary to ha.e four pairs of groo.es' two pairs for slabs and two pairs for screens 0one at each end" depending upon their use. e" /he wings should be properly designed to pro.ide easy current flow. /he best angle of flare should be ,>E towards the outside. /his angle may not be necessarily the same for both ends of the gate. f" /he gate foundation must be rigid and stable. It must be able to carry the whole weight when the gate is fully constructed. /here are two designs of gate foundations in use $ one has the floor and apron of gate resting on a combination of piles and layers of boulders and gra.el. /he other one uses piles alone to strengthen the foundation that supports the structure. g" Cut1off walls and aprons must be pro.ided. /hey must be wide enough to include portions susceptible to scouring and under1cutting of water. h" Adequate reinforcements against sidewise pressure must be pro.ided. Spacing of steel bars should not e&ceed ,D cm. center to center. /he si2e of .ertical bars should be !( to !* mm. and !D mm. for hori2ontal bars. Sec"#d%r* %#d Ter!i%r* G%!es /hese pro.ide the control of water to and from the main canal and into the different pond components such as catching ponds, rearing ponds and nursery ponds. /hese structures are usually made of wood and can be treated with coal tar for durability. Single or double opening made of reinforced concrete or hollow blocks can also be used but it is sometimes too e&pensi.e. Considerations in the planning and designing of secondary and tertiary gates are the same as those of the main gate e&cept that their respecti.e ele.ations are dependent upon the ele.ation of the canal bed where they are being constructed. /he usual ele.ation of the flooring of these gates abo.e the canal is D.!> m. /he flooring ele.ation of the farthest gate from the main gate should be checked against the design tide cur.e to insure that it still is capable of filling the pond within the prescribed time. /he width of opening may .ary from D.? to !.D m. ;ing walls can be pro.ided but some e&isting designs, especially the wooden gates, do not ha.e these structures. Anti1seep boards at the side of the gate is also a good feature. C()0er!s "r Pi es /hese structures con.ey water across dikes, roads, and similar embankments. A recent inno.ation for a smaller and less e&pensi.e gate is the use of cul.erts or pipes made of concrete hollow blocks. /hey may or may not ha.e wing walls but they are likewise pro.ided with slabs and screens and are e.en more effecti.e for water control in a fishpond. /he conduit section may be circular or square in shape.

THE DESIGN OF DI1ES2 PONDS AND CANALS

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MAIN OR PERIMETER DI1E


/he function of perimeter dikes is to retain water for use in the fish farming operation as well as to protect the farm ponds, fish crops and other farm facilities from destruction by floods and tidal inundation. 8ocation of Main 4ike $ /he perimeter dikes of a coastal fish farm are usually built along the ri.er banks, on the seaward side or in certain spots that are .ulnerable to flooding. In locating the dike, a belt of mangro.es of (D m from a ri.er bank, and !DD m wide from seashore must be left for the purpose of protecting the dikes against wa.es and currents and absorption of wa.e energy and for flood control and conser.ation of the en.ironment. /he path of dike must a.oid the following a" Crossing of streams or creeks that ha.e substantial rate of flow' b" Areas of e&tremely poor soil which result in high construction cost' and c" Areas near an acti.ely eroding line of ri.ers or coasts. Cross1Section of Main 4ike $ /he cross1section of dikes is described by the crown or top width, height, side slope and the bottom width or base. In some cases berm and core or puddle trench are also pro.ided. /he cross1section of the perimeter dike should be designed to a" pre.ent o.er1tapping at high tide combined with a ma&imum flood height from the ri.er system' and b" pre.ent failure due to slips and seepage. 4etermination of 4ike 6eight /he height of the dike should be abo.e the highest tide and flood that occur in the site. /he design flood le.el is based on the ma&imum flood water that was obser.ed in the locality to recur within !D to !> years. /he design height of dike should be pro.ided with a free1board after shrinkage and settlement of D.* to !.D m abo.e the highest water le.el. /he recommended allowance for shrinkage and settlement are as follows Allowance for structure Condition and settlement 0G" 1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111 111111111111111111111111 !. Poor material and poor methods and practices in construction !>1*D (. Soil e&ceptionally high in organic matter ,D or more *. Compacted by construction equipment >1!D 111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111 /he total height of the main dike abo.e the ground le.el can be computed by the following formula 6m 06at1)s" J Mf J # K 11111111111111111111111111 ! $ 0GS" 111111111 !DD ;here 6m K 6at K )s K Mf K # K GS K height of the main dike highest astronomical tide ele.ation of the ground surface ma&imum flood le.el allowance for freeboard percent shrinkage and settlement

Side slopes, Crown and -ase /he appropriate side slope of dike is ! ! for clay soil and dike height up to *.D m. Side slope of ( ! 0hori2ontal to .ertical" is used for height greater than ,.D m and e.en flatter if located along seashore and being sub:ect against wa.e action. /he pro.ision for a berm 0single or both sides" is also desirable for additional stability. /he berm should slope towards the dike wall to trap eroded soil particles during rains. It also ser.es as small ditch that con.eys runoffs towards the outlet gate especially when acidity of e&posed dike is a management problem.

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/he top width or crown of the dike used as roadways should be preferably ,.D m. If not used as roadway the desirable minimum crown for main dike is at least (.D m.. /he base 0without a berm" is computed in accordance with the width of crown and side slope using the following formula b K / J (02d" ;here b K width of base, m. / K width of crown, m. 2 K hori2ontal .alue of side slope d K height of dike, m.

Cross1Sectional Area and =olume of 4ike /he cross1sectional area of dike is estimated using the following formula 0b J /" A K 11111111111111 0h" ( ;here 0b J /" = K 1111111111111 0h"08" (

A K cross1sectional area of dike, mL = K .olume of dike, mM 8 K length of dike, m.

8eakage and seepage 1 %ffecti.e measures for pre.enting leakage include the following a" Minimi2ing the amount of seepage flow through proper compaction, core trenching embedding .ertical plastic membrane inside dike, co.ering dike wall with concrete bricks, riprapings, etc. b" Minimi2ing destruction by crustaceans by desalini2ing and drying out the embankment soils.

SECONDARY AND TERTIARY DI1ES


/he secondary and tertiary dikes are smaller than the main dikes. Secondary dikes are usually pro.ided on both sides of the canals and should be able to contain the mean high water springs. /ertiary dikes are partition dikes that separate the ponds and should be able to contain the desired water le.els in the ponds. Side slope, crown and base of secondary and tertiary dikes 1 /he top width of secondary and tertiary dikes are narrower than the perimeter or main dike. /op width of ! to ( m are common for the secondary dike and e.en less than one meter for the tertiary dike. /he side slope is usually ! !. Side berms in secondary dike may be pro.ided if there is e&cess soil in order to reduce the cost of hauling. Puddle trench in the dike base is pro.ided when necessary. /he computation of the width of base is done in the same way as in the perimeter or main dike.

TYPES OF PONDS AND POND BOTTOM


Production ponds are designed independent of each other by pro.iding each with indi.idual water supply and drainage gates. ;ithin the compartment pond bottoms are designed to further fit the en.ironmental requirement of cultured species. /he whole bottom should slope towards the drainage gate to facilitate remo.al of water. /his sloping bottom can be modified and impro.ed by pro.iding bottom ditch within the pond running along and close to the base of the dike. /his ditch collects and leads the water to the catching pond where the drainage gate is also located. In this scheme, a slope di.ide is pro.ided at the center of the pond. #or much larger compartments, a middle ditch connecting the peripheral ditch may be pro.ided. Ponds designed purposely for shrimp culture usually ha.e two separate gates $ supply 0inlet" and drainage 0outlet" gates. Peripheral canals are pro.ided mainly to ser.e as shelter for the shrimp' to increase the pond bottom surface area' and to ha.e better water circulation. #acilitating drainage is only secondary in the purpose. 6ence, more canals or bottom platforms are sometimes pro.ided.

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WATER CANALS OR CHANNELS


;ater from the outer sea is drawn into the fishpond at the specified rate and time through the canal and discharged into the outer sea also through the same canal. 6ence it ser.e the purpose of supplying and draining water to and from the ponds. Ninds of ;ater Channel a" Main water supply canal $ /his starts from the main gate and usually tra.erses the central portion of the fish farm. /he si2e of the main canal should consider the emergency discharge of water from the entire fish farm and surrounding area during hea.y rain. b" Secondary water supply canal $ /his ser.es the portions where main canal cannot reach. It starts from the main canal and tra.erses the inner portion of the fishpond. It is usually constructed in large fishpond areas and is smaller than the main canal. c" /ertiary canal $ /his is the canal that usually supply water in the nursery and transition ponds. -ecause of the small si2e, it is sometimes said to be a part of the nursery pond system. /he tertiary canal may be modified to ser.e as catching ponds. 9sually the bed width is !.D to !.> m. d" 4i.ersion canal $ /he purpose of this canal is to protect the farm from being flooded with runoff water coming from the watershed It should ha.e the capacity to carry at least the peak runoff from the contributing watershed for a ten1year frequency storm. /he slope of the di.ersion canal should be such that the water flows toward the drainage area or around the fish farm to a con.enient and prepared outlet. e" 4rainage canal 1 A separate drainage canal is recommended in intensi.e culture, especially of shrimps, in order to effect flow1through system. /his is usually located at the other side of the pond, opposite and parallel to the supply canal, if pro.ided. Cross1Section of Canal -ed /he cross1section of the canal is generally of trape2oidal shape with side slope of ! ! for the allu.ial clay soil. /he depth of the main canal ranges from the le.el of mean higher high water for mi&ed tide or mean high water to the mean lower low water and the secondary canals from the designed pond water le.el to the mean tide le.el. /he lower limit of the water canals depends on the range of tide. )enerally, a smaller tide range requires a lower canal bed.

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CONSTRUCTION OF A FISH FARM


CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES2 EQUIPMENT2 AND METHODS A. P7%1C+3S/79C/I+3 AC/I=I/I%S A.!" Programming of acti.ity and staffing of the pro:ect /he purpose of pro:ect programming is to ha.e a clear flow on how the pro:ect will be implemented, the starting and completion time for a gi.en amount of work, and labor force. /his is done by estimating the amount of labor force a.ailable and their daily output in order to determine the number of days a piece of work can be finished. In assessing the a.ailability and quality of manpower in the .icinity of pro:ect site, considerations are gi.en to the quantity and e&perience of skilled workers, time of a.ailability 0year round or seasonal", rate and condition of payment, and working arrangements pre.ailing in the locality. -ased on the abo.e a proposed program of work should be prepared. 8ikewise, a schedule of construction acti.ities shall also be prepared. A.(" Procurement@stockpiling of materials /he purchase and stockpiling of materials should also be accomplished according to the construction schedule. Costs should be weighed against a.ailability and transport of materials under different climatic conditions. Some materials like gra.el, sand, cement, lumber, and bamboo poles should be purchased and transported to the pond site during dry weather. /ransporting them at this time is easier and cheaper. -amboos ha.e to be purchased during dry season to get good quality poles. Some equipment like the cement mi&er, hollow blocks machine, .ibrators, steel cutters, and water pumps should be acquired or leased at the proper time. All these will require cash flow which should be indicated in the construction schedule. -. MAI3 C+3S/79C/I+3 ;+7NS /he actual construction of a fish farm can be di.ided into four ma:or operations, namely !" Site clearing, (" ;ater control structures construction, *" %arthwork, which in.ol.ed the construction of dikes and canals, and ," Pond le.eling. !. SI/% C8%A7I3)

Initial clearing begins where the main dike and main gate are to be located. #ull scale clearing then continues as the construction of main gate proceeds. /he entire area of the fishpond site should be cleared of all grasses, trees, roots and stumps. All cleared materials should be thoroughly remo.ed from the site of work. Site clearing can be accomplished by any or combination of the following methods a" 9nderbrushing $ In underbrushing, .egetation including nipa trees and shrubs of less than !D cm in diameter are cut with the use of bolo. /his is done by manual labor and the work begins as soon as the foundations of the main dike and the main gate ha.e been established.

b" ;ithering 0+ptional" 1 ;ithering is to kill the trees by filling up the pond with water. It has been found that mangro.e trees, specially the group of 7hi2ophora, usually die out when their trunks are constantly soaked with water at a depth of more than D.> m for a period of , to ? months. c" #alling $ #alling is simply cutting down big trees left after underbrushing. /he falling operation should commence when the tree bark begins to peel, but before the lea.es and branches fall. /he prerequisite of falling is to dry and harden the ground, which can be done by keeping the water table of the entire pond area at D.* to D.> m below the surface for a period of ! to * months, depending on the weather conditions. %ither manual or mechanical method, or a combination of both, can be employed for falling. A chain saw is effecti.e in falling big trees and cutting logs. It is a fast method and economical to use.

d" 9prooting of stumps 1 Complete remo.al of tree stumps and root system embedded in the soil is done by manual labor or by the use of small machines. (. C+3S/79C/I+3 +# ;A/%7 C+3/7+8 S/79C/97%S

/6% C+3C7%/% )A/% /he main gate is constructed ahead of the main or perimeter dike to allow time for curing of concrete and ha.e it used while the main dike is being completed. All the materials needed should be in the site prior to construction. 4uring construction, the design specifications must be followed particularly in the construction of gate foundation,

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the pro.isions against undercutting of water, the spacing and si2e of reinforcements against side and bottom pressures, and the proper mi&ture and curing of the concrete or brick 0or concrete hollow block". Construction begins by preparing the site. /he e&act location is measured and staked out. %nough working space of ! to ( m around the gate foundation should be pro.ided. A reference point for checking the ele.ations of gate flooring, heights, soil e&ca.ations and others must be established. A temporary but strong dike capable of withstanding tidal water pressure must be constructed to enclose the site and working space. %ntrapped water inside the site is remo.ed manually or by pumping. a" /he gate foundation $ /he site of gate is e&ca.ated to D.? m deep from the reference point. 7emo.al of roots, stumps and mud or soft soil is done, if any. %&ca.ation should include the portion where the toes of the gate will be constructed. /he spacing and lengths of bamboo base, mangro.e or wooden piles that support the structure should be obser.ed. A common practice by fish farmers is to dri.e two lengths of piles .ertically the *1m length is dri.en at one1meter inter.al while the shorter 0one to two1meter" length is dri.en (> to *D cm apart within the longer piles. 8ea.e at least (> cm of the pile head abo.e the soil surface. /his e&posed ends should be in le.el. In some designs, wooden planks with pointed ends measuring > cm & !> cm & !FD cm are also used in addition to bamboo piles. /hese planks are dri.en side by side along the centerline of side and wing walls and both ends of aprons. /hese planks e&tend the depth of concrete cut1off or toe walls and further help in pre.enting undercutting of water. -oulders are laid about (D cm thick between the piling to form a floor. )ra.el layer of > m thick is spread on top of the boulders, and then compacted. /he e&posed ends of the piles should be le.el with the surface of the gra.el layer. b" #orms and reinforcing bars $ After the foundation, the forms for the slab or flooring and toes are constructed. /he reinforcing bars are laid as planned. /he initial pouring of mi&ed concrete along the footing is done to keep in place the .ertical reinforcements for side and wing walls including collars. /he reinforcements for catwalk or bridges are also installed. ;hile installing the reinforcements, the forms for walls, bridges and collars are being prepared. /he forms are properly set and should be rigid to stand the weight of poured concrete and to a.oid bulging of sides. /he reinforcement bars should be centered within the forms. /he forms are spaced apart to ha.e a finished concrete wall of at least !> cm. c" Concrete mi&ture, pouring and curing $ Concrete mi&ture should be in proportion of ! ( , 0cement sand gra.el" for all concrete works. If concrete hollow blocks are used 0for small main and secondary gates", the mi&ture should be ! A 0cement sand". Prior to pouring of concrete mi&ture, the water that has seeped into the gate construction site should be drained out. /hen pouring of mi&ture follows continuously until completed. Saltwater should not come in contact with the concrete while still wet. Allow the concrete to set in and harden for ( to , days before remo.ing the forms. Plastering the surface may be done as necessary. Plastering mortar of ! * 0cement sand" ratio should be applied at a thickness of ? to !D mm. Continuous curing of the concrete structure should be done for (F days. Curing is done by co.ering it with :ute sack or similar materials and sprinkling freshwater to make it moist throughout the day for the whole curing period. Soil backfilling of e&ca.ated areas is done to ha.e a finished ground surface around the structures. Proper compaction between walls of the structure and ad:acent soils should be obser.ed. /he temporary dike may be remo.ed after *D days. Condition the structure by letting tidal water come in and out of the gate. /6% ;++4%3 )A/% /he wooden gates ha.e much shorter life span than concrete. /his is preferred for reasons of economy or when initial capital is limited. /he use of wooden gate can be resorted to until such time that there is capital to replace it with concrete. /he parts, shape, height and inner dimensions of wooden gates are also similar with concrete. /hey are, howe.er, easier and faster to construct. /he woods are planed to ha.e smooth edge and surfaces. /o prolong the life of the wood, thick coating of coal tar or other similar wood preser.ati.es is applied. Some gate builders mi& coal tar and cement and the mi&ture is painted in two coatings to the materials, then left under the sun for drying. /he foundation may not be as strong as in concrete gate. %&ca.ate the site according to desired ele.ation. -amboo base or mangro.e piles are dri.en to support the structure if needed. /he .arious parts of the gate such as the walls, flooring, cut1off walls, anti1seep board are separately nailed to the respecti.e braces, pillars or supports. /his is done outside the site. /he component units 0side walls, flooring, cut1off wall, etc." are then assembled together by using gal.ani2ed nails, or bron2e nails, if a.ailable, to form the

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gate after the preparation of the foundation. In some cases, the whole gate unit is already assembled outside the site and :ust lifted and placed properly on top of the site, but sometimes the finished gate is quite hea.y. /he walls and flooring of the gate are tightly nailed side by side. ;ater tightness impro.es the moment the wood is soaked in water and e&pands. 6owe.er, there are also water sealant compounds that further insure water tightness. After installing the gate, the space between the e&ca.ation and walls are mud1packed by soil blocks arranged in layers. /hen the soil is allowed to dry and harden. Conditioning the gate is done by allowing tidal water in and out of the pond. Checking for seepage is also being done at this time. *. C+3S/79C/I+3 +# P%7IM%/%7 +7 MAI3 4IN%

/he most important component of the fishpond system is the dike enclosing the entire pond area. /he perimeter dike is the first dike to be constructed to free the area from the danger of floods. /he utility of the pond system will depend on the strength and lifetime of the perimeter dike. Construction may be done by manual method with light implements and by using hea.y equipment. /6% %<9IPM%3/ #+7 P+34 C+3S/79C/I+3 /he equipment for manual construction of ponds are as follows a" 4igging blade $ Manual construction of dike is usually done by piling soil blocks that ha.e been cut by a digging blade. A soil block measures appro&imately *D cm & *D cm & ?D cm which is cut by a hand tool locally called HtagadI.

b" -amboo raft, dugout boat, and flatboat $ /he soil blocks are transported from the digging site to the path of the dike by a bamboo raft, dugout boat or a flatboat. /he bamboo raft, howe.er, has much smaller load capacity than the flatboat. /he flatboat is presently considered the best method of hauling soil blocks because of the following ad.antages !" 4oes not require much effort to load, (" Construction is simple, *" Maneu.erable, easy to tilt and dump the soil and ," 7equires minimal maintenance $ only periodic tar coating. c" ;ooden mallet or tamping de.ise $ /his tool is used to compact the soil blocks on top and sides of dikes. It is manually raised and made to fall against the dike surface repeatedly.

d" 4ike slope model $ /his consists of wooden sticks so constructed to form the top and two sides of the dike but whose angles correspond to the target dike dimensions. /o check if the agreed dike slope is met by the workers this slope model is fitted on the top and sides of the finished dike. Suggestions on mechani2ation Much waste has been obser.ed in the use of mechani2ed equipment. In order to be able to adopt this method with success, one must know the following a" capacity, b" limitations, c" limit of ma&imum operating range, d" ground pressure, e" working conditions, f" amount of work to be done, g" type of work required, and h" cost per unit of work accomplished. C+3S/79C/I+3 +# MAI3 4IN% Main dike passing across ri.ers, creeks and low areas should be constructed first. Construction would be done by arranging soil blocks properly in between staggeredly dri.en bamboo or mangro.e piles as reinforcement. /he soil blocks should be piled properly. As the first step, construction of all dikes is preceded by thorough clearing of the path of dikes and their immediate .icinity. /he width of clearing is slightly wider than the base of the dike to be constructed. /rees, roots, stumps and undecomposed organic matter should be remo.ed out of these paths. Clearing is guided by staking out the centerline of the dike. After the clearing, the base and top width of the dike are properly marked with stakes on the ground. Construction of the core or puddle trench along the main dike follows in order to pro.ide a good key between the dike soil and the foundation as well as minimi2ing seepage through the dike. /he puddle trench is constructed by e&ca.ating a trench measuring at least D.> m wide by D.>1!.D m deep along the center path of the main dike. /he e&ca.ated trench is then backfilled to the same ground le.el with new soil which is wet enough to be puddled by feet or compacted by a wooden mallet or tampering de.ice. /he importance of puddle trench is well recogni2ed but sparingly practiced probably due to the added cost. Although costly, it cuts a lot of water management problems in the future. Construction of main dike proper follows. /he stakes set for the si2e of dike guide the proper arrangement or piling of soil blocks that are taken from higher grounds and are being transported by flatboats or rafts. +ther methods of transporting soil blocks are by the line system and sliding system. In the line system, workers form a

!F

single line. %ach worker is positioned at ! to ( m apart. /he line e&tends from the source of soil to the dike construction site. Soil blocks are relayed to each man until it reaches the piler. /he sliding system applies when the source of blocks is close to the site. /he worker throws the block on the board letting the soil slide down to the base of the dike. Among these methods, the use of flatboat is considered the best. /he piler of blocks sees to it that they are tightly placed end to end. Compacting each layer of soil blocks by feet or tamping de.ise is recommended. /here must be proper placement of dike until it is finished. /he proper side slope must also be obser.ed in the piling of blocks. /he base and top width stakes as well as a side slope model ser.es as guide in checking the correctness of side slope. /he height or ele.ation of the top of dike should also be checked, if done according to specifications. It is important to ha.e uniform ele.ation of top of dike in e.ery compartment. /o accurately measure this, a !(1mm transparent plastic hose, (> to *D m long, is filled with water. +ne end is held by a man at the starting point while the other end is held by another man. /he water le.el at the two ends of the hose must be the same. /his le.el is properly marked and is checked against the finished ele.ation of the top of dike. /he same procedure is done in subsequent stretch of station of (D to (> m until the entire length of dike is co.ered. /he plastic hose with water is also used in laying out the bed slope of canals of a fish farm. /eam work .ersus indi.idual work in dike construction $ Some construction workers group themsel.es as a team in working. /he team is usually composed of four members, each with distinct functions $ the soil piler, the soil block digger, raft or flatboat pusher, and the carrier. /he carrier recei.es the soil blocks transported and unloaded by the boat pusher at the site, and passes them to the piler. +ther workers prefer to work indi.idually. %ach worker is pro.ided with flatboat and does the digging, transporting and piling. It is claimed that one skilled worker with flatboat can finish a dike with si2e of ? to A cu.m in ? to F hours, compared to *.> cu.m only for each member in the team work. C+3S/79C/I+3 +# S%C+34A7O A34 /%7/IA7O 4IN%S Construction of secondary and tertiary dikes follows the same procedure as in construction of perimeter dikes. Puddle trench is also recommended to be included in the construction. /he dikes may ha.e berm to accommodate e&cess soil from the pond and to decrease soil erosion and water turbidity after a hea.y rainfall. /his berm is also a good working space during repair of dike leaks or seepage rather than doing repairs by staying on the crown. C+3S/79C/I+3 +# ;A/%7 CA3A8S ;ater canals are constructed following the same procedure as in dike construction. Canal bottom is, howe.er, e&ca.ated deeper than the pond bottom and secondary gates if the channel or canal is purposely designed for filling and draining the fishpond. ,. P+34 8%=%88I3)

Pond le.eling is the final step in fishpond construction. Some operators pay little attention to pond le.eling and think that construction of fishpond is finished after the main and the secondary dikes ha.e been constructed. +ne of the ma:or reasons for low pond producti.ity is due to rough or poorly le.eled pond bottom. 8e.eling the pond :ust after the dikes are constructed is quite e&pensi.e. It is ad.isable to wait for two to three years until the root systems of the trees ha.e partially decayed before le.eling is started. /his will lessen the capital outlay. Partial le.eling may be done :ust after enclosure, but e&ca.ation should be limited only to portions where there are no trees. /he soil e&ca.ated should be dump in low portions that cannot be drained. After two to three years, final le.eling can be completed. After a topographic sur.ey has been made, the pond bottom ele.ations should be determined. 8ikewise, the .olume of soil to be cut and the portions to be filled should be marked out by stakes. A simple method of pond le.eling is done by using the tidal water. /he procedure is as follows -ring the water down to the desired pond ele.ation and place a bench mark to identify it. -eside the bench mark, place another stake about A.> cm wide, (.> cm thick and ( m long, marked from D to !DD cm. /he 2ero mark of the gauge should be le.el with the bench mark. /he gauge indicates the depth of water and ser.es as a le.eling guide during filling of low spots and in cutting soil from high places.

!C

C+88%)% +# #+7%S/7O A34 %3=I7+3M%3/A8 S/94I%S MI34A3A+ S/A/% 93I=%7SI/O $ MAI3 CAMP9S MA7A;I CI/O REVIEW MATERIALS IN FOREST PRODUCTS ENGINEERING by Forester Deborah C. Achas

NOTES IN WOOD STRUCTURE AND IDENTIFICATION C+%r%c!eris!ics "f C"$$erci%))* I$ "r!%#! W""ds
/hroughout history, the unique characteristics and comparati.e abundance of wood ha.e made it a natural material for homes and other structures, furniture, tools, .ehicles, and decorati.e ob:ects. /oday, for the same reasons, wood is pri2ed for a multitude of uses. All wood is composed of cellulose, lignin, hemicelluloses, and minor amounts 0>G to !DG" of e&traneous materials contained in a cellular structure. =ariations in the characteristics and .olume of these components and differences in cellular structure make woods hea.y or light, stiff or fle&ible, and hard or soft. /he properties of a single species are relati.ely constant within limits' therefore, selection of wood by species alone may sometimes be adequate. 6owe.er, to use wood to its best ad.antage and most effecti.ely in engineering applications, specific characteristics or physical properties must be considered. /he gradual reduction in use of old1growth forests in the Philippines has reduced the supply of large clear logs for lumber and .eneer. 6owe.er, the importance of high1quality logs has diminished as new concepts of wood use ha.e been introduced. Second1growth wood, the remaining old1growth forests, and imports continue to fill the needs for wood in the quality required. ;ood is as .aluable an engineering material as e.er, and in many cases, technological ad.ances ha.e made it e.en more useful. /he inherent factors that keep wood in the forefront of raw materials are many and .aried, but a chief attribute is its a.ailability in many species, si2es, shapes, and conditions to suit almost e.ery demand. ;ood has a high ratio of strength to weight and a remarkable record for durability and performance as a structural material. 4ry wood has good insulating properties against heat, sound, and electricity. It tends to absorb and dissipate .ibrations under some conditions of use, and yet it is an incomparable material for such musical instruments as the .iolin. /he grain patterns and colors of wood make it an esthetically pleasing material, and its appearance may be easily enhanced by stains, .arnishes, lacquers, and other finishes. It is easily shaped with tools and fastened with adhesi.es, nails, screws, bolts, and dowels. 4amaged wood is easily repaired, and wood structures are easily remodeled or altered. In addition, wood resists o&idation, acid, saltwater, and other corrosi.e agents, has high sal.age .alue, has good shock resistance, can be treated with preser.ati.es and fire retardants, and can be combined with almost any other material for both functional and aesthetic uses.

H%rd.""ds %#d S"f!.""ds


/rees are di.ided into two broad classes, usually referred to as hardwoods and softwoods. /hese names can be confusing since some softwoods are actually harder than some hardwoods, and con.ersely some hardwoods are softer than some softwoods. #or e&ample, softwoods such as longleaf pine and 4ouglas1fir are typically harder than the hardwoods basswood and aspen. -otanically, hardwoods are Angiosperms' the seeds are enclosed in the o.ary of the flower. Anatomically, hardwoods are porous' that is, they contain .essel elements. A .essel element is a wood cell with open ends' when .essel elements are set one abo.e another, they form a continuous tube 0.essel", which ser.es as a conduit for transporting water or sap in the tree. /ypically, hardwoods are plants with broad lea.es that, with few e&ceptions in the temperate region, lose their lea.es in autumn or winter. Most imported tropical woods are hardwoods. -otanically, softwoods are )ymnosperms or conifers' the seeds are naked 0not enclosed

(D

in the o.ary of the flower". Anatomically, softwoods are nonporous and do not contain .essels. Softwoods are usually cone1bearing plants with needle1 or scale1like e.ergreen lea.es.

S!r(c!(re "f W""d


/he fibrous nature of wood strongly influences how it is used. ;ood is primarily composed of hollow, elongate, spindle1shaped cells that are arranged parallel to each other along the trunk of a tree. ;hen lumber and other products are cut from the tree, the characteristics of these fibrous cells and their arrangement affect such properties as strength and shrinkage as well as the grain pattern of the wood.

B%r-2 W""d2 Br%#c+es2 %#d C%$3i($

Cross section of white oak tree trunk 0A" outer bark 0dry dead tissue", 0-" inner bark 0li.ing tissue", 0C" cambium, 04" sapwood, 0%" heartwood, 0#" pith, and 0)" wood rays. A cross section of a tree shows the following well1defined features 0from outside to center" bark, which may be di.ided into an outer corky dead part 0A", whose thickness .aries greatly with species and age of trees, and an inner thin li.ing part 0-", which carries food from the lea.es to growing parts of the tree' wood, which in merchantable trees of most species is clearly differentiated into sapwood 04" and heartwood 0%"' and pith 0#", a small core of tissue located at the center of tree stems, branches, and twigs about which initial wood growth takes place. Sapwood contains both li.ing and dead tissue and carries sap from the roots to the lea.es. 6eartwood is formed by a gradual change in the sapwood and is inacti.e. /he wood rays 0)", hori2ontally oriented tissue through the radial plane of the tree, .ary in si2e from one cell wide and a few cells high to more than !> cells wide and se.eral centimeters high. /he rays connect .arious layers from pith to bark for storage and transfer of food. /he cambium layer 0C", which is inside the inner bark and forms wood and bark cells, can be seen only with a microscope.

S% .""d %#d He%r!.""d


Sapwood is located between the cambium and heartwood . Sapwood contains both li.ing and dead cells and functions primarily in the storage of food' in the outerlayers near the cambium, sapwood handles the transport of water or sap. /he sapwood may .ary in thickness and number of growth rings. Sapwood commonly ranges from , to ? cm 0!1!@( to ( in." in radial thickness. In certain species, such as catalpa and black locust, the sapwood contains few growth rings and usually does not e&ceed ! cm 0!@( in." in thickness.

Gr".!+ Ri#/s
In most species in temperate climates, the difference between wood that is formed early in a growing season and that formed later is sufficient to produce well1marked annual growth rings. /he age of a tree at the stump or the age at any cross section of the trunk may be determined by counting these rings.

(!

6owe.er, if the growth in diameter is interrupted, by drought or defoliation by insects for e&ample, more than one ring may be formed in the same season. In such an e.ent, the inner rings usually do not ha.e sharply defined boundaries and are termed false rings. /rees that ha.e only .ery small crowns or that ha.e accidentally lost most of their foliage may form an incomplete growth layer, sometimes called a discontinuous ring. /he inner part of the growth ring formed first in the growing season is called earlywood and the outer part formed later in the growing season, latewood. Actual time of formation of these two parts of a ring may .ary with en.ironmental and weather conditions. %arlywood is characteri2ed by cells with relati.ely large ca.ities and thin walls. 8atewood cells ha.e smaller ca.ities and thicker walls. /he transition from earlywood to latewood may be gradual or abrupt, depending on the kind of wood and the growing conditions at the time it was formed. )rowth rings are most readily seen in species with sharp contrast between latewood formed in one year and earlywood formed in the following year, such as in the nati.e ringporous hardwoods ash and oak, and in softwoods like southern pines. In some other species, such as water tupelo, aspen, and sweetgum, differentiation of earlywood and latewood is slight and the annual growth rings are difficult to recogni2e.

W""d Ce))s
;ood cellsPthe structural elements of wood tissuePis of .arious si2es and shapes and are quite firmly cemented together. 4ry wood cells may be empty or partly filled with deposits, such as gums and resins, or with tyloses. /he ma:ority of wood cells are considerably elongated and pointed at the ends' these cells are customarily called fibers or tracheids. /he length of wood fibers is highly .ariable within a tree and among species. 6ardwood fibers a.erage about ! mm 0!@(> in." in length' softwood fibers range from * to F mm 0!@F to !@* in." in length. In addition to fibers, hardwoods ha.e cells of relati.ely large diameter known as .essels or pores. /hese cells form the main conduits in the mo.ement of sap. Softwoods do not contain .essels for conducting sap longitudinally in the tree' this function is performed by the tracheids. -oth hardwoods and softwoods ha.e cells 0usually grouped into structures or tissues" that are oriented hori2ontally in the direction from pith toward bark. /hese groups of cells conduct sap radially across the grain and are called rays or wood rays. /he rays are most easily seen on edgegrained or quartersawn surfaces, and they .ary greatly in si2e in different species. In oaks and sycamores, the rays are conspicuous and add to the decorati.e features of the wood. 7ays also represent planes of weakness along which seasoning checks readily de.elop. Another type of wood cells, known as longitudinal or a&ial parenchyma cells, function mainly in the storage of food.

S ecies Ide#!ific%!i"#
Many species of wood ha.e unique physical, mechanical, or chemical properties. %fficient utili2ation dictates that species should be matched to end1use requirements through an understanding of their properties. /his requires identification of the species in wood form, independent of bark, foliage, and other characteristics of the tree. )eneral wood identification can often be made quickly on the basis of readily .isible characteristics such as color, odor, density, presence of pitch, or grain pattern. ;here more positi.e identification is required, a laboratory in.estigation must be made of the microscopic anatomy of the wood.

S!r(c!(r%) A#%)*sis E'(%!i"#s


%quations for deformation and stress, which are the basis for tension members and beam and column design. /he first two sections co.er tapered members, straight members, and special considerations such as notches, slits, and si2e effect. A third section presents stability criteria for members sub:ect to buckling and for members sub:ect to special conditions. /he equations are based on mechanics principles and are not gi.en in the design code format found in Allowable Stress 4esign or 8oad and 7esistance #actor 4esign specifications.

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Def"r$%!i"# E'(%!i"#s
%quations for deformation of wood members are presented as functions of applied loads, moduli of elasticity and rigidity, and member dimensions. /hey may be sol.ed to determine minimum required cross1sectional dimensions to meet deformation limitations imposed in design.. Consideration must be gi.en to .ariability in material properties and uncertainties in applied loads to control reliability of the design.

A4i%) L"%d
/he deformation of an a&ially loaded member is not usually an important design consideration. More important considerations will be presented in later sections dealing with combined loads or stability. A&ial load produces a change of length gi.en by

where is Q change of length, 8 length, A cross1sectional area, % modulus of elasticity 0%8 when grain runs parallel to member a&is", and P a&ial force parallel to grain.

= PL AE

(*

W""d Preser0%!i"# %#d Se%s"#i#/


3* F"res!er De3"r%+ C5 Ac+%s

Pes!s !+%! D%$%/e W""d


9nder proper use conditions, wood can gi.e centuries of good ser.ice. -ut under unfa.orable conditions, wood may readily be damaged and destroyed by fungi, insects, and marine borers. /hese pests can attack in many ways, using the wood for food or shelter. Consequently, wood must be protected to insure ma&imum ser.ice life when used under conditions fa.orable to these pests.

W""d6I#+%3i!i"# F(#/i
;ood decay, mold and most sapwood stains, are caused by fungi. /hese fungi feed on li.ing or dead wood. /he many fungi that de.elop on or in wood can be di.ided into two ma:or groups, depending on the damage they cause R wood1destroying fungi 0decay fungi", R wood1staining fungi 0sapstaining fungi, mold fungi". -oth of these fungi groups produce spores 0analogous to tiny seeds", which are distributed by wind and water. /he spores can infect moist wood during storage, processing and use. All fungi that grow on wood ha.e certain basic requirements R #a.orable temperature 1 usually ranging between >D degrees and CD degrees #. /he optimum is about AD degrees to F> degrees #. ;ood is basically safe from decay at temperatures below *> degrees # and abo.e !DD degrees #. R Adequate moisture 1 #ungi will not attack dry wood 0i.e. wood with a moisture content of !C percent or less". 4ecay fungi require a wood moisture content 0M.C." of about *D percent 0the generally accepted fi3er s%!(r%!i"# "i#! of wood". /hus, air dried wood, usually with a M.C. not e&ceeding !C percent and kiln dried wood with a M.C. of !> percent or less can usually be considered safe from fungal damage. R Adequate o&ygen 1 #ungi cannot li.e in water saturated wood R #ood source 0wood itself".

W""d Des!r"*i#/ F(#/i


-oth the sapwood and heartwood of most tree species are susceptible to decay. 4ecay fungi may grow in the interior of the wood or appear on wood surfaces as fan1shaped patches of fine, threadlike, cottony growths or as rootlike shapes. /he color of these growths may range from white through light brown, bright yellow, and dark brown. /he spore1producing bodies may be mushrooms, shelf1like brackets, or structures with a flattened, crustlike appearance. #ine, threadlike fungal strands grow throughout the wood and digest parts of it as food. In time, the strength of the wood is destroyed. 4ecay will stop when the temperature of the wood is either too low or too high or when the moisture content is drier than the fungi5s requirements. 6owe.er, decay can resume when the temperature and moisture content become fa.orable again. ;ood decay fungi can be grouped into three ma:or categories R brown rot, R white rot, and R soft rot. Br".# r"! 6 #ungi which cause brown rot are able to break down the cellulose component of wood for food, lea.ing a brown residue of lignin. -rown1rotted wood can be greatly weakened e.en before decay can be seen. /he final stage of wood decay by the brown rots can be identified by R dark brown color of the wood R e&cessi.e shrinkage R cross1grain cracking, and R the ease with which the dry wood substance can be crushed to powder.

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-rown1rot fungi are probably the most important cause of decay of softwood species used in abo.eground construction in the Philippines. -rown1rot, when dry, is sometimes called Sdry rot5. /his is a poor term, because wood must ha.e moisture and will not decay when it is dry. A few fungi that can decay relati.ely dry wood ha.e water1conducting strands that are able to carry water from damp soil to wood in lumber piles or buildings. /hese fungi can decay wood that otherwise would be too dry for decay to occur. /hey sometimes are called the Sdry rot fungi5 or Swater1conducting fungi5. W+i!e r"! 6 ;hite1rot fungi, which break down both lignin and cellulose, ha.e a bleaching effect which may make the damaged wood appear whiter than normal. S"f! r"! 6 Soft rot fungi usually attack green 0water1saturated" wood 0high M.C.", causing a gradual softening from the surface inward that resembles brown rot.

T+e W""d6S!%i#i#/ F(#/i


S% s!%i#i#/ f(#/i 6 /hese fungi penetrate and discolor sapwood, particularly of the soft wood species. /ypical sapstain, unlike staining by mold fungi, cannot be remo.ed by brushing or planing. Sapstain fungi may become established in the sapwood of standing trees, sawlogs, lumber and timbers soon after they are cut and before they can be adequately dried. Strength of the wood is little affected, but the wood may not be fit for uses where appearance is important 0such as siding, trim, furniture and e&terior millwork that is to be clear1finished". Southern pine beetles often carry blue stain fungi into trees. /his can cause the wood of infected trees to be stained before they are cut. M")d f(#/i 6 /hese fungi first become noticeable as green, yellow, brown or black fu22y or powdery surface growths on softwoods. #reshly cut or seasoned stock, piled during warm, humid weather, may be noticeably discolored in > to ? days or less. As with sapstains, molds do not reduce wood strength, howe.er, they can increase the capacity of wood to absorb moisture, thereby opening the door to attack by decay fungi.

C+e$ic%) S!%i#s
Chemical stains may resemble blue or brown stains, but are not caused by fungi. /hese stains result from chemical changes in the wood during processing or seasoning. /he most important chemical stains are the 3r".# s!%i#s that can downgrade lumber for some uses. /hey usually can be pre.ented by rapid drying at relati.ely low temperatures during kiln drying.

I#sec!s
Se.eral kinds of insects attack li.ing trees, logs, lumber and finished wood products for food and@or shelter. /hese pests include .arious termites, ants, and beetles. Ter$i!es 1 /ermites use wood for food and shelter and are the most destructi.e of all wood insects. Ants cannot use wood for food, but they are often confused with termites because the two look somewhat similar. 6owe.er, there are se.eral distinct differences in their physical appearance. Ants ha.e Selbowed5 antennae' termites do not. Ants ha.e narrow waists whereas termites5 bodies are broad. Ants5 wings ha.e few .eins and the hind wings are smaller than the front wings. -oth pairs of termite wings are similar in shape and si2e and ha.e .ery small .eins. /ermites are di.ided into three ma:or groups. R Subterranean or ground1inhabiting termites R 4rywood /ermites R 4ampwood /ermites Subterranean Termites - /hese termites attack wood products in buildings and other wood products throughout most of continental 9nited States, but most damage occurs in the warm, southern coastal regions along the Atlantic +cean and )ulf of Me&ico. At certain seasons of the year, winged males and females are produced by the termite colony. /hey swarm, mate, lose their wings, and attempt to begin a new colony in the soil. /ermites build tunnels through earth and around obstructions to get to a source of food 0either sound or decaying wood". /hey also require a constant source of moisture $ usually obtained from the soil. /he presence of subterranean termites may be noted by R the swarming of winged, ant1like insects and the discarded wings obser.ed after swarming R earthen shelter tubes built o.er masonry or other foundations to a source of wood R the presence of white workers when termite shelter tubes are broken open

(>

R the hollowed1out condition of badly infested wood products Drywood Termites - 4rywood termites are found naturally only in 6awaii, Puerto 7ico, and in a narrow strip of land e&tending from southern California and /e&as to #lorida and along the Atlantic coast to =irginia. After swarming, drywood termites enter cracks and cre.ices in dry, sound wood. In e&ca.ating their galleries, they occasionally discharge o.al1shaped fecal pellets through temporary openings in the wood surface. /he ability of the drywood termite to li.e in dry wood surface. /he ability of the drywood termite to li.e in dry wood without direct contact with the soil increases its menace. 6owe.er, it reproduces slowly and does not destroy wood as quickly as the subterranean termite. Dampwood Termites 6 4ampwood termites are a serious pest along the Pacific Coast. /hey do not require contact with the soil, but do need wood with a high moisture content.

A#!s
Carpenter ants may be black or red. /hey usually li.e in stumps, trees, or logs, but often damage poles ar structural timbers set in the ground. %le.ated portions of buildings, such as windowsills and porch columns, are susceptible to damage. Carpenter ants use wood for shelter not for food. /hey usually prefer wood that is naturally soft or has been softened by decay. /he galleries are large, smooth and, unlike those of termites, are free of refuse and powdery wood. Mounds of sawdust indicate their presence.

Bee!)es
Powder Post or Lyctus Beetles 6 Powder post beetles attack both freshly cut and seasoned hardwoods and softwoods. /hey attack the sapwood of ash, hickory, oak, and other hardwoods. Adults lay eggs in the wood pores. /he lar.ae burrow through the wood, making tunnels form !@!?1 to !@!(1inch in diameter, packed with a fine powder. after a lar.al period 0from a few months to a year, or longer 1 depending on the species" and a much shorter pupal stage, newly formed adults chew holes through the wood surface and emerge to lay eggs for another brood. Signs of damage by powder post beetles are R small round !@!?T holes in the surface of the wood made by emerging adults, and R fine powder that falls from the wood. Anobiid beetles 6 may attack softwoods in damp and poorly .entilated spaces beneath buildings. %liminating the source of moisture will cause the colony to slowly die out. Roundheaded Borers 6 A longhorn beetle, commonly known as the old house borer, damages seasoned pine timbers. /he lar.ae bore through the wood. +.er many years their tunneling can weaken structural timbers, framing members, and other wooden parts of buildings. Contrary to its name, the old house borer most often infests new buildings. It is found in the %astern and )ulf Coast States. 8ar.ae reduce sapwood to a powdery or sawdustlike consistency. /hey may take se.eral years to complete their de.elopment. ;hile working in the wood, they make a ticking or gnawing sound. ;hen mature, the adult beetle makes an o.al emergence hold about !@, inch in diameter in the surface of wood. Flatheaded Borers 6 #latheaded borers infest li.e trees as well as recently felled and dead, standing softwood trees. /hey can cause considerable damage in rustic structures and some manufactured products by mining into sapwood and heartwood. /ypical damage consists of rather shallow, long, winding galleries that are packed with fine powder. Adults are often called metallic wood1boring beetles because of their color. /hey are about *@, inch long, with wing co.ers usually rough, like bark.

M%ri#e B"rers
%&tensi.e damage is done to submerged portions of marine pilings, wharf timers, and wooden boats by a group of animal organisms known collecti.ely as marine borers. In the 9nited States they are especially acti.e in the warm waters of the Pacific, )ulf, and South Atlantic coasts. 9ntreated timbers can be destroyed in less than a year. /he ma:or marine borers are the s+i ."r$ and +")%d mollusks 0related to the clams and oysters", and the cr(s!%ce%# 3"rers 0related to the crabs and lobsters".

(?

CONTROL OF PESTS THAT DAMAGE WOOD


If wood is to be used where it will be sub:ect to pest attack, it must be protected. /his protection can be achie.ed by R control of moisture content R use of a wood that is naturally resistant to the pests R chemical treatment In addition, mechanical barriers 0such as metal termite shields and caps on pilings, poles and posts" are sometimes used, but are usually ineffecti.e.

M"is!(re C"#!r")
/he moisture content of li.ing trees and the wood products obtained from them may range from about *D percent to more than (DD percent. Much of this moisture must be remo.ed for most uses. S)reen5 lumber usually is dried R to pre.ent stain and decay R to reduce damage by insects, R to reduce uncontrolled dimensional change 0shrinkage", R to reduce weight and increase strength, and R to prepare the wood for treatment with chemical preser.ati.es. /he amount of water in wood 0its moisture content" is usually e&pressed as a percentage of its o.en dry weight. /he moisture is measured by R the o.endrying method1a small sample of wood is weighed, dried, and reweighed until it has reached a constant weight when sub:ected to temperatures of (!( degrees 1 ((D degrees #. R the electrical method 1 use of a moisture meter that measures moisture by electrical resistance. /imber or logs stored for a long time before processing can be protected from fungi and insects by R keeping the logs submerged in a pond of water R keeping them under constant water spray /he water reduces the o&ygen content and temperatures necessary for growth of fungi.

Se%s"#i#/ "r Dr*i#/ 6 /he moisture content of wood is reduced by


R air drying in a yard, shed or pre1drier R drying in a kiln, retort or by radio frequency /he most efficient and most widely used system is kiln drying. It offers better control of air mo.ement, temperature and drying rate than air drying. Although kiln drying is more e&pensi.e in terms of capital in.estment and energy cost, it is much faster and pro.ides more uniform and better quality drying. 9nless lumber is properly stacked and protected, air drying may result in surface checking, end cracking, warping, staining and discoloration due to weathering. %.en after being well1seasoned, wood may again reach a moisture le.el fa.orable to pests if e&posed to rain or prolonged high humidity and fa.orable temperatures.

S!"r%/e %#d H%#d)i#/


/o a.oid pest induced degrading of lumber during storage or handling, you should RCon.ert logs into lumber as quickly as possible. R4ry the lumber as quickly as practical, e.en after pressure treatment with a preser.ati.e chemical, to pre.ent degrading 0surface checking, and end cracking". R8ocate air1drying yards and sheds on well1drained sites with good air circulation, and keep the yards free of weeds. R Practice good sanitation by remo.ing debris or rotted wood which ser.es as source of fungal infection and insects. R Inspect stored wood products often. /ermites, for e&ample, may in.ade untreated stacked lumber if it remains undisturbed for long periods. R A.oid rough handling of treated wood. Chipping, gouging, or splitting can e&pose unprotected interior wood and allow attack by decay fungi.

(A

Use "f N%!(r%))* Resis!%#! W""d


/he sapwood of all nati.e tree species and the heartwood of most species ha.e a low natural resistance to decay. 6owe.er, the heartwood of some species is quite resistant. %&amples are the heartwood of old1 growth bald cypress 0limited supply", cedar, redwood, and post oak. /hey are resistant but definitely not immune to attack by decay fungi and insects. -lack locust and resinous southern pine heartwood, called Sfatwood5 or Slighterwood5 is also highly resistant to decay. 9nfortunately, some naturally resistant woods are e&pensi.e or una.ailable in commercial quantities 0i.e. chestnut" or in dimensions needed. -ecause of high costs for labor and materials, the .ariable and undependable resistance of these species should preclude their use for most high ha2ard construction applications.

C+e$ic%) C"#!r")
/he proper application of chemical preser.ati.es can protect wood from decay and stain fungi, insects and marine borers, thus prolonging the ser.ice life of wood for many years. /he effecti.eness of preser.ati.e treatment depends on the chemical formulation selected, method of application, proportion of sapwood to heartwood, moisture content of the wood, amount of preser.ati.e retained, depth of chemical penetration and distribution. Sapwood of most commercial species accepts preser.ati.es much better than heartwood, and softwood species are generally more recepti.e to impregnation than the hardwoods. Preser.ati.e treatment by pressure is usually required for most wood products used for structure and other applications e&posed to high risk of attack by fungi, insects or marine borers.

T* e "f Preser0%!i0es P;ood preser.ati.es fall into three broad categories


R creosote and creosote solutions, R oilborne preser.ati.es, and R waterborne preser.ati.es. Creosote and Creosote Solutions 6 Creosote, and oily byproduct of making coke from bituminous coal, is widely used as a preser.ati.e for such products as railroad ties, large timbers, fence posts, poles, and pilings.
Ad0%#!%/es,

7 to&ic to wood1destroying fungi, insects, and some marine borers, R low .olatility, R insolubility in water, R ease of handling and application.
Dis%d0%#!%/es,

R dark color, R strong odor, R oily, unpaintable surface, R tendency to bleed or e&ude from the wood surface, R should not be used in homes or other li.ing areas because of to&ic fumes. Oilborne Preser ati es 6 /hese chemicals are generally insoluble in water. /hey are usually dissol.ed in petroleum or other organic sol.ents in order to penetrate wood. 7esearch de.elopments ha.e recently made a.ailable oilborne preser.ati.es formulated as water1 in 1oil emulsions or dispersions in water.
Ad0%#!%/es,

R to&ic to fungi, insects and mold, R can be dissol.ed in oils ha.ing a wide range in .iscosity, .apor pressure and color, R low solubility, R can be glued depending on the diluent or carrier, and R ease of handling and use.
Dis%d0%#!%/es

R can lea.e an oily, unpaintable surface, depending on the carrier, R for some applications pro.ides somewhat less physical protection to wood than creosote, R should not be used in homes or other li.ing areas because of to&ic fumes, and, R it5s to&ic and irritating to plants, animals and humans. Pentacholrophenol 0penta" is the most commonly used oilborne preser.ati.e. It is used to commercially treat poles, lumber, crossarms, timbers, and fence posts. Penta is also used by do1it1yourselfers to treat a .ariety of wood products by nonpressure methods such as brushing, spraying and dipping. /hese superficial treatments can also temporarily preser.e wood during shipping, storage or in low ha2ard situations such as millwork and siding. Penta is not recommended for marine installations, use inside buildings or use close to plants.

(F

!aterborne Preser ati es - /his class of preser.ati.es includes .arious metallic salts and other compounds. /he principal compounds used are combinations of copper, chromium, arsenic and fluoride. ;aterborne preser.ati.es ha.e gained increasingly wider usage for lumber, plywood, fence posts, poles, pilings and timbers.
Ad0%#!%/es,

R treatment presents no ha2ard from fire or e&plosion. R the wood surface is left clean, paintable and free of ob:ectionable odors. R safe for interior use and treatment of playground equipment. R leach resistant.
Dis%d0%#!%/es

R unless re1dried after treatment, the wood is sub:ect to warping and checking, R does not protect the wood from e&cessi.e weathering. ;ood treated with copper1F1quinolinolate has been appro.ed for food contact uses such as for bo&es, crates, pallets, truck decking and related uses in.ol.ing the har.esting, storage and transportation of food.

APPLICATION OF WOOD PRESERVATIVES


Pre %r%!i"# "f W""d f"r Tre%!$e#!
#or most of the commercial wood treatments in common use, wood must be prepared in some way before a preser.ati.e is applied. /his preparation may include peeling, drying, conditioning, incising, cutting, and framing. Pee)i#/ P /he bark and cambium must be completely remo.ed before treatment. /his allows the preser.ati.e to penetrate into the wood. -ark obstructs penetration, resulting in e&posed untreated wood. Dr*i#/ P In most treating methods, a high moisture content pre.ents or slows the entrance of the preser.ati.e into the wood cells. 4rying the wood allows better penetration of the preser.ati.e, reduces product weight and shrinkage with its potential for warping and checking after treatment. Niln drying is one method for accelerating drying under controlled drying conditions. C"#di!i"#i#/ P +perators of pressure treating plants can use se.eral other methods besides con.entional drying to condition wood for treatment. In the steaming and .acuum process, green wood is steamed in a treating cylinder or retort for se.eral hours and then sub:ected to a .acuum. /he .acuum reduces the boiling point of the water in the wood and speeds its remo.al. /hen the e.aporated water can be replaced by the preser.ati.e, applied under pressure. Another method of conditioning green wood is boiling under .acuum 0-oulton method". /he wood is placed in a treating cylinder and submerged in hot oil. /hen a .acuum is applied, remo.ing water from the wood. ;ith this method, wood can be conditioned at a lower temperature. Consequently, it can be used to a.oid damage to a wood species 0such as a 4ouglas fir" which is sensiti.e to the higher temperatures of the steaming and .acuum process. A third method of conditioning is known as .apor drying. In this process green wood is e&posed to hot .apors or an organic compound, such as &ylene, which gradually .apori2es and remo.es the water. I#cisi#/ P Incising consists of making a series of narrow holes or slits in the wood about !@(1 to *@,1 inch deep. /his allows preser.ati.es to better penetrate impregnation1resistant wood species 0such as 4ouglas fir". Incising makes possible a more uniform penetration to at least the depth of holes. C(!!i#/ %#d Fr%$i#/ P Cutting, shaping or drilling wood after treatment can e&pose untreated wood. /his e&posure can be a.oided by cutting, shaping or boring the wood for its intended use before the preser.ati.e treatment. /he treated wood then can be used without further machining.

Me!+"ds "f A

)*i#/ W""d Preser0%!i0es

/here ha.e been almost as many methods for applying wood preser.ati.es as there are different preser.ati.es. +nly the ones in current use will be discussed. /he treating method selected depends greatly on the ultimate use of the product. /he two ma:or types of treatment are pressure and non1pressure methods. Many .ariations of these methods are described in the standards and specifications of the American ;ood Preser.ers Association 0A;PA", the #ederal )o.ernment, and other organi2ations. Press(re Pr"cesses P ;e might e&pect wood to treat easily because of its porous structure, but wood is surprisingly resistant to deep penetration by preser.ati.es. /he basic principle of pressure processes in.ol.es the placement of wood materials in an airtight, steel cylinder or retort and immersing it in a preser.ati.e under pressure to force the preser.ati.e into the wood. Impregnation of preser.ati.es by

(C

pressure is the most common method used in the commercial treatment of wood. It has se.eral ad.antages Rit gi.es a deeper and more uniform penetration, Rit allows better control o.er retention, Rwood can be preconditioned in the chamber, Rit is quicker and more reliable than non1pressure methods, and Rit can comply with the code regulations and engineered specifications. /here are two basic .ariations of the pressure treatment method the full1cell process and the empty cell process. ;ith either method, it is important to closely follow established standards on Rpreparation of the wood product to be treated, Ramount and duration of .acuum and of pressure, Rsolution temperature 0when critical", R treating time, Rtype of preser.ati.e, and Rconcentration of the preser.ati.e. N"#6Press(re Pr"cesses P 3on1pressure methods may be satisfactory where deep penetration, high le.els of retention and precise treatment are not required. /he effecti.eness of non1pressure methods depends on the kind of wood, its moisture content, method and duration of treatment and the preser.ati.e used. /here are many methods of applying preser.ati.es to wood without the use of pressure. Some of the more widely1used methods are described Brushin"# Sprayin" and Pourin" Treatments 1 ;ith these methods, creosotes1oil1borne preser.ati.es, or water1borne salts are applied to the surfaces of the wood product to be treated. /he wood should be thoroughly air dried before treatment and, if oil borne preser.ati.es are used the wood should be warm enough to a.oid congealing the oil. Penetration by dipping or spraying is superficial, resulting mostly from capillary action, so only limited protection is afforded. /he preser.ati.e should be flooded o.er the wood surfaces and be allowed to soak in. /wo applications are desirable, but the second should not be applied until the first has dried and soaked into the wood. -rushing, spraying or pouring treatments probably are most widely used for protecting areas of pre.iously treated wood that ha.e been cut or machined, thereby e&posing untreated surfaces or :oints. Dippin" 6 /reatment by dipping consists of immersing wood in a preser.ati.e solution for se.eral seconds or se.eral minutes. As with brushing 1 type treatments, the wood should first be well dried before treatment. Although dipping is better than brushing for penetration of preser.ati.es into the checks and cracks of wood surfaces, and may add ( to , years of protection o.er untreated wood, dipping is unsatisfactory for uses sub:ect to abrasion. Probably the principal use of dipping is for window frames employing an immersion of * minutes. Cold Soa$in" 6 Cold soaking is commonly used for treating round, fence posts and sawn timbers using pentachlorophenol or other .iscous, "i)63"r#e preser.ati.es. /he process in.ol.es the soaking of dried wood for (1A days in a .at containing the unheated liquid oil preser.ati.e. Cold soaking has been popular for farm use because of its simplicity and low cost. Steepin" 6 /he steeping process employs a waterborne salt preser.ati.e solution to either dry or green wood. It consists of submerging the wood in a tankful of the solution at atmospheric temperature for se.eral days or weeks 0heating the solution would speed up penetration". Absorption is rapid the first * days then continues at a decreasing rate almost indefinitely. ;hen treating flat1sawn, wood products space should be pro.ided between and around each piece of wood to permit complete e&posure to the preser.ati.e material. %ot and Cold Bath &Thermal Process' 6 /he hot and cold bath or thermal process, also called the boilingand1 cooling or open1tank treating method, is suitable with oil1based and water1borne preser.ati.es. ;hen used properly, the method pro.ides a reasonably effecti.e substitute for pressure impregnation. /he process is quite simple in.ol.ing the use of one or two tanks. ;ith two tanks the wood product first is immersed into a hot solution usually of the preser.ati.e, itself, or e.en boiling water, followed by its immersion into a tank of cold solution. Most preser.ati.e absorption and penetration takes place during the cold bath. ;hen one tank is used, heating can be discontinued, allowing the wood and preser.ati.e to cool together. Double Di((usion 6 /reatment by double diffusion is a two stage dispersing of a preser.ati.e liquid into a piece of wood. An e&ample of the process would be to first soak a green wood product, such as a post, in

*D

a solution of copper sulfate. ;hen a sufficient amount of the chemical has diffused into the wood, it is then immersed in a second solution consisting of sodium arsenate and sodium chromate. /he purpose of double diffusion is to con.ert .ery leachable, chemical salt solutions into fi&ed and stable preser.ati.es within the wood. )acuum process 6 In the .acuum process wood products are enclosed in an airtight container from which air is remo.ed with a .acuum pump. /he container then is filled with the preser.ati.e without additional pressure and without the air re1entering. /he partial remo.al of air from the wood, by the .acuum, followed by addition of the preser.ati.e creates a slight pressure that dri.es the preser.ati.e into the wood. =acuum treatment works well with penta and easily treatable woods and products like pine, window stock. Preser ati e Pads or Banda"es &Treatment on Site) 1 /here are se.eral .ariations of employing this treating concept /he preser.ati.e can be applied to the surfaces of the wood, can be in:ected into the wood or placed into holes drilled in the wood. /he preser.ati.e used can be water1borne, sol.ent in oil or ha.e a consistency of grease or mayonnaise. /his method is most often used to e&tend the life of standing poles that had pre.iously been treated. Since treated poles are costly, consideration must be gi.en to replacement costs, including treatment and installation, so a >1year increase of ser.ice life would be a .ery worthwhile e&penditure for preser.ati.e bandage treatment. /he ma:or task of this treating process in.ol.es remo.al of soil from around the pole for a depth of about !FT. /his part of the pole, below ground, and the part !(T abo.e ground is the portion most .ulnerable to decay and failure. All decayed wood and soil must be remo.ed from the pole and the preser.ati.e should be applied thoroughly to the Scleaned5 portion of the pole. /his treated area should then be wrapped with a hea.y duty, water resistant paper or plastic film to confine the preser.ati.e to the pole. Sapstain &Blue Stain' Pre ention 6 Sapstain fungi do not decay their wood host, but they degrade lumber and other wood products and lower their .alue. Also, sapstain fungi often precede the decay fungi because conditions fa.orable for attack 0high temperatures and humidity" are comparable for both types of fungi. /o protect green logs, poles and other round timbers, they should be processed soon after trees are felled. If they cannot be processed promptly, the timbers should be stored submerged in water or be sub:ected to a continuous spray of water. ;hen these storage methods are not feasible, protection for se.eral months can be afforded by application of a chemical spray containing a solution of ben2ene he&achloride and penta in fuel oil. /he entire log and especially the ends must be sprayed thoroughly soon after a tree is felled and bucked into logs. ;ith regard to lumber, during prolonged periods of warm, humid weather, the prospect of staining is almost ine.itable in the sapwood of untreated, susceptible species such as the pines. Since stain can de.elop within , days, under fa.orable conditions, chemical treatment should be applied within (, hours after sawing green logs. Sapstain pre.enting solutions are a.ailable under .arious trade names. Protection is usually pro.ided at the sawmill by carrying the rough sawn, green lumber on the mo.ing Sgreen chain5 through a tank or through the treating solution. Stain treatments do not pro.ide long1lasting protection. Consequently, after treatment, the lumber should be stickered and properly piled for rapid air1seasoning or kiln drying.

F%c!"rs I#f)(e#ci#/ !+e Effec!i0e#ess "f W""d Preser0%!i0es


#ederal Specifications //1;1>A! and the Standards of the American ;ood Preser.ers Association 0A;PA" are commonly used by the wood preser.ing industry and consumers of treated wood to regulate the wood preser.ing process and better insure its suitability for specific applications. Pe#e!r%!i"# P /he effecti.eness of a wood preser.ati.e depends on se.eral treatment factors, one of which is the depth of its penetration into the wood. Inadequate chemical penetration may allow fungi and insects to enter through checks or cracks in the thin shell of treated wood in order to reach the inner, unprotected wood. /he depth of penetration attainable by a wood preser.ati.e depends on the wood species, the proportion of sapwood to heartwood and the treatment process used. /he sapwood of most species is fairly easily penetrated when well1dried and pressure treated. /he treatment of heartwood is much more .ariable than sapwood. #or instance, the heartwood of southern yellow pine and maple can be impregnated to depths of about one1fourth to one1half inch. 7ed oak can be completely penetrated, whereas it is almost impossible to penetrate the heartwood of white oak or western red cedar with commercial pressure treating processes. Re!e#!i"# "f Preser0%!i0es P %.en with the proper preser.ati.e penetration, good protection cannot be achie.ed unless enough preser.ati.e stays in the wood. #or e&ample, the minimum retention of creosote

*!

for lumber used in coastal 0salt" waters is (> lbs.@cu. ft. 0A;PA C1(", while for similar wood products in fresh water only !D lbs. of creosote@ cu. ft. is required. -y contrast, water soluble salt preser.ati.es only require retentions of D.( lbs. to (.(> lbs.@cu. ft. depending on use. Se)ec!i"# %#d C"#di!i"#i#/ "f W""d P #ederal Specifications //1;D>A! and A;PA Standards identify the wood species that are acceptable for treatment for .arious uses. Selection of a species or grade of wood for a particular use should be based on the applicable grading rules. /hese rules take into consideration such properties of the wood as knot si2es, warp, splits and grain which may limit some uses. /he drying and conditioning of wood before treatment significantly influences the effecti.eness of the treatment, as discussed earlier in this chapter. H%#d)i#/ Af!er Tre%!$e#! P /reated wood should be handled with sufficient care to a.oid cutting or breaking through the treated area and e&posing the underlying untreated wood. /hrowing, dropping or gouging treated wood may cause damage that e&pose untreated wood. ;hen damaged in this way, the e&posed wood should be retreated. /his is usually done by in1place treatment 0brushing". ;hen treated wood is machined, thereby e&posing untreated wood, such as by boring or cutting the ends of piles after dri.ing a prescribed preser.ati.e should be applied to the e&posed wood 0A;PA M, Standards". E#d Use P /reated wood that is used for a purpose for which it was not intended may result in an unsatisfactory ser.ice life. #or e&ample, pilings treated to meet specifications for fresh water should not be used in marine waters. Some end1uses will place a greater physical stress on treated wood than other uses and will result in a shorter ser.ice life. /he cost of replacement for some end1uses may :ustify periodic retreatment of wood, on site, to prolong its ser.ice life.

PROTECTING HUMAN HEALTH


Most chemicals used to protect wood from insects and decay are to&ic in order to be effecti.e. /he goal is to select chemicals and methods that will control the pests without harming the applicator, the user, the public, or pets. It is the responsibility of the management of any wood preser.ing operation to ensure that the proper handling procedures, protecti.e clothing and any necessary equipment 0such as respirators" are supplied to workers in conformance with label instructions to protect their health. /he %PA1appro.ed labeling on pesticide products, including wood preser.ati.es, is the ri$%r* source of information on application methods, precautionary measures for workers, emergency first aid for high le.el e&posures, and disposal instructions for used pesticide materials and containers. /he label has the force of law, and it is the pro.isions of the label which are enforced by state regulatory agencies. /hus, the label for each formulated product used at a wood treatment operation should be readily a.ailable, and all responsible personnel should be familiar with their contents.

H%8%rds !" A

)ic%!"rs

All handlers of wood preser.ati.es need to know about potential ha2ards and necessary precautions. Since risks are directly related to degree of e&posure, most of the risks associated with wood preser.ati.es comes from their application and the .olatili2ation that occurs soon after treatment, rather than from use of the treated wood itself. /he decision by %PA to classify three of the ma:or wood preser.ati.es, creosote, inorganic arsenicals, and pentachlorophenol, for restricted use was based on the potential human risk from chronic to&icity 0e&posure o.er a long period of time". Applicators as a group are the people most likely to be e&posed o.er long periods, and consequently need to take precautions as a normal and routine part of working with wood preser.ati.es. %&posure to wood preser.ati.es can occur in a .ariety of ways during handling and mi&ing the chemicals, entering pressure1 treatment cylinders, working around spray or dip operations, handling freshly treated wood, cleaning@ser.icing equipment or disposing of wastes. Closed systems for handling the chemicals and mechanically handling treated wood help to reduce potential e&posure, but do not eliminate the possibility of some routine or accidental e&posure for workers. ;ood preser.ati.es, like other pesticides, can enter the body in three ways. Roral Rdermal Rrespiratory Since many wood preser.ati.es ha.e a strong odor and taste, it is unlikely a person would swallow a dangerous amount. /he more likely forms of e&posure are dermal 0skin" contact, or inhalation of .apors, dust or particles, particularly if protecti.e clothing and other precautions are not obser.ed.

*(

T"4ici!*
/he decision by the %n.ironmental Protection Agency to classify for restricted use the three principal wood treatment preser.ati.es is based on e.idence that !. creosote causes cancer in laboratory animals and has been associated with skin cancer in some workers occupationally e&posed to creosote' (. creosote and inorganic arsenals also cause $(!%/e#ic effects 0gene defects" in bacteria and laboratory animals' *. arsenic has been shown in epidemiology studies to be associated with cancer in humans who either drank water contaminated with arsenic or who breathed air containing arsenic. ,. pentachlorophenol has produced defects to the offspring of laboratory animals' and >. a dio&in contaminate 06&C44" in pentachlorophenol has been shown to cause cancer in laboratory animals. -ecause of the potential ha2ard of these preser.ati.es, there are new %PA label requirements for their handling and end use. In addition to the potential ha2ards of chronic to&icity, a single or short term e&posure can cause the following acute health effects.

Cre"s"!e
Rcan cause skin irritation' .apors and fumes are irritating to the eyes and respiratory tract' and prolonged and repeated e&posure may lead to dermatitis.

Pe#!%c+)"r" +e#"),
RIrritating to eyes, skin and respiratory tract. RIngestion of penta solutions, inhalation of concentrated .apors or e&cessi.e skin contact may lead to fe.er, headache, weakness, di22iness, nausea, and profuse sweating. In e&treme cases, coordination loss and con.ulsion may occur high le.els of e&posure can be fatal. RProlonged e&posure can lead to an acne1like skin condition or other skin disorders, and may cause damage to the li.er, kidneys or ner.ous system.

I#"r/%#ic %rse#ic%)s,
Re&posure to high concentrations of arsenical compounds can cause nausea, headache, abdominal pain 0if material was swallowed"' e&treme symptoms can progress to di22iness, muscle spasms, delirium and con.ulsion. RProlonged e&posure can produce chronic, persistent symptoms of headache, abdominal distress, sali.ation, low1grade fe.er, and upper respiratory irritation. Rlong term effects can include li.er damage, loss of hair and fingernails, anemia and skin disorders.

Firs! Aid
Since accidents do happen, first aid information on the chemical0s" in use must be readily a.ailable. /he product label gi.es basic first aid directions, as do Material Safety 4ata sheets supplied by chemical manufacturers. /he following general steps are applicable for accidental e&posure to wood preser.ati.es. RIn cases of skin contact, first remo.e contaminated clothing that5s in contact with the skin, immediately wash the affected areas with mild soap and water. 4on5t irritate the skin with .igorous scrubbing. 8ater, if you notice inflamed skin, redness or itching in the affected area, consult a doctor. RIn cases of eye contact, immediately flush the eyes with running water. 8ift the upper and lower eyelids for complete irrigation and continue for fifteen minutes, then see a doctor. R If accidental inhalation has occurred, mo.e the .ictim to fresh air and apply artificial respiration as needed. )et medical help immediately. If chemical preser.ati.e has been swallowed, call medical help immediately J if creosote or penta was swallowed, first gi.e one or two glasses of water, induce .omiting, then administer two tablespoons of S9SP 4rug )rade5 acti.ated charcoal in water. J If an arsenical chemical has been swallowed, drink large quantities of water, or milk if a.ailable. )et professional medical help immediately. R 3e.er attempt to gi.e anything by mouth to an unconscious person. R 3e.er induce .omiting in an unconscious person.

**

Pr"!ec!i#/ !+e A

)ic%!"r

Ge#er%) 7 )ood work habits are reflected in the general precautions included on all wood preser.ati.e labels. /hese basic, common1sense hygiene rules can significantly reduce risks of chronic e&posure to wood preser.ati.e chemicals. #or e&ample R 4on5t eat, drink or smoke in the work area 1 worker5s hands can transmit residues to what e.er they touch. R ;ash hands often, especially before using the restroom, smoking or eating. glo.es, boots and goggles and head co.ering" imper.ious to the wood treatment formulation . R %&posure to pentachlorophenol during pregnancy should be a.oided. Arse#ic%)s, R All e&posed arsenic treatment plant workers will be required to wear a respirator if the le.el of ambient arsenic is unknown or e&ceeds a Permissible %&posure 8imit 0P%8" of !D micrograms per cubic meter of air 0ug@m*" a.erage o.er an F hour work day. /his P%8 is the same as the standard required by the +ccupational Safety and 6ealth Administration. R Processes used to apply inorganic arsenical formulations shall lea.e no .isible surface deposits on the wood. Small isolated or infrequent spots of chemical on otherwise clean wood shall be allowed.

Li$i!%!i"#s "# Use


7ecent %PA regulations on wood preser.ati.es include some limitations on treating wood intended for certain uses, and on certain uses of treated wood. -e sure that the label allows you to use the preser.ati.es for the specific use you intend. 3ot all of these limitations are the responsibility of commercial treaters, but these limitations should be known. /he following is a summary of wood preser.ations use limitations. R Pentachlorophenol and creosote cannot be applied indoors. R Pentachlorophenol1or creosote1treated wood must not be used where there may be contamination of feed, food, drinking or irrigation water. 7 Pe#!%c+)"r" +e#") cannot be applied !" .""d i#!e#ded f"r (se i# i#!eri"rs2 e&cept for millwork 0with outdoor surfaces" and support structures which are in contact with the soil in barns, stables, and similar sites and which are sub:ect to decay or insect infestation. A se%)er $(s! 3e % )ied i# !+"se i#s!%#ces5 7 Cre"s"!e cannot be applied to wood intended to be used in interiors e&cept for those support structures which are in contact with the soil in barns, stables, and similar sites and which are R 7emo.e glo.es to handle paper work, phones or equipment which others may handle with unprotected hands. R At commercial treatment plants, protecti.e clothing must be left at the plant. If work clothes must be laundered at home, wash them separately from other laundry. R Protecti.e clothing requirements will be specified on the label. /hese will include use of impermeable glo.es for applying the preser.ati.es and in all situations where dermal 0skin" contact is e&pected 0e.g. handling freshly treated wood and manually opening pressure treatment cylinders". In certain situations such as spraying the chemicals and working around pressure treatment equipment, additional clothing may be required. Such clothing may include o.eralls, :ackets, boots, respirators 0properly fitting and maintained, appro.ed by MS6A@3I+S6" goggles and head co.ering. U Indi.iduals who enter pressure treatment cylinders and other related equipment that is contaminated with the wood treatment solution 0such as cylinders that are in operation or are not free of the solution" must wear protecti.e clothing, including o.eralls, :acket, glo.es, and boots, imper.ious to the wood treatment solution, and a respirator.

S eci%) Prec%(!i"#s
Pe#!%c+)"r" +e#"),
R #or prilled, powdered or flaked formulations of pentachlorophenol 9ntil August *!, !CFA, a closed emptying and mi&ing system must be used or protecti.e clothing, including respirator, glo.es, long1 slee.ed shirt and long pants or disposable co.eralls, must be worn when emptying and mi&ing prilled, powdered or flaked formulations of pentachlorophenol. After September !, !CFA a closed system must be used when emptying and mi&ing such formulations of pentachlorophenol.

*,

R#or the spray method of application, spray apparatus must 0!" be operated so as to minimi2e o.erspray 0i.e., no .isible mist" and 0(" be free of leaks in the system. Should there be a .isible mist, spray applicators in the 2one in which mist is .isible must wear respirators and protecti.e clothing 0including o.eralls, :acket, sub:ect to decay or insect infestations. /wo coats of % se%)er $(s! 3e % )ied5 R /he application of pentachlorophenol to logs for construction "f )"/ +"$es is r"+i3i!ed5 R If creosote or pentachlorophenol is applied to wood intended to be used where it will be e&posed to body contact, sealants must be applied.

M%!eri%) S%fe!* D%!% S+ee! 9MSDS:


Material Safety 4ata Sheets are a.ailable from the manufacturers and distributors of the wood preser.ati.es they sell. /hese sheets contain information on such topics as to&icity and first aid, personal protection and controls, storage and handling precautions, spill1leak disposal practices, transportation, physical data and reacti.ity data. Oou should ha.e a MS4S on file for each different formulation that you use. Some states may ha.e Sright1to1know5 laws that will require you to do this.

V")(#!%r* C"#s($er A.%re#ess Pr"/r%$


In order to apprise the consumer of the proper uses of treated wood and the proper precautionary measures to take when using such wood, the treated wood industry has de.eloped a .oluntary Consumer Awareness Program 0CAP". /he treated wood industry is committed to the implementation of the CAP and the education of the consuming public. /he treated wood industry will de.elop a model Consumer Information Sheet 0CIS" containing use site precautions and safe working practices for each of the three types of preser.ati.es. /he CIS will ser.e as the main .ehicle for con.eying information about treated wood to consumers. /he focus of the CAP will be on ensuring the dissemination of the CIS at the time of sale or deli.ery to end users. /he indi.idual wood treater5s CIS will, at a minimum, contain the language agreed to by A;PI, SA;P, 3#PA, and %PA on the model CIS to the e&tent it applies to the wood preser.er5s product. ;ood treaters will be free to add other information to their CIS5s such as the member5s name, address, and logo' but in all cases, the use site precautions and the safe handling practices information will be separate, legible, and prominent. /he primary responsibility for ensuring that the CIS is disseminated to the consuming public will reside with the wood treaters. /his .oluntary program may be modified by %PA at a later date.

I#"r/%#ic Arse#ic%) Press(re6Tre%!ed W""d


/he following wording will appear on the Consumer Information Sheet 0CIS" for inorganic arsenical pressure1treated wood Consumer *n(ormation /his wood has been preser.ed by pressure1treatment with an %PA1registered pesticide containing creosote to protect it from insect attack and decay. ;ood treated with creosote should be used only where such protection is important. Creosote penetrates deeply into and remains in the pressure1treated wood for a long time. %&posure to creosote may present certain ha2ards. /herefore the following precautions should be taken both when handling the treated wood and in determining where to use the treated wood. +se site Precautions (or *nor"anic Arsenical Pressure-Treated !ood ;ood, pressure1treated with waterborne arsenical preser.ati.es, may be used inside residences as long as all sawdust and construction debris are cleaned up and disposed of after construction. U 4o not use treated wood under circumstances where the preser.ati.es may become a component of food or animal feed. %&amples of such sites would be structural or containers for storing silage or food. U 4o not use treated wood for cutting1boards or countertops. U +nly treated wood that is .isibly clean and free of surface residue should be used in patios, decks and walkways. U 4o not use treated wood for construction of those portions of beehi.es which may come into contact with the honey. /reated wood should not be used where it may come into direct or indirect contact with public drinking water, e&cept for uses in.ol.ing incidental contact such as docks and bridges. %andlin" Precautions (or *nor"anic Arsenical Pressure-Treated !ood 4ispose of treated wood by ordinary trash collection or burial. /reated wood should not be burned in open fires or in sto.es, fireplaces, or residential boilers because to&ic chemicals may be produced as part

*>

of the smoke and ashes. /reated wood from commercial or industrial use 0e.g.,construction sites" may be burned only in commercial or industrial incinerators or boilers in accordance with State and #ederal regulations. A.oid frequent or prolonged inhalation of sawdust from treated wood. ;hen sawing and machining treated wood,, wear a dusk mask. ;hene.er possible, these operations should be performed outdoors to a.oid indoor accumulations of airborne sawdust from treated wood.

Cre"s"!e Press(re6Tre%!ed W""d


/he following wording will appear on the Consumer Information Sheets 0CIS" for creosote pressure treated wood Consumer *n(ormation 1 /his wood has been preser.ed by pressure treatment with an %PA1registered pesticide containing creosote to protect it from insect attack and decay. ;ood treated with creosote should be used only where such protection is important. Creosote penetrates deeply into and remains in the pressure treated wood for a long time. %&posure to creosote may present certain ha2ards. /herefore the following precautions should be taken both when handling the treated wood and in determining where to use the treated wood. +se Site Precautions (or Creosote Pressure-Treated !ood ;ood treated with creosote should not be used where it will be in frequent or prolonged contact with bare skin 0for e&ample, chairs and other outdoor furniture" unless an effecti.e sealer has been applied. Creosote1treated wood should not be used in residential interiors. Creosote1treated wood in interiors of industrial buildings should be used only for industrial building components which are in ground contact and are sub:ect to decay or insect infestation, and for wood block flooring. #or such uses, two coats of an appropriate sealer must be applied. Sealers may be applied at the installation site. ;ood treated with creosote should not be used in the interiors of farm buildings where there may be in direct contact with domestic animals or li.estock which may crib 0bite" or lick the wood. In interiors of farm buildings, where domestic animals or li.estock are unlikely to crib 0bite" or lick the wood, creosote1treated wood may be used for building components which are in ground contact and are sub:ect to decay or insect infestation, if two coats of an effecti.e sealer are applied. Sealers may be applied at the installation site. R4o not use creosote treated wood for farrowing or brooding facilities. R4o not use treated wood under circumstances where the preser.ati.e may become a component of food or animal feed. %&amples of such use would be structures or containers for storing silage or food. R4o not use treated wood for cutting1boards or countertops. +nly treated wood that is .isibly clean and free of surface residues should be used for patios, decks and walkways. R4o not use treated wood for construction of those portions of beehi.es which may come into contact with the honey. Creosote1treated wood should not be used where it may come into direct or indirect contact with public drinking water, e&cept for uses in.ol.ing incidental contact such as docks and bridges. R4o not use creosote1treated wood where it may come into direct or indirect contact with drinking water for domestic animals or li.estock, e&cept for uses in.ol.ing incidental contact such as docks and bridges. %andlin" Precautions (or Creosote Pressure-Treated !ood 4ispose of treated wood by ordinary trash collection or burial. /reated wood should not be burned in open fires or in sto.es, fireplaces, or residential boilers, because to&ic chemicals may be produced as part of the smoke and ashes. /reated wood from commercial or industrial use 0e.g., construction sites" may be burned only in commercial or industrial incinerators or boilers in accordance with State and #ederal regulations. A.oid frequent of prolonged inhalation of sawdust from treated wood. ;hen sawing and machining treated wood, wear a dust mask. ;hene.er possible, these operations should be performed outdoors to a.oid indoor accumulations of airborne sawdust from treated wood. A.oid frequent or prolonged skin contact with creosote1treated wood. ;hen handling the treated wood, wear longslee.ed shirts and long pants and use glo.es imper.ious to the chemicals 0for e&ample, glo.es that are .inyl1coated". ;hen power1sawing and machining, wear goggles to protect eyes from flying particles. After working with the wood, and before eating, drinking, and use of tobacco products, wash e&posed areas thoroughly. If oil preser.ati.e or sawdust accumulate on clothes, launder before reuse. ;ash work clothes separately from other household clothing. Coal tar pitch and coal tar pitch emulsion are effecti.e sealers for creosote1treated wood1block flooring. 9rethane, epo&y and shellac are acceptable sealers for all creosote1 treated wood.

*?

Pe#!%c+)"r" +e#") Press(re6Tre%!ed W""d


/he following wording will appear on the Consumer Information Sheets 0CIS" for pentachlorophenol pressure1treated wood Consumer *n(ormation- /his wood has been preser.ed by pressure1treatment with an %PA1registered pesticide containing pentachlorophenol to protect it from insect attack and decay. ;ood treated with pentachlorophenol should be used only where such protection is important. Pentachlorophenol penetrates deeply into and remains in the pressure1treated wood for a long time. %&posure to pentachlorophenol may present certain ha2ards. /herefore, the following precautions should be taken both when handling the treated wood and in determining where to use and dispose of the treated wood. +se Site Precautions (or Pentachlorophenol Pressure-Treated !ood 6 8ogs treated with pentachlorophenol should not be used for log homes. ;ood treated with pentachlorophenol should not be used where it will be in frequent or prolonged contact with bare skin 0for e&ample, chairs and other outdoor furniture", unless an effecti.e sealer has been applied. Pentachlorophenol1treated wood should not be used in residential, industrial, or commercial interiors e&cept for laminated beams or building components which are in ground contact and are sub:ect to decay or insect infestation and where two coats of an appropriate sealer are applied. Sealers may be applied at the installation site. ;ood treated with pentachlorophenol should not be used in the interiors of farm buildings where there may be direct contact with domestic animals or li.estock which may crib 0bite" or lick the wood. In interiors of farm buildings where domestic animals or li.estock are unlikely to crib 0bite" or lick the wood, pentachlorophenol1treated wood may be used for building components which are in ground contact and are sub:ect to decay or insect infestation and where two coat of an appropriate sealer are applied. Sealers may be applied at the installation site. R4o not use pentachlorophenol1treated wood for farrowing or brooding facilities. R4o not use treated wood under circumstances where the preser.ati.e may become a component of food or animal feed. %&amples of such sites would be structures or containers for storing silage or food. R4o not use treated wood for cutting boards or countertops. +nly treated wood that is .isibly clean and free of surface residue should be used for patios, decks and walkways. R4o not use treated wood for construction of those portions of beehi.es which may come into contact with the honey. Pentachlorophenol1treated wood should not be used where it may come into direct or indirect contact with public drinking water, e&cept for uses in.ol.ing incidental contact such as docks and bridges. R4o not use pentachlorophenol1treated wood where it may come into direct or indirect contact with drinking water for domestic animals or li.estock, e&cept for uses in.ol.ing incidental contact such as docks and bridges. %andlin" Precautions (or Pentachlorophenol Pressure-Treated !ood 4ispose of treated wood by ordinary trash collection or burial. /reated wood should not be burned in open fires or in sto.es, fireplaces, or residential boilers because to&ic chemicals may be produced as part of the smoke and ashes. /reated wood from commercial or industrial use 0e.g., construction sites" may be burned only in commercial or industrial incinerators or boilers rated at (D million -/9@hour or greater heat input or its equi.alent in accordance with State and #ederal regulations. A.oid frequent or prolonged inhalation of sawdust from treated wood. ;hen sawing or machining treated wood, wear a dust mask. ;hene.er possible, these operations should be performed outdoors to a.oid indoor accumulations of airborne sawdust from treated wood. A.oid frequent or prolonged skin contact with pentachlorophenol1treated wood' when handling the treated wood, wear long1slee.ed shirts and long pants and use glo.es imper.ious to the chemicals 0for e&ample, glo.es that are .inyl1coated". ;hen power1sawing and machining, wear goggles to protect eyes from flying particles. After working with the wood, and before eating, drinking and use of tobacco products, wash e&posed areas thoroughly. If oily preser.ati.es or sawdust accumulate on clothes, launder before reuse. ;ash work clothes separately from other household clothing. 9rethane, shellac, late& epo&y enamel and .arnish are acceptable sealers for pentachlorophenol1treated wood.

*A

PROTECTING THE ENVIRONMENT


W%s!e Dis "s%)
;aste from preser.ati.e treating operations can kill plant life and harm aquatic life if allowed to enter waterways. +ils and organic solids damage aquatic life by reducing o&ygen supplies. Some treating plants discharge their wastes into appro.ed municipal sewer systems for processing along with municipal wastes. Many plants use closed chemical and wastewater reco.ery systems to contain wastes that could be harmful. 7eco.ered solutions may be used again. If they are contaminated, they can be filtered to remo.e solid wastes. 8iquid waste materials may be di.erted to settling ponds. 4oor sumps should be used under pressure1chamber doors and under hard1surfaced drainage areas. /hey will channel into the waste or reco.ery system any e&cess chemicals that drip or are rinsed from freshly treated material. It is also important to contain the runoff from areas where to&ic chemicals are used to protect stored logs, poles, or lumber before processing or during seasoning. /he 9.S. %n.ironmental Protection Agency requires treatment facilities to meet certain disposal standards and to obtain permits for discharge of e&cess chemicals. Compliance with these regulations should assure proper en.ironmental protection. 7emember to read the label carefully for disposal information for the products you are using.

S!"r%/e %#d Dis "s%) "f C"#!%i#ers


Packaged chemicals should be stored in a dry, well1.entilated, security locked area. Neep them in well1 sealed containers whene.er possible. Protect liquid storage against tank rupture. ;hene.er spills, leaks, or flooding could occur, be sure that runoff will drain into a reco.ery or disposal system 0Safeguard concrete .ats from free2ing, cracking and spillage". Containers should be thoroughly rinsed and emptied into storage or treating tanks before disposal. -ury the containers in an appro.ed landfill or dispose of them by other appro.ed means. -e particularly careful not to contaminate streams or ground water. -e sure to read and follow label requirements and safety data sheets for each preser.ati.e. If you are in doubt about how to safely store a product or dispose of the empty containers, contact the supplier and follow his recommendations.

S i))s
Correct cleanup procedures depend on the chemical in.ol.ed. /reating plant personnel should know what chemicals are being stored and used and should ha.e an ad.ance plan for handling spills. All workers who might be in.ol.ed should know what help is a.ailable and who to notify in case of a ma:or spill.

E#0ir"#$e#!%) E4 "s(re
Pe#!%
Penta is not uncommon in the aquatic en.ironment. Circumstantial e.idence, including the identification of penta in rain water, indicates that penta may occasionally be present in ambient air. 8ow le.els of this compound ha.e been detected in both wastewater and surface water. ;hile the source of these residues is often unclear, it has been suggested that, in addition to direct contamination of water by penta, degradation of other organic compounds or chlorination of water may result in the chemical production of the compound. Penta is moderately persistent in the aquatic en.ironment. It was reportedly detected in lake water and fish ? months after an accidental spill. /he pre.ailing use patterns of penta, primarily as a wood preser.ati.e, should preclude significant contamination of water as long as spills and industrial accidents are a.oided. Penta is moderately persistent in the soil. Published data reports that persistence ranges from (! days to > years. 9nder most conditions, penta will seldom persist in the soil for periods e&ceeding C months and its half1life will frequently be far less than this. 3umerous studies ha.e identified soil microorganisms capable of degrading penta, but the e&tent of their distribution is unknown. Since the ma:or use of penta 0wood preser.ati.e" does not in.ol.e application to the soil, the likeliest source of soil contamination is

*F

the leaching or bleeding of the preser.ati.e from treated wood. Such phenomena may result in low le.els of penta contamination in the immediate .icinity 0within se.eral inches" of the treated wood. A.ailable data indicate that penta is not readily translocated by plants and that the compound in rapidly eliminated by mammals following e&posure. Significant accumulation in plants and mammals is not likely to occur.

Arse#ic%)s
3o problems ha.e been found in the literature as to the effects of arsenical wood preser.ati.es on the en.ironment. Arsenate, the form present in aerobic soils, is bound tightly to the soil components and becomes una.ailable for plant uptake or leaching.

Cre"s"!e
/here are no recorded reports of wild or domestic animals being in:ured by creosote. /he amount of creosote as a liquid that enters the en.ironment is relati.ely small. /he fate of creosote in the en.ironment is not known, but most of its components are quickly biodegraded.

Air Se%s"#i#/ 9Dr*i#/: "f W""d


Dr*i#/, 0air seasoning" wood can be comple&. /he purpose of this guide is to outline some of the important points in drying small quantities of wood. People who buy green lumber from one of the many small sawmills in Missouri are often interested in drying and possibly surfacing the lumber. Sawmill operators and dealers who wish to approach the sub:ect on a larger, more professional scale are referred to 9S4A Agriculture 6andbook 3umber ,D(. VAir 4rying of 8umber.V

Re%s"#s f"r %ir dr*i#/ .""d


/here are many reasons for drying wood. #our main reasons include R/o increase dimensional stability. ;ood shrinks across the grain 0not along the grain" when it dries. If wood is cut to si2e before it is seasoned, it will shrink during drying and thus be undersi2ed in its final form. R/o reduce or eliminate attack by decay or stain. ;ood that is dried below (D percent moisture content is not susceptible to decay or sap staining. R/o reduce the weight. /he weight of lumber will be reduced by *> percent or more by remo.ing most of the water in the wood or, as we say, by Vseasoning.V R/o increase the strength. As wood dries, the stiffness, hardness and strength of the wood increases. Most species of wood increase their strength characteristics by >D percent or more during the process of drying to !> percent moisture content. Pi)i#/ L($3er f"r Air Dr*i#/ /he ob:ecti.e of air drying wood is to remo.e the water in wood by e&posing all surfaces of each piece of wood to circulating air. In Missouri, wood can be air dried to a minimum of about !> percent moisture content, pro.ided the drying time is sufficiently long. It is also necessary to support the wood during drying to pre.ent the lumber from warping during the drying process. 8umber is piled in a special way to ma&imi2e the surface e&posure of each piece of lumber to the air and at the same time to support each piece so it will dry straight and without unnecessary warping. /he first consideration is to prepare a strong foundation, ! to ( feet abo.e the ground, on which to pile the lumber. /he ground beneath the foundation should be kept free of .egetation or debris that would hinder air circulation under the pile. Oour lumber probably will be cut in random lengths and widths. #or best results, pile each course so that each board within a layer is well supported and does not protrude at either end of the pile. /his system of piling is called Vbo& pilingV and has pro.en to be the best method of piling random length lumber. /he outside boards of each tier are full length. /his is important to tie the pile together and make it less sub:ect to tilting or falling o.er. 8ea.e spaces between ad:acent boards appro&imately equal to the thickness of the boards.

*C

9nsupported ends of boards placed on the inside of the pile will dry with less defect than if allowed to e&tend o.er the end of the pile. An adequate supply of wooden sticks 0spacers" will be needed to separate each layer. It is .ery important that the sticks be uniform in thickness. Sticks usually are cut *@,1inch thick. 3ote that the stickers are carefully aligned .ertically so that each layer of lumber will be supported from the base of the pile. If the stickers are not properly aligned, forces will be created in the drying lumber that will result in permanent kinking of the lumber. #inally, co.er the pile with old boards, plywood, corrugated metal or any materials that will protect the top layers of lumber from sun and rain. It is also a good idea to weight the top by placing hea.y ob:ects such as concrete blocks or stones on the roof. /his will reduce warping in the top tiers of the pile as well as secure the roof on the pile. Dr*i#/ !i$e In warm weather 0April through +ctober", !1inch lumber can be dried to !> or (D percent moisture content in ,> to ?D days 0(1inch lumber in ?D to CD days". In the winter months, lumber will require twice as long to dry. 8umber at !> percent to (D percent moisture content is adequate for building unheated structures such as garages or barns. If the wood is to be used inside a heated structure, further drying in a commercial kiln is necessary 0? percent to F percent moisture content for indoor use in Missouri." W""d Dr*i#/ %#d Se%s"#i#/ Niln dried, air dried, green, seasoned all words used to describe the condition of wood. -ut, what do they meanW ;hich is the best for meW 1i)# dried, 6eat and air flow is in an enclosed space is used to dry out all the water content .ery quickly. /his also has the side effect of remo.ing .arious oils and resins. ;hile this may be +N for construction grade materials, fine woodworking materials will suffer from the process. Air dried, As the name implies, this is wood that is dried by air alone. 3o artificial heat source is used in the process. Gree#, #reshly cut wood. +pposite of seasoned. Se%s"#ed, ;ood that has been dried while retaining .arious oils and resins. /hese oils and resins undergo a chemical transformation where they harden the wood fibers, producing a stronger piece of wood. In both kiln dried and air dried wood, youTll see shrinkage of the wood fibers, resulting in warpage of the wood. Proper stacking and stickering helps to a.oid this warpage. 6owe.er, with air dried wood, the warpage is generally less se.ere. Niln dried wood has another distinct disad.antage chemicals remo.ed in the rapid drying process are oils that allow wood mo.ement. 3ow, generally, woodworkers donTt like wood mo.ement in their pro:ects. 6owe.er, this is mo.ement of a different nature. /he mo.ement ITm talking about here is the kind that allows the wood fibers to slip past each other and relie.e stress in the wood. /he ma:ority of us ha.e heard war stories of case hardened pieces of wood being ripped on the tablesaw, warping without warning, and then causing a se.ere kick1back. Air dried wood, on the other hand, thanks to the seasoning process, is much more stable. It tends to be less brittle, take a better finish, and in general be easier to work with. /he downside, of course, is that air drying takes much longer and therefore is much more e&pensi.e.

,D

C+88%)% +# #+7%S/7O A34 %3=I7+3M%3/A8 S/94I%S MI34A3A+ S/A/% 93I=%7SI/O $ MAI3 CAMP9S MA7A;I CI/O

REVIEW QUESTIONS IN WOOD PRESERVATION AND SEASONING


3* F"res!er De3"r%+ C5 Ac+%s

!. /he basic wood cell is often referred to as a fiber or a longitudinal tracheid. A. /rue -. #alse (. Cell walls of wood fiber are made up of A. Small bits of cellulose -. A matri& of hemicellulose C. /hin layer of lignin 4. All of the abo.e *. /he pits in wood cell structures are important for A. ;ater mo.ement in li.ing trees from cell to cell -. Mo.ement of water in drying lumber C. Mo.ement of chemical solutions in impregnation of wood 4. All of the abo.e ,. All wood species ha.e small tissues called rays that wea.e their way between the longitudinal fibers from the bark toward the pith. A. /rue -. #alse >. Sapwood is A. ;ood that is located near the cambium layer -. Made up of inacti.e cells C. More dense and drier than heartwood 4. All of the abo.e ?. 6eartwood A. Consists of inacti.e cells -. Includes waste material which darkens wood C. Is more dense and drier wood 4. All of the abo.e A. #ungi, which are a simple type of non1chlorophyll containing plants, cause wood decay. A. /rue -. #alse F. #ungal growth starts from tiny airborne spores. /o continue growth of fungi, they need A. Cold temperatures -. !>1!>1!> fertili2er C. 6igh nitrogen fertili2er 4. 8ow le.els of 2inc %. 3one of the abo.e C. /he germinating fungal spores cause damage to wood by A. Making water circles in the wood -. 4e.eloping microscopic, root1like threads, called hyphae C. Allowing insects to chew into the wood 4. All of the abo.e

,!

!D. /here are two ma:or groups of wood inhabiting fungi. -ased on the type of damage they cause wood1 destroying and wood1staining. A. /rue -. #alse !!. /he characteristics of decay fungi 0wood destroying fungi" are A. -oth sapwood and heartwood can be affected -. #ungi may grow in the interior of the wood or appear on the wood surface as fan1shaped patches C. /he color of these growths range from white through light brown 4. /he decay will stop when temperatures are either too hot or cold and moisture le.el too dry or wet %. All of the abo.e !(. ;hich fungi are able to break down the cellulose component of wood for foodW A. -rown rot -. ;hite rot C. Soft rot 4. 3one of the abo.e !*. /he final stage of wood decay by brown rot can be identified by A. /he dark brown color of the wood -. %&cessi.e shrinkage C. Cross1grain cracking 4. /he ease with which the dry wood substance can be crushed to powder %. All of the abo.e !,. ;hich rot can break down both lignin and cellulose and ha.e a bleaching effect 0causing the wood to appear whiter than normal"W A. -rown rot -. ;hite rot C. Soft rot 4. )ut rot !>. ;hich rot attacks green woodW A. -rown rot -. ;hite rot C. Soft rot 4. #oot rot !?. /he fungi which cause wood1staining are A. Sap staining fungi -. -rown rot C. Mold fungi 4. ;hite rot %. -oth A X C !A. Sap1staining fungi A. 6a.e little effect on the strength of the wood -. 4estroy the woods appearance for such things as siding and furniture C. Can be established in sapwood of standing trees, sawlogs, lumber and timbers as soon as they are cut. 4. All of the abo.e !F. ;hat are some of the differences between ants and termitesW A. Ants do not eat wood, termites do -. Ants ha.e elbow antennae, termites do not C. Ants ha.e narrow waists, termite bodies are broad 4. All of the abo.e !C. /he subterranean termite colony produces winged males and females that begin a new colony in the soil. A. /rue -. #alse

,(

(D. ;hat are some of the ways subterranean termite presence can be notedW A. /he swarming of winged, ant1like insects and the discarded wings -. /he earthen shelter tubes built o.er masonry or other foundations to source of wood C. /he presence of white workers when shelter tubes are broken 4. /he hollowed1out condition of badly infested wood products %. All of the abo.e (!. 4ry wood termites attack dry wood without direct contact with the soil. A. /rue -. #alse ((. 4amp wood termites require moist wood. A. /rue -. #alse (*. Carpenter ants use wood for shelter, not for food. A. /rue -. #alse (,. Signs of damage being done by powderpost beetles are A. Small round !@!?V holes made in surface of wood -. #ine powder that falls from the wood C. /he presence of white workers 4. -oth A and (>. Moisture content of li.ing trees is appro&imately >DD percent. A. /rue -. #alse (?. /he main reasons that moisture must be remo.ed from green wood are A. /o pre.ent stain and decay -. /o reduce damage by insects C. /o reduce shrinkage 4. /o reduce weight and increase strength %. All of the abo.e (A. #or storing timber or logs for a long time before processing and protecting them from fungi and insects, logs should be A. Stacked on dry lots .ery tightly -. Sprayed with fuel oil C. 4ebarked 4. Submerged in a pond of water %. 3one of the abo.e (F. #or seasoning or drying, the most efficient and widely used system is kiln drying. A. /rue -. #alse (C. In storing lumber, one management practice is to locate air1drying yards and sheds on a well1drained site with good air circulation. A. /rue -. #alse *D. 7otted wood should be remo.ed from the storage yard because it can harbor insect and fungal pests. A. /rue -. #alse *!. ;hich of the following tree species ha.e a natural resistance to an attack by decay fungiW A. Maple -. Ash C. -lack 8ocust 4. ;hite Pine %. -o&elder

,*

*(. /o determine the effecti.eness of a chemical treatment on wood, you should consider the A. Age of the tree -. Chemical formulation selected C. Moisture content of the wood 4. - X C abo.e %. 3one of the abo.e

**. ;ood preser.ati.es can fall into the following categories A. Creosote -. +ilborne preser.ati.es C. +rganic carbon preser.ati.es 4. All of the abo.e %. 3one of the abo.e *,. Creosote is often called coal tar because of its close relationship to which compoundsW A. /oluene -. -en2ene C. /ar 4. All of the abo.e *>. Creosote gi.es off .apors which produce a sunburn1like rash on human skin. A. /rue -. #alse *?. ;hat characteristics make creosote a popular preser.ati.e for the railroad and utility companiesW A. It is unpaintable -. It is to&ic to decay C. It will not leach 4. It is to&ic to insects %. -oth - and 4 *A. Penta, which can be equal to creosote as a preser.ati.e, can be made by dissol.ing > percent penta salt in A. ;ater -. Alcohol C. 8iquid fat 4. Petroleum oil %. -enomyl *F. Penta may be used to treat wood to be used as A. #ood crates -. 9tility poles C. #eed troughs 4. 3one of the abo.e *C. /he only preser.ati.e appro.ed for wood which is to directly come in contact with human food is A. Copper naphthenate -. Yinc naphthenate C. Acid copper chromate 4. Copper1F quinolinolate %. 3one of the abo.e ,D. ;hat is a disad.antage of waterborne preser.ati.esW A. /hey lea.e an oily, unpaintable surface -. /hey are to&ic and irritating to plants and animals C. /hey ha.e dark color 4. /hey do not protect the wood from e&cessi.e weathering %. 3one of the abo.e

,,

,!. ;ood must be prepared properly before a preser.ati.e is applied. A. /rue -. #alse ,(. /he bark and cambium layers must be completely remo.ed before thorough penetration of the preser.ati.es can occur. A. /rue -. #alse ,*. Preser.ati.e treatments are more effecti.e if the wood is dried prior to treatment because A. /here is more space in wood cells for preser.ati.es -. Checks form before treatment, facilitating penetration of preser.ati.e into the wood C. /he chance of checks occurring after treatment e&posing untreated wood is much less 4. All of the abo.e ,,.;ith the non1pressure method of brushing, spraying and pouring treatments, one of the ma:or concerns with the wood is A. /he wood must be dry -. /he wood must be high in moisture content C. /he wood must be immersed in oil prior to the treatment 4. All of the abo.e ,>. ;ith the non1pressure treatment of brushing, spraying and pouring, the second application should be applied before the first coat is dry. A. /rue -. #alse ,?. /he treatment of dipping consists of immersing wood in a preser.ati.e solution for se.eral seconds to se.eral minutes. A. /rue -. #alse ,A. Cold soaking is commonly used for treating round fence posts and sawn timbers using which preser.ati.esW A. Creosote -. Copper1F1quinolinolate C. +il1borne preser.ati.es 4. All of the abo.e ,F. /he steeping process in.ol.es which preser.ati.esW A. ;ater1borne preser.ati.es -. +il1borne preser.ati.e C. Creosote preser.ati.e 4. 3one of the abo.e ,C. +ne of the methods of e&tending the life of standing poles that ha.e been pre.iously treated is called A. Steeping -. Cold soaking C. 4ipping 4. Preser.ati.es pads >D. ;ood preser.ati.es can enter the body through A. Mouth -. Skin C. 8ungs 4. All of the abo.e >!. /he more likely forms of e&posure are dermal contact and inhalation of .apors or dust particles. A. /rue -. #alse

,>

>(. Creosote .apors can cause A. Skin irritations -. %ye watering C. 7espiratory problems 4. All of the abo.e >*. Pentachlorophenol not only irritates the eyes, skin and respiratory tract, but also A. Causes weakness -. Causes nausea C. Causes skin disorders 4. May cause damage to li.er, kidneys or ner.ous system %. All of the abo.e >,. /he long term effects of inorganic arsenicals are li.er damage, loss of hair and fingernails, anemia and skin disorders. A. /rue -. #alse >>. If creosote or penta was swallowed you would first ha.e the .ictim drink large quantities of milk. A. /rue -. #alse >?. Pentachlorophenol and creosote can be applied indoors. A. /rue -. #alse >A. Pentachlorophenol or creosote treated wood may be used around animal feed, food, drinking or irrigation water supplies. A. /rue -. #alse >F. Creosote cannot be applied to wood intended to be used in interiors e&cept for those supporting structures which come in contact with the soil, in which of the following structures A. 8og homes -. 7estaurants C. -arns 4. 6ospitals %. All of the abo.e >C. According to CIS, inorganic arsenical pressure1treated wood can not be used for which of the following A. #ood storage -. Cutting boards C. -urning in fireplace 4. Silage %. All of the abo.e ?D. Inorganic arsenical pressure1treated wood has been preser.ed by pressure1treatment with an %PA1 registered pesticide. A. /rue -. #alse ?!. /o be able to use creosote pressure1treated wood for outdoor furniture an effecti.e sealer must be applied. A. /rue -. #alse ?(. Creosote1treated wood should not be used in A. 7esidential interiors -. #arm buildings C. ;ater troughs 4. All of the abo.e

,?

?*. Creosote treated wood can be burned in open fires, sto.es and fireplaces. A. /rue -. #alse ?,. Oou do not need to worry about washing after working with creosote1treated wood. A. /rue -. #alse ?>. 9rethane, epo&y and shellac are acceptable sealers for all creosote1treated wood. A. /rue -. #alse ??. 8ogs treated with pentachlorophenol may be used for log homes. A. /rue -. #alse ?A A.oid frequent or prolonged skin contact or inhalation of sawdust from pentachlorophenol treated wood. A. /rue -. #alse ?F. +ils and organic solids from wood preser.ati.es damage and kill aquatic life by reducing the o&ygen in the water. A. /rue -. #alse ?C. /he 9.S. %n.ironmental Protection Agency requires treatment facilities to meet certain disposal standards and obtain permits for discharge of e&cess chemicals into the en.ironment. A. /rue -. #alse AD. A pesticide storage area should A. 6a.e a designated shelf for storing protecti.e clothing and equipment. -. -e well1insulated and .entilated. C. 3ot ha.e any type of constructed floorPin case of a spill or leak, a pesticide will be absorbed most efficiently by the soil itself. 4. All of the abo.e. A!. A substance which when added to wood pro.ides dimensional stability. A. #ire retardant chemical -. ;ood preser.ati.e C. bulking agent 4. fungicide A(. /his preser.ati.e, when treated to wood, cannot be painted o.er satisfactorily. A. Acid copper chromate -. Chromated copper arsenate C. creosote 4. Calcite A*. /he most effecti.e method of protecting wood against all types of marine borers is A. dual treatment with CCA followed by creosote -. single treatment with CCA C. single treatment with creosote 4. single treatment with bora& A,. 8ea.e the surface comparati.ely clean, paintable and free from ob:ectionable odor after treatment A. oil1borne preser.ati.es -. water1borne preser.ati.es C. tar

,A

4. coal tar A>. =apors from this preser.ati.e are harmful to growing plants A. Permithrin -. -ora& C. CCA 4. Creosote

A?. #reshly creosoted timber is susceptible to A. ;eathering -. -reakage C. #ire 4. 7ain AA. ;hen ma&imum absorption of preser.ati.e is desired in wood, the process used is A. #ull1cell process -. %mpty1cell process C. =acuum process 4. 8owry process AF. /his process aims at ma&imum penetration with a minimum net absorption by preser.ati.e A. #ull1cell process -. %mpty1cell process C. +n compound 4. -ethel process AC. A tar1oil preser.ati.e A. creosote -. pentachlorophenol C. boron compound 4. synthetic pyrenthroids FD. A fungicide which is banned in de.eloped countries A. creosote -. pentachlorophenol C. boron compound 4. synthetic pyrenthroids F!. A water1borne preser.ati.e A. creosote -. pentachlorophenol C. boron compound 4. copper naphanate F(. /his pressure treatment process is used when the retention of ma&imum quantity of preser.ati.e is desired A. -ethel process -. 8owry process C. 7ueping process 4. +scillating pressure method F*. A non1pressure preser.ati.e treatment of wood A. -ethel process -. %mpty1cell process C. dip diffusion 4. oscillating pressure method F,. /his method can be used for both green and well1seasoned wood A. Steeping -. 4ip diffusion

,F

C. Coal soaking 4. 4ipping F>. In.ol.es the immersion of seasoned wood for matter of hours, in successi.e baths of hot and relati.ely cold preser.ati.e A. hot and cold bath -. gross absorption C. hot and cold soaking 4. dipping F?. /he amount of preser.ati.e remaining in the wood immediately after completion of the treatment process is called A. absolute absorption -. gross absorption C. retention 4. penetration FA. /reatment of timber under specified condition until the quantity of preser.ati.e absorbed in a gi.en time is not more than a prescribe percentage of the amount already in:ected is A. retention -. penetration C. refusal treatment 4. treatment pressure FF. =olume of timber loaded into a cylinder or tank for treatment at a time A. Charge -. Packet C. -undle 4. Cord FC. /he preliminary treatment of unseasoned or partially seasoned timber to reduce its moisture content and impro.e its absorpti.e properties is A. Selection -. Conditioning C. Sorting 4. Spacing CD. A generic term applied to distillates of tars within specified temperature carboni2ation of bituminous coal is A. Creosote -. Charcoal C. Calcite 4. -ora& C!. A preser.ati.e that is applied to wood in the form of solution in oil A. water1borne preser.ati.e -. bending preser.ati.e C. oil1borne preser.ati.e 4. pressure preser.ati.e C(. /hat portion of a treating operation during which the wood and preser.ati.e in a cylinder are sub:ected to pressure in e&cess of atmospheric or initial air pressure which ha.e been used for the purpose of forcing the preser.ati.e in the wood A. Pressure period -. Initial air C. 7efusal period 4. 7etention period C*. Can increase preser.ati.e penetration in wood A. Incising -. Cupping C. -ending

,C

4. Steaming C,. A treatment process which requires poles to be in green condition prior to treatment A. Cellon process -. -oucherie process C. 7ueping process 4. Steaming C>. /he #P74I high $pressure $ sap displacement 06PS4" process of treating freshly1cut poles is basically a A. Cellon process -. -oucherie process C. 7ueping process 4. -oulton process C?. 6eartwood of this species is easy to treat A. Mangium -. 4ao C. Agoho 4. )ubas CA. Classified as difficult to treat A. /oog -. 8iusin C. Mangium 4. Almaciga CF. 6eartwood of this species has complete penetration of preser.ati.e by full1cell process A. Para rubber -. Palosapis C. -agras 4. /uai CC. /hese are fungi which feeds on easily1digested organic substances found in the ray cells and wood parenchyma A. Molds -. Staining fungi C. ;hite rot fungi 4. -rown rot fungi !DD. #ungi that attract the cellulose and its associated pentosans lea.ing a residue of modified partially degraded lignin A. Molds -. Staining fungi C. ;hite rot fungi 4. -rown rot fungi !D!. Attacks the secondary cell walls of the wood producing ca.ities or erosion patterns A. Molds -. Staining fungi C. ;hite rot fungi 4. -rown rot fungi !D(. Most fa.orable moisture condition for fungal growth in wood A. +.en1dry condition -. !DDG MC C. #SP 0(>1*(G MC" 4. %MC !D*. Attacks lumber with moisture content of ,DG and abo.e A. Ambrosia beetle

>D

-. Powder post beetle C. 8yctidae 4. 4ry wood termites !D,. Causes pinholes in logs or timber A. /ermites -. Ambrosia beetles C. Molds 4. Mollusks !D>. Stain can be pre.ented by A. application of insecticide -. application of fungicide C. steaming 4. incising !D?. /his glue component is classified as a carcinogen by the %uropian 9nion A. Phenol -. #ormaldehyde C. Melamine 4. 9rea !DA. /he chief cause of decay in wood A. #ungi -. Insects C. Mollusks 4. Pholads !DF. 7etention of water1borne preser.ati.e is calculated as A. kilogram per cubic meter -. kilogram of the dry salt per cubic meter C. kilogram of the acti.e ingredient per cubic meter 4. kilogram of the wet solution per cubic meter !DC. 6ardwoods do not treat well by this non1pressure method A. -rushing -. 4ipping C. Steeping 4. Cold soaking !!D. ;ood and wood products preser.ati.e treatment must be A. free of sapwood -. free of moisture C. free from blemish 4. free from decay and insect attack !!!. /his defect can be easily wiped or planed off a piece of lumber A. 4ecay fungi -. Stain C. Molds 4. Insect attack !!(. An e&ample of a mold that attacks lumber A. Pinicelium spp. -. Ceratocystis spp. C. Lenzites spp. 4. Polyporus spp. !!*. A white rot fungus that attacks wood A. Fomes spp -. Fusarium C. Diplodia spp. 4. Cluvularian spp.

>!

!!,. Moisture loss in wood below fiber saturation point is often accompanied by A. Shrinkage -. ;eight gain C. #ungi attack 4. 4ecay !!>. 9sed to monitor progress of drying of a kiln load A. Sample board -. #ascia board C. Monitor board 4. Sticker board !!?. Sample board should be selected from A. fastest drying lumber in the kiln load -. a.erage drying lumber in the kiln load C. slowest drying lumber in the kiln load 4. thinnest drying lumber in the kiln load !!A. )rowth of decay fungi in logs can be pre.ented by A. 8og ponding -. -lock piling C. Air drying 4. 4ehumidifying !!F. A blackish or brownish preser.ati.e made by distilling coal tar A. Creosote -. PCP C. -ora& 4. CCA !!C. 7ecommended for treatment of marine piles A. Creosote -. Pentachlorophenol C. -ora& 4. Cislin !(D. ;hich is easier to apply .arnish and other coatingW A. ;ood with higher moisture content -. ;ood with lower moisture content C. ;ood with low specific gra.ity 4. ;ood with high specific gra.ity !(!. A change in the MC of wood from #SP to o.en dry condition will A. Increase its electrical resistance and thermal insulating capacity -. decrease its nail1holding capacity C. increase its resistance to shock 4. resistant to stain and attack by insect !((. It is essential to season wood to its e&pected %MC to A. impro.e its anatomical properties -. minimi2e shrinkage and swelling C. increase resistance to penetration of chemicals 4. lower absorption of finishing oil !(*. A theoretical state of which all free water has e.aporated lea.ing bound water in the cell wall A. %MC -. #SP C. Moisture content 4. Shrinkage

>(

!(,. /he ratio of the weight of a gi.en .olume of wood to the weight of the same .olume of water at temperature of , degree Celsius is A. specific gra.ity -. density C. %MC 4. moisture content !(>. /he moisture content at which a piece of wood neither gains nor loses moisture when surrounded by air at a gi.en relati.e humidity and temperature is A. specific gra.ity -. density C. %MC 4. anisotropy !(?. ;ater found in the cell ca.ities is called A. bound water -. free water C. hygroscopic water 4. imbibed water !(A. Internal splitting in wood that de.elops in drying caused by internal stresses or by closing of surface checks A. honey combing -. case hardening C. cupping 4. warps !(F. Any distortion in a piece of wood from its true plane that may occur in seasoning A. warping -. burl C. shakes 4. brashness !(C. A term applied to dry lumber with nearly uniform moisture content but characteri2ed by the presence of residual stresses, tension in the interior of the piece and compression in the outer layers of cells A. casehardening -. re.erse casehardening C. heart shake 4. frost cracks !*D. It refers to the dead inner core of wood, usually distinguishable by its darker color A. hardwood -. heartwood C. hurt wood 4. sapwood !*!. #ungi that penetrate into the sapwood and caused staining too deep to be easily remo.ed A. true stain -. molds C. brown rot 4. dry rot !*(. ;ood destruction that may be caused by Ascomycetes and #ungi imperfecti A. white rot -. brown rot C. soft rot 4. pecky dry rot !**. Points where the water is e.aporated from the cell ca.ities A. #SP -. %MC C. Swelling

>*

4. Shrinkage !*,. /ype of wood destroying fungi that attack both cellulose and lignin A. pecky dry rot -. white rot C. brown rot 4. red rot !*>. 7ots that attack the cell wall carbohydrates A. white rot -. brown rot C. soft rot 4. pecky dry rot !*?. It refers to the decrease in dimensions due to the water loss A. Shrinkage -. Swelling C. 4ensity 4. Crying !*A. It refers to the distortions of wood from the true plane during Collapse drying season A. casehardening -. honeycombing C. swelling 4. warping !*F. Sudden changes of wood happen at one corner but not on the other A. Cupping -. 4iamonding C. /wisting 4. -owing !*C. 7efers to the ease with which a species of wood take sin liquid chemicals using .acuum or pressure process A. 6ygroscopicity -. 4urability C. Accessibility 4. /reatability !,D. 7eduction in dimensions due to lowering the moisture content below fiber saturation point A. Swelling -. 4esorption C. Conduction 4. Shrinkage !,!. /he mechanical and chemical disintegration and discoloration of the wood surface A. ;eathering -. 4ecay C. Staining 4. 4o2e !,(. Serious decay occurs only when the MC of wood is A. below #SP -. within #SP C. abo.e #SP 4. at #SP !,*. /he fiber saturation point 0#SP" of wood is reached when A. both cell lumen and cell walls are saturated by water -. both cell walls and cell lumen are without water C. cell walls are saturated with water and no water in the lumen 4. all of these

>,

!,,. ;ater found in cell ca.ities is A. ca.ity water -. cell water C. bound water 4. free water !,>. /he wood with greater cell wall and smaller cell ca.ities ha.e A. greater amount of wood elements -. small amount of wood elements C. greater amount of wood substances 4. wood substances and cell ca.ities are equal !,?. ;e used .ery mild kiln schedules for A. bagras, batino, bitaog -. yakal, dungon, binggas C. almaciga, dita, gubas 4. toog, malakauayan, igem !,A. /his group of species is .ery difficult to treat A. almaciga, bolon, liusin -. African tulip, balete and toog C. narig, bitaog and bokbok 4. agoho, katmon, and ipil !,F. ;hen kiln drying refractory species, change in kiln schedule should be based on A. a.erage MC of all sample boards -. a.erage MC of * wettest sample boards C. a.erage MC of * driest sample boards 4. MC of the wettest sample board !,C. /his process is used when ma&imum absorption of the preser.ati.e is desired A. 8owry process -. #ull1cell process C. %mpty1cell process 4. =acuum process !>D. 7apid drying in kiln is achie.ed by the use of A. high temperature and high relati.e humidity -. low temperature and high relati.e humidity C. low temperature and low relati.e humidity 4. high temperature and low relati.e humidity !>!. /he ratio of a gi.en weight of a gi.en .olume of wood to the weight of the gi.en .olume of water A. specific gra.ity -. equilibrium moisture content C. Moisture content 4. 4ensity !>(. Any substance that, for a reasonable length of time, is effecti.e in pre.enting the de.elopment and action of wood1rotting fungi, borers of .arious kinds and harmful insects that deteriorate wood is A. adhesi.e -. preser.ati.e C. e&tender 4. filler !>*. -iodeterioration in wood is caused by the following agents %ZC%P/ for A. fungi -. wear and tear C. insects 4. marine borer

>>

!>,. /he determination of preser.ati.e retention in a specific 2one of treated wood by attraction or analysis of specified samples A. spectrometer -. culture C. retention by assay 4. penetration by boring !>>. Measures the amount of water .apor in the atmosphere A. dew point -. psychrometer C. wet1bulb thermometer 4. dry1bulb thermometer !>?. 8ea.e the surface comparati.ely clean, paintable and free from ob:ectionable odor after treatment A. water1borne preser.ati.e -. tar C. oil1borne preser.ati.e 4. coal tar !>A. ;ood dried to a relati.ely constant temperature in a .entilated o.en at !D* J ( degrees Celsius A. shipping dry wood -. o.endry wood C. kiln1dried wood 4. air1dried wood !>F. Softening wood by hot water, steam or chemical treatment A. steaming -. plastici2ing C. si2ing 4. cooking !>C. ;ood processed to impart properties quite different from those of the original wood by means of chemical treatment, compression, or treatment with or without heat A. modified wood -. staypack C. papreg 4. laminated wood !?D. A process of treating wood with paraffin or a coke1o.en coal tar to increase its resistance to acids A. -oulton -. 7ueping C. 3iggeri2ing 4. 8owry

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ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS IN WOOD PRESERVATION ; SEASONING


3* F"res!er De3"r%+ C5 Ac+%s

!. C"rrec! A#s.er, A %&planation %.en though wood may seem to be a solid material, it is a plant material made up of plant cells. /he basic wood cell is often referred to as a fiber or longitudinal tracheid. (. C"rrec! A#s.er, D %&planation All of the abo.e are components of a wood cell5s wall. /he walls are made up of small bits of cellulose imbedded in a matri& of hemicellulose. All of this is cemented together by a layer of lignin. *. C"rrec! A#s.er, D %&planation All of the abo.e are important. /he ca.ities between cells are interconnected by passageways called pits. Pits are important passageways for water to mo.e from cell to cell in li.ing trees. /hese passageways are also important in processes such as drying wood and impregnation of wood with chemical solutions. ,. C"rrec! A#s.er, A2 %&planation /he answer is true. /he rays help conduct sap rapidly across the grain. >. C"rrec! A#s.er, A %&planation Sapwood is located near the cambium layer and is in.ol.ed in the storage of nutrients for the tree as well as in the mechanical transportation of water from the root system to the crown. ?. C"rrec! A#s.er, D %&planation 6eartwood is a disposal site for waste products of respiration carried on in other parts of the tree. 7ays seem, to be a means of transporting these products into the heartwood. 6eartwood is made up of inacti.e cells that ha.e been changed either chemically or physically, from their sapwood cell origin. /hese changes cause the cells not to be able to conduct sap. /hese cells will sometimes contain deposits of .arious materials which will cause the heartwood to ha.e a much darker color. A. C"rrec! A#s.er, A %&planation ;ood decay is caused by the growth of fungi. #ungi are e&tremely small plant1like organisms that normally can not be seen without the aid of a microscope, e&cept where there may be e&tensi.e growth on the surface of wood. #ungi can not produce its own food' therefore, it relies on the sugars of the wood cell wall for its sur.i.al. In the process of getting the sugars, it breaks down the cell wall. F. C"rrec! A#s.er, E %&planation #ungus is a form of plant life. )rowth is initiated by mo.ement of the airborne spores by the wind. /he spores germinate like other plant seeds. Continued growth depends on fa.orable en.ironment such as warm temperatures and moist conditions. Cold temperature and dry wood pre.ent the growth of fungi. C. C"rrec! A#s.er, B %&planation #ungi de.elop microscopic root1like threads which penetrate the wood and allow en2ymes to break the cell wall of the wood cells. !D. C"rrec! A#s.er, A %&planation /here are only two types of fungi that affect wood' wood1destroying 0decay fungi" and wood staining 0sapstaining fungi, mold fungi". !!. C"rrec! A#s.er, E %&planation ;ood destroying fungi will attack both the sapwood and heartwood of most trees. /he fungi may grow in the interior of the wood and produce fan1shaped patches of fine threadlike, cottony growths or as rootlike shapes. /he colors of these growths may appear white, yellow or dark brown. #inally, temperatures and moisture will affect the growth as well.

>A

!(. C"rrec! A#s.er, A %&planation -rown rot is able to break down cellulose for food, lea.ing a brown residue of lignin. !*. C"rrec! A#s.er, E %&planation All of the abo.e are part of the final stages of wood decay by brown rot. !,. C"rrec! A#s.er, B %&planation )ut rot is what happens when you eat your own cooking. /he correct answer is white rot. ;hite rot fungi will break down both the lignin and cellulose. ;hite rot also bleaches the wood, causing the wood to take a white appearance. !>. C"rrec! A#s.er, C %&planation Soft rot attacks green wood 0undried wood which contains sap". /his rot causes a gradual softening from the surface inward and thus resembles brown rot. !?. C"rrec! A#s.er, E %&planation /he two wood staining fungi are sapstaining and mold fungi. Sapstaining fungi penetrate and discolor the wood, particularly the softwood species. Mold fungi first appear as green, brown, or black, fu22y or powdery growths on the wood surface. %ither of these molds affects the strength of the wood but do open the door for possible attack from decay fungi. !A. C"rrec! A#s.er, D %&planation Sapstain fungi ha.e little effect on the strength of wood but can destroy its appearance. !F. C"rrec! A#s.er, D %&planation Some of the flying ants and termites look .ery similar. -ut there are some differences that can distinguish them apart. Ants do not eat wood' termites do. ;hen looking at the head of an ant, they ha.e elbow antennae where termites do not. Ants appear constricted or pinched in the waist compared to a termite5s broad body. !C. C"rrec! A#s.er, A %&planation Subterrarian termites reproduce this way. /he winged adults are only produced at certain times of the year. /hey swarm, mate, lose their wings and begin a new colony in the soil. (D. C"rrec! A#s.er, E %&planation All of the items listed are ways to determine presence of termites. (!. C"rrec! A#s.er, A %&planation /he ability of the dry wood termite to li.e in dry wood without contact with the soil make it more menacing. 6owe.er, it reproduces slowly and does not destroy wood as quickly as the subterranean termite. ((. C"rrec! A#s.er, A %&planation 4amp wood termites are a serious pest along the Pacific Coast. /hese termites do not require soil but need wood which is high in moisture content. (*. C"rrec! A#s.er, A %&planation Carpenter ants cause a lot of damage as they burrow tunnels in soft or decaying wood. /hey can damage poles, structural timbers, damage wood in trees, and around window frames, as they make galleries for their homes. (,. C"rrec! A#s.er, D %&planation /he powder post beetles attack fresh cut wood or seasoned hardwood and softwoods. /he adult beetle lays eggs in the wood pores and lar.ae burrow through the wood, making tunnels from !@!? to !@!( inch in diameter. As the adults emerge from the surface of the wood, they lea.e small 0!@!?" inch si2e e&it holes and a fine powder falls from the holes. (>. C"rrec! A#s.er, B %&planation Moisture content may range from about *DG to more than (DDG.

>F

(?. C"rrec! A#s.er, E %&planation Moisture content of li.ing trees must be dried to remo.e the en.ironment for the different fungi and insects which attack the timber. 7emo.ing moisture also reduces shrinkage and weight of the timber and prepares the wood for chemical treatment. (A. C"rrec! A#s.er, D %&planation 8ogs being stored for a long period of time before they will be processed need to be either submerged in a pond of water or under constant water spray. /his helps reduce the o&ygen content and temperatures necessary for fungi growth. (F. C"rrec! A#s.er, A2 %&planation Niln drying is the widely used system for seasoning lumber because it offers better control of air mo.ement, temperature and drying rates. (C. C"rrec! A#s.er, A %&planation Storage of cut lumber in a well1drained site with good air mo.ement will help keep wood in good shape. *D. C"rrec! A#s.er, A %&planation Practice good sanitation by remo.ing debris and rotten wood 0which ser.e as sources of fungal infection and insects". *!. C"rrec! A#s.er, C %&planation -lack 8ocust is highly resistant to decay. *(. C"rrec! A#s.er, D %&planation Chemical formulation and moisture content of the wood are :ust a few of the possible factors affecting the success of the treatment. **. C"rrec! A#s.er, B %&planation /he three broad categories of wood preser.ati.es are creosote, oilborne preser.ati.es and waterborne preser.ati.es. *,. C"rrec! A#s.ers, D %&planation Creosote is often called coal tar creosote because of its close relationship to toluene, ben2ene and tar. In the process of making coke from coal for the steel industry, ben2ene, toluene, tar and creosote are produced. Creosote is the fraction that condenses within certain temperature limits set by the American ;ood Preser.ers Association. *>. C"rrec! A#s.er, A %&planation #reshly creosoted poles and timbers will gi.e off .apors which ha.e strong odors, and cause sunburn1like rashes on some humans. /hese .apors will last up to se.eral years. /his becomes a real disad.antage for creosote. *?. C"rrec! A#s.ers, E %&planation Creosote5s to&ic effect to both insects and decaying fungi make it beneficial for both the railroad and utility companies. In addition, rain and groundwater will not leach creosote from the wood, so it is .ery permanent. *A. C"rrec! A#s.er, D %&planation Pentachlorophenol 0Penta" can be produced by dissol.ing penta salt in petroleum oil. It is relati.ely insoluble in water. -ecause of the oil carrier, it lea.es an unpainted 0natural look" to the wood surface. *F. C"rrec! A#s.er, B %&planation Penta is recommended for use on utility poles, fence post, crossarms and timbers. Penta may not be used around food or feed products. 3ote[[ -ecause of en.ironmental and health concerns, penta has been replaced with waterborne preser.ati.es. *C. C"rrec! A#s.er, D %&planation +nly copper1F quinolinolate has been appro.ed for food contact uses such as for bo&es, crates, pallets, truck decking and related uses in.ol.ing the har.esting, storage and transportation of food.

>C

,D. C"rrec! A#s.er, D %&planation +ne of the disad.antages of waterborne preser.ati.es is that they do not protect wood from e&cessi.e weathering. ,!. C"rrec! A#s.er, A %&planation /he wood needs to be prepared properly before any commercial wood treatments can be applied. Some of the preparation that needs to be done include peeling, drying, conditioning, incising, cutting, and framing. ,(. C"rrec! A#s.er, A %&planation /he bark and cambium layers must be remo.ed before treatment. /his allows the preser.ati.e to be able to penetrate the wood. ,*. C"rrec! A#s.er, D %&planation It is important for the wood to be properly seasoned 0dried" before applying preser.ati.es. 4rying the wood remo.es water from the cell ca.ities to allow space for preser.ati.es. 4rying also allows for some checking in the wood which allows better penetration of the preser.ati.e. ,,. C"rrec! A#s.er, A %&planation /he wood must be completely air dried before treatment, and if oil1borne preser.ati.es are to be used, the wood should be warmed enough to a.oid congealing the oil. ,>. C"rrec! A#s.er, B %&planation -efore applying the second coat of either creosote1oil1borne preser.ati.es or water1borne salts the first coat must be dry. ,?. C"rrec! A#s.er, A %&planation /he definition of dipping as a non1pressure treatment is immersing the wood in a preser.ati.e solution for se.eral minutes. ,A. C"rrec! A#s.er, C %&planation Pentachlorophenol or oil1borne preser.ati.es are used. /he process in.ol.es soaking the dried wood in a .at containing the unheated oil preser.ati.e for (1A days. ,F. C"rrec! A#s.er, A %&planation /he process can be used on either green or dried wood. /he process in.ol.es submerging the wood in a tankful of solution at atmospheric temperature for se.eral days or weeks. ,C. C"rrec! A#s.er, 4 %&planation /his process becomes an economical decision on whether to replace the poles or to e&tend the life of the pole by the process of preser.ati.e pads. /he process in.ol.es remo.al of the soil around the pole to a depth of !F feet. /he treatment then in.ol.es treating that portion as well as !( feet abo.e the ground le.el as that is where most of that damage occurs. After the treatment there must be a plastic coating placed around the treated area before the soil is returned. >D. C"rrec! A#s.er, D %&planation /he four routes through which wood preser.ati.es can enter the body are dermal, oral, respiratory and eyes. >!. C"rrec! A#s.er, A %&planation -ecause wood preser.ati.es ha.e such a strong odor and taste, it is unlikely a person would swallow any. /herefore, dermal or inhalation are the only logical ways wood preser.ati.es could enter the body. >(. C"rrec! A#s.er, D %&planation Creosote .apors can cause all of the listed problems. >*. C"rrec! A#s.er, E %&planation Pentachlorophenol causes all of the listed reactions.

?D

>,. C"rrec! A#s.er, A %&planation 8ong term e&posure to inorganic arsenical can include li.er damage, loss of hair, and finger nails, anemia and skin disorders. >>. C"rrec! A#s.er, B %&planation #irst administer one or two glasses of water, induce .omiting, then administer ( tablespoons of SISP 4rug )rade5 acti.ated charcoal in water. If there is any question call medical help immediately. >?. C"rrec! A#s.er, B %&planation 9nder the limitation use section, penta or creosote should not be applied indoors. It is always important to take time to read the label. >A. C"rrec! A#s.er, B %&planation Pentachlorophenol or creosote can not be used in such applications. -e sure to always read and follow the label. >F. C"rrec! A#s.er, C %&planation Creosote can not be applied to wood intended to be used in interiors e&cept for those support structures which are in contact with the soil in barns, stables, and similar sites. >C. C"rrec! A#s.er, E %&planation All of the abo.e are areas where inorganic arsenical pressure treated wood may not be used. Inorganic arsenical pressure1treated wood can be used for patios, decks and walkways if it is .isibly clean and free of surface residue. Inorganic arsenical pressure1treated wood may not be used around food for humans or feed for animals. ?D. C"rrec! A#s.er, A %&planation /his is how the 0CIS" Consumer Information Sheet lists inorganic arsenical pressure treated wood. ?!. C"rrec! A#s.er, A %&planation ;ood treated with creosote should not come in contact with bare skin' therefore, the need of an effecti.e sealer. ?(. C"rrec! A#s.er, D %&planation Creosote should not be used in the interiors of residential buildings, industrial buildings, or farm buildings. In commercial or farm buildings it can be used for building components which are in ground contact and are sub:ect to decay. It should ne.er be used in connection with drinking water. ?*. C"rrec! A#s.er, B %&planation Creosote treated wood should ne.er be burned in open fires, wood sto.es or fireplaces because of the possible to&ic chemicals that may be produced as smoke and ashes. ?,. C"rrec! A#s.er, B %&planation It is .itally important to wash after working with creosote1treated wood before eating, drinking or using tobacco products. -e sure to use other protecti.e equipment, such as a dust mask to pre.ent breathing dust particles and use goggles to protect the eyes. ?>. C"rrec! A#s.er, A %&planation 9rethane, epo&y and shellac are accepted sealers for creosote treated wood. ??. C"rrec! A#s.er, B %&planation Pentachlorophenol treated wood should ne.er be used for log homes. ?A. C"rrec! A#s.er, A %&planation Oou need to take e&tra care when working around pentachlorophenol treated wood. -e sure to ha.e the right protecti.e equipment, long slee.ed shirts and long pants, eye protection, dusk mask, and .inyl coated glo.es.

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?F. C"rrec! A#s.er, A %&planation +ils and organic solids cause damage to the aquatic en.ironment by reducing o&ygen le.els in the water. /herefore, the need to keep spills and discharges out of streams and other bodies of water. ?C. C"rrec! A#s.er, A %&planation -efore releasing any chemical residues into the en.ironment, proper permits need to be obtained from the 9.S. %PA. AD. C"rrec! A#s.er, B2 %&planation Pesticides should be stored in a dry, well .entilated, secured area. A!. B 9.""d reser0%!i0e: A(. C 9cre"s"!e: A*. A 9d(%) !re%!$e#! .i!+ CCA f"))".ed 3* cre"s"!e: A,. B 9.%!er63"r#e reser0%!i0es: A>. D 9Cre"s"!e: A?. C 9Fire: AA. A 9F())6ce)) r"cess: AF. B5 9E$ !*6ce)) r"cess: AC. A 9cre"s"!e: FD. B 9 e#!%c+)"r" +e#"): F!. C 93"r"# c"$ "(#d: F(. A 9Be!+e) r"cess: F*. C 9di diff(si"#: F,. B 9Di diff(si"#: F>. A 9+"! %#d c")d 3%!+: F?. C 9re!e#!i"#: FA. C 9ref(s%) !re%!$e#!: FF. A 9C+%r/e: FC. B 9C"#di!i"#i#/: CD. A 9Cre"s"!e: C!. C 9"i)63"r#e reser0%!i0e: C(. A 9Press(re eri"d: C*. A 9I#cisi#/: C,. B 9B"(c+erie r"cess: C>. B 9B"(c+erie r"cess: C?. D 9G(3%s: CA. C 9M%#/i($: CF. A 9P%r% r(33er: CC. B 9S!%i#i#/ f(#/i: !DD. D 9Br".# r"! f(#/i: !D!. D 9Br".# r"! f(#/i: !D(. C 9FSP 9<=6><? MC:: !D*. A 9A$3r"si% 3ee!)e: !D,. B 9A$3r"si% 3ee!)es: !D>. B 9% )ic%!i"# "f f(#/icide: !D?. B 9F"r$%)de+*de: !DA. A 9F(#/i: !DF. B 9-i)"/r%$ "f !+e dr* s%)! er c(3ic $e!er: !DC. A 9Br(s+i#/: !!D. D 9free fr"$ dec%* %#d i#sec! %!!%c-: !!!. C 9M")ds: !!(. A 9Pinicelium s 5: !!*. A 9Fomes s : !!,. A 9S+ri#-%/e: !!>. A 9S%$ )e 3"%rd: !!?. C 9s)".es! dr*i#/ )($3er i# !+e -i)# )"%d: !!A. A5 9L"/ "#di#/: !!F. A 9Cre"s"!e: !!C. A 9Cre"s"!e: !(D. B 9W""d .i!+ )".er $"is!(re c"#!e#!: !(!. A 9I#cre%se i!s e)ec!ric%) resis!%#ce %#d !+er$%) i#s()%!i#/ c% %ci!*:

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!((. B 9$i#i$i8e s+ri#-%/e %#d s.e))i#/: !(*. B 9FSP: !(,. A 9s ecific /r%0i!*: !(>. C 9EMC: !(?. B 9free .%!er: !(A. A 9+"#e* c"$3i#/: !(F. A 9.%r i#/: !(C. A 9c%se+%rde#i#/: !*D. B 9+e%r!.""d: !*!. A 9!r(e s!%i#: !*(. C 9s"f! r"!: !**. A 9FSP: !*,. B 9.+i!e r"!: !*>. B 93r".# r"!: !*?. A 9S+ri#-%/e: !*A. D 9.%r i#/: !*F. C 9T.is!i#/: !*C. D 9Tre%!%3i)i!*: !,D. D 9S+ri#-%/e: !,!. A 9We%!+eri#/: !,(. C 9%3"0e FSP: !,*. A 93"!+ ce)) )($e# %#d ce)) .%))s %re s%!(r%!ed 3* .%!er: !,,. D 9free .%!er: !,>. A 9/re%!er %$"(#! "f .""d e)e$e#!s: !,?. B 9*%-%)2 d(#/"#2 3i#//%s: !,A. D 9%/"+"2 -%!$"#2 %#d i i): !,F. B 9%0er%/e MC "f > .e!!es! s%$ )e 3"%rds: !,C. B 9F())6ce)) r"cess: !>D. D 9+i/+ !e$ er%!(re %#d )". re)%!i0e +($idi!*: !>!. A 9s ecific /r%0i!*: !>(. B 9 reser0%!i0e: !>*. B 9.e%r %#d !e%r: !>,. C 9re!e#!i"# 3* %ss%*: !>>. A 9de. "i#!: !>?. B 9!%r: !>A. B 9"0e#dr* .""d: !>F. B 9 )%s!ici8i#/: !>C. A 9$"dified .""d: !?D. A 9B"()!"#:

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