Chemistry

The branch of science which deals with the composition and properties of matter, changes in matter and the laws or principles which govern these changes is called Chemistry.

Branches of Chemistry

Physical Chemistry The branch of chemistry which deals with the physical properties and physical behavior of material things is called physical chemistry.

Inorganic Chemistry The study of all elements and their compounds except carbon is called inorganic chemistry.

Organic Chemistry The branch of chemistry in which we study the compounds of carbon is called organic chemistry.

nalytical Chemistry The branch of chemistry which discusses the analytical methods for getting information about chemical compounds and chemical processes is called analytical chemistry.

Biochemistry The study of chemical compounds present in living things is called biochemistry.

Industrial Chemistry

The application of chemical !nowledge in technology and industry and the preparation of industrial products are called industrial chemistry.

"teps Involved in #etting Information in the "cientific $ethod

"cience is not only an integrated !nowledge of physical and biological phenomena but also the methodology through which this !nowledge is gathered. The process of scientific discoveries is a cyclic process. In science the facts are gathered through observations and experiments and then theories or law are deduced. The scientific method include following four steps% &. Observation '. Inference (. Prediction ). *xperiment

&. Observation

The observations are made by the five senses of man. $en made e+uipments are also used for ma!ing observations. ,or example microscope is used for observing minute ob-ects. Thermometer is used to measure temperature. "ensitive balance is used to determine the mass of a very light ob-ect. The capacity of man made instruments is also limited. But it can be improved by improving technology. Thus better and more reliable information are given to the scientists who produce better result. Information ac+uired through careful observations are called facts. These facts are foundation of scientific !nowledge.

'. Inference

The facts gathered through observations are carefully arranged and properly classified. Correlating the !nowledge thus ac+uired with previous !nowledge, we try to thin! of a tentative solution to explain the observed phenomenon. The tentative solution is called hypothesis. The validity of this hypothesis is tested through the results obtained from

experiments. The results are discussed by the scientists and the hypothesis is accepted or re-ected. The accepted hypothesis then ta!es the form of theory. theory when repeatedly gives the same results after experimentation and gives correct explanation of the scientific facts becomes a law or principle. theory remains valid until contrary informations are given on the basis of experimentation. Thus a hypothesis re+uires experimental support. But vogadro.s hypothesis has been accepted as law without any experimental support.

(. Prediction

,acts, theories and laws which are deduced from observation can help in deducing more facts and phenomenon. This process is called prediction.

). *xperiment

n experiment is an integrated activity, which is performed under suitable conditions with specially designed instruments to get the re+uired information. "uch information is used to test the validity of the hypothesis. If a hypothesis is proved correct. It increases the reliability of !nown facts. If it is proved wrong, it stil can give information which can be used to deduce other results.

Chemistry and "ociety

Chemistry has played important role for well being of man!ind in the form of food, clothing, shelter, medical treatment and chemical fertili/ers, crops protected by insecticides, refined food and production of artificial fiber. Production of cement, iron bric!s, glass, paint etc are all due to chemistry. The ha/ards of chemistry are so vast that no aspect of human life has remained unaffected. The smo!e coming from chimneys of chemial industries and from vehicles pollute the air. It is very dangerous to breath in that air. "imilarly waste water from industry, pollute canals, rivers and has bad effect on land. *xcessive chemical spray on plants also has bad effect.

Chemical Combinations and Chemical *+uations

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3aws of Chemical Combinations

There are four laws of chemical combinations these laws explained the general feature of chemical change. These laws are% &. 3aw of Conservation of $ass '. 3aw of 4efinite Proportions (. 3aw of $ultiple Proportions ). 3aw 1eciprocal Proportions

ntoine 3avoiser has re-ected the worn out ideas about the changes that ta!e place during a chemical reaction. 0e made careful +uantitative measurements in chemical reactions and established that mass is neither created nor nor destroyed in a chemical change.

&. 3aw of Conservation of $ass

"tatement It is presented by 3avoiser. It is defined as%

5$ass is neither created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction but it only changes

from one form to another form.6

In a chemical reaction, reactants are converted to products. But the total mass of the reactants and products remains the same. The following experiment easily proves law of conservation of mass.

Practical 7erification 83andolt *xperiment9 #erman chemist 0. 3andolt, studied about fifteen different chemical reactions with a great s!ill, to test the validity of the law of conservation of mass. ,or this, he too! 0.shaped tube and filled the two limbs and B, with silver nitrate 8 g:O(9 in limb and 0ydrochloric cid 80Cl9 in limb B. The tube was sealed so that material could not escape outside. The tube was weighed initially in a vertical position so that the solution should not intermix with each other. The reactant were mixed by inverting and sha!ing the tube. The tube was weighed after mixing 8on the formation of white precipitate of gCl9. 0e observed that weight remains same. 0Cl ; g:O( <<<=> gCl ; :a:O(

'. 3aw of 4efinite Proportions

"tatement It is presented by Proust. It is defined as%

5?hen different elements combine to give a pure compound, the ratio between the masses of these elements will always remain the same.6

Proust proved experimentally that compound obtained from difference source will always contain same elements combined together in fixed proportions.

*xample ?ater can be obtained from different sources such as river, ocean, well, canal, tube well, rain or by the chemical combination of hydrogen and oxygen. If different samples of water are analy/ed, it will have two elements, hydrogen and oxygen and the ratio between their mass is &%@.

(. 3aw of $ultiple Proportions

"tatement This law is defined as%

5?hen two elements combine to give more than one compounds, the different masses of one element, which will combine with the fixed mass of other element, will be in simple whole number ratio.6

Two different elements can combine to form more than one compound. They can do so by combining in different ratios to give different compounds.

*xample 0ydrogen and oxygen combine with one another to form water 80'O9 and hydrogen peroxide 80'O'9. In water and hydrogen oxide ' g of hydrogen combine with &Ag and ('g of oxygen respectively. ccording to law of multiple proportions, the different masses of oxygen 8&Ag and ('g9 which have reacted with fixed mass 8'g9 of hydrogen will have a simple ratio between each other i.e. &A%(' or &%'. It means that hydrogen peroxide contains double the number of oxygen atoms than water. This law proves this point of 4alton.s tomic Theory that atoms do not brea! in a chemical reaction.

). 3aw of 1eciprocal Proportions

"tatement This law is defined as%

5?hen two element , B combine separately, with the mixed mass of the third element *, the ratio in which these elements combine with * is either the same or simple multiple of the ratio in which and B combine with each other.6

*xample 0ydrogen and :itrogen separately combine to form ammonia 8:0(9 and dinitrogen oxide 8:'O9, in these compounds, fixed mass of nitrogen is &)g and combines with @ g of oxygen and ( g of hydrogen. The ratio between the mass of oxygen and hydrogen is @%(. 0ydrogen and oxygen also combine with one another to form water 80'O9. The ratio between hydrogen and oxygen in water is &A%'. These ratios are not same. 3et us observe whether these ratios are simple multiple to each other or not following mathematical operation is carried out. @%( %%&A%' @B( % &AB' or @B( x 'B&A or &B( C> &%(

4efinitions

tomic $ass

The mass of an atom of the element relative to the mass of some reference or standard element is called atomic mass. toms are very small particles. They have very small mass. If the masses of atoms were to be expressed in gram. It is a very big unit for this very tiny ob-ect. Then it was decided by the chemists that masses of the atoms were to be found after comparing with mass to some standard form. 0ydrogen being the lightest element is ta!en as standard. The mass of the hydrogen atom ta!en as one.

The atomic mass could be defined as

5 tomic mass of an element is the mass of an atom of that element as compared to the mass of an atom of hydrogen ta!en as one.6

*xample The atomic mass of sodium is '(. It means that an atom of sodium is '( times heavier than hydrogen atom. "imilarly atomic mass of oxygen is &A. It means that an atom of oxygen is &A times heaviest than that of hydrogen.

tom

The smallest particle of an element which cannot exist independently and ta!e part in a chemical reaction is !nown as tom.

*xamples 0exogen809, Carbon 8C9, "odium 8:a9, #old 8 u9 etc.

$olecule

The particle of a substance 8*lement or Compound9 which can exist independently and show all the properties of that substance is called molecule.

toms of the same or different elements react with each other and form molecule. toms of some elements can exist independently, since they have property of molecule so they are called mono atomic molecule.

*xamples

*xamples of $olecules of the elements are 0ydrogen 80'9. :itrogen 8:'9, "ulphur 8"@9 etc. $olecules of different elements are called compounds. ,or example 0Cl, 0'O, C0) etc.

7alency

The combining capacity of all elements with other elements is called valency.

*xample 0C& CC) lC( $g C ' :a C &

Chemical ,ormula

5 brief name used for full chemical name at a compound is called Chemical ,ormula.6

chemical formula is used to represent an element or a compound in terms of symbols. It also represents the number and type of atoms of elements present in the smallest unit of that substance.

*xample The chemical formula of hydrogen sulphide is 0'". It shows two types of elements 80 and "9 and number of atoms of element 8'0 and &"9. "imilarly the formula of :aCl show number and type of different atoms present in its smallest unit.

*mpirical ,ormula

5The formula which shows the minimum 8simple9 ratio between atoms present in a compound is !nown as *mpirical ,ormula.6

*xample ,or example the empirical formula of hydrogen peroxide is 0O that of water is 0'O and ben/ene is C0.

$olecular ,ormula

The formula of an element or a compound which represents the actual number of atoms present in the molecule of these substances is called molecular formula.

*xample ?ater, 0ydrogen Peroxide, *thylene Ben/ene and "ulphur have molecular formula 0'O, 0'O', C'0), CA0A and "@ respectively.

$olecular $ass

$olecular mass of an element or a compound is defined as the mass of its molecule relative to &B&'th of the mass of C=&'. It is the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms presents in its molecular formula.

*xample $olecular mass of water 80'O9 C ' ; &A C &@ a.m.u $ass of hydrogen sulphide 80'"9 C ' ; (' C () a.m.u

,ormula $ass

,ormula mass of a compound is the mass of its formula unit relative to &B&'th of the mass of C=&'.

*xample ,ormula mass of "odium Chloride :aCl C '( ; (D.D C D@.D a.m.u ,ormula mass of Calcium Chloride CaCl' C )E ; (D.DF' C &&&a.m.u

$olar $ass

The mass of one mole of a substance is called molar mass.

*xample & mole of 0ydrogen atom 809 C &.EE@g & mole of 0ydrogen molecule 80'9 C '.E&Ag Thus mass of substance is related to the particles by mole.

Chemical 1eaction

chemical change in which reactants are converted to products is called chemical reaction. Gn ; '0Cl <<2> GnCl' ; 0' The fact that a chemical reaction is ta!ing place can be inferred from the following observation. &. *volution of a gas '. Change in colour

(. Change in temperature. ). *mission of light.

Types of Chemical 1eaction

The chemical reaction is classified into following types%

&. 4isplacement 1eaction The reaction in which an atom or group of atoms is displaced by another atom or group of atoms in a compound is called displacement reaction. ,e ; CuO <<<> Cu ; ,eO

'. 4ouble 4isplacement 1eactions The reactions in which reacting substances exchange their radicals or ions are double displacement reaction. Insoluble salts are formed by mixing soluble salts.

(. ddition 1eactions ?hen two different compounds or elements react together to give only one confound, the reaction will be called addition reaction. '$g ; O' <<2> '$gO

). 4ecomposition 1eaction The reaction in which some compounds may decompose into elements or simpler compounds on heating is called decomposition reaction. CaCO( <<<> CaO ; CO' 80eat9

Chemical *+uation

"ymbolic representation of chemical change in terms of symbols and formulae is called Chemical *+uation.

$ethod of *+uation ?riting

chemical e+uation can be written as follows% &. ?rite the formulae and symbols of the reactants on the left hand side. '. ?rite the formulae and sympols of the products on the right hand side. (. "eparate the reactants and products by an arrow which is directed towards the products.

Characteristics of Chemical *+uation

&. Chemical e+uation must be representative of a chemical reaction. '. It should represent molar +uantities. (. It should be balanced in terms of atomsBmolecules of reactants and products.

1eactants

Those substances, which react together in a chemical reaction, are called reactants. Gn ; '0Cl <<> GnCl' ; 0' In the above reaction Gn and 0Cl are the reactants.

Products

Those substances, which are formed in a chemical reaction, are called products. Gn ; '0Cl <<> GnCl' ; 0'

In the above reaction, GnCl' and 0' are products. Information obtained from a Chemical *+uation

&. balanced e+uation indicates that which reactant undergo chemical change. It indicates that which products are formed. '. It indicates that how many moles of reactants under go chemical change. It indicates that how many moles of products are formed.

?hy are Chemical *+uations Balanced

chemical e+uation must be balanced in order to satisfy the law of conservation of matter, which states that matter can neither be created nor be destroyed during a chemical reaction.

tomic "tructure

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4alton.s tomic Theory

The important postulates of 4alton.s atomic theory are% &. ll elements are composed of atoms. tom is too small so that it could not be divided into further simpler components. '. tom cannot be destroyed or produced.

(. toms of an element are similar in all respects. They have same mass and properties. ). toms of different elements combine in a definite simple ratio to produce compounds.

4iscovery of *lectron

discharge tube is a glass tube. It has two electrode, a source of electric current and a vacuum pump. 84iagram9 "ir ?illiam Croo!s 8&@HD performed experiments by passing electric current through gas in the discharge tube at very low pressure. 0e observed that at &E=) 8=) is power to &E9 atmosphere pressure, shining rays are emitted from cathode. These rays were named cathode rays. Cathode rays are material particles as they have mass and momentum.

Properties of Cathode 1ays

The properties of these particles are given below%

&. These particles are emitted from cathode surface and move in straight line. '. The temperature of the ob-ect rises on which they fall. (. They produce shadow of opa+ue ob-ect placed in their path. ). These particles are deflected in electric and magnetic fields. D. These particles are deflected towards positive plate of electric field.

4iscovery of Proton

#old "tein 8&@@A9 observed that in addition to the cathode rays, another type of rays were present in the discharge tube. These rays travel in a direction opposite to cathode rays. These rays were named positive rays. By using perforated cathode in the discharge tube the properties of these rays can be studied. Positive rays are also

composed of metered particles. The positive rays are not emitted from anode. They are produced by the ioni/ation of residual gas molecules in the discharge tube. ?hen cathode rays stri!e with gas molecule, electrons are removed and positive particles are produced.

Properties of Positive 1ays

&. They are deflected towards negative plate of electric field. Therefore these rays carry positive charge.

'. The mass of positive rays is e+ual to the mass of the gas enclosed in the discharge tube. (. The minimum mass of positive particles is e+ual to the mass of hydrogen ion 80;9. These positive ions are called Protons. ). The charge on proton is e+ual to ;&.AE'F&E=&H Coulomb. 8=&H is power of &E9

:atural 1adioactivity

The phenomenon in which certain elements emit radiation which can cause fogging of photographic plate is called natural radioactivity. The elements which omit these rays are called radioactive elements li!e Iranium, Thorium, 1adium etc. There are about )E radioactive elements. 0enri Be+urel 8&@HA9 discovered radioactivity.$adam Curei also has valuable contribution in this field. In natural radioactivity nuclei of elements are bro!en and element converted to other elements. :atural radioactivity is nuclear property of the elements.

lpha 1ays

&. They are helium nuclei. They are doubly positively charged, 0e';.

'. They move with speed e+ual to the &B&Eth of the velocity of the light. (. They cannot pass through thic!=metal foil. ). They are very good ioni/er of a gas. D. They affect the photographic plate.

Beta 1ays

&. They are negatively charged. '. They move with the speed e+ual to the velocity of light. (. They can pass through a few millimeter thic! metal sheets. ). They are good ioni/er of a gas. D. They can affect the photographic plate.

#amma 1ays

&. They are electromagnetic radiations. '. They travel with speed e+ual to velocity of light. (. They carry no charge. ). They have high penetration power than alpha and beta rays. D. They are wea! ioni/er of gas.

1utherford *xperiment and 4iscovery of :ucleus

3ord 1utherford 8&H&&9 and his cowor!ers performed an experiment. They bombarded a very thin, gold fail with lpha particles from a radioactive source. They observed that most of the particles passed straight through the foil undeflected. But a few particles were deflected at different angles. One out of )EEE lpha particles was deflected at an angle greater than &DE.

84iagram9

Conclusion

,ollowing conclusions were drawn from the 1utherford.s lpha Particles scattering experiment. &. The fact that ma-ority of the particles went through the foil undeflected shows that most of the space occupied by an atom is empty. '. The deflection of a few particles over a wide angle of &DE degrees shows that these particles stri!e with heavy body having positive charge. (. The heavy positively charged central part of the atom is called nucleus. ). :early all of the mass of atom is concentrated in the nucleus. D. The si/e of the nucleus is very small as compared with the si/e of atom.

4efects of 1utherford $odel

1utherford model of an atom resembles our solar system. It has following defects% &. ccording to classical electromagnetic theory, electron being charged body will emit energy continuously. Thus the orbit of the revolving electron becomes smaller and smaller until it would fall into the nucleus and atomic structure would collapse. '. If revolving electron emits energy continuously then there should be a continuous spectrum but a line spectrum is obtained. 84iagram9

Bohr.s tomic $odel

:eil Bohr 8&H&(9 presented a model of atom which has removed the defects of 1utherford $odel. This model was developed for hydrogen atom which has only proton in the nucleus and one electron is revolving around it.

Postulates of Bohr.s tomic $odel

The main postulates of Bohr.s $odel are given below% &. *lectrons revolve around the nucleus in a fixed orbit. '. s long as electron revolves in a fixed orbit it does not emit and absorb energy. 0ence energy of electron remains constant. (. The orbit nearest to the nucleus is the first orbit and has lowest energy. ?hen an electron absorbs energy it -umps from lower energy orbit to higher energy orbit. *nergy is emitted in the form of radiations, when an electron -umps from higher energy orbit to lower energy orbit. The unit of energy emitted in the form of radiations is called +uantum. It explains the formation of atomic spectrum. ). The change in energy is related with the +uantum of radiation by the e+uation % *' 2 *& C hv where *& C *nergy of first orbit *' C *nergy of the second orbit h C Planc!.s constant v C ,re+uency of radiation

tomic :umber

The number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom is called atomic number or proton number. It is denoted by /. The proton in the nucleus of an atom is e+ual to number of electrons revolving around its nucleus.

$ass :umber

The total number of the protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom is called

mass number. The protons and neutrons together are called nucleon. 0ence it is also !nown as nucleon number. It is denoted by . the number of neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom is rperesented by :. $ass :umber C :o of Protons ; :o of neutrons CG;:

Isotopes

The atoms of same elements which have same atomic number but different mas number are called Isotopes. The number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom remains the same but number of neutrons may differ. Isotopes of 4ifferent *lements

Isotopes of 0ydrogen 0ydrogen has three isotopes% &. Ordinary 0ydrogen or Protium, 0. '. 0eavy 0ydrogen or 4eutrium, 4. (. 1adioactive 0ydrogen or Tritium, T.

Protium Ordinary naturally occurring hydrogen contains the largest percentage of protium. It is denoted by symbol 0. It has one proton in its nucleus and one electron revolve around the nucleus. :umber of Protons C & :umber of *lectrons C & :umber of :eutrons C E tomic :umber C & $ass :umber C &

4eutrium 4eutrium is called heavy hydrogen. The percentage of deutrium in naturally occuring hydrogen is about E.EE&DJ. It has one proton and one neutron in its nucleus. It has one electron revolving around its nucleus. It is denoted by symbol 4. :umber of Proton C & :umber of *lectron C & :umber of :eutrons C & tomic :umber C & $ass :umber C '

Tritium 1adioactive hydrogen is called tritium. It is denoted by symbol T. The number of tritium isotope is one in ten millions. It has one proton and ' neutrons in its nucleus. It has one electron revolving around its nucleus. :umber of Proton C & :umber of *lectron C & :umber of :eutron C ' tomic :umber C & $ass :umber C (

Periodicity of *lements and Periodic Table

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4efinitions

Periodic Table

table of elements obtained by arranging them in order of their increasing atomic number in which elements having similar properties are placed in the same group is called Periodic Table.

#roup

The vertical column of elements in the periodic table are called #roups.

Period

The hori/ontal rows of elements in the periodic table are called Periods.

Periodicity

The repetition of physical and chemical properties of elements periodically is called Periodicity of Properties.

Periodic 3aw

Physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic function of their atomic masses.

$etal

*lements which are good conductors of heat and electricity are malleable and ductile and have a metallic luster are called $etals li!e "odium, Potassium, #old, Copper etc.

:on=$etals

*lements which are non or bad conductor of heat and electricity are neither malleable or ductile and have no metallic luster are called :on=$etals li!e Carbon, :itrogen, Chlorine etc.

$etalloids

$etalloids are semi metals have the properties which are intermediate between a metal and non=metal li!e Boron, "ilicon, #ermanium, rsenic, ntimony etc.

3aw of Triads

#erman Chemist, 4obereiner 8&@'H9, arranged chemically similar elements in groups of three on the basis of their atomic masses called Triads and it was found that atomic mass of the middle element was approximately e+ual to the average of atomic masses of other two elements. This is !nown as 3aw of Triads.

4rawbac! or 4efect

s very few elements could be arranged in such groups, this classification did not get wide acceptance.

3aw of Octaves

n *nglish Chemist :ewland 8&@A)9 stated that if the elements were arranged in the ascending order of their atomic masses, every eight element will have similar properties to the first. This is !nows as 3aw of Octaves.

4rawbac! or 4efects

&. :oble gases were not discovered at that time and no place was reserved for the undiscovered noble gases. '. In the same way no blan! spaces for the undiscovered elements were present in his table.

$endeleyv.s Period Table and Periodic 3aw

1ussian Chemist, $endeleyv.s 8&@A9 who wa wor!ing separately from 3other $ayer published a table of elements. ccording to $endeleyv.s when the element were arranged in order of their increasing atomic mases, the elements with similar properties were repeated after regular interval and were placed one above the other. table obtained in this manner is called Periodic Table. $endeleyv.s stated this periodicity in the form of Periodic 3aw.

Important ,eatures of $endeleyv.s Periodic Table

The important features of $endeleyv.s Periodic table are%

Periods and #roups The hori/ontal rows which run from left to right in Periodic Table are called Periods and they are twelve in number. The vertical rows which run from top to bottom in periodic table are called groups and they are eight in number.

7acant "paces $endeleyv.s left many vacant spaces for the still un!nown elements. ,or example, next to Calcium 8)E9 should be Titanium 8)@9 but it resembled silicon 8'@9 instead of luminium 8'K9. 0e left vacant space for element with atomic mass )).

4iscovery of :ew *lement $endeleyv.s discovered new elements and also guessed their atomic mass and properties.

tomic $ass Correction $endeleyv.s corrected the atomic masses of certain elements on basis of their properties and provided proper place to them in the periodic table.

4efects in $endeleyv.s Periodic Table

The $endeleyv.s Period Table has following defects%

Irregular Position of "ome *lements ccording to $endeleyv.s Periodic 3aw Potassium 8(H9 should be placed before rgon 8)E9 but he placed rgon 8)E9 before Potassium 8(H9 which goes against his law.

Position of Isotopes $endeleyv.s periodic table gives no indication about the position of isotopes.

"tructure of tom $endeleyv.s Periodic table gives no idea about structure of atoms.

Position of 3anthanides and ctinides

3anthanides and ctinides have not been given proper place in Periodic Table.

Coinage and l!ali $etals l!ali metals and coinage metals with different properties are placed in the same group. This defect has been replaced by placing them into two sub groups.

$odern Periodic 3aw and $odern Periodic Table

$odern Periodic 3aw Physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic function of their atomic number. $osely 8&H&(9 says that atomic mas is not fundamental property. 4ue to some defects present in $endeleyv.s periodic law, $osely introduced the concept of anomic number for the elements.

*xample ?hen isotopes were discovered, it was thought advisable to arrange the elements on basis of their atomic number instead o increasing atomic mases. Isotopes were needed different position in the $endeleyv.s periodic table. 0ence $endeleyv.s periodic law was modified.

$odern Periodic Table ?hen $endeleyv.s periodic law was modified and new elements were discovered. This forcd the scientists to change $endeleyv.s periodic law. The electronic configuration of atoms also played an important role in he arrangement of the modern periodic law. This form of periodic table is called 53ong form of Periodic Table6 because it contains eighteen groups instead of eight but seven periods instead of twelve.

#roup I 2 The l!ali $etals

The elements of group I are called 5 l!ali $etals6. The word al!ali is derived from an

rabic word meaning shes.

*lements of #roup I 3ithium "odium Potassium 1ubidium Cesium ,rancium

Properties of #roup I &. They are mono atomic. '. They exist in solid metallic state. (. Outer most shell of these elements is incomplete having one electron. ). *lements of this group are highly reactive. D. *lements of this group have large tendency to form compounds. A. *lements of this group are strongly electro=positive.

#roup II 2 The l!aline *arth $etals

The elements of group II are called l!aline *arth $etals. These elements occur in nature as silicate mineral and their oxides and hydroxides are strongly basic. Therefore these elements are called l!aline *arth $etals.

*lements of #roup II Beryllium $agnesium

Calcium "trontium Barium 1adium

Properties of #roup II &. They are mono atomic. '. They exist in solid state. (. Outer most shell of these elements is incomplete having two electrons. ). *lements of this group are moderately reactive. D. *lements of this group have moderate tendency to form compounds.

#roup III 2 The Boron or luminium ,amily

The elements of group III exist in solid state.

*lements of #roup III Boron $etalloid luminium $etal #allium $etal Indium $etal Thallium $etal

Properties of #roup III &. They are mono atomic. '. They exist in solid state.

(. Outer most shell of these elements is incomplete having three electrons. ). *lements of this group are +uite reactive. D. *lements of this group have moderate tendency to form compounds.

#roup I7 2 The Carbon and "ilicon ,amily

*lements of #roup I7 Carbon "ilicon #ermanium Tin 3ead

Properties of #roup I7 &. They are mono atomic. '. They exist in solid state. (. Outermost shell of these elements is incomplete. ). *lements of this group are +uite reactive. D. *lements of this group have moderate tendency to form compounds.

#roup 7 2 The :itrogen ,amily

*lements of #roup 7 :itrogen Phosphorus rsenic

ntimony Bismuth

Properties of #roup 7 &. "ome are mono atomic and some are di=atomic. '. "ome of them exist in gaseous and some are in solid state. (. Outermost shell of these elements is incomplete having five electrons. ). elements of this group are +uite reactive. D. *lements of this group have +uite tendency to form compound.

#roup 7I 2 The Oxygen ,amily

*lements of #roup 7I Oxygen "ulphur "elenium Tellurium Polonium

Properties of #roup 7I &. "ome are mono atomic and some are di=atomic. '. "ome of them exist in gaseous and some are in solid state. (. *lements of this group have +uite tendency to form compounds. ). The tendency of forming covalent bond decreases from oxygen to polonium. D. There is a gradual decrease in the ioni/ation potential down the group.

#roup 7II 2 The 0alogen ,amily

*lements of #roup 7II ,luorine #as Chlorine #as Bromine 3i+uid Iodine "olid statine 1adioactive

Properties of #roup 7II &. They are diatomic except t. '. 0alogens are very active non=metals. (. Outer most shell of these elements is incomplete having seven electrons. ). *lements of this group are highly reactive. D. There is a gradual decrease in the ioni/ation potential down the group.

Transition *lements

4efinition *lements in #roup IB, IIB, through 7IIB are !nown as Transition *lements because they show their properties which are transitional between higly reactive and strong electro= positive elements of "=bloc! which form ionic compounds and p=bloc! elements which form largely covalent compounds.

Properties of Transition *lements &. Transition *lements have incomplete inner electron shells. '. They show variable valency.

(. They show similar behaviour. ). They all are metals. D. They have strong inner atomic bonds.

#roup E, The :oble #ases

The elements of #roup 7III *lements6.

are called 5:oble #ases6 or 5Inert #ases6 or 5Gero #roup

*lements of #roup E 0elium :eon rgon Lrypton Menon 1adon

Properties of #roup E &. They are mono atomic. '. They exist in gaseous state. (. Outer most shell of these elements is either complete or contains eight electrons. ). These elements are mostly chemically non=reactive. D. These elements have no tendency to form compounds 8only a few of these compounds are !nown9.

tomic 1adius

4efinition

One half of the distance between the nucleus of two identical atoms when these are in close contact with each other is called tomic 1adius.

Init It is measured in angstrom unit .

Trend in Period The atomic radii decreases from left to right within a period in the periodic table. This is because nuclear charge increases with the increase of atomic number. But the number of shells remains same within a period.

Trend in #roup tomic radius increases from top to bottom in a group. This is because, although nuclear charge increases from top to bottom but at the same time on new shell is also added for each successive element down the group.

Ioni/ation *nergy 8I.*9 or Ioni/ation Potential 8I.P9

4efinition The minimum energy needed to remove an electron from an isolated, gaseous atom in its ground state is called Ioni/ation *nergy.

Init It is expressed in electron volts or !ilo=-oules permole. & ev C HA.)H!-

,actors ffecting Ioni/ation *nergy The ioni/ation energy of elements depends upon the following factors% &. *ffect of :uclear Charge on I.* The greater the nuclear charge the higher is the ioni/ation energy. '. *ffect of tomic "i/e The larger the si/e of atom the lower is the ioni/ation energy.

Trend of I.* in Period Ioni/ation energy increases from left to right in a period due to increase in nuclear change and decrease in atomic si/e.

Trend of I.* in #roup I.* decreases from top to bottom in a group due to increase in atomic si/e.

*lectronegativity

4efinition The tendency of each atom in a covalent molecule to attract a shared pair of electrons towards itself is !nown as its electronegativity.

,actors ffecting *lectronegativity *lectronegativity depends upon the following factors% tomic si/e tomic :umber *lectron ffinity Ioni/ation *nergy

Trend or 7ariation in the Period *lectronegativity increases from left to right within a period due to increase in nuclear charge and decrease in atomic si/e.

Trend or 7ariation in the #roup *lectronegativity values decreases from top to bottom within a group due to increase in atomic si/e.

*lectron ffinity

4efinition The energy change that occurs when an electron is gained by an atom in the gaseous state is !nown as *lectron ffinity. *lectron ffinity for the addition of first electron is negative i.e. energy is released but for further addition of electrons it is positive because energy has to be added to over come repulsion between negative ion and electron.

Init It is measured in LNBmol or in e.v per atom.

,actors ffecting *lectron ffinity tomic "i/e :uclear Charge

Trend or 7ariation of *lectron ffinity in #roup 4own the group in the periodic table, electron affinity decreases because the addition of a new shell to each atom decreases its force of attraction.

Trend or 7ariation of *lectron ffinity in Period In a period, the electron affinity increases from left to right because the incoming successive atoms have higher nuclear charge and attract electron more towards itself.

"tates of $atter

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"tates of $atter

$atter has three states% &. #as '. 3i+uid (. solid These are physical states of matter. The three states of one matter may have different physical properties while their chemical properties are same. ?ater exists in three physical states solid 8ice9, li+uid and gas8steam9 has same chemical properties.

Linetic Theory of $atter

The Linetic theory was presented to explain the properties of gases and is called !inetic theory of gases. But this theory was also able to explain the composition of li+uid and solid state of matter. "o its is called Linetic Theory of $atter. ccording to Linetic Theory of matter%

&. ll matter is composed of atoms, molecules or ions. '. These particles have !inetic energy due to which they are in the state of motion. (. In gaseous state, these particles move in a straight line. They collide with one another and with the walls of container. In li+uids the rate of their movement is very small but in solids, there is to and fro motion only. ). #enerally material particles can have three types of movements, i.e. translational, rotational and vibrational.

"olids

The state of matter which has definite shape and volume is called solid.

Properties of "olids

&. 4efinite 7olume and "hape The cohesive forces in solid substances are so strong that they !eep their particles arranged in fixed positions. "o due to restrict movements of particles, the solids have definite volume and shape.

'.$otion of Particles The solid particles have vibrational motion only because these particles are held in fixed position by strong cohesive forces.

(. *ffect of 0eat The physical state of solid substance can be changed by heating. On heating solid is converted to li+uid and gaseous state. 0eat increases the !inetic energy of the particles and they start vibrating at higher fre+uency. t a particular temperature the vibrational motions become fast that they overcome the cohesive forces and solid melts to li+uid.

). $elting Point

The temperature at which the solid is converted to li+uid on heating is called melting point. t melting point, the particles of solid loose their means position and their arrangement. The solid collapses and turns to li+uid.

D. "ublimation The conversion of some solids directly into gaseous state on heating is called sublimation. Iodine, ammonium chloride and naphthalene change directly into vapour state upon heating.

3i+uid

The state of matter having definite volume but indefinite shape is called li+uid.

Properties of 3i+uid

&. 7olume 3i+uids have definite volume. In li+uid particles are very close to one another and have cohesive forces among the particles. 4ue to the presence of cohesive forces, li+uids have definite volume and !eep their level as well.

'. "hape 3i+uids do not have any specific shape. They adopt the shape of the container. The molecules of li+uid are able to move. 4ue to this random motion the molecules of li+uid do not have fixed position and as a result, a li+uid does not have any specific shape.

(. *vaporation Conversion of li+uid into its vapours at any temperature is called evaporation. The molecules of li+uid come to the surface of li+uid and escape by overcoming cohesive forces. "o li+uid is converted to vapours at all temperature.

). Boiling Point The temperature of a li+uid at which its vapour pressure becomes e+ual to the atmospheric pressure is called boiling point.

#as

The state of matter which does not have definite shape and volume is called gaseous state.

Properties of #aseous "tate

&. Indefinite 7olume and "hape In gaseous state, the molecules have insignificant cohesive forces among themselves. They move very fast in all possible directions. s a result, a gas neither has fixed shape nor a fixed volume.

'. Linetic *nergy of the Particle of a #as #as particles have very high !inetic energy as compared to li+uid and solid state.

(. Pressure The molecules of a gas are in the state of random motion. The molecules of gas not only collide with one another but also with the walls of the container in which they are enclosed. 4ue to their collision, the velocity of the molecules changes every moment. The pressure exerted by gas is also due to the collision of its molecules with the walls of the container.

). *lastic Collision The collision of gas molecules is elastic in nature which means that the total energy of the colliding molecules remains the same before and after the collision.

D. Linetic *nergy The !inetic energy of molecules of gas is very high as compared with solid and li+uid.

4iffusion

The movement of molecules from a higher concentration to a lower concentration is !nown as 4iffusion. If the concentration of molecules at a particular place is higher, they start moving towards a place where their concentration is lower. ?hen the concentration of molecules at both the places becomes e+ual the process of diffusion stops.

4iffusion in #ases

The molecules of one gas can diffuse easily into the molecules of other gas. ,or example if an open bottle of a perfume is !ept in a room, its smell will spread uniformly throughout the room. The li+uid perfume present in the bottle volatili/ed slowly and its vapours diffuse through out the room.

#raham.s 3aw of 4iffusion

"cottish Chemist, Thomas #raham 8&@((9 discovered that lighter gs can diffuse through porous pot faster than the heavier one. This is called #raham.s

3aw of 4iffusion. 0ydrogen being lighter gas will diffuse faster than oxygen or carbon dioxide.

4iffusion in 3i+uids

3i+uid molecules can also diffuse because they have free movement. "ince the

molecules of li+uid move comparatively slowly than gas molecule, their rate of diffusion are also lesser than gases.

Brownian $ovement

1obert Brown 8&H'K9 discovered this phenomenon% The free movement of the molecules of gases and li+uid is called Brownian $ovement.6

?hen a pollen grain is put in water. The movement of pollen grain in water is observed by microscope. It is observed that pollen grain is continuously moving in all directions. This free movement of pollen grain was due to the free movement of water molecules. The colliding water molecules will also force pollen grain to move as well. The students can observe Brownian movement with the help of simple experiment.

*xperiment

Put a drop of mil! on a microscope slide and cover it with cover slip. Put it under microscope and observe it. Oou will see small particle of fat moving randomly in mil!. The movement of fat particles is actually due to the movement of water molecules in mil!.

"olution and "uspension

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"olution

homogeneous mixture of different chemical substances which has uniform chemical composition through out and shows uniform physical properties is called solution. ,or example dissolve a small amount of copper sulphate in water the water will become blue. If this blue li+uid is filtered, it will pass through the filter paper without leaving any solid. The mixture thus prepared is called a solution.

Binary "olution

solution which is formed by mixing two substances is called binary solution. ,or example solution of glucose and water.

"olute

The component of a binary solution which is in lesser amount is called solute. ,or example in copper sulphate solution, copper sulphate is solute.

"olvent

The component of a binary solution which is in greater amount is called solvent. ,or example in copper sulphate solution, water is solvent.

"aturated solution

solution in which maximum amount of a solute has been dissolved at a particular temperature and in which the dissolved form of solute is at e+uilibrium with its undissolved form is called saturated solution.

Insaturated "olution

"olution which can dissolve further amount of a solute at a Pparticular temperature is called an unsaturated solution.

"upersaturated "olution

The solution which contains even more amount of solute re+uired to prepare saturated solution is called super saturated solution. The hot saturated solution of compound li!e sodium thiosulphate does not crystalli/e its solute if cooled slowly without disturbance. "uch a solution is called supersaturated solution.

4ilute "olution

solution which contains small amount of a solute as compared to the solvent is called dilute solution.

Concentrated "olution

solution which contains excess amount of a solute as compared to that of a solvent is called a concentrated solution.

Concentrated "olution

The amount of solute present in given +uantity of solvent is called concentration of solution. The concentration of a solution can be expressed in many ways depending upon the amount o solute and solvent present in it.

Concentration of "olution

The amount of solute present in given +uantity of solvent is called concentration of solution. The concentration of a solution can be expressed in many ways depending upon the amount of solute and solvent present in it.

Percentage by $ass The percentage of solute by mass is the mass of solute present in hundred part of the solution. ,or example DJ hydrogen peroxide solution by mass means that Dg hydrogen peroxide are dissolved in HDg of water to give &EEg of solution. Percentage of $ass C 8$ass of "oluteB$ass of "olution9 x &EE

Percentage by 7olume The concentration unit expresses the volume of solute present in &EEcm( of solution. ,or example &DJ solution of alcohol by volume will mean that &Dcm( alcohols are present in &EEcm( of solution. 80ere ( represents cube9 Percentage by 7olume C 87olume of "oluteB7olume of "olution9 x &EE

$olar "olution The solution that contains one mole of solute in &dm( of solution is called a molar solution. The concentration of this solution is expressed as $.

$olarity $olarity of a solution is the number of moles of solute present in &dm( of the solution. It is expressed as $. $ C :umber of $oles of "oluteB7olume of "olution in dm( or $ C 8$ass of soluteB$olecular $ass9 x 8&B 7olume of "olution in dm(9

Crystalli/ation

The process in which crystal separates from saturated solution on cooling is called crystalli/ation. It is a useful process because it can be used to purify the impure solid compounds. It can also be used to separate a mixture of solids.

0ydration

The ions surrounded by solvent molecules in solution are called solvated ions. If water is a solvent these ions are called hydrated ions.

"uspension

suspension in such a mixture in which solute particles do not dissolved in solvent and if filtrated its particles do not pass through the pores of filter paper.

Colloidal "olution

In a colloidal solution the solute particles are slightly bigger than those present in a true solution but not big enough to seen with na!ed eye.

"tandard "olution

solution whose molarity 8strength9 is !nown is called "tandard "olution.

True "olution

True "olution is such a mixture in which solute particles are completely homogeni/ed in the solvent for example solution of sodium chloride or copper sulphate in water.

"olubility

"olubility o a solute in a particular solvent is defined as the amount of solute in grams, which can dissolve in &EEg of the solvent at a particular temperature to give a saturated solution. or The amount of a solute in gram moles, which can dissolve in one !ilogram of the solvent at a particular temperature, to give a saturated solution.

,actors ffecting the "olubility

*ffect of "olvent "imilar solvents dissolve similar solutes, i.e. if the chemical structure and the electrical properties such as dipole moment of solute and solvent are similar, the solubility will increase. If there is dissimilarity in properties, then either the solute will not dissolve or there will be very little solubility.

*ffect of "olute 4ifferent solutes have different solubility.s in a particular solvent e.g. if the saturated solutions of table sugar and sodium chloride are prepared, it is found that the concentration of sodium chloride solution is D.( molar while that of sugar solution is (.@ molar. In other words, the solubility of sodium chloride in water is far greater than that of sugar. This is due to the fact that the attraction of sodium 8:a; and chloride 8Cl=9 ions with water is greater than that of sugar molecules with water.

*ffect of Temperature Change in temperature has different effects on the solubility of different compounds. Isually the solubility increase with the increase in temperature but it cannot be ta!en as a general rule. The solubility of compounds li!e lithium carbonate, calcium chromate decreases with the increase in temperature. The solubility of gases in water also decreases with the increase in temperature. On the other hand, there are a large number of compounds whose solubility in water increase with the increase in temperature e.g. sodium nitrate, silver nitrate, Potassium chloride etc. the solubility of sodium chloride in water does not increase appreciably with the increase in temperature.

*lectro=Chemistry

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*lectro=Chemistry

The branch of chemistry which deals with the study of chemical energy to electrical energy or electrical energy to chemical energy is called electro=chemistry.

Conductors

Those substances through which electric current can pass are called conductors. ,or example all metals are conductors.

:on=Conductors

Those substances through which electric current cannot pass are called non=conductors. ,or example plastic, wood are non=conductors.

*lectrolysis

The process in which electricity passes through the a+ueous or infused state of some

substance. The substances itself decompose into its component. This process is called electrolysis.

*lectrolyte

The compound in molten state or in a+ueous solution through which electricity can pass are called electrolyte.

:on=*lectrolyte

Those compounds through which electricity cannot pass are called non=electrolyte.

"trong *lectrolyte

The substances which are highly soluble and completely ioni/ed are called strong electrolyte. ,or example acids, bases and salts are strong electrolytes.

?ea! *lectrolyte

The substances which are not highly soluble and remain in un=ioni/ed form are called wea! electrolyte.

*lectroplating

process in which metal is deposited on the surface of another metal by electrolysis is called electroplating.

Ob-ectives of *lectroplating

4ecoration It is done for decoration. :oble and precious metals li!e gold or silver are deposited on the inferior metals to enhance their beauty and loo! beautiful.

Protection *lectroplating is done to protect the metals from rusting as well as from attac! of other substance li!e organic acids and acidic gases.

1epair It can be used to repair the bro!en machinery by electroplating with other metals. Isually the metals li!e copper, silver, chromium, nic!el and gold are used for electroplating.

Procedure of *lectroplating The metal which is to be electroplated is first cleaned with sand and then washed with caustic soda solution and finally with a lot of water. This metal is made cathode and the metal which is going to be deposited is made anode. The electrolyte is a salt of metal being deposited and electroplating is carried out in a tan! made of cement, glass or wood. It is called an electrolytic tan!. The electrolyte should have following properties% &. It must be very soluble in water. '. It must be good conductor. (. Cheap ). $ay not easily oxidi/ed or reduced or hydroly/ed.

4ifferences

$etals and :on $etals

$etals &. $etals have luster shine surface. '. $etals reflect heat and light. (. $etals conduct heat and electricity ). $etals are ductile and can be drawn into wire.

:on=$etals &. :on=$etals have no luster. '. :on=$etals usually don.t reflect heat and light. (. :on=$etals do not conduct heat and electricity. ). :on=$etals are non ductile and cannot be drawn into wire. D. :on=$etals are non=malleable and can not form sheets.

0omogeneous and 0eterogeneous $ixture

0omogeneous $ixture &. Those mixtures, which have uniform composition throughout their mass are called homogeneous mixtures. '. 0omogeneous mixture has only one phase through out its mass.

(. 0omogeneous mixture are also !nown as solution. ). *xamples% "alt and water, "ugar and water.

0eterogeneous $ixture &. Those mixtures, which do not have uniform composition through their mass are called 0eterogeneous $ixture. '. 0eterogeneous $ixture has more than one phase through out its mass. (. 0eterogeneous $ixture are not solutions. ). *xamples% 1oc!s, "oil, ,ood products.

$olecular and *mpirical ,ormula

$olecular ,ormula &. ,ormula which shows the actual number of atoms of each element present in a molecule is called $olecular ,ormula. '. $olecular ,ormula shows the structure of compound. (. Two or more compounds cannot have same $olecular ,ormula. ). $olecular ,ormula C n x *mpirical ,ormula. D. It represents covalent compounds only.

*mpirical ,ormula &. formula, which shows the relative ratio of atoms of each element present in a molecule, is called *mpirical ,ormula. '. *mpirical ,ormula can not show the structure of compound. (. Two or more compounds can have same *mpirical ,ormula. ). *mpirical ,ormula C $olecular ,ormula B n D. It represent an ionic compound as well as a covalent compound.

"ymbol and ,ormula

"ymbol &. symbol is an abbreviation for the chemical name of an element and represents only one atom of the element. '. It represents one atom of an element. (. "ymbol is written for elements. ). *xamples% :a, Br, Cl, , etc.

,ormula &. 1epresentation of compound in terms of symbols is called formula. It represents one atom of an element. '. It represents atoms of same or different elements present in one molecule. (. It represents an ionic compounds as well as a covalent compound. ). *xamples% 0'O, :0( etc.

#ram and #ram $olecule

#ram The atomic mass of an element expressed in grams is called gram atomic mass. '. It is associated with element only. (. It is the mass of one atomic mole. ). One gram atom of any substance contains A.E' x &E8'(9 atoms. 8'( is the power of &E9.

#ram $olecule

&. $olecular mass of any element or compound expressed in grams is called gram molecule. '. It is associated with element and compound. (. It is the mass of one molecular mole. ). One gram molecule of any substance contains A.E' x &E8'(9 atoms. 8'( is the power of &E9.

tom and $olecule

tom &. It is the smallest particle of an element which can enter into a chemical reaction. '. It is represented by a symbol of the element. (. It shows the properties of the element. ). It retains its identity in a chemical reaction.

$olecule &. It is the smallest particle of a substance which can exist and show all the properties of the substance. '. It is represented by a molecular formula of the substance. (. It shows the properties of the substance. ). It does not retain its identity in a chemical reaction.

*xothermic and *ndothermic 1eactions

*xothermic 1eaction &. Those chemical reactions in which heat energy is evolved are called exothermic reactions. '. In exothermic reactions the enthalpy of products is lower than the reactants. 0 is

therefore negative for an exothermic reaction. (. 4uring endothermic reaction, the system becomes colder and net potential energy of substance increases. ). The energy is absorbed during these reactions. D. The temperature of reaction therefore decreases.

*ndothermic 1eactions &. Those chemical reactions in which heat energy is absorbed are called endothermic reactions. '. In endothermic reactions the enthalpy of reactants is lower than the products. 0 is therefore positive in endothermic reaction. (. 4uring endothermic reaction, the system becomes colder and net potential energy of substance increases. ). The energy is absorbed during these reactions. D. The temperature of reaction therefore decreases.

Physical and Chemical Properties

Physical Properties &. The physical properties of a substance are those characteristics which serve to distinguish it from other substance but do not deal with its ability to undergo chemical changes. '. These are related to the physical state of matter. (. *xamples% ,ormation of ice from water, formation of a magnet from ice etc.

Chemical Properties &. The chemical properties of a substance indicate the ability of a substance to undergo chemical changes. '. They are related to the chemical change of a substance.

(. *xamples% burning of paper, rusting of iron.

*lectrolyte and :on=*lectrolyte

*lectrolytes &. *lectrolytes conduct electricity in molten or in solution form. '. These form positive and negative ions when dissolved in water e.g. :aCl form :a; and Cl= ions when dissolved in water. (. Chemical changes occur when electric current is passed through the electrolyte. ). #enerally these are ionic or polar covalent compounds.

:on=*lectrolytes &. :on=electrolytes do not conduct electric current in molten or in solution form. '. These do not form positive and negative ions when dissolved in water e.g. Irea, sugar, glucose etc. '. :o chemical change occurs in them on passing current. (. #enerally these are non polar covalent compounds. ). #enerally these are non polar covalent compounds.

cid and Base

cid &. Those compounds which provide hydrogen ion 80;9 in a+ueous solutions are called cids. '. n acid is a substance which produces 0; ions in a+ueous solution. (. cid is a species 8a compound or ion9 which donates or tends to donate a proton 80;9. ). n acid is a species 8molecule or ion9 which can accept a pair of electron. n acid is also called an electrophile 8electron loving9.

D. They have sour taste. A. cid turn blue litmus red methyl orange red.

Base &. Those compounds, which provides hydroxyl 8O0=9 ion in a+ueous solution, are called bases. '. (. base is a substance, which gives 8O0=9 in a+ueous solution. base is a species, which accepts or tends to accept a proton. base is

). base is a species 8molecule or ion9 which can donate a pair of electrons. also called a nucleophile 8:ucleus loving9. D. Bases have bitter taste.

A. Bases turn red litmus to blue, colorless phenolphthalein to pin! and methyl orange to yellow.

Ionic and Covalent Bond

Ionic Bond &. Ionic bond is formed by complete transfer of electrons from one atom to another atom. '. Ionic bond is always formed between different atoms. *.g. :aCl, CaCl'. (. In ionic bond atoms have very large electro=negativity and ioni/ation energy difference. ). This bond is usually formed between metals and non=metals. D. This bond is very strong. A. s a result of this bond ionic compounds are formed. K. It is always formed between two different atoms. @. It is formed when difference of electro=negativity of combining atoms is &.K or more.

Covalent Bond

&. Covalent bond is formed by the mutual sharing of electrons between two atoms. '. Covalent bond may be formed between similar or dissimilar atoms e.g. 0', O', 0Cl etc. (. In covalent bond atoms have very small electro=negativity or ioni/ation energy difference. ). This bond is usually formed between non=metals only. D. This bond is comparatively less strong. A. s a result of this bond covalent compounds are formed. K. It is formed between similar and different types of atoms. @. It is formed when difference of electro=negativity of combining atoms is less than &.K.

Ionic and Covalent Compounds

Ionic Compounds &. The ionic compounds are usually solid, hard and brittle. '. The ionic compounds are good conductors of electricity either in fused state or in the form of a+ueous solution. (. Ionic Compounds have high melting points and boiling points. ). Ionic compounds have high melting points and boiling points. D. Covalent compounds are mostly volatile.

Covalent Compounds &. Covalent compounds exist in all the three states i.e. gas, li+uid and solid. '. pure covalent compound does not conduct electricity.

(. These have usually low melting and boiling points. ). These are soluble in water. D. These are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.

Co=Ordinate Covalent and Covalent Bond

Co=Ordinate Covalent Bond &. It is a bond in which the shared electron pair is denoted by one atom only. '. One atom donates electrons but other has no contribution. (. 3ewis acids and bases always from this bond. ). It is represented by =>. D. It is formed by the donation of an electron apir by one of the two bonded atoms. A. It is formed by the completely filled atomic orbital.

Covalent Bond &. It is a bond formed by the mutual sharing of electrons. '. In the shared electron pair both atoms have e+ual contribution. (. 3ewis acids and bases do not form this bond. ). It is represented by Q. D. It is formed by the mutual sharing of electrons between atoms. A. It is formed by the overlap of partially filled atomic orbital.

Polar and :on=Polar Covalent Bond

Polar Covalent Bond &. The covalent bond between two atoms having different electro=negativity is called a polar covalent bond. '. In a polar bond, the shared electron pair is not e+ually attracted by the bonded atoms. (. Bonded atoms become slightly charged and ac+uire partial Cve and =ve charges. ). It has an ionic character.

D. The bond energy is greater.

:on=Polar Covalent Bond &. The covalent bond between two atoms having same electro=negativity is called a non= polar covalent bond. '. In a non polar bond, the shared electron pair is e+ually attracted by the bonded atoms. (. Bonded atoms remain electrically neutral and do not ac+uire partial charges. ). It has no ionic character. D. The bond energy is lesser.

*lectrolytic and #alvanic or 7oltaic Cell

*lectrolytic Cell &. It is a device for converting electrical energy into chemical energy. It means by passing current through an electrolyte, chemical reaction ta!es place. '. It consists of a vessel containing an electrodes and a source of direct current 8battery9. (. *xample% *lectrolysis of a+ueous solution of :aCl.

#alvanic or 7oltaic Cell &. It is a device for converting chemical energy into electrical energy. It means spontaneous redox reaction is used for the production of electric current. This cell was prepared by 3.#alvani and .7olts, hence named as #alvanic or 7oltaic Cell. '. It consists of two half=cells. *ach half cell consists of an electrodes and the solution with which it is in contact. (. *xample% 4aniel Cell=GnBGn"O) and CuBCu"O) cell.

"olution and "uspension

"olution The si/e of particles is between E.& to &nm. '. Particles cannot be seen with low power microscope. (. It is homogeneous. ). Particles do not settle down. D. It is transparent. A. Components cannot be separated by filtration.

"uspension &. The si/e of particles is larger than &EEEnm. '. Particles can be seen by low power microscope. (. It is heterogeneous. ). Particles settle down. D. It is not transparent. A. Components can be separated by filtration.

#lossary

cidity

The acidity of a base is defined as the number of ioni/able hydroxyl groups in its molecule.

node

It is an electrode through which electrons enter the external circuit.

lpha 1ays

There are positively charged particles emitted from a radioactive substance. They carry two positive charges and are called helium nuclie.

nalytical Chemistry

It is the branch of chemistry which discusses the analytical methods forgetting information about chemical compounds and chemical processes.

tomic :umber

:umber of positively charged particles 8protons9 present in the nucleus of an atom.

tomic "i/e

verage distance between the nucleus of an atom and its outermost electronic shell. Its units are nm or pm.

rrehenius cid

It is a chemical compound which gives proton 80;9 in water.

rrehenius Base

It is a chemical compound which gives hydroxide ion 8O0=9 in water.

tomic "pectrum

"pectrum of radiations emitted by the excited atoms when they come to the normal state.

cidic "alts

n acidic salt is obtained when hydrogen atoms present in an acid, are partially replaced by metallic atoms.

lchemist

scientist trying to convert cheaper metals into precious metals is called lchemist and this branch of chemistry is called lchemy.

tomic $ass

The mass of an element relative to the unit mass, which is &B&'th o the mass of C=&'.

mpere

The amount of electric current which liberate one electrochemical e+uivalent of a substance per second during electrolysis of that substance is called ampere.

Biochemistry

It is the study of chemical compounds present in living things.

Balancing of Chemical *+uations

*+uating the atoms of reactants with those of products.

Beta 1ays

These are electrons emitted from a radioactive substance.

Brownian $ovement

The free movement of the molecules of gases and li+uids is called Brownian movement.

Bronsted cid

compound which can donate proton.

Bronsted Base

compound which can accept proton.

Basicity

The basicity of an acid is defined as the number, of ioni/able hydrogen atoms present in its molecule.

Basic "alts

basic salt is obtained when the hydroxyl groups present in a base are partially replaced by some other groups.

Boiling Point

temperature at which a li+uid changes into gaseous state.

Chemistry

The branch of science, which deals with the composition of matter changes in matter and the laws or principles which govern these changes.

Chemical *+uation

The representation of a chemical change in terms of symbols and formulas.

Covalent "olid

solid in which there exist a covalent bond between atoms.

Covalent Bond

It is the force of attraction that arises between two atoms due to mutual sharing of an electron pair.

Co=Ordinate Covalent Bond

?hen the shared pair of electrons is provided by one of the bonded atoms, a coordinate covalent bond is formed.

Cohesive ,orces

The forces of attraction present between the particles of solid, li+uid and a gas.

Cathode 1ays

1ays emitted from cathode in the discharge tube.

Colloidal "olution

solution in which solute particles are bigger than those present in a true solution and which cannot be filtered.

Conductor

substance which allows electric current to pass through it.

Cathode

It is an electrode through which electrons leave the external circuit.

Concentration of a "olution

The amount of a solute which has been dissolved in a particular amount of a solvent.

Concentrated "olution

solution, which contains an excess amount of a solute as compared to that of a solvent.

Cell

The vessel containing reacting substances in which transfer of electrons ta!es place is called cell.

Coulomb

It is unit of electric current. ?hen one ampere electric current is passed for one second the +uantity of electric current is one coulomb.

4ischarge Tube

glass tube containing a gas at a very low pressure and provided with electrodes to study the passage of electricity through the gas.

4ipole=4ipole ,orces

The forces of attraction which originate due to the difference in electro negativities of the bonded atoms in polar molecules.

4iffusion

The movement of molecules from a higher concentration to a 3owr concentration is called 4iffusion.

4ilute "olution

solution, which contains a small amount of a solute as compared to that of a solvent.

4ouble "alts

?hen two typical salts are crystalli/ed together a double salt is formed. The physical properties of the crystals of double salt are different from those of the component salts.

4oberiner.s 3aw of Triads

4obereiner arranged similar elements in sets of three, called Triads. tomic mass of the middle atom of a triad was e+ual to the average of the atomic masses of first and third members.

4egree of Ioni/ation

It is the extent to which an electrolyte ioni/es in water.

*xperiment

n experiment is an activity performed under suitable conditions with specially designed instruments to get the re+uired information.

*mpirical ,ormula

The formula of a compound which shows the minimum ratio present between the atoms.

*lectron ffinity

The amount of energy given out when an electron is absorbed in the outermost electronic shell of all isolated gaseous atom. Its units are LNBmol.

*lectro=:egativity

It is the power of an atom to attract the shared pair of electrons.

*vaporation

The continuous escape of the molecules of a li+uid from its surface.

*lastic Collision

?hen gas molecule collides with each other their total energy does not decrease or increase. This type of collision is called an elastic collision.

*lectrolytic=Cell

In a non=spontaneous oxidation=reduction reaction ta!es place with the help of electrical energy.

*lectro=Chemistry

It is that branch of chemistry in which chemical energy is converted into electrical energy or electrical energy is converted into chemical energy.

*lectrolytes

?hen electricity is passed through an ionic compound which is either in the fused state or in the form of a+ueous solution, it is decomposed into its constituents. The ionic compound is called an electrolyte.

*lectrolysis

The passage of electricity through an electrolyte is called electrolysis.

*lectrochemical "eries

list of ions in which they are arranged in the order of their ability to get discharged.

*lectroplating

The process of depositing a metal on another metal with the help of electricity.

*xothermic 1eaction

Those chemical reactions during which heat is evolved.

*ndothermic 1eactions

Those chemical reactions in which heat energy is absorbed.

*nthalpy of 1eaction

0eat of reaction which ta!es place at constant pressure.

,ormula $ass

,ormula mass is the mass of compound relative to the unit mass which is &B&'th of the mass of C=&'.

,arad

It is the unit of charge & farad C HADEE coulomb.

,usion

?hen a solid change into li+uid this phenomena is called ,usion.

0eat of :eutrali/ation

The heat given out during a neutrali/ation reaction is called heat of neutrali/ation.

0eat of 1eaction

0eat evolved or absorbed during a chemical reaction which ta!es place at pressure.

0ypothesis

In the light of experiments, the scientists try to explain observations and facts. This tentative explanation is called hypothesis. It is +uite possible that after sometime, on the basis of new experiments this hypothesis may be re-ected.

0ydrogen Bonding

?hen a hydrogen atom is attached to any one of fluorine, oxygen and nitrogen atoms, there appears strong dipole forces which are called hydrogen bonding.

0ydrated Ions

Ions of a solute surrounded by water molecules are called hydrated ions.

Ioni/ation

n electrolyte splits up into charged particles upon heating or in its a+ueous solution.

This process is called Ioni/ation.

Ionic Theory

theory which explains the process of electrolysis.

Intermolecular ,orces

The forces of attraction present between the molecules of a compound.

Ioni/ation *nergy

The minimum amount of energy re+uired to remove an electron from the outermost electronic shell of an isolated gaseous atom. Its unit is LNBmol.

Ionic Bond

bond formed due to the electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions.

Ionic "olid

solid which is made up of ions of opposite charges.

Isotope

toms of an element having the same atomic number but different mass number.

Inorganic Chemistry

The study of all elements and their compounds except carbon is called inorganic chemistry.

Industrial Chemistry

The application of chemical !nowledge in technology and industry and the preparation of industrial products are called industrial chemistry.

Inference

To deduce results after coordinating the observed facts with integrated scientific !nowledge is called inference.

Linetic Theory

The theory which explains the composition and properties of all the three states of matter.

3ewis cid

substance which can accept an electron pair.

3aw

theory when repeatedly gives the same results after experimentation and offers correct explanation of scientific facts it then becomes a law or principle.

3aw of Conservation of $ass

Total mass of reactants is e+ual to that of products during a chemical reaction.

3aw of 4efinite

compound always contains elements combined together in a fixed ratio by mass.

3aw $ultiple Proportions

?hen two elements combine together to give more then one compounds, the different masses of an element, which combine with the fixed mass of the other element, have a simple ratio between them.

3aw of 1eciprocal Proportions

?hen two or more elements and B combine separately with the fixed mass of the third element * the ratio in which they do so may be the same or some simple multiple of the ratio in which these two elements 8 and B9 combine with each other.

$olar "olution

solution in which one mole of a solute has been dissolved in one dm( of solution. It is represented as $.

$etallic Bond

?hen positively charged metal ions are held together by freely moving electrons, the bond formed is called a metallic bond.

$olecular "olid

solid which has 7ander ?aal.s forces present between its molecules.

$elting Point

temperature at which a solid changes into a li+uid.

$ass :umber

The total number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom.

$endeleyv.s Periodic 3aw

Properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic masses.

$odern Periodic 3aw

Properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic numbers.

$olecular $ass

$olecular mass is the mass of an element or a compound relative to the unit mass, which is &B&'th of the mass of C=&'.

$olar $ass

The mass of an element or a compound which contains vogadro.s number particles.

$olecular ,ormula

The formula of an element or a compound which tells the actual number of atoms present in the molecule of that element or a compound.

:eutrali/ation

cids and bases react together to form salts and water and in this way they neutrali/e the properties of each other. This reaction is called :eutrali/ation reaction.

:ormal "alts

"alts, which neither have replaceable hydrogen atoms nor hydroxyl groups.

:on=Conductor

substance through which electric current cannot pass.

:eutron

It is the smallest neutral particle present in the nucleus of atoms. Its mass is slightly more than that of a proton.

:ucleus

Central part of an atom where most of its mass is concentrated. Its si/e is very small as compared to the si/e of the atom.

:ewland.s 3aw of Octaves

If elements are arranged in the increasing order of their atomic masses every @th element repeats the properties of the &st element.

Oxidation

chemical reaction in which oxygen is added or hydrogen is removed or electrons are lost.

Octet 1ule

?hen an atom has eight electrons in its outer most shell, its is said to be stable and does not combine with other atom to reduce its energy. This is called octet rule.

Organic Chemistry

The branch of chemistry in which we study the compounds of carbon.

Observation

The process of observing natural phenomena with the help of five senses and the scientific e+uipment.

Orbits

The circular path of an electron around the nucleus.

p0 "cale

The negative log of hydrogen ion 80;9 concentration present in a solution is called p0. This scale measures the concentration of hydrogen ions present in a solution.

Percentage by $ass

7olume of a solute present in &EEcm( of a solution.

Percentage by 7olume

7olume of a solute present in &EE cm( of a solution.

Physical Chemistry

The branch of chemistry, which deals with the physical properties and physical behaviour of material things.

Prediction

The inference based on observed facts.

Proton

It is the smallest positively charged particle present in all !ind of atoms. The mass of this particle is e+ual to the mass of the hydrogen nucleus 80;9.

Positive 1ays

1ays produced in the discharge tube, which are traveling in a direction opoposite to the cathode rays.

1eversible 1eaction

Chemical reaction, which ta!es place both directions, forward as well as bac!ward.

1eduction

chemical reaction in which hydrogen is added or oxygen is removal or electrons are absorbed.

1adioactive 1ays

1ays emitted from radioactive element or their compounds, which can cause fogging of the photographic plate.

"trong cid

n acid which ioni/es completely in water.

"trong Base

base which can ioni/e completely in water giving excess of hydroxide ions.

"ublimation

"ome solids, upon heating, change directly into vapors instead of changing into li+uid.

"cientific $ethod

The method which helps to collect facts on the basis of observations and experiments. Theories and laws are then formulated to explain these facts.

"olute

The substance present in relatively lesser amount in a solution.

"olvent

The substance present in excessive amount in a solution.

"olvated Ions

Ions of a solute surrounded by solvent molecules in a solution are called solvated ion.

"aturated "olution

solution, which contains the maximum amount of a solute at a particular temperature and which is unable to dissolve further amount of solute in it.

"upersaturated "olution

solution which contains an amount of solute more than that re+uired for the preparation of a saturated solution at a particular temperature.

"tandard "olution

solution whose concentration is !nown.

"olubility

The amount o solute in grams which can dissolve in &EE gm of solvent at a particular temperature to give a saturated solution.

"uspension

mixture in which solute particles do not dissolve in solvent.

"trong *lectrolytes

n electrolyte which completely ioni/e in water.

Transition *lements

*lements having incomplete penultimate 8next inner to the outermost9 electronic shell.

Theory

If a hypothesis is accepted 8after discussion and experimentation9 it is called a theory.

Thermo Chemistry

It is the branch of chemistry in which we study the heat changes during a chemical reaction.

Insaturated "olution

solution, which can dissolve further amount of a solute at a particular temperature, is called unsaturated solution.

Inified tomic $ass Init

Init of a new scale, which is e+ual to &B&'th of the mass of C=&'.

7oltaic Cell

In a cell a spontaneous oxidation=reduction reaction is used to produce electric current.

?ea! *lectrolyte

n electrolyte which undergoes partial ioni/ation in water.

?ea! Base

base which ioni/es partially in water.

?ea! cid

n acid which ioni/es partially in water.

?ater of Crystalli/ation

The number of water molecules present in the crystals of a solid