Schachters cognitive labelling theory

(also called the 2-factor theory)

Schachter (1962, 1964)








AWARENESS OF
PHYSIOLOGICAL
AROUSAL














PERCEPTION OF
EMOTION-AROUSING
STIMULUS

INTERPRETING THE
AROUSAL AS A
PARTICULAR
EMOTION
(using situational cues)
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES
BOTH VISCERAL
(controlled by ANS)
AND SKELETAL


Physiological arousal is essential in this model - without it, no
emotion can be experienced. However, the nature of the
physiological arousal is not important. It is the interpretation of
the arousal in light of the situation that causes us to attribute a
particular label on the emotion. The Two Factors, then, are
1) physiological arousal, and 2) interpretation of that arousal.
These two factors combined produce, for each incident, an
attributed emotion...
The Adrenaline Experiment
(Schachter & Singer, 1962)

THE FOUR CONDITIONS/GROUPS

1) Told the real side-effects of the injection (i.e.
palpitations, tightness in the throat, tremor, sweating, etc.).

2) Given false information about the effects of the injection
(e.g. itching and headache).

3) Given no information about side-effects of the injection.

4) CONTROL GROUP given saline injection (no effects).

Waited in room with 2nd participant, who was actually a
confederate of the experimenters pretending.

For half Ss in each condition, confederate acted happy. For
other half, he acted very angrily.

Assessed by observer ratings of how much they joined in
and responded to the confederate, and self-report scales.

1 & 4 less likely than 2 and 3 to join in with confederate
and match emotions.... explanation: 1 could attribute their
arousal to injections, 4 (controls) had no arousal to
interpret as emotion, while 2 and 3 (who had no other
known reason to be physiologically aroused) used
situational cues (conf.) to attribute emotion to arousal...
A popular Cognitive Model of Emotion
(e.g. Reisenzein, 1983)


ELICITING
EVENT
COGNITIVE
APPRAISAL
EXPERIENCED
EMOTION
PERCEIVED
AROUSAL
AUTONOMIC
AROUSAL
EMOTIONAL
BELIEF






This cognitive model, unlike Schachters, does not specify that
physiological arousal is absolutely essential for an emotional
experience. An appraisal of an event or stimuli (leading to an
emotional belief), and an appraisal of autonomic arousal, if any
(leading to perceived arousal), both contribute to the
experience of emotion. As with Schachters model, any arousal
is attributed to the emotional belief. However, in this model,
more emphasis is placed upon cognitive appraisal of the
eliciting event or stimuli itself. Arousal is generally not
particularly emotion-specific (e.g. fear and surprise look
physiologically similar), so there is clearly other mechanisms
to allow us to differentiate emotion: that mechanism is
cognitive appraisal. [Remember, however, that some research
has also shown that emotion can occur without cognitions at
all - i.e. where an emotional reaction to a sudden stimuli
(electric shock) occurs before time for processing, or where
conscious processing is not possible (see Kunst-Wilson &
Zajoncs Affective discrimination of stimuli that cannot be
recognised, 1980 for further details).]
Emotion without Cognition?
Kunst-Wilson & Zajoncs controversial Affective
discrimination of stimuli that cannot be recognised
(1980)
It is generally accepted and experimentally verified that the
more exposure that one has to a particular stimulus, the more
one likes it (somewhat contrary to the familiarity breeds
contempt cliche). This notion was the inspiration for an
experiment that demonstrated that conscious cognitive
appraisal of a stimulus is not always essential in provoking
emotion or affect.
Participants were presented with geometric figures, but at
levels of exposure too brief for conscious processing and
recognition.
Then, they were shown pairs of geometric figure, one of which
they had been shown before, the other being brand new. For
each pair, participants answered two questions:
1) Which of the two had previously been presented?
(a recognition test)
2) Which of the two was more attractive?
(a feeling test)
Participants showed no discrimination on the recog test (i.e.
could not tell old from new). However, on the feeling test, they
consistently favoured old forms over new ones, suggesting that
information that was unavailable for conscious recognition was
available to an unconscious system that is linked to affect and
emotion. This appears to suggest affect without cognition.
Cognitive Appraisal... goal relevance
(Lazarus, 1991)
Primary appraisal based upon 3 features (goal relevance,
goal congruence, and ego involvement)... secondary
appraisals further narrow down emotional possibilities...


Goal relevance yes no

emotion

Goal congruence yes no

+ive emotions
EVENT
no emotion
Ego involvement...



-ive emotions
happiness anger
not
relevant
damaging
self-esteem
enhancing
self-esteem
threat
to self
pride fear / anxiety
sadness love
loss
to self
mutual
affection





Social Comparison Theory
(e.g. Festinger, 1954; Brown, 1985)

Argues that every person has a desire to validate the
correctness of his or her opinions and the extents of his or
her abilities.

Perhaps of more importance in Western cultures.

Ambiguity=uncertainty
agreement with others=less ambiguity

reasons for social conformity = internal verification +
external impression (favourability, impression
management)
demonstrated by induced compliance studies




DIRECTED READING ON COG
THEORIES OF EMOTION
Key chapters
Oatley, K. & Jenkins, J. M. (1996) Understanding
Emotions Oxford: Blackwell CHAPTER 4 & 9.

Gross, R. D. (1987) Psychology: the science of mind &
behaviour London: Hodder & Stoughton pp.430-435

Atkinson, R. L. et al. (1990) Introduction to Psychology
London: HBJ Inc. CHAPTER 11 (also see p.174
critical discussion)

Buck, R. (1976) Human Motivation & Emotion New York:
Wiley CHAPTER 9

Ekman, P. & Davidson, R. J. (1994) The Nature of Emotion
Oxford: Ox.Uni.Press CHAPTER 5




The Associative Network Theory
Bower (1981)
Associative spreading example








In
this example, an unfortunate boy is walking through a
hailstorm when a dog attacks and bites him. Semantic network
theories of memory (such as that of Collins & Quillian, 1969)
would suggest that each of the propositions, hail, dog, bite
and me would be encoded in memory in nodes whose
proximity to each other determine the strength of the
association between them. Activation of one of the nodes can
cause activation of proximal nodes - e.g. if the boy saw a dog,
he would recall the hail and the bite. Bowers Associative
Network Theory includes nodes for emotion. Therefore,
associative spreading would mean both that when angry or
fearful it would be easier to access memories regarding the
dog/hail/bite incident, and that activation of the dog/hail/bite
nodes could influence the emotion of fear or anger...
DOG
BITE
ME HAIL
FEAR
/ANGER
Gray's Neuropsychological Theory
(Gray, 1985)












According to Gray, a behavioural inhibition system operates
in the septo-hippocampal region of the brain. A stimulus is
assessed by a comparator to check that it fits with
expectations. If a match is found between predicted and actual
events, the BIS does nothing and the next stimulus is assessed.
Where a mismatch is detected, and is in the form of, or
accompanied by *one of four input types (signals of
punishment, non-reward, novel stimuli, or innate fear
stimuli)*, the BIS takes over and stops all ongoing behaviour,
collects further information, and prepares for rapid and
vigorous action to circumvent whatever threat or unexpected
circumstance has been detected... W.Cannons fight or flight.
STIMULUS
MISMATCH +
other feature*

(comparator)
behavioural
inhibition
occurs - STOP
............................
MATCH
no mismatch
detected...
process next
stimuli
Beck's Schema Theory
Beck & Clark (1988)

Beck was concerned that the tradition behavioural
models of emotional response lacked something to
mediate between the stimulus and the response...

His answer was in terms of an individuals appraisal
of the stimulus that would inform and influence the
response, which was dependent upon a persons
activated schema...

SCHEMAS
cognitively appraise
the stimulus - personal
meanings are crucial.

EMOTION

STIMULUS


A schema is an integrated body of knowledge stored in long-
term memory. According to Becks theory, these schemata
guide the screening, encoding, organising, storing, and
retrieving of information... stimuli consistent with existing
schemata are elaborated and encoded, while inconsistent or
irrelevant information is ignored or forgotten.... This could
explain why a dominant emotional mood seems to persist, and
why optimistic people regard the same stimuli differently to
pessimistic people. A persons emotional reaction to a stimulus
is based upon not just the stimulus itself, but upon its personal
meaning to that individual.


The Four-Factor Theory of Anxiety
Eysenck, M. W. (1992, 1997)

PHYSIOLOGICAL
ACTIVITY
ACTION
TENDENCIES
BEHAVIOUR
COGNITIONS
(E. G. WORRIES)
SCHEMAS (E. G. DANGER
IN LONG TERM MEMORY)
EMOTIONAL
STIMULUS
COGNITIVE
APPRAISAL
EMOTIONAL
EXPERIENCE
BIASES
BIAS

Eysencks 4-Factor Theory is a cognitive theory of emotion
specific to the emotion of anxiety. It could, with some
modification, be extended to cover other emotions, but whether
anyone will take up this in the future is uncertain. Note
Eysencks inclusion of schemas, and his extension of Becks
ideas to elaborate upon the way in which the schemas operate
with regard to specific cognitive biases (e.g. selective attentional
bias and interpretive bias). The biases, when one is in an anxious
state, affect cognitive processing of information and stimuli...

The Effects of Emotion on Cognitive
Function... 1) Eysencks processing biases
(Eysenck, 1992)

The following 3 biases are typically seen in
anxious individuals:

1. Selective attentional bias
+
Increased scanning of environment Narrowing of attention when
when at rest (general hypervigilance) ambiguous/threatening stimuli
are available (specific hyp.)
2. Negative memory bias
As with Bowers associative network theory, anxious folk are
better able to access anxiety or fear-related memories than
neutral or pleasant memories when in an anxious state, and to a
much greater extent than non-anxious people.
3. Interpretive bias
Anxious individuals are far more likely to interpret ambiguous
stimuli as more threatening than non-anxious individuals. E.g:
When asked to write down spoken words that are homophones
(words sounding the same, but spelt differently for different
meanings, like die/dye, pane/pain), anxious people write
down the more threatening meaning (die,pain).

The Effects of Emotion of Cognitive
Function... 2) Eye-witness testimony



WEAPON-FOCUSING
Because attention is more
often focused on threat and
central stimuli in an event,
victims of armed assailants
often are better at recalling
details of the weapon than the
assailant. (Clifford & Hollin,
1981)
Christianson & Loftus, (1991)
Recall of central or peripheral detail of neutral and
emotional slides.... Ps were better able to recall central
detail of emotional scene far better than peripheral detail,
while in the neutral scene the opposite was the case...

GENERAL RULE = THE MORE EMOTIONAL THE
SCENE, THE BETTER THE RECALL BUT THERE IS A
TENDENCY TO FOCUS ON THE EMOTIONALLY
RELEVANT DETAILS...

SIGNIFICANT - CORRELATION (r=-0.67) BETWEEN
IRRELEVANT DETAILS AND RECALL (Clifford &
Hollin, 1981).


The Effects of Emotion on Cognitive
Function... 3)Judgement & Decision-making

Gerald Clore (1992) said, The most reliable phenomenon in the cognition-
emotion domain is the effect of mood on evaluative judgement...When
asked for your opinion, you do not form an answer based purely upon the
weighing up of facts - in ambiguous cases, you also rely upon how you feel.
People tend to accept other peoples arguments more readily when they
are happy than when in a sad or neutral mood (Petty & Cacioppo,
1986), and have less critical or pessimistic opinions too.

EXAMPLE: Worth & Mackie (1987): Financed agreement experiment
Acid rain control proposals - extent of agreement was increased by making
half Ps happy by allowing them to win $1 in an unrelated interlude...

EXAMPLE: Forgas & Moylan (1987): Movie-influenced opinion
Interviewed 1000 Ps after they watched a movie that was either happy, sad,
or aggressive... asked them about politics, the future, crime, and quality of
life. People answered differently according to mood they were put in by the
movie - no such differences in Ps interviewed before the movies...

Ha Ha Ha.
NOT GUILTY!!
AND THE DRINKS
ARE ON ME!
The Effects of Emotion on Cognitive
Function... 4) Problem-solving

Happy, positive moods make cognitive
organization more flexible and therefore
more adaptable in solving problems

Isen et al. (1987) The Candle Problem

Ps were split into groups that watched different films to
induce different moods (happy or neutral).

They were then asked individually to solve a problem:
Given a candle, a book of matches, and a box of tacks, and
asked to fix the candle to a corkboard wall to be lit... the
tacks were too short to go through the candle, and broke it
if pushed in anyway...

Neutral group - 20% solved the problem
Happy group - 75% solved the problem

HOW WOULD YOU SOLVE THE PROBLEM?

Happy=more willing to think abstractly and make more
bizarre associations - excellent for problem solving...
Summary of the Effects of Emotions on
Cognition Function (emotions activate
processing modes / schemas / biases)

a) Memory - associative network theory (Bower, 1981),
negative memory bias (Eysenck, 1992, 1997), Becks
schemas (Beck & Clark, 1988). See CHAPTER 9 of Oatley
& Jenkins Understanding emotion...

b) Attention - hypervigilance & selective attentional bias
(Eysenck, 1992, 1997), Becks Schema theory (Beck &
Clark, 1988). Also eye-witness testimony (Loftus & Doyle,
1987; Christianson, 1992; Clifford & Hollin, 1981) - see
CHAPTER 9 of Oatley & Jenkins Understanding
emotion.

c) Judgement/Decision-making - Worth & Mackies
financed agreement experiment (1987), Forgas &
Moylans movie-influenced opinion experiment (1987).
Again, CHAPTER 9 of Oatley & Jenkins Understanding
Emotions is a good summary.

d) Problem-solving - happy problem-solvers are more
flexible in approach (e.g. Isen et al.s candle problem,
1987).

DIRECTED READING
(Effects of Emotion on Cognition)

Key chapters/pages for this lecture:

Oatley, K. & Jenkins, J. M. (1996) Understanding
Emotions Oxford: Blackwell CHAPTER 9

Ekman, P. & Davidson, R. J. (1994) The Nature of
Emotion Oxford: Ox.Uni.Press CHAPTER 9

Gross, R. D. (1987) Psychology: the science of mind &
behaviour London: Hodder & Stoughton pp.101-106

Atkinson, R. L. et al. (1990) Introduction to Psychology
London: HBJ Inc. CHAPTER 11, pp. 420-422

Murray, E. J. (1964) Motivation & Emotion New Jersey:
Prentice Hall Inc. pp. 63-68