Orbital Aspects

Sat Com : Obital Mechanics 1
Orbital Aspects of Satellite

Communication
The Equation of the Orbit
x
y
z
Satellite
Earth rotation
=

2 3 5
s / km 10 4 =
constant s Kepler' = GM
Gravitational force on the satellite F is:
r
Newton's second L aw:
F = m
d r
dt
2
2

...( ) 2
equating:
-
r
r
d r
dt
3
2
2

=

d r
dt
+
r
r
2
2 3

= 0
( Equation of motion )
(3)
3
r
r m GM
F
E
=

r
d r
dt
=
2
2
0 4 ......( )
Taking of each term
Since =0

r r
also
d
dt
r
dr
dt
dr
dt
dr
dt
r
d r
dt
[ ]

= +
2
2
=0 ( from def,)
=0 (from(4))
r
=

r
dr
dt
h
=orbital angular momentum of the satellite
=constant
therefore, orbit is on a plane
To solve (3), we use the orbital plane to define a
second rectangular coordinates (x0,y0,z0)
(3) in (x0,y0,z0) becomes

( )
( )
x
d x
dt
y
d y
dt
x x y y
x y
0
0
0
0 0 0 0 0
2
2
2
2
0
2
0
2
0 + +
+
+
=
(2.10)
z
y0
x0
z0
Satellite
Change to polar coordinate:
Substitute into (2.10) and equate the
components:
x r
y r
x r
y r
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
=
=
=
=
cos
sin
cos

sin

cos sin
|
|
| | |
| | |
|0
r0
z0
x0
y0
d r
dt
r
d
dt r
2
2
2
0
0
0
0
=
|
\
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
(2.12)
r0
Equate the component:
(2.13) can be written as
or ( a constant) angular momentum. (2.15)
r
d
dt
dr
dt
d
dt
0
2
0
2
0 0
2 0
| |
|
\
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
.
|
|
|
|
+ =
|0
(2.13)
1
0
0
0
2
0
r
d
dt
r
d
dt
|
|
\
|
.
|
=
r
d
dt
h 0
2
0 |
=
Squaring (2.15)
Substitute into (2.12)
to find the equation relating r0 and |0 ,
define
r
d
dt
h
r
0
0
3
0
2
2
|
|
.
|
|
|
|
|
\
=
(2.16)
d r
dt
h
r r
2
2
2
0
3
0
0
=

(2.17)
u
r
=
1
0
p
Then
and
differentiate again,
so (2.17) becomes:
0 0
0 0
0
0 0
2
0
| |
|
| d
du
h
r
h
d
dr
dt
d
d
dr
dt
dr
= = =
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
dr
d u
du
d
0
0 0
1
2
| |
=
From (2.16)
d r
dt
h u
d u
d
2
2
2 2
2
0
0
2
=
|
(2.22)
d u
d
u
h
2
0
2 2
|

+ =
Solving
or
u
h
C = +
| u
2
0 0
cos( )
r
h C
h
h
C
P
e
0
2
0 0
2
2
0 0
0 0
1
1
1
=
+
=
+
=
+
| u
| u
| u
/ cos( )
cos( )
cos( )
(2.24)
Semilatus rectum
P
h
=
2
(2.25)
(2.24) is the equation of
an ellipse for e <1
a circle for e =0 (limiting condition with >>
).
Serve to orient the ellipse w.r.t. orbital
plane. We can always choose x0,y0 axis such
that
h C
2
u
0
u
|
0
0
0
0
1
=
=
+
.
cos
r
p
e
(2.26)
The differential area swept by r0 is
dA
r
d
r d
dt
dt
h
dt = = =
0
2
0
0
2
0
2 2 2
|
|
a
p
e
b a e
=
=
1
1
2
2
1
2
( )
(2.27)
Apogee Perigee
c
b r0
|0
ae
a (1 +e) a (1 - e)
d|
0
r d
0 0
|
r
0
By Keplerssecond law, radius vector sweeps
out equal area in equal time.
Orbital period T
T = area of ellipse / area swept out in one time unit
= =
= =
=
=
}
t t
t
ab
h
dt
ab
h
ab
P
ab
a e
a
T
a
2 2
2 2
1
2
4
0
1
2
3
2
2
2 3
( )
(2.31)
Keplers third law:
Radius of geo-synchronous orbit of earth:
T =24hr =86400 sec.
(2.31) gives
a =42242 km
T a
2 3

Locating the Satellite in theOrbit
The equation of the orbit is
: true anomaly
The average angular velocity q is
r
a e
e
o
o
=

+
( )
cos
1
1
2
|
|
o
x r
y r
o o o
o o o
=
=
cos
sin
|
|
q
t
= =
2 1
T a a
(2.32)
(2.35)
a
O
C
E
y
x
A
xoaxis
yoaxis
Orbit
|o
ro
ae a(1-e)
a
Fig. 1
E =eccentric anomaly
C O
E M |o
Circumscribed circle
The velocity of the satellite is
It can be shown that
Also from (2.16), (2.25) and (2.27)
v
dx
dt
dy
dt
dr
dt
r
d
dt
o o o
o
o
2
2 2 2
2
2
=
|
\
|
.
| +
|
\
|
.
| =
|
\
|
.
| +
|
\
|
.
|
|
v
a
a
r
o
2
2
1 =
|
\
|
.
|
|
\
|
.
|
( )
( )
| |
d
dt
h
r
a e
r
a
a
r
dr
dt
a
r
e
dr
dt ar
a e a r
o
o o
o
o
o
o
o
o
|

|
\
|
.
| = =

|
\
|
.
|
=
|
\
|
.
| +
|
\
|
.
|

=
|
\
|
.
|

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
1
2
1 1
( )
Solve for dt and multiply by q
From Fig. 1 can show
Sub. into the equation above
2
0
2 2
0 0
) (
) (
r a e a
dr
a
r
dt

= q
E ae r a cos
0
=
dE E e dt ) cos 1 ( = q (2.43)
Integrate (2.43) get:
Let tp be the time of perigee, the time that
the earth is closest to the satellite, i.e. the
time that the satellite is crossing the xo axis.
Where M is the mean anomaly
(2.44)
( )
q t t E e E M
p
= = sin
So, given tp, e, and a, we can determine the
orbital plane coordinates (ro,|o) and (xo,yo) as
follow:
calculate q from (2.35)
calculate M from (2.46)
calculate E from (2.46)
solve E from (2.46)
find ro from (2.43)
find |o from (2.32)
find (xo,yo) from (2.33 - 2.34)
Locating the Satellite w.r.t. Earth
Define geocentric equatorial coordinates
(xi, yi, zi).
RA: right ascension
o: declination
O: right ascension of the
ascending node
i: inclination (angle between
orbital and equatorial planes)
e: argument of perigee
zi
yi
xi
N. Pole
RA
o
Equatorial plane
O
e yi
i
Ascending node
xi
zi
Perigee
Sun
Earth (on
March 21)
xi
yi
(O,i) together locates orbital plane w.r.t. the equatorial plane.
Their relations are:
x
y
z
i
i
i
(
(
(
=
c c s c i s
s c c c i s
s i s
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
O O
O O
e e
e e
e
+

+
c s s c i c
s s s c i c
s i c
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
O O
O O
e e
e e
e
s s i
c s i
c i
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
e
O
x
y
z
o
o
o
(
(
(
Equatorial Orbital
Define: rotating coordinate: (xr, yr, zr)
zr =zi, (xi,yi) plane is the same as
(xr,yr) plane
xr axis intersects the prime
geographic meridian.
Oe: angular velocity
Te: Time since xr axis coincided
with xi axis
zi / zr
Oe
xr
xi
yi
yr
xr
x
y
z
T T
T T
x
y
z
r
r
r
e e e e
e e e e
i
i
i
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
cos sin
sin cos
O O
O O
0
0
0 0 1
UT: universal time = Greenwich standard
time
J ulian days: start at noon UT where noon
Dec. 31, 1899 = J .D. 2415020
So J .D. 2446066 = Dec. 31, 1984
J ulian date: adding the time to J ulian day by
decimal fraction
e.g. 2446066.5 =J an 1, 1985, 00:00:00 hr. in
UT
Angle between xi and xr axis is OeTe
define: Tc = J ulian centuries = time between
0 hr. UT on J ulian day (J D) and noon UT on
J an 1, 1900
Tc= (J D - 2415020)/36525 J ulian centuries
OeTe at any time t (in minutes) after midnight
UT is
OeTe =og,o + 0.25068477t degrees
degrees
Orbital Elements
Need 6 quantities to specify the absolute co-
ordinate of the satellite at time t.
For satellite communication, they are:
1. Eccentricity, e
2. Semimajor axis, a
3. Time of perigee, tp
4. RA of ascending node O
5. Inclination, i
6. Argument of perigee, e
Look Angle Determination
For positioning the
earth station antenna
Azimuth (Az)
Elevation (El)
other specifications:
RA and declination
(for radio astronomy
antenna).
Local vertical
N
E
Az
El
Subsatellite Point
Definition: subsatellite point is the place where a
line from the earth center to the satellite passes
through the earth surface
for geostationarysatellite, it is at some fixed
longitude on the equator. Therefore, only need
longitude to locate it.
let
Ls: North latitude of subsatellite point
ls: West longitude of the subsatellite point
L
z
x y z
s
o
r r r
r
=
+ +
90
1
2 2 2
cos
zr
yr
xr
Equatorial plane
Length =
x y z
r r r
2 2 2
+ +
S.S.P.
Ls
is given by (2.53)
meridians: longitudial lines
parallels: lantutude lines
s

Elevation (El)
: Central angle between station and satellite
given by
( ) cos cos cos cos sin sin = + L L l l L L
e s s e e s
re
Earth station
d
rs
r
e
cos
El
(fig. 2)
Where Le and le are latitude and
longitude of the earth station
By cosine rule
sine rule:
d r
r
r
r
r
El
s
e
s
e
s
o
= +
|
\
|
.
|

=
1 2
90
2
cos
r d
s
sin sin
=
= =
+
|
\
|
.
|

=
cos( )
sin sin
cos
El
r
d
r
r
r
r
r km
s
e
s
e
s
e

1 2
6370
2
Azimuth (Az)
Equation depends on the relative locations
of s.s.p. and earth station
e.g.
S.S.P.
Earth station
Az
Pole
S.S.P.
Az
Pole
El and Az for Synchronous Satellites
( )
( )
cos cos cos
cos
sin
. . cos
=
=
L l l
El
e s e
102274 03616
Central angle
Az calculations: 4 cases:
(a) SSP at southwest of ES
S.S.P.
c
G
a
o
E
Az
o
= + 180 o
Let s =(a+c+)/2
then from spherical trigo.
identity:
tan
sin( )sin( )
sin sin( )
2
2
o
|
\
|
.
| =

s s c
s s a
Where
a l l
c L L
s e
e s
=
=
| |
| |
Visibility
From Fig.2, theoretically the satellite is
visible if
or the central angle between E and S must
be smaller than
for syn. satellite,
r
r r
r
s
e e
s
> s

cos
cos

1
cos
|
\
|
.
|
1
r
r
e
s
s 813 .
o
Orbital Perturbation
Causes:
asymmetry of the Earths gravitational field
gravitational field of Sun and Moon
solar radiation pressure
atmosphere drag (negligible for synchronous
satellite)
Treatment:
osculating orbit: the orbit defined by Keplers
equation with orbital elements (a,e,tp,O,I,e).
Assume orbital elements vary linearly with time
given by
...etc.
satellite position at t, is calculated from
elements ( )
Satellite does not return to the same point in space
define anomalistic period as the elapsed time
between successive perigee passages
da
dt
de
dt
,
a
da
dt
t t e
de
dt
t t
o o
+ + ( ), ( ),
1 0 1 0
Effect of Earths Oblateness
Represent the earths gravitational potential
in Legendre polynomial.
The dominating term J2 will cause the
satellite to drift to two stable points at
or (hence they are called
graveyards).
105
o
W
75
o
E
Effect of Sun and Moon
Cause the orbital inclination to drift from
to in 26.6 years.
/ year for 1970 - 80.
1467 .
o
086 .
o
Orbit Determination
By classical method of Laplace and Guass
3 measurements in 3 time instances
2 measurements in 2 time instances using radar
since velocity can also be determined from each
observation
2 or more stations measure the position at the
same time
Launches and Launch Vehicles
ELV: expendable launch vehicle. (Rocket)
STS: space transportation system (Shuttle)
Mechanics of launching
for ELV
no Payload Assist Module (PAM) is needed
about 30 minutes to transfer orbit
V1: velocity increment
to move satellite into
transfer orbit (by
PAM).
V2: velocity increment
to move from transfer
orbit to
geosynchronous orbit
(By Apogee Kick
Motor (AKM)).
Apogee
Perigee
296
km
STS orbit
Transfer orbit
V1
V2
Expendable Launch Vehicles
Delta
1500kg, 2000kg, 2500kg $18M (1983)
Titan
4000kg $ 40M.(1983)
Ariane
2 Satellites at the same time
2100kg for A-2, 2580kg for A-3, 4300kg for A-4
launch at French Guiana, only 5 degree inclination
price: fixed
STS
payload 4000kg
maximum price: beat estimate
Orbital Effects in System Performance -
Doppler Shift
T
T
R
f
c
v c
f
+
=
fR is the receive frequency
c is the velocity of light
vT is the component of transmitter
velocity towards the receiver
fT is the fixed frequency
Pronounced for low-orbit satellites
Negligible for synchronous satellites
Range Variation
Cyclic daily variation for synchronous
satellite
Variable round-trip delay would require a
large guard time in TDMA
Continuous satellite range monitoring is
needed
Eclipse
Earths shadow
Sun
Satellite
Earth
Satellite
2 periods
~21 March and ~23 September
No power from solar array
Solar power fluctuation
Thermal stress of
satellite
1 21
March April
70
min
35
min
E
c
l
i
p
s
e

t
i
m
e
Date
Full Shadow
Half Shadow
Sun Transit Outage
The sun passes through the beam of an earth
station antenna
raises the noise level
occurs ~10 minutes a day for several days a
year
Very costly because of total outage during
the daytime.

Orbital Aspects

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Orbital Aspects

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Sat Com : Obital Mechanics 1

Orbital Aspects of Satellite

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