US-China Education Review 2013 (9A)

US-China
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Volume 3, Number 9, September 2013 (Serial Number 28)
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US-Chi na
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Volume 3, Number 9, September 2013 (Serial Number 28)

Contents
E-learning
E-learning Contribution to the Enhancement of Higher Education Opportunities for
Women in Saudi Arabia (Pilot Study) 637
Yahya Al Alhareth
Teaching Technology
Computational Technologies of Arabic Language and Its Contribution in E-learningStudy
on Grammar and Spelling Proofing Tools 649
Amr Gomaa Abdel-Rasool
Curriculum and Teaching
Does Physical Activity of Preschool Teachers Impact the Planning and Implementation
of Movement Activities in the Kindergartens? 661
Tatjana Devjak, Sanja Bernik, Sreko Devjak
End-Users Preferences Applicable to Quality Landscape Design Course Material Production
for Distance and E-learning in Ghana 673
Albert Amoah Saah
A Comparative Study on Obedient/Disobedient Behavior in Secondary + 1 Level Students 685
Satish Kumar Kalhotra, Vishakha Sharma
An Empirical Research on DDL in L2 Writing 693
An Xue-hua, Xu Ming-ying
The Research of Cooperative Learning Effects on College Students Learning Anxiety 702
Ma Yan-hong
US-China Education Review A, ISSN 2161-623X
September 2013, Vol. 3, No. 9, 637-648
E-learning Contribution to the Enhancement of Higher

Education Opportunities for Women in
Saudi Arabia (Pilot Study)
Yahya Al Alhareth
De Montfort University, Leicester, United Kingdom

Establishing the NCEDL (National Centre for E-learning and Distance Learning), electronic universities are some
initiatives to introduce e-learning to the KSA (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia), which have led to a fast, strong, and
impressive movement toward e-learning in the Kingdom. However, e-learning in Saudi Arabia is still in the early
stage of its development due to many challenges of e-learning that will still have to be faced. E-learning in Saudi
higher education has been examined in a number of studies. Yet, focusing on e-learning among Saudi women
through the social and religious customs of society is not sufficiently examined. Therefore, this research seeks to
investigate the possibilities that exist for the utilization of e-learning in the enhancement of the higher education
opportunities of women in Saudi Arabia within the social customs and religious beliefs by identifying the barriers
to higher education for Saudi women, the modes of e-learning that currently exist within the higher education
programmes in the Saudi higher education system, how e-learning can support higher education opportunities for
women in Saudi Arabia, and a successful model of e-learning to improve higher education opportunities for women
in the KSA. In order to achieve the aim of this research, a pilot study was made by using a semi-structured
interview as a method of data collection from Saudi females who live with their related (mahram) male in the
United Kingdom and a three stage coding analysis of the grounded theory analyzing the data collected from the
field to formulate a theory and a model. A primarily model was presented which described the contributions of
e-learning to higher education of Saudi women. The model is presented consisting of three main categories: (1)
social and religious barriers; (2) womens use of the Internet; and (3) womens use of e-learning, as well as a
number of sub-subcategories. In addition, the need to illuminate the ability of Saudi women to convert e-learning
into a valuable educational achievement is demonstrated. The next stage of our research will investigate all of the
issues indicated by the pilot study in order to improve the success of using e-learning for Saudi womens higher
education and eventually to devise a research theory.
Keywords: pilot study, grounded theory, research design, social and religious beliefs
Introduction

Teijlingen and Hundley (2002, p. 33) stated that Pilot studies are a crucial element of a good study
design. The term of pilot study (feasibility study or pre-testing study) refers to a small description of a full

Yahya Al Alhareth, Ph.D., researcher, Centre for Computing and Social Responsibility of Technology, De Montfort University.
DAVID PUBLISHING
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E-LEARNING CONTRIBUTION TO THE ENHANCEMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
638
scale study, which means that it is basically a miniature picture of the proposed research (Teijlingen & Hundley,
2002). According to Teijlingen and Hundley (2002) and Thabane et al. (2010), building a good study design,
testing, evaluation, and development of instruments of research, such as interview and questionnaire, and
measuring study feasibility in order to avoid potential disastrous consequences of embarking on a large study
are the main aims of a pilot study, and to test research ideas, methods and explore their implications, or
inductively develop grounded theory (Maxwell, 2008), and to refine the procedures and the content of data
collection (Yin, 2009).
Study Objectives
The pilot study was aimed to test feasibility, review the research design, assess the utilisation of the
semi-structure interview method of data collection, and assess the utilisation of different approaches to
gathering data, such as telephone interview and working with a female assistant, in order to: (1) Identify
possible practical problems in subsequent the research procedure; (2) Avoid potentially disastrous
consequences of embarking on a large study; (3) Ensure interview questions are suitable and useful for the
purpose of extracting the required information and answers to the research questions; and (4) Enhance the
probability of the main study success.
Study Sample
It would be difficult for the researcher to apply the pilot study in its setting place of Saudi Arabia as well
as to meet the exact time of submission because of the limitation of time availability between the submission of
the transfer report and the implementation of the pilot study, which could not allow the researcher to travel to
the KSA to implement this study there. In order to address that, purposive sample was chosen from those
women who live in the United Kingdom with their husbands under some criteria, such as they are from the
north and south of the Kingdom and have not completed their higher education. According to Thabane et al.
(2010), key features are required in the pilot study sample which should be representative of the target study
population, under the same criteria as the main study and large enough to provide useful information. In order
to achieve that and make sure of fulfilling the study goals, these features were taken into account when
determining the study sample in this study. In qualitative research, according to Teijlingen and Hundley (2002),
participants who contribute to the pilot study often take part in the main study. Therefore, they might or might
be not taken as a part of the formal study, and that depends on the richness of the data that were collected.
Interview Procedures
The procedure of the interview followed by three main steps: The first one was the consent to conduct the
study, which was gained from the Chairs action of FTHREC (Faculty of Technology Human Research Ethics
Committee) in De Montfort University; The second step was ethical consideration, in which the researcher
takes into account the proposed and required ethical principles in research; and The third step was the method
of reverse translation between the two languages, Arabic and English, as used by the researcher and an expert
in both languages, to ensure that there is no difference between the two versions because all females who
participated in this study are native Arabic speakers.
With regard to interview design, a semi-structured interview with open-ended questions was designed to
provide more flexibility for both the researcher and the participants, which allows the participants to present
639
more information and the researcher to ask additional questions (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009). The interview
was divided into five parts covering the main themes of the study. The first one contains general information
regarding the participants to obtain a broad picture about them using very general questions (i.e., age,
occupation, marital status, and parent education). The second part was questions asked to answer question one
of the research, what is the existing social and religious barriers to higher education for Saudi women, while the
third section to answer question two of the research, which focused on e-learning in higher education. The
fourth part is to answer question three of the research, which discussed the chance of e-learning support in
womens higher education, whereas, the fifth and final section of the interview was designed to answer
question four of the research, which is to identify a successful model of e-learning to improve womens higher
education opportunities.
Through the interview, the researcher made some changes in the interview design in order to develop it for
the main study, including reformulating some questions in order to make them easy to understand, and remove
some questions because of the repetition of their meaning, as a result, the number of interview questions were
reduced from 45 to 35 questions.
Data Collection Procedures
Table 1
Interview Information
Participants information
Regions
Total
Najran Northern borders Total
Age
20-25 1 - 1
5
26-30 1 1 2
31-35 - 1 1
36-40 1 - 1
Level
of education
Stopped after higher school 2 1 3
5
Dropped out from university 1 1 2
Interview
method
In person
By researcher 1 - 1
5
By female assistance - 1 1
By phone
By researcher 1 1 2
By female assistance 1 - 1
Number of participants 3 2 5

This study was conducted on Saudi females who live with their related (mahram) male in the United
Kingdom. The participants who took part in this study were chosen under some criteria, such as their age
between 20 and 40, their not having taken up higher education or having dropped out of higher education,
and their background from the north and the south regions of the Kingdom. Data collection was started upon
receiving the approval to conduct the study. After that, the invitation was introduced to some Saudi females
in the United Kingdom who agreed to participate in this study. In addition, the investigator asked the
participants to specify a suitable time and place to conduct the interview. Before each interview, the
participants were given a letter that described some information to them, such as the purpose of the study,
what would be involved in their participation, and how their confidentiality or privacy would be ensured. The
interview was conducted using a semi-structured interview in order to collect more in-depth data. After each
interview, the researcher reviewed the answer of interview questions (notes) with each participant in order to
640
make sure that all of them have the same chance to give their opinion using only their words. The interviews
were conducted with five women by the researcher or female assistant, using two methods, by face to face
and telephone interview (see Table 1). Interviews were not audiotaped because of the social culture that
dictates females do not agree to have their voices recorded. The method of using grounded theory to underpin
the sampling process meant that data collection and analysis would take place simultaneously and continue
until the point of theoretical saturation is reached (Strauss & Corbin, 1990; 1998). Therefore, the data
derived from each interview were immediately analysed and the subsequent interview subject was
put forward and recommended by the previous participants and this continued until arriving at data
saturation.
Data Analysis
The data collected to investigate the possibilities that exist for the utilization of e-learning in the
enhancement of the higher education opportunities of women in Saudi Arabia within the countrys social
customs and religious beliefs were qualitative; thus, a grounded theory was the appropriate method to carry
out data analysis. According to Strauss and Corbin (1990) in grounded theory, three phases of coding
procedure, open, axial, and selective, are applied to the collected data to establish categories and subcategories
of data. To formulate a theory that explains the subject under study, these categories are compared and
evaluated in order to discover how they relate to each other and to the main category (Strauss Corbin, 1990;
1998).
Open Coding
It is the first phase of the grounded theory procedure of data analysis. It entails answering of questions of
how, why, and from where the initial concepts and categories are developed and also breaking down data into
units/categories meaningful to the study (Strauss & Corbin, 1990; 1998). This phase intends to conceptualise
and categorise data in individual units. These concepts and categories are general in nature and cover a wide
area (Strauss & Corbin, 1990; 1998). In this stage, participants responded through face-to-face or telephone
interviews (see Table 2). Open coding discovered concepts and their properties and dimensions of data. This
gave the general categories of data (Strauss & Corbin, 1990; 1998).
Axial Coding
Axial coding is the second main stage of the grounded theory process of data analysis that follows open
coding. In the open coding stage, the codes formed are general and unfocussed. Therefore, axial coding
subjects these general open codes to a systematic analysis and continuous comparison in order to cut down
the number of codes and bring out a relationship among the codes and categories by utilising a coding
paradigm paradigm model which involving conditions, context, action/interaction strategies, and
consequences (see Table 3). In this stage, concepts are created that give a theoretical explanation to the
objective under study. The attributes of the created concepts are studied, and based on their weaknesses and
strength, these characteristics are then put in dimensions, and finally, the data are condensed into a main
category where all the other categories seem to revolve around (Strauss & Corbin, 1990; 1998). Strauss and
Corbin (1990) believed that the purpose of axial coding is to assemble data that were fractured during open
coding.

641
Table 2
Open Coding
Category Code Code
Social and religious barriers
Mobility Tribal customs
Early marriage Male educated
Male authority Mixing gender
Family honour Male support
Male beliefs Social customs
Women beliefs Religious beliefs
Womens Internet usage
Security Internet skills
Privacy Male authority
Computer skills Male beliefs
Communication skills Women beliefs
Freedom Social customs
Access availability Religious beliefs
Internet skills Personal skills
Womens e-learning usage
Gender of lecturer (male, female) Identity secure
Learning method (direct, indirect) Computer skills
Male beliefs Communication skills
Women beliefs Social and religious beliefs
Freedom Family honour
Social awareness Male support
Male authority Mixing gender

Table 3
Axial CodingRelating Categories From Open Coding
Category Subcategory
Male authority
Early marriage
Family honour
Mobility
Mixing gender
Womens Internet usage
Access availability
Computer skills
Womens e-learning usage
Gender of lecturer
Learning method
Selective Coding
Selective coding represents the final stage of data analysis in the grounded theory, which relates all the
other categories to the core category, thus, forming the basis of the grounded theory. The categories are
integrated and developed into a theory using the relationships (Strauss & Corbin, 1990; 1998). Once, the
categories have been related, a wide range of propositions and conditions can be formulated to give the theory
specificity (see Table 4).
The three-stage coding analysis of the grounded theory analysed the data collected from the field to
formulate a theory and a model. This model described the contributions of e-learning to higher education of
Saudi Arabian women. The model consisted of three main categories which are: (1) social and religious barriers;
(2) womens use of the Internet; and (3) womens use of e-learning. These categories include a number of
642
sub-subcategories. The following describes the model categories, theoretical propositions stated, and support of
the model based on the collected data (see Figure 1).

Table 4
Selective CodingRelating Categories to the Core Category
Emerging themes Revised themes
Male authority
My father has the sole authority to decide where and how I study
The male head of the home makes all the decisions
Early marriage Women are married early to prevent them from promiscuous behaviour
Mixing gender They restrict any type of communication among unmarried and unrelated males and females
Mobility male permission is required for women who want to leave or travel outside their home or city
Family honour
Women have the mandate to ensure they carry themselves in such a manner that will uphold
family virtues/honour
Womens Internet use
Access availability No widely available Internet connectivity without male guardian supervision
Computer skills Lack of appropriate computer skills
Womens e-learning use
Gender of lecturer Prefer women lecturer because of social and religious beliefs
Learning method Women not allowed to be seen by strange male even via the Internet

Figure 1. Primary model of higher education opportunities of Saudi women within the social customs and religious beliefs.
Notes. No perceive of their impact in womens Internet and e-learning use.
Perceive of their impact in womens Internet and e-learning use.
643
Results
Following the selective coding, it became apparently that the central or main category that all categories
were related to were women barriers to higher education. These barriers played a significant role in limiting
opportunities in higher education of Saudi Arabian women, as well as controlling their access to the Internet,
and therefore, e-learning. The core category of social and religious barriers appeared frequently in the data, and
other categories seemed to connect it or revolve around it without any forced connection. Therefore, in order to
enhance the opportunities for Saudi females to access higher education, the consideration of social and religious
barriers is indispensable. This formed the first theory of the analysis that social and religious barriers to higher
education significantly limited Saudi females to access higher education (see Figure 1).
From this central category of social and religious barriers, the data established five subcategories which
are: (1) male authority; (2) family honour; (3) mixing gender; (4) early marriage; and (5) mobility. The
following excerpts from the interviews demonstrate how these subcategories influenced creating barriers to
womens higher education.
, went to the university as my father wanted
In addition, early marriage keeps women safe from the possibility of doing something wrong that might be led to
violation of family honour.
Travelling with a strange man might be led to do some unaccepted connection with for such reasons and that not
allow in our social and religious beliefs. And He believes that staying with the driver alone is wrong which could lead to
possible illegal privacy.
Early marriage was the major reason that has played a main role in that decision because of my fathers religious
beliefs.
Mobility and movement were the major reasons that were led me to withdraw from the university, and also the social
and religious beliefs which were not allowed me to live at relative house that is far away from my family.
Another key category in creating barriers to female higher education is Internet use by women, which
impacts their e-learning use. In the need to enhance higher education for women, there is a need to have an
Internet connection and the necessary computer skills. In this category, the study found two main subcategories
(access availability and computer skills) that affect womens use of the Internet (see Figure 1). In addition, it
was found that some social and religious barriers (male authority, segregation, and family honour) affect
womens Internet use as well (see Figure 1), while other barriers (early marriage and mobility) were not
perceive found of their impact in womens Internet use at this stage of research (see Figure 1). The following
quotes from the interviews demonstrate how these subcategories influenced creating barriers to womens use of
Internet.
The appropriate connection to the Internet will enhance and encourage me to using the Internet for e-learning
Lack of computer skills will impact my ability to use the Internet for e-learning.
Using computer for a long time is not acceptable from my guardian.
When I want to use the Internet for any reason, I will be under supervision all the time from my father, because his
fear of that, I might do something wrong, such as contact a strange man which could be led to affect my family honour.
The last vital variable in the model to promote female education is e-learning by Saudi females. They must
embrace e-learning for it to be a key factor in enhancing their opportunities in higher education. In this category,
there are two main subcategories (gender of lecturer and learning method) that affect womens e-learning use
(see Figure 1). In addition, it was found that some social and religious barriers (male authority, segregation, and
644
family honour) affect womens e-learning use as well, while other barriers (early marriage and mobility) were
not perceive found of their impact in womens e-learning use at this stage of research. Moreover, the impact of
access availability and computer skills was found in womens e-learning use as well (see Figure 1). The
following extracts from interviews demonstrate how these subcategories influenced creating barriers to women
e-learning use.
Of course I prefer women lecturer because of our social and religious beliefs that prohibit any type of direct contact
between women and strange men even if through the Internet.
... I will feel comfortable when I study using indirect method of e-learning because it goes well with our social culture
and traditions.
Whatever our development, we still believe that women should be responsible from men and that is derived by the
culture and beliefs of our societys conservative, which we are proud of it. Therefore, the Ministry of Higher Education
must take into account this aspect when designing e-learning for women, because we have to take the benefits of
technology to match the society customs and religious beliefs in order to be acceptable by the community as a result of
improvement of women higher education opportunities.
..., using e-learning will give the guardian mahram chance to keep women inside home, which will reduce their
freedom of movement and mix with other women and see the outside world. And I think it is a good idea for women even
if it will influence their chance of leaving their home to university under the social barriers.
Discussion
Based on the research questions and the analysed data that were collected, the researcher developed three
main comprehensive themes, including social and religious barriers, womens Internet use, and womens
e-learning use, which will be discussed below in more detail.
Social and Religious Barriers
It can be seen that social and religious beliefs provided the main barriers to Saudi womens access to
higher education, which relegate the female members of the society to second-class citizens without the liberty
to make their own informed decisions. AlMunajjed (2009) agreed with this, and stated that the result of both
cultural and religious factors led to some barriers to higher education for Saudi women. In this study, numbers
of social and religious barriers were found, including male autharity, family honour, mixing gender, early
marriage, and mobility, which would negatively influence their chances of completing their higher education.
These barriers will be discussed below in more details.
Male authority. In Saudi society, the male who is the head of the family makes all the family decisions
without the considerations of the other family members. Whether these decisions infringed on the right or rights
of the female members of the family, they were final and unquestionable. Such patriarchal decisions included
where, when, and how a female member of the family can pursue her education interests. These decisions
always conform strictly to social and religious norms of the Muslim society. Deaver (1980) agreed with this,
and stated that men are responsible for women, as is agreed by law and custom. Al-Kahtani, Ryan, and
J efferson (2006) and AlMunajjed (2009) also agreed with this, and stated that men in Saudi society have the
authority to decide and give their approval to women who want to leave or travel outside their home or city in
order to study. A good example for this is that, when women have a government scholarship to study abroad,
they have to have a male permission who is a close relevant (mahram) to her, such as father, brother, or
husband, in order to be eligible for studying abroad (Ministry of Higher Education, 2010).
Family honour. Due to the importantance of the family honour to all families in Saudi society, the
645
concern of the possibility of losing it was indicated by some participants because it is related to them directly.
Hamdan (2005) agreed with this, and stated that in Saudi society, family honour is directly related to womens
chastity, and they have very strong beliefs about this because of their tribal roots. Metz (1992) also agreed with
this, and stated that chastity of women in Saudi society is not only attached to family honour but is based on
religious norm as well. Baki (2004) and World Bank (2009) stated that this can therefore further restrict
womens mobility, which in turn might limit womens higher education.
Mixing gender. Mixing gender is a very sensitive and controversial issue in Saudi society, because
mixing of sexes between women and non-relative men is not allowed in any parts of their life. Therefore, the
participants were bared this issue in their mind when they explained the barriers of their higher education and
the new method of learning. This, arguably, increased the chances of the female to engage in promiscuous
behaviour while mingling freely with the opposite sex. Al-Harthi (2005) agreed with this, and stated that in the
Arab culture, women observe certain requirements and restrictions in their relationships with men. This is
limited, and the requirement to avoid such contact in the culture has an impact on their social relationships in
that it might limit their access to education. Baki (2004) and Al-Kahtani et al. (2006) also agreed with this, and
stated that the segregation of the sexes is required in almost all situations in Saudi society, including virtual
environments, and so, this will have an influence on womens education.
Early marriage. Some of Saudi Arabian females were married early, even before they had the
opportunity to enroll or to complete their higher education. The intention of early marriage was to eliminate the
chances of promiscuous behaviour of females when they attained puberty. Whether this social norm was
successful or not is the subject of another research. The early marriage transferred higher education obligation
from one family to another, which played negatively to end or to inconvenience higher education for the female
student. AlMunajjed (2009) and Alebaikan (2010) agreed with this, and stated that early marriage is one of the
major factors that obstruct females education. The authors further note that under family pressure, because of
their society norms and religious beliefs, females might drop out from school or not continue their higher
education in order to marriage, especially in rural areas of Saudi society, where marriage is still a priority there
than education. As a result, this would negatively influence their chances of completing their higher education
(AlMunajjed, 2009; Alebaikan, 2010).
Mobility. It was against Saudi social and religious norms for females to attend to economic and/or social
duties far away from home. This limited the opportunities of Saudi Arabian women to pursue higher education
in colleges situated far from home. This social norm limited the opportunities of higher learning for the woman
because of limited choices in institutions of higher education. Al-Kahtani et al. (2006) and World Bank (2009)
agreed with this, and stated that a particular constraint is the cultural or religious dictum that a woman,
regardless of her age, must at all times be accompanied by a male guardian whenever they leave their home or
travel outside the confines of where they live. Sabbagh (1996) also agreed with this, and stated that womens
mobility in Saudi Arabia is very restricted due to their culture, which could affect their higher education
opportunities. For example, if female education requires them to live away from home, most families will reject
it, so womens freedom of movement is very limited.
Womens Internet Usage
There is another key point found in the data that limiting the opportunities for women higher education in
the Kingdom. The main factor that limited access of the Saudi woman to the Internet is social and religious
646
beliefs, especially male authority, segregation, and family honour, and their use of the Internet had no privacy
because a male member of the family should supervise it and approve it. In addition, the concern of bringing
possibility of mixing gender is limiting Internet use by women, especially in the tribal society. Al-Wehaibi,
Al-Wabil, Alshawi, and Alshankity (2008) agreed with this and stated that using the Internet in Saudi Arabia
can be impacted by culture and religious beliefs as a result of a large scale research project conducted in Saudi
Arabia. Al-Kahtani et al. (2006) also agreed with this in their investigation about the perceptions of using the
Internet by Saudi female lecturers, which stated that some learning disciplines see the Internet as a danger to
societal norms because of its unethical content, whereas, those lecturers who teach science see it as a powerful
tool for work enhancement. In addition, the study found other barriers that limited access of the Saudi women
to the Internet, including the lack of necessary access availability of the Internet, and computer skills are other
factors that limit Internet access for the Arabian women and limit their opportunities to access higher education
through online or e-learning as well, which will be discussed below in more details.
Access availability. Access to the Internet was still limited due to the lack of a widespread Internet
connection, and where there was an Internet connection, interruptions in the connections reduced its reliability
that made it difficult to carry out time-intensive academic assignments or online discussions. In addition, even
the Internet access is available, the restriction of use it still appears, which means that it is really unavailable
because of the culture of the society and negative male beliefs of using the Internet by female, which they could
use in a wrong way. Alebaikan (2010) agreed with this, and stated that in Arab cultures, females are not
allowed to use the Internet in their home by some parents, because they see it as a tool that offering information
against the norms of the society, especially in the rural areas.
Computer skills. Computer skills are needed for using the Internet especially for those who want to learn
by the Internet. As a result, they have to deal with a computer as a part of their study, such as accessing to the
course materials by the Internet, because the lack of these skills will affect of the Internet use. Al-Fahad (2010)
agreed with this and stated that it would not be possible for the students to succeed without these skills. Wong
(2007) agreed with this problem by stating that the ability of e-learning learners to use Internet environment is
restricted by their information and communication technology skills.
Womens E-learning Usage
Use e-learning is another vital variable found in the data to enhance opportunities for womens higher
education in the Kingdom. However, the negative effect of using e-learning for womens higher education was
found in the data by reinforcing some womens higher education barriers, such as male authority. The use of
e-learning was not wholly embraced by Saudi women. The main factor that limited access of Saudi woman to
the e-learning is social and religious beliefs especially male authority, segregation, and family honour. The use
of e-learning to enhance women opportunities for higher education is depended on the discretion of the male
head of the family. Al-Hunaiyyan, Al-Huwail, and Al-Sharhan (2008) agreed with this, and stated that Arab
countries have some wealthy cultures and religious beliefs, which are very important to focus on them when
designing an e-learning programme as a part of its success. Milani (2008) also agreed with this, and stated that
designing an e-learning programme, especially for women in Saudi Arabia, is so important that their cultural
and religious norms are considered if it is to have any meaningful impact on ensuring that womens access to
higher education is improved. In addition, the lack of Internet access partly attributes to this, but, it can also be
caused by the lack of necessary skills that partly limit the use of e-learning. Gender of lecturer and learning
647
method, which will be discussed below in more details.
Gender of lecturer. The need of a female tutor was very obvious from women participants in order to
eliminate the risk of a male tutor making any sexual advances towards his student and to make their guardians
feel comfortable to use Internet for e-learning. Tubaishat, Bhatti, and El-Qawasemah (2006) agreed with this,
and stated that the communication between genders is affected by culture, social, and religious reasons. Baki
(2004), Al-Kahtani et al. (2006), and Mohamed, Abuzaid, and Banladen (2008), also agreed with this, and
stated that any type of communication among unmarried and unrelated males and females is restricted, and for
any man having to talk directly to a woman not related to him is impossible even via the Internet because of the
religious and cultural norms.
Learning method. Requirement that limited the use of e-learning by the Saudi Arabian women was the
method of e-learning. They preferred the asynchronous method of e-learning that restricts the communication
between the lecturer and the student to emails, recorded material, and discussion forums. It eliminated any
active conversation between the two. Mehana (2009) and Al Lily (2011) agreed with this, and stated that any
course of e-learning been run by male tutor is unacceptable by female family. Aldurywish (2010) also agreed
with this, and stated that the online communication between male academics and female students has been
reserved by many female parents. Elci (2005) also agreed with this, and stated that it is therefore important that
whatever mode of e-learning is adopted in an educational system, it takes into consideration the local situation,
such as the culture of the people.
Conclusion
The pilot study is a small picture of a full scale study, so doing it in any research project is one way to
enhance the probability of the main study success. It can be seen that the objectives of the pilot study were
achieved. Therefore, the study is feasible, and also the research design has been validated which indicates that it
should be appropriate. In addition, the utilising of the semi-structure interview method and using different
approaches of gathering data, such as telephone interview and work with a female assistant, would be
successful. Following the above analysis and discussions, the main factor that will enhance the opportunities of
Saudi Arabian women accessing higher education is the use of e-learning, since the data established that social
and religious beliefs provided the main barrier to the Saudi womens access to higher education and their use of
Internet and e-learning as well. The use of e-learning will adhere to mitigating the effects of these barriers
which are societal and religious norms to give numerous opportunities to higher education for them. However,
these barriers might be reinforced by e-learning which need to focus on in order to reduce that effect. In
addition, pilot study has shown that there may be a role for e-learning as a bridge to enable women in Saudi
Arabia to access higher education. However, the use of e-learning is set in a context and involves not just
technical availability but the capability to benefit. Issues include family willingness, the cultural use of the
Internet, the attitude of the woman to convert the opportunity offered by e-learning into a valuable educational
achievement through her approach, and her ability to achieve. These issues are the subject of the next stage of
our study.
References
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en/studyinside/Pages/default.aspx
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September 2013, Vol. 3, No. 9, 649-660

Computational Technologies of Arabic Language and Its
Contribution in E-learningStudy on Grammar and
Spelling Proofing Tools
Amr Gomaa Abdel-Rasool
Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt

This study sheds light on the role of computerized Arabic language technologies in e-learning. Examples of
these technologies are the grammar and spelling proofing tools, which can be used to indirectly teach Arabic to
the users of such computer tools. Users of Arabic grammar proofing computer tools employ them to achieve
correct Arabic sentences in Arabic processing programs. The proofing tools role ends when they accomplish
their regular tasks of proofing grammar and spelling of the Arabic text. This study, however, aims for the
proofing tools to transcend their usual role into taking part in teaching Arabic grammar to their users. The study
explores the function of the proofing tools, and introduces the most famous Arabic grammar and spelling
proofing tools. The paper then elaborates the basic tasks of proofing applications, and further reflects how these
applications can be used to teach Arabic to Arab users. The method used here is highlighting a set of the most
common grammar and spelling mistakes corrected by such tools. Among the common mistakes are: confusing
the glottal stop Hamza to the long vowel /a:/-Aleph as the initial letter of words, and the Arabic Ta ) ( a
voiceless /t/ to the fricative ) ( /h/ as the ending letter of some Arabic words. Users also sometimes mistake the
diphthong /aj/ to the vowel /a/ both written using the Arabic letter Ya, and are confused by the Irab (the
system of nominal and adjectival suffixes of Arabic) of the duals, sound masculine plurals, verbs in the present
tense, conjugation of the five verbs, and verbs in the imperative form. The new mechanism proposed highlights
additional tasks to the proofing tools, which may develop the Arabic e-learning techniques, including:
underlining and analyzing the error, pointing out the grammatical rules on the issue in question, citing old
Arabic texts and highlighting the word in question, documenting the grammar rule from Arabic references,
linking the common mistakes together, whether of the same user, or all Arab users, and notifying the user that
he/she has repeated this mistake.
Keywords: Arabic language techniques, spell check, grammar check, e-learning, common mistakes, Arabic
grammar, Arabic spelling
Introduction

This paper proposes a language mechanism that facilitates Arabic language to Arabic speakers, and
utilizes modern technologies in learning Arabic language and grammar. The mechanism does not treat a learner

Amr Gomaa Abdel-Rasool, M.A. in Arabic Grammar Syntax and Meter, Faculty of Dar Al Olum, Cairo University.
DAVID PUBLISHING
D
STUDY ON GRAMMAR AND SPELLING PROOFING TOOLS

650
through the traditional learning techniques of grammar lessons, but, through live practice on Arabic texts in
which the tools corrected the errors a user has made on the spot. The tool analyzes the mistakes, and links them
to the original grammar rules.
The mechanism proposed is the software components (plugins) that depend on the outputs of the
proofing tools, and on an analytical database that helps the mechanism proposed compare the original
form of the word/phrase to the form suggested by the proofing tool. This way the tool can provide users with
a methodical documentation of the issue in question be it on grammar, spelling, or syntax. The study,
however, does not discuss the technicalities of the proofing tool, since it is not the researchers field of
study, but rather the linguistic part of the tool. The computer techniques are the focus of another
researcher.
This mechanism is hindered by some weak outputs of grammar and spelling proofing tools, and by its
negligence of ambiguity in the Arabic syntax and semantics. In the meantime, it is a solid base to teach
Arabic through attractive electronic means. At the same time, it is recommended that researchers continue
to study solutions to grammar and spelling proofing tools problems, mainly the ambiguity in language
syntax. Several users of the spelling proofing toolsfor exampleare frustrated by their failure to detect
many spelling mistakes in certain contexts. The word Adreb, which here translates to the English verb
give, in the phrase let me give you an example should start with the glottal stop Hamza instead of
the long vowel /a:/Aleph. The same example goes for the Arabic word Alsena meaning flames as in
the phrase fire flames. The known spell check tools fail to detect such errors, and thus do not correct
them. A reason to this is because an automated spell check regards a word in its syntactic form, i.e., as a
whole unit, without looking into its context. If there is a single chance that a word in question has the
correct syntax, prompts the spell checker to skip it, although it is in the wrong context (Gomaa Hamada,
2008).
In the sentence people of the cactus family, a spell checker will not detect the mistake in the word
people although the writer means herb, because the word people is correct in its single form
morphologically, but wrong in the context of this sentence (The Arabic equivalent of people is Shaab
and of herb is Oshb, and both have the same roots, but the first and second letters are replaced). The other
examples on this issue include: rare girls instead of rare plant and The injured have complicated instead
of She checked on the injured, where all the words are correct morphologically, but not correct
semanticallyan error a spell checker cannot detect.
Previous Studies
Grammar and spell checkers are tools that treat Arabic texts (both words and structures) and function as
reviewers of the spelling, grammar of Arabic words, and structure of Arabic sentences. The tools then
suggest alternatives to incorrect words or sentence structures to compose a correct Arabic sentenceat both
grammar and syntactic levels. Microsoft spell checkers do not offer explanations to their suggestions, but
suffice with offering alternatives. Microsoft grammar checkers, on the other hand, detect and correct errors,
in addition to offering explanations to the changes made by referring to the grammar rule it used to detect the
error. This suggestion, however, does not include more than stating the rule (Adjectives must agree in gender
and number with the corresponding noun), which serves the application of the tool, but does not help in the
learning process. The tool proposed here, in addition to suggesting correct alternatives, performs an online

651
search, analyzes errors and their rule, relates the case to the used reference (attaching an online link), cites
classical texts (with an audio), determines if the error is a common mistake, and highlights how many times
the user has made this error.
Introduction to Arabic Spelling and Grammar Proofing Tools
The first Arabic spelling and grammar checker was introduced in 1992s Microsoft Word 6.0. US software,
manufacturer Microsoft was not the creator of the tool at that time, but it bought it from Cairo-based Coltec that
specializes in computer and language technology. Coltec also developed Microsoft Words grammar check that
was first released in Microsoft Office 2000 (Coltec Website: Middle East for Natural Languages Processing
Technologies).
Coltec spell checker is easy to use and offers several suggestions as corrections to a single word. It
underlines a spelling mistake with a red line, while a grammar/structure mistake with a green one. Once a user
right clicks the underlined word, a drop-down list opens with suggestions to the incorrect word underlined. But
in case of a grammar mistake, the drop-down list includes a brief explanation of the error and suggested
alternatives, e.g., Do not be neglect, the proofing tool underlines neglect with a green line and the grammar
rule in the drop-down list reads: be is followed by a predicate or an adjective. Neglect replaced by negligent
to correct the error.
Another widely-used proofing tool is the Sakhr Corrector developed by Sakhr Software. The
program can be integrated with Microsoft Word, and other word processing programs. Sakhr Corrector
detects spelling errors upon typing Arabic texts and suggests a group of correct alternatives; it afterwards
attempts to detect grammar mistakes. Sakhr Corrector surpasses other proofing tools in its ability to
autocorrect errors, reduce the number of suggestions to minimum, observe context, handle idioms and
expressions, and understand Arabic diacritical marks (Coltec Website: Middle East for Natural Languages
Processing Technologies). The spelling and grammar proofing toolsas their names suggesthandle two
types of Arabic text errors: spelling mistakes for the spell checker and grammar mistakes for the grammar
checker.
Using Linguistic Tools to Teach Arabic Electronically
The proposed linguistic mechanism adds a further educational note to the auto-correction tools. Through
the proposed language mechanism, a user not only corrects his/her errors, but also learns a new Arabic
grammar rule, looks deep into the analysis and correction of the error, and looks up the word and its usages on
the Internet. It will also enable users to review the Arabic sources used as references to document the grammar
rule, and to link the rule to the original Arabic grammar rule. The proposed application also allows users to
overview similar ancient Arabic texts from the Arab heritage, like in the Quran, Arab sayings, and poems; and
to listen to the texts with the voices of notable Arabsall through embedded Internet links or a language
database.
The proposed application also detects if it is a user mistake, or a common mistake by Arab users, in
addition to identifying if a single user repeats the same mistake. The application notifies users while typing not
to repeat the same mistake, through user-defined memory builder that automatically generates memories from
the users own errors, as well as general common mistakes.
Table 1 depicts the new features of the proofing tools as an electronic education aid.

652
Table 1
New E-learning Features
New e-learning features
Error Detect and analyze error
Online search Google search
Extra information The general grammar rule and system of grammatical relations to the rule
Audio The ability to listen to the historical references on the case, while the word in question is highlighted
Documentation Documenting the grammar rule from Arabic language references
Repetition Noting the general common mistakes by Arab users and the users repeated mistakes
Notification Notifying the user of the type of error he/she made (if it is a common mistake for instance)
Common Spelling and Grammar Mistakes in Arabic, and Ways to Use the Correction of
These Mistakes to Teach Arabic to Arab Users Electronically
Spell Check
There are the following common spelling mistakes in Arabic texts (Al-Touni, 1990; Al-Tayyib, 1986;
Haroun, 2004).
Confusing glottal Hamza and long vowel /a:/ Alef as initial letters (Cairo, 1975, pp. 37-39). In the
Arabic verb Intaqada (to criticize), the initial letter /a:/ is commonly mistaken for a glottal Hamza (see
Figure 1). The spell check automatically detects this error and suggests corrections for the word. The e-learning
job then starts by displaying and analyzing the error, and giving the user the chance to look up the word
through Google search. The proposed application then relates the error to its respective grammar rule and class,
suggests relevant historical texts, documents the rule by Arabic language references, and links the error to the
users repeated mistakes or general common mistakes.

Figure 1. An example for confusing glottal Hamza and long vowel /a:/ Alef as initial letters (in e-learning tool).
] [

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) (
" " .
:
.
:
] / [
" : "
] [
: .
E-learningoptions(Clickhere)
Correctionsuggestions:Intaqada
Error analysis: The initial letter is

the glottal stop Hamza, when it
should be the short vowel /i/
because the root of the word is
five-lettered
Rule: The initial Aleph of the

five-lettered verb in the past,
imperative and infinitive forms is
writtenwiththevowel/i/
For more details: Glottal Stop

Hamza and short-vowel Aleph
[Hyperlink]
Commonmistake:Yes
Mistakestatus:Intaqal,Intaal

653
Confusing voiceless Ta ()/t/ to be fricative () /h/ as final letters. The Arabic word Muttahida
(united) as in the United States of America ends in a Ta /t/ not a voiceless /h/, although Arab users mistakenly
write it in /h/. An autocorrect application would detect the spelling mistake, and offer suggestions for
corrections, and the e-learning tool comes as follows (see Figure 2).

Figure 2. An example for confusing voiceless Ta ()/t/ to be fricative () /h/ as final letters (in E-learning tool).

Confusing vowels /i:/ and /a:/ as final letters. Both vowels are written in the same Arabic letter Ya.
The Ya with /i:/ vowel is written diacritical marks below it . This manner of script has been coined by Arab
writers from the Levant region to make a difference in pronunciation between /i:/ and /a:/, which is written
using the same Arabic letter, but without the diacritical marks .
Confusing Hamza positions in a word. Hamza is used to denote the glottal stop and is either
written alone or with a carrier. The position of a Hamza in a word (initial, medial, final, or isolated) causes
confusion to many users who usually make errors in the way it is written in each case. The Arabic word
(Shai) has a Hamza as a final isolated letter. It is usually mistaken as a Hamza on the carrier /i:/
.
Overlooking word spacing. Arab users sometimes mistakenly write the two-worded interjection Ya
Allah (dear god) as one word YaAllah, without spacing them.
Mistakenly missing letters from words. The Arabic word Al-Mohami (the lawyer) is sometimes
mistakenly written as Al-Moham.
Duplicating letters of the same word. Duplication of letters of the same word is not acceptable in Arabic
writing. Arabic Internet slang and social media influence led Internet users to coin words with duplicated letters,
e.g., Mashkoooooor (Thaaaaaaanks)for exaggeration and/or stress.
] [

: ) ( " "
) (
) ( .
: ) (
.
: .
[/]
:""[]
.:
Correctionsuggestions:AlMuttahida
Error analysis: The final letter of the

word Mottahida is not a feminine /a/
and should be replaced by the
voiceless/Ta/
Rule: Voiceless Ta is a letter that
denotesafeminineformofaword
Formoredetails:FeminineMarksfor
Nouns[Hyperlink]
Reference: Indeed, Hellfire will be

closed down upon them Quran
104:8
Commonmistake:Yes
Mistake status: al-Mutamada,

al-Muakada

654
Alternating letter positions due to dialect influence. The Arabic verb Yahfur (to dig) is sometimes
mistakenly written as Yefhar (to gid), influenced by some dialects.
Replacing word letters due to dialect influence. The Arabic letter dthe sound is exclusive only to
Arabicis pronounced in Saudi Arabia. Saudis then started using instead of d in writing, which
made them further confused which letter is the originally correct one in the Arabic words. A Saudi author
mistakenly entitled his book Fi Dilal al-Quran (In Qurans misguidance) thinking that this is how the correct
title Fi ilal al-Quran (In Qurans embrace) been spelled, judging by the colloquial Saudi pronunciation of the
letter /d/.
Typing mistakes. Speed in typing leads some users to accidentally hit the wrong keyboard button. The
given male name Farouk could mistakenly be written using J , which is adjacent to the letter K as in
Farouj. Other errors occur by the use of the keyboard shift key, since two Arabic letters can be found in
one button on the Arabic keyboard, so the initial Hamza in the given female name Iman needs to be written
with the shift key pressed along with Y key. Wrong pressing of the keyboard button or lack thereof causes
spelling mistakes.
Those were some of the common spelling mistakes made by Arab users of text processing programs.
Spell check applications detect and correct such errors, but without teaching and training the users on the
rule governing the correct form of the word. This paper suggestsas shown aboveincorporating a
mechanism that demonstrates simple grammar rules to spell check applications. This way, users avoid
making the same mistakes, and hence, a new method of Arabic e-learning has been achieved through
language applications.
Grammar Check
Arabic grammar checkers are applications that handle Arabic texts (both words and structures). Their main
function is to check the Irab and structure of the Arabic phrases, and suggest corrections for the
grammatically incorrect sentences to attain correct words and sentences.
How the grammar checker works. This paper does not present a grammar check, but software can be
installed to the grammar check to make it function as an Arabic e-learning technique. The proposed technique
depends on the grammar check to detect grammar mistakes. The grammar check itself is mainly dependent on
the spell check with its two tools: verification tool and suggestions tool (Coltec Website: Middle East for
Natural Languages Processing Technologies). It also derives part of its functions from other tools incorporated
in the grammar check, like the part of speech tagger, which recognizes a words part of speech: noun, verb, or
proposition; and then checks the grammar and structure of sentences.
It is worth noting that Microsofts grammar check detects and corrects a grammar mistake, and further
cites the grammar rule it used to spot the mistake. The checkers educational note is no more than a phrase with
the rule like: Arabic adjectives must agree with nouns in number and gender, which serves the function of the
grammar check, not the educational purpose of it.
The proposed application provides users with an educational feature, which includes web search, error
analysis, rule/reference mention (with a hyperlink to source), original sources (audio enabled), mistake
categorization (common mistake, repeated mistake), and error repetition detection.
Common grammar mistakes in Arabic texts. (1) Confusing the diacritical marks induced by the Irab
(the system of nominal and adjectival suffixes of Arabic) of the duals, sound masculine plurals, verbs in the

655
present tense, conjugation of the five verbs, and verbs in the imperative form; (2) Dismissing gender and/or
number agreement between a sentences parts of speech; and (3) Making errors while spelling out cardinal and
ordinal numbers in words.
Confusing the writing of duals, sound masculine plurals, verbs in the present tense, conjugation of the
five verbs, and verbs in the imperative form. Arab users usually make mistakes when it comes to the Irab of
words, but their errors go unnoticed unless they use the diacritical marks with wordsa practice which has
long been ignored. Therefore, mistakes in the Irab of words only appear in the conjugation of duals, sound
masculine plurals, verbs in present tense, the five verbs, and verbs in the imperative form, as the letters of the
word itself change (Mokhtar, Al-Nahas, Hamasa, 1994, pp. 63-64).
The grammar check operates by spotting a words prefixes and suffixes. According to morphology, an
Arabic word is made of a stem and affixes (either suffixes or prefixes or both). A word has the right
spelling when it has the right stem, and when the prefixes and suffixes agree to this stem. The affixes
themselves are built according to certain grammar and structure rules that aid the grammar check to detect
errors.
A clear example of this is the Arabic prepositions (Ka, Ba, and La) which are attached to the Arabic
nouns as prefixes. Once prepositions are attached to nouns in the singular form, the diacritical marks on the
final letters of those words change. Many users today ignore the diacritical marks and write their Arabic texts
without them. But, when those prepositions are attached to nouns in the dual or sound masculine plural forms,
the letters of the words change, and many users are confused with those changes.

Figure 3. An example for confusing the diacritical marks induced by the Irab (the system of nominal and adjectival
suffixes of Arabic) of the duals (in Microsoft tool).

There is the following example:

656
When the spell check detects the error in the phrase for the two parent (corresponding to the Arabic word
BelWaledan), the grammar check will analyze the error as such.
Bel: Prefix =Ba preposition +Al definite article;
Waled =noun;
An =suffix, used for nouns in nominative cases (Marfu).
However, the prefix Bel does not agree with the suffix An. The preposition Ba puts the noun in the
genitive case (Majrur) which requires the suffix Ayn. Here, the grammar checker steps in to detect the error
in BelWaledan and corrects it to BelWaledayn (for the parents) (see Figure 3).
The same applies to the prepositions (Men, Ila, Fi, An, and Ala) which precede a noun, but are not part of
it. The spell/grammar check detects the error in Irab and suggests corrections. In the phrase, Ila
al-Hadikatan (To the two gardens), the grammar check detects the error in the suffix An which denotes a
nominative case of nouns, when the preposition Ila alters it into a cognitive case, which requires the suffix
Ayn. The corrected form will thus be Ila al-Hadikatayn.
For the accusative case (Mansub), Lan Yadhaboun (They will not go), is not a grammatically correct
sentence, since the verb is in the plural form and is preceded by the article Lan which denotes an accusative
case. Thus, the Irab of this verb in the accusative case requires the removal of the letter Noonthe last
letter of the verb. The correct structure will be Lan Yadhabou.
To sum up, Affixes have morphological and structural functions. Spell and grammar checkers attempt to
utilize the affixes both functions to detect errors in Arabic texts.
By far, this grammar check role ends by detecting the errors, and it is the educational applications role to
analyze and explain each suggestion made by the grammar check (see Figure 4).

Figure 4. The last example for confusing the diacritical marks induced by the Irab (the system of nominal and
adjectival suffixes of Arabic) of the duals (in e-learning tool).
] [
:

:
.

: .

: /
]. / [

: " " ] [

:

: .
Correctionsuggestions:BelWaledayn
Erroranalysis:BaisaprepositionWaledan
isanouninadualformintheGenitivecase,
andshouldendwithAynnotAn.
Rule: Duals are written with An in the
nominative case, and with Ayn in the
genitiveandaccusativecases.
For more details: Irab of
Duals/Comprehensive Grammar by Abbas
Hassan[Hyperlink]
Reference:andtoparents,goodtreatment
Quran17:23[Listen]
Commonmistake:ConfusingIrabofDuals
Mistake status: Repeated by user
Al-Musliman,ALDawliyan.

657
Dismissing gender and/or number agreement between a sentences parts of speech. The grammar check
relies on prefixes and suffixes to detect grammar mistakes, in addition, it also depends on them to spot and
correct structure mistakes like gender/number agreement, the use of definite/indefinite articles, and the Irab of
each of the parts of speech.
In this sentence, the verb does not agree with the subject in number (see Figure 5).

Figure 5. An example for Dismissing gender and/or number agreement between a sentences parts of speech (in
Microsoft tool).

The subject J onoud (Soldiers) is in the broken plural form, while the verb Yodafean is conjugated in
the dual form, when it should concur with the subject in number and gender (Mokhtar, Al-Nahas, Hamasa,
1994, pp. 432-433). The screenshot above is from a grammar check that simply stated the rule but did not
analyze the mistake for a further educational note. The following is a proposed correction to the subject-verb
agreement case (see Figure 6).
The phrase Al-Rejal Al-Karim Yosayedoun Al-Foqaraa (The generous men helps the poor) is incorrect.
The adjective generous is in the singular form, while the noun that qualifies men is in the plural form, and
Arabic grammar stipulates the agreement of a sentences parts of speech. The correct form is Al-Rejal
Al-Koramaa/Al-Karemoon.
Another parts of speech agreement case is in the use of demonstratives (this-these and that-those) which
have feminine, masculin, and dual forms in Arabic. The sentence Dhahebna ila Haoulaa al-Moallem (We
went to those teacher) is incorrect. The correct form of it would be Dhahebna ila Hatha al-Moallem (We
went to this teacher). Gender agreement between the sentences subjects and verbs is also important, e.g.,
Karehat al-walad Aseer al-bortaqal (The boy hate the orange juice), is an incorrect structure, and its correct
form would be Kareha al-walad Aseer al-bortaqal (see Figure 7).


658

Figure 6. Another example for dismissing gender and/or number agreement between a sentences parts of speech (in
e-learning tool).

Figure 7. The last example for dismissing gender and/or number agreement between a sentences parts of speech (in
Microsoft tool).
] [
:

: " "
" "

.

:
.

: /
]. / [

: "
" ] [

:
.

:
Correctionsuggestions:Yodafeyoun
Error analysis: The Subject Jonoud is a
noun in the Broken Plural form, the verb
Yodafean is in the dual form, but Arabic
parts of speech must concur in gender and
number.
Rule: A sentences parts of speech must

agreeinnumberandgender.
For more details: Subject and

Predicate/Comprehensive Grammar by
AbbasHassan[Hyperlink]
Reference: Those who believe fight in the

causeofGodQuran4:76[Listen]
Common mistake: Ignoring Part of speech

agreement.
Mistakestatus:Notrecurrent

659
Making errors while spelling out cardinal and ordinal numbers. Writing Arabic numbers in words is
governed by a set of rules. The number agrees/disagrees with the noun in qualifies in gender, and nominal
case (plural or singular) according to these rules, which usually causes confusion to Arab users. Any
grammar checkwith the help of a morphology analyzercan correct the mistakes of number/noun
agreement. The Arabic sentence Oseeba ma yazeed an sabaa jonoud (Over seven soldiers were injured) is
grammatically incorrect and should instead read Oseeba ma yazeed an sabaat jonoud since for the ordinal
numbers between three and nine they must disagree with the gender of the noun they qualify (Mokhtar,
Al-Nahas, Hamasa, 1994, p. 565). The grammar check, however, corrects the error without adding the rule
that governs it. The proposed application provides users with an academic documentation of the language
rule, in an attempt to spread the e-learning techniques of Arabic. The application will, hence, correct the
error as follows (see Figure 8).

Figure 8. An example for making errors while spelling out cardinal and ordinal numbers in words (in e-learning tool).
Research Summary
This paper attempted to highlight the computerized Arabic techniques to teach the language
electronically through the known grammar and spell checks. The application proposed does not only offer
grammar and spell checks, but it also relies on search engines, automatic translation programs, and
monolingual and bilingual dictionaries and thesauri to provide a comprehensive learning experience. All the
current language applications can be customized to help Arab users learn about their mother tongue, in
addition to their original tasks. This paper is an idea, a thought that can be applied to several language
applications and technologies.
] [
:

:
.

: 3 9
.

: /
]. / [

: "
" ] [

:
3 9 .

:
Correctionsuggestions:Sabaat
Erroranalysis:ThenumberSevenagreeswiththe
gender of the noun it modifies, when they should
disagree.
Rule:Arabicordinalnumbersfrom3to9disagree
withthegenderofthenountheymodify.
For more details: Accusative of Specification of

Numbers/Comprehensive Grammar by Abbas
Hassan[Hyperlink]
Reference: Which God imposed upon them for

seven nights and eight days in succession..
Quran69:7[Listen]
Common mistake: Errors on the gender

agreement between numbers and nouns they
modify
Mistake status: recurred in Thalath Qanawat

(ThreeChannels)

660
References
Al-Tayyib, A. J . (1986). Study on spelling rules (2nd ed.). Beirut: Dar Al Awzaie Publishing.
Al-Touni, M. (1990). Hamza in Arabic language, a linguistic study. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization.
Gomaa, A., Hamada, S. (2008). Problems of discourse analysis of the online Arabic content: A systematic study on grammar
and morphology ambiguity. Proceedings of The Language Engineering Conference, Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams
University.
Haroun, A. S. (2004). Spelling rules (1st ed.). Kuwait: Dar Ilaf Publishing.
Ibrahim, A. A. (1975). Spelling and punctuation in Arabic writing (pp. 37-39 & 56-57). Cairo: Ghareeb Publishing.
Mokhtar, A., Al-Nahas, M., Hamasa, M. (1994). Basic Grammar (pp. 63-64, 432-433, & 432-433). Kuwait: Salasel
Publishing.
Middle East for Natural Languages Processing Technologies. Retrived from http://www.coltec.net/default.aspx?Tabid=224
Sakhr Software. Retrived from http://www.sakhr.com/arabicresources.aspx
September 2013, Vol. 3, No. 9, 661-672

Does Physical Activity of Preschool Teachers Impact the
Planning and Implementation of Movement Activities
in the Kindergartens?
Tatjana Devjak, Sanja Bernik, Sreko Devjak
University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia

The authors of this paper compared the views of Slovenian and Portuguese preschool teachers about the importance
of play and movement for the preschool children. In the paper, they focused on the question: Does physical activity
of preschool teachers (spontaneous or planned) impact the planning and implementation of movement activities in
their kindergarten group? They also analyzed the influence of subjective theories on the planning of movement
activities and the realization of the curriculum objectives in the field of movement. Most of the preschool teachers
in Slovenia and Portugal give priority to natural forms of movement in nature and play, allowing the movement of
the fingers, palms, and hands. Research has shown a link between physical activity of preschool teachers and their
views on the importance of the implementation of the movement activities of preschool children. The authors also
noted that the quality of the implementation of the education process in kindergartens in the area of movement
activities depends on their subjective theories to a great extent and on the level of professional competence referred
to the discussed topic.
Keywords: preschool education, curriculum, the area of movement, subjective theories
Introduction
The research on the subject of children and movement was for the first time performed by authors Tatjana
Devjak and Mojca J urievi from the Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, in 2000, immediately after
the adoption of the new Curriculum for Kindergartens in 1999 (Devjak & J urievi, 2000). After a few years,
the need for the new research has arisen with the curricula and practices in kindergartens for the curricular area
of movement. Movement is one of the six curricular areas (in addition to movement, there are also language, art,
society, nature, and mathematics). Curriculum for Kindergartens is the fundamental document that provides
professionals a platform in preschool education for their work. The document derived from the assumptions
(and knowledge) that children perceive and understand the world holistically, that they develop and teach in
active relationship with their social and physical environment, and that in kindergartens in interaction with their
peers and adults, they develop their own sociality and individuality.
The survey was conducted again in Slovenia in 2008, and in 2009, we published comparative results in an
article Play and Movement in the Preschool Children at a conference in Athens (T. Devjak & S. Devjak 2010).

Tatjana Devjak, Ph. D., associate professor, Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana.
Sanja Bernik, Ph.D. candidate, assistant researcher, Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana.
Sreko Devjak, Ph. D., professor, Faculty of Administration, University of Ljubljana.
DAVID PUBLISHING
D
THE PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION OF MOVEMENT ACTIVITIES

662
In the same year, however, the Erasmus exchange of professors in Portugal gave birth to the idea of a
comparison of the views of preschool teachers in Slovenia and Portugal on movement and movement activities
in preschool and on cooperation between kindergartens and parents. In this paper, we present the first part of
the researchthe views of preschool teachers of both countries on the implementation of movement activities
of preschool children.
The basic objective of preschool education in Portugal is the children physical, intellectual, social, and
emotional development. In Portugal, curricular development is the responsibility of the preschool teachers who
should take into account the general objectives of preschool education. Portuguese curriculum, which is not
shared by all children age groups (Order No. 5 220/97, August 4), is a group of principles to support the
educators in their decisions regarding their practice of leading and developing the educational process with the
children, and is also a common reference for all teachers of the National Preschool Network, for organizing the
educational component and guaranteeing significant learning. Guidelines of the Ministry of Education place
emphasis on educationas opposed to protection and care. These guidelines also recommend artistic activities,
modeling, storytelling, and play as a method and model of learning (Lepinik, 2010). In Portugal, they do not
have a specific document for infants and toddlers at the national level, and kindergartens generally determine
the objectives and activities of preschool education by themselves (Marjanovi, 2009).
The purpose of this paper is to present the importance of the movement for the preschool children after the
adoption of Curriculum for Kindergartens (1999) and the importance of subjective theories on the
implementation of physical activity in kindergartens, and also to present an analysis of the views of the
Slovenian and Portuguese preschool teachers on their own physical activity and how this affects their work in
the realization of the objectives in the area of the movement in the preschool children.
Curricular Area of Movement and Preschool Teachers Subjective Theories
The Importance of Movement for Preschool Child in Curriculum for Kindergartens
In Curriculum for Kindergartens (1999) for the area of movement, there are only objectives which
constitute the framework within which the preschool professionals can choose between contents and activities.
At the level of implementing the curriculum, the preschool teachers connect, built on, and complement contents
and activities in various ways. Preschool teachers can help themselves with manuals, in which there are
examples of work didactically and methodically explained, showing all the important stages of the educational
work, such as planning, educational work, observation, and evaluation.
The needs for movement and play are the basic children needs, movement is usually conditioned with
perception of ambient, space, time, and oneself. Motor development is at the forefront, especially in the first
year of life, and it is guided from the natural and simple forms of movements (climbing, creeping, walking, and
running) to the compound and complex sporting activities. Positive incentives are fundamental motivational
methods when working with youngsters. Play and movement play an important role in the social, emotional,
and intellectual development. With elemental physical games, children learn basic sense, the importance of
compliance with the rules of the game, and social skills. The curriculum in the field of movement must be
adapted to different needs, interests, and abilities of children, because of the optimal contribution to their
development and health (Devjak, Skubic, Polak, & Kolek, 2012).
The global objectives of Curriculum for Kindergartens (1999) allow and encourage physical activity for
children: (1) With movement, a child perceives and discovers his/her body, tries out what his/her body is

663
capable of, experiences joy and pride at the emerging competences and skills, and builds confidence in
himself/herself; (2) With movement, a child explores, learns, and perceives the world around him/her; (3)
Children with various indoor and outdoor activities develop their movement capabilities, conquer some
physical concepts, and gradually learn about and conquer the basic elements of different sports categories; (4)
Children learn about the importance of cooperation and respect and consideration of diversity; (5) With
appropriate movement activities, a child also extends his/her knowledge from other areas; and (6) Through a
variety of activities, a child begins to realize himself/herself, develops his/her own identity and self-esteem, and
he/she is encouraged to consider what he/she can do for his/her own well-being and health. With regard to the
methods and forms of work, however, the Curriculum for Kindergartens (1999) recommended: the natural
forms of the movement (walking, running, jumping, crawling, etc.); the rhythmic dance and other more
complex sporting activities (overcoming obstacles, activities with a ball, swimming, skating, skiing, etc.); a
variety of methods (interpretation, demo, and talk) and forms (group exercise, exercising with complementary,
additional tasks, etc.). Activities vary depending on the objective, content, duration, space, the role of the child,
the running time that can be pre-defined or occasional, and the aim of promoting quality and diversified
cooperation between the kindergartens, parents, and children (excursions, sport afternoons, winter open-air
schools, etc.).
What is very important is the role of adults in performing movement activities with preschool children.
Adults (in our case, the preschool teachers) offer adequate challenges, cater for a pleasant and relaxed
atmosphere in a group of children, promote, encourage, direct, redirect, correct, advise, assist, and are actively
involved with the child/children. The preschool teachers must observe children, monitor, and analyze their
motor development, and special attention must be paid to the highly talented and less physically able children.
Also, it is important that the implementation of the movement activities is connected with other curricular areas
by preschool teachers, such as language, nature, society, art, math, and personal hygiene; particularly after
exercise, the most important is the safety of children (Videmek & Kova, 2001).
However, in spite of everything written, Turnek (2008) posed a question: whether and how preschool
teachers adequately convey in pedagogical practice their knowledge, gained in the process of formal education?
The author is convinced that through study they gain theoretical insights that are a kind of inventory of our
knowledge, which one interprets and transforms in accordance with previous subjective assumptionspoint of
views, values, preferences, comprehensions, and personal theories about what the kindergartens task is, how a
child learns, and what the role of the adults is (Turnek 2008). This is why we explain the concept of
subjective theory and the significance of the impact of the so-called subjective theories on the work of
preschool teachers
1
in the next chapter.
The Importance of Subjective Theories of Preschool Teachers About Education
Turnek (2008) said that exploring of the subjective theories became concerned in time, when researchers,
such as J ackson (1986, as cited in Turnek 2008) and Apple (1992) started disclosing the dimensions of a
hidden curriculum of the institutions. Belief and personal theories of preschool teachers about the nature of
children, socialization, and role of adults in the upbringing of children are, in the words of the author, a part of
the hidden curriculum and are also determined by it (Turnek, 2008, p. 12). Subjective theories are guides for
preschool teachers, a set of strategies, and habitus for pedagogical practice in concrete situations (J ug, 2008).

1
In this article, we use the term preschool teacher for both genders.

664
Poarnik (2000, as cited in Turnek, 2008, p. 12) wrote that the subjective theories are mainly implicit and
procedural in nature, often emotional and valuably colored, not entirely conscious and logical; as such, they are
an important source of emotions and motivations for behavior. All of these personal conceptions of preschool
teachers form their subjective theories of education and learning of preschool children.
In the past educational programs for preschool children, curricula were structured and closed. The new
curricula are less structured and more open, and at the same time, they allow more autonomy of the preschool
teachers, and are as such an expression of confidence in the professional qualifications of preschool teachers
(Krofli, 2001). This, however, at the same time shows the complexity of education. Why? Preschool teachers
are on one side sticking to a formal legal point of their work (taking into account the curriculum), and on the
other side, such openness can allow unintended, unwitting, and unwritten actions of preschool teachers. These
unintentional and unconscious actions are, after Batisti (2003), ranked among the actions of hidden curriculum.
Hidden curriculum is one aspect of the curriculum from which children can learn behaviors and acquire
attitudes, values, and stereotypes, which are generally not accepted as desirable or positive. Adults
communicate to children through indirect messages: their views, values, thinking, and judgment (Batisti,
2003). Turnek (2008) noted, the common gesture of hidden curriculum is learning roles and adapting the
institutional endowments. In doing so, she relies on Apple (1992), who said that hidden curriculum is seamless
teaching at institutions, whose sense is that children acquire the competence for specific rules, norms, and
values. The author, Turnek (2008), later stated that other researchers (Batisti, 2000; Bahovec & Kodelja,
1996) got similar results, of hidden curriculum which teaches children obedience, diligence, passivity,
adaptation, indiscrimination, subordination, etc..
The achievement of the objectives and principles of the curriculum for preschool children, in addition to
preschool teachers education (as we have already noted), also affects their personal conceptions of education
and learning of preschool childrenhis/her subjective view for the self-respect of educational work. The
quality of the educational process in kindergartens is not specified only by programs or curricula, but also the
preschool teachers, who are the head of educational processthey solve pedagogical or educational problems
daily, they are organizers of the process, advisors to children, colleagues, parents, and mentors of the interns,
and the list goes on (poljar, 1991). When we are faced with such a complex situation, we usually create a
simplified model of this situation, said Polak (1997). Therefore, we can quickly encounter secularism or
non-scientific theories on individual specificity and position in the social space. The author defines subjective
theories as partial or total implied, relatively unchanging associations of several individual personal perceptions
of specific areas of pedagogical work. Personal conceptions are formed in the process of acquiring knowledge,
experience, and values within a specific social and school context, and show on the outside in the form of
personal beliefs, conceptions, and schemes (Polak 1997).
As a synonym for subjective theories in the field of preschool education, there is the most frequently
applied concept of implicit theory and implicit pedagogy (Miljak, 1993; Pei, 1987, as cited in Turnek, 2008).
Subjective theories are primarily formed in the interaction with others, with people who are important for the
party. Preschool teachers subjective theories will on one side allow better performance, but are at the same
time, to the author, the source of many wrong conclusions, partialities, and performances that do not correspond
to reality. In the subjective theories, we can have elements of evaluation and/or emotional relations to various
aspects of the educational work and their own role in it (Miljak, 1993; Pei, 1987, as cited in Turnek, 2008).
Therefore, from our point of view, the influence of the subjective theories of preschool teachers to movement

665
of preschool children is even more important, such as how teachers understand the theory of the motor
development of the child, what their point of view to curricular area of movement is, what their attitude towards
their own body is, or whether they are sporty active. However, the specificity of the subjective theories in
comparison with standpoints is that their rules are dependent on the practice (Turnek, 2008). Subjective
theories of pedagogic work are formed in the work itself and are depend on experience. Views, however, are
formed of persons, events, and facilities, with which an individual does not have a direct experience. Subjective
theories of preschool teachers are the dilemmas of a narrower field as a point of view, because they are
uncovering the quandary of educational work, and at the same time represent a personal resolution of the
dilemmas (Turnek, 2008, p. 25).
Problem Definition and Methodology
With the survey, we wanted to display, compare, identify, and analyze: (1) the importance and the role of
the movement in the development of preschool children; (2) the views of Slovenian and Portuguese preschool
teachers on movement and on the implementation of movement activity in a group of children according to
their subjective theories; (3) physical activity of preschool teachers and the impact of that on the
implementation of the physical activities in a group of children; and (4) difficulties or obstacles preventing
them from a high-quality implementation of physical activity with children in kindergartens.
The study was performed in Slovenia in 2008 (Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana) and in
Koper in 2009 (Faculty of Education, University of Primorska), and included 133 preschool teachers, who
participated in various continuing education and training programs at the Faculty of Education, University of
Ljubljana (N =51) and at the Faculty of Education, University of Primorska in Koper (N =82). In Portugal, in
the district of Braganca, Escola Superior de Educao (N =78), the study was carried out in 2009/2010. On
average, teachers from Ljubljana had 17.9 years of work experience, and teachers from Koper had 1.6 years of
work experience. Seventy-six percent of the preschool teachers included were regularly employed and 24%
were working on temporary contracts.
On average, preschool teachers from Ljubljana had 17.9 years of service, 84% of them were working on
students of preschool education, who already finished college for preschool teachers and were in the process of
gaining high professional education (half of them were already working as preschool teachers in kindergartens),
and all of them were in a regular employment relationship. Ten percent of preschool teachers already had a
high professional qualification and were in a regular employment relationship, 6% of them did not have a
relevant qualification and had only a job for a limited time.
On average, preschool teachers from Koper had 14.6% years of service. Sixty-one percent of them were in
regular working relationship, 11% of them were in the process of gaining high professional qualification, and
4% of them had inadequate qualifications. Twenty-four percent of preschool teachers from Koper had a job for
a limited time during the research, the rest of them were in working relationship for an indefinite time.
The sample in Breganca of Portugal contained 11% of students of preschool education, 61% of preschool
teachers working in nearby kindergartens, who had a full time job in a regular working relationship.
Twenty-four percent of preschool teachers had a limited time working agreement and 4% of preschool teachers
did not have a relevant qualification and had a job for a limited time. On average, preschool teachers in
Portugal had 10.6 years of service.

666
Data were extracted from the questionnaire, which was already in use (which we have already described in
the introduction), comprised with the scale of views, rating scales, open and closed questions and alternative
questions with yes or no answers. Slovene questionnaire was, for the purpose of research, first translated in
Spanish, then a co-author of the research, assistant professor Manuel Lus Pinto Castanheira, Escola Superior
de Educao, Instituto Politecnico de Bragana, translated it into Portuguese. For the purpose of this
contribution, we present only part of the results of major research (Devjak, Skubic, Polak, & Kolek, 2012),
which was carried out in Slovenia and Portugal. Answers to open questions were processed in a qualitative
manner and ranked into categories, where these seemed appropriate. The data obtained were processed by
statistical software package SPSS-X PC 2007 and EXCEL 2007.
The Findings and Their Interpretation
Physical Activity (Spontaneous or Planned) of Preschool Teachers
Before asking preschool teachers something about curriculum objectives, examples of movement
activities in kindergartens or the places where these activities are carried out, we wanted to determine
whether they are physically active themselves. We investigated whether preschool teachers plan their
physical activity or exercise spontaneously, and if planned, what they are dealing with. First, we will report
the data for Slovenia.
We determined that on average 15% of preschool teachers are highly active, 47% active, and 33%
occasionally active, and that 55% of preschool teachers plan their physical activity. Also, in addition to
planned activities, preschool teachers are engaged in sport spontaneously. More than half of all preschool
teachers (55.42%) occasionally bike, take a long walk (45.8%), and 12% of preschool teachers plan and carry
out this activity regularly. Quite a few are engaged in hiking (15%) and running (10.8%), planned physical
activity (over 30%), two practice dances, two deal with free climbing, three preschool teachers go to the gym,
8% ski and occasionally engage in many different activities, for example, aerobics (4%), with table tennis,
tennis, roller skating, and tai-chi for two school teachers, basketball and volleyball per one per preschool
teacher.
In Portugal, 54.4% of preschool teachers are very active, 35.5% of them identified themselves as active,
and only 10.3% of them are occasionally active. Vast majority (63.5%) of preschool teachers plan their
physical activity (they are physically active at least once a week), the rest of them are dealing with physical
activity spontaneously. Answers to open questions regarding their activities were limited, mostly, they
mentioned that they take walks, bike rides, and run, one of them is engaged in dance, swimming, and fitness,
some of them take aerobic lessons.
Viewpoints of Preschool Teachers on Individual Movement Activities Performed With Children From
Three to Six Year of Age in Kindergartens
Curriculum includes the examples of movement activities for children from three to six years of age,
which can be implemented in kindergartens. We wanted to determine how each preschool teacher sees the
importance of individual activity, so they were only allowed to mark one of the possible answers with each
activity. Then, they were also asked to circle the numbers in the table in front of those activities that they
personally most frequently use with their preschool group. They could also add some activities not included in
Table 1.

667
Table 1
Viewpoints of Preschool Teachers on Individual Movement Activities According to the Institution of
Employment
n x s n x s n x s z z
LJ LJ LJ KP KP KP P P P (PLJ ) (PKP)
A1 51 3.90 1.02 79 4.23 0.85 73 4.12 0.87 -1.27 0.75
A2 51 4.69 0.74 82 4.88 0.33 73 4.41 0.83 1.94 4.50
A3 50 4.00 0.81 81 4.10 0.75 73 4.62 0.59 -4.59 -4.77
A4 51 3.96 0.59 81 4.04 0.78 72 4.17 0.67 -1.80 -1.10
A5 51 3.94 0.71 81 4.05 0.63 74 3.78 0.82 1.14 2.25
A6 51 3.90 0.78 80 3.76 0.89 73 3.41 1.08 2.95 2.19
A7 50 4.02 0.93 81 4.10 0.78 73 4.14 0.98 -0.67 -0.27
A8 51 4.47 0.85 80 4.44 0.69 73 4.34 0.95 0.79 0.70
A9 51 4.67 0.81 81 4.60 0.61 74 4.65 0.87 0.12 -0.36
Notes. nnumber, xarithmetic mean, sstandard deviation, and ztest.
A1natural forms of movement, such as walking, running, climbing, etc., indoors.
A2natural forms of movement, such as walking, running, climbing, etc., outdoors.
A3performing activities in rhythm, moving the body to music, using various aids, and rhythmic and singing exercises.
A4performing various ball and balloon games.
A5moving by using various aids, such as bicycles, scooters, tricycles, etc..
A6 games on ice and snow.
A7water games.
A8relax games and movement activities.
A9movement games as a way of working with others.
KPKoper.
LJ Ljubljana.
PPortugal.

Preschool teachers in Slovenia believe (see Table 1) that the most important physical activity for children
is the natural forms of movement, such as walking, running, climbing, etc., in the nature (A2, M =4.49 and
4.88), and this is actually implemented. Portuguese preschool teachers put this activity in the third place.
Portuguese preschool teachers pay more attention to physical activity and play which allows interaction with
others (A9, M =4.65), which Slovene preschool teachers put it in the second place. We also determined, that
the opinions of preschool teachers in Ljubljana and Koper were very uniformed, because of their belief, that the
following physical activities are important for the development of preschool children and are also usually
carried out in their own group of children: physical games as a form of cooperation with others ( A9, M =4.67
and 4.60), games and movement activities for relaxation (A8, M =4.47 and 4.44) and implementing actions in
rhythm, with your body, with music, with various props, and with rhythmic and singing games (A3, M =4.00
and 4.10). It is interesting that the preschool teachers in Koper, highly assessed the water games (A7, M =4.10),
but it is not surprising, because Koper is a coastal town and in the summer time, there are many opportunities to
implement a number of activities on the beach and pools. Portuguese preschool teachers put the implementation
of activities in rhythm, with your body, with music, with various props, and with rhythmic and singing games
(A3, M =4.62) in the second place and put the natural forms of exercise in nature (A2, M =4.41) in the third

668
place. Among the less important physical activities, which they also rarely carry out, the Slovenian preschool
teachers included: games on ice and snow (A6), various games with balls and balloons (A4), in Ljubljana, are
also natural forms of exercise indoors (A1). Portuguese preschool teachers put on the last two places movement
with different accessories, bicycle, and scooter, (A5) and games on ice and snow (A6, M =3.41). The
differences are even more apparent from the chart (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. Comparison of Slovene and Portuguese preschool teachers views on movement activities.
Notes. xarithmetic meanM (LJ Ljubljana, KPKoper, and PTPortugal).

We see that the preschool teachers in Ljubljana, Koper, and Breganca assessed almost identically actions
of A9, A8, and A7, while they differ mainly in activities, such as games on ice and snow (A6), natural forms of
exercise, such as walking, running, climbing..., indoors (A1), natural forms of exercise, such as walking,
running, climbing..., outdoors, in the nature (A2), and the implementation of the rhythm, with body, with music,
with various props, and with rhythmic and singing games (A3).
If we look at the results in terms of the importance of individual actions and the actual implementation of
these activities, we see that they reflect the trend, confirmed by some studies, where the authors are looking for
differences between behavioral willingness (intention, attitudes) and actual behavior (Rus, 1997).This means
that, despite the fact that (in general) we know that something is good, useful, or worthwhile in situation here
and now for various reasons, this cannot be realized. Below, we will try to highlight the results obtained in
terms of external and internal factors, which we consider to explain the results obtained. These are factors, such
as the environment and space for implementation of movement activities, problems, and obstacles that prevent
the implementation of those activates (external factors), and professional competence of preschool teachers for
the management and execution of movement activities as an internal factor that prevents or has an indirect
impact on the implementation of movement activities with children in kindergartens.
Preschool teachers were also asked in what manner they planned movement activities for children in their
group. There were many responses to choose from, and they selected those which are on average closest to the
2,00
2,50
3,00
3,50
4,00
4,50
5,00
1
2
3
4
5 6
7
8
9
MLJ
MKP
MPT

669
actual situation in practice. Thirty-six percent of preschool teachers plan movement activities most often with
their assistants in the department, 37% of preschool teachers include the planning of their assistants as well as
the children, 9% of preschool teachers plan their work independently, 4% of preschool teachers plan only with
the children, and 1.5% with other preschool teachers. More than 12% of preschool teachers chose the category
other (with the heads of kindergartens, the parents, with parents and children, planning at study and other
meetings of preschool teachers of other kindergartens located in the same local community or unit of the Board
of Education, which covers the territorial scope of Slovenia). There were very similar results also in Portugal.
Most preschool teachers (36%) plan movement activities with their assistants in the department, 20% plan them
with their assistants and the children, 18% of them only take into account children wishes, 17% plan
movement activities with other preschool teachers within the kindergartens and only 3% of them chose
category other but did not say how.
Problems Hindering the Implementation of Movement Activities
Preschool teachers in Slovenia and Portugal (see Table 2) believe that the environment in which they work
with their preschool group is usually inappropriate for performing movement activities due to the lack of
available space. Many Slovene preschool teachers wrote that they miss having a gym (only those preschool
teachers whose departments are part of primary schools have this at their disposal). Even if they do have access
to a gym, they can use it only rarelythat is, only when the primary school pupils do not have classes or are on
vacation. Slovene preschool teachers stated that another problem is also the lack of appropriate equipment for
performing sports or movement activities. Yet, another problem they list is the size of the group, which is
usually too large
2
.

Table 2
Problems and Obstacles That Hinder the Implementation of Movement Activities According to Preschool
Teachers
Categories f SLO f % f PT f%
Inappropriate space 53 55 20 40.8
Too many children in the group 6 6 0 0
Inappropriate equipment, insufficient sports equipment 21 22 6 12.2
Funds 4 4 21 42.9
Lack of expertise and motivation 4 4 2 4.1
The presence of an additional teacher, assistant in the group,
while movement activities are being performed
5 5 0 0
Lack of time 3 3 0 0
Total 96 100 49 100
Notes. All preschool teachers did not answer this question (SLOSlovenia and PTPortugal).

Preschool teachers see the reasons for this situation as the lack of funds. In Slovenia, nearly 70% of the
funds required for the establishment and operation of preschools are provided by local communities, and 30%
by parents. They believe that the solution is not to be found in the increase of the price of the preschool (to the

2
Slovenian legislation stipulates that homogenous groups of children in the first (younger) age group (ages 13) consist of a
maximum of 12 children, in the second (older) age group (ages 36) of a maximum of 17 children (for children three to four years
old), and a maximum of 22 children in groups consisting of children four to five and five to six years old. In heterogeneous groups,
the maximum number of children in the first age group should be 10, and in the second age group 19. For mixed-age classes, the
maximum is 17 children (Article 34 of the Rules on the Norms and Personnel Conditions for Performing Preschool Activities,
2005).

670
detriment of the local community and parents), but in a greater financial contribution by the state and certain
systemic solutions, such as arrangement or construction of appropriate facilities (such as a gym), purchase of
appropriate sports equipment, and payment of above-standard services (e.g., swimming and skiing courses) for
all Slovenian preschool children. Other solutions include hiring additional professional staff to help out in
classes intended for movement activities. Teachers are also well aware that good will is not enough and
self-critically assess that the issue of expertise and the question of how to correctly teach children how to swim,
ski, ride a bike, etc., is also important. The problems that cause Slovene preschool teachers difficulties in
performing movement activities can be listed among the possible reasons for the discrepancies between their
viewpoints on movement activities and their actual implementation.
Portuguese preschool teachers also put lack of funds in the first place among barriers, which prevents
implementation of movement activities. They also have a very tight budget, but there are also exceptions, as
they are everywhere. Let us mention, that during the visit of Portuguese kindergartens in Braganca we saw
public and private kindergartens and we can say, that private kindergartens in Braganca are better equipped.
Specifically, we must mention Catholic kindergartens in Braganca, which is above standardoutside and
inside, there is state of the art equipment, gym, outside sports and game courts, culture hall, a lot of greenery
and flowers, and a huge reception room and multipurpose room.
Professional Competence of Preschool Teachers for Implementation of Movement Activities
It is interesting that a majority of Slovene preschool teachers (82%) estimate that they are well or
extremely well qualified to lead and implement movement activities. Thirteen percent of preschool teachers
from Koper estimate their professional competence as excellent, whereas, only 4% of teachers from Ljubljana
believe the same. It should be mentioned that in Ljubljana and Koper, undergraduate studies and further
education and training programs take place following the same programs and with the same instructors. Up
until a few years ago, this had been even part of the same faculty of the University of Ljubljana. Almost all of
the preschool teachers in Koper and Ljubljana, except for four, agreed with the need for additional professional
training and education. They are especially interested in topics that provide them an opportunity to further
develop, extend, and connect their knowledge in various areas (play, movement, sports, learning, developing
childrens abilities, and learning in preschool children by age)that is, topics that would enable them to use a
comprehensive approach to education (and learning) of preschool children. They are well aware of the
importance of movement activities for preschool children, which is why they would like to achieve a higher
level of competence in this area (i.e., the competence to perform these activities in practice). Among concrete
topics that interest them, they list the following: getting to know activities and games for healthy development
of individual parts of the body, the importance of sports for preschool children, movement and rhythm, a
healthy lifestyle and the importance of movement for childrens health, movement in relation to natural science,
dance, rollerblading, folklore, mountaineering, and so on.
When Portuguese preschool teachers were asked how they think they are qualified for the implementation
of the movement activities for preschool children, 91% of them answered that they think they are very well or
well qualified for working with preschool children in the area of movement activities, only 9% of them were
undecided. When we asked them if they would join a continuing education and training in the field of
movement activities of preschool children, 92% of them answered yes. Regarding the question about the topics
we gathered, we got almost identical answers as in Sloveniathey would like to educate in various fields, so

671
they would gain new knowledge and approaches and thus become more competent and professional for the
implementation of the educational process in practice.
Conclusions
Slovene and Portuguese preschool teachers rank children movement among important activities. They
pay attention to movement activities, they plan them and they feel satisfied in implementing them. Otherwise,
they are aware that they can be doing much more for their healthy living, especially, in the case of movement.
Some preschool teachers pay attention to the movement area, they are also defined themselves as active and are
devoting their leisure time to sporting activities at least once a week. Slovenian preschool teachers take
aerobics, go to fitness, or take Pilates. Again, others are involved in sports or movement spontaneously, when
they have time, they like to walk, run, and cycle. The research also showed that both Slovene and Portuguese
preschool teachers have the opinion that the most important movement activity for a child is the natural form of
movement, such as walking, running, climbing, etc., in the nature, and this is also actually what they are doing.
We found out that preschool teachers also like doing that themselvesthey like to move in the nature, and
therefore, in this finding it can be written, that their subjective theory had an effect on their views about the
importance of the implementation of certain activities recorded in both curricula.
In their opinion, for the development of preschool children, the following movement activities are also
important, which are also usually carried out by children in their groups: physical games as a form of
cooperation with others, games, and physical activities for the relaxation and implementation of activities in the
rhythm, with the body, with music, with various props, and with rhythmic and vocal games. It is interesting that
preschool teachers in Koper, made a high estimate of the games in the water, which is not surprising, because
Koper is a seaside city, and in the summer time, they are running a lot of activities on the beach and in the
swimming pools. Among the less important movement activities, which are also rarely carried out, the Slovenian
preschool teachers classified: games on the ice and snow, the implementation of a variety of games with a ball
and balloons, in Ljubljana even natural forms of movement in an enclosed space. The Portuguese preschool
teachers put in last two places movement with a variety of props, bike, scooter, and games on ice and snow.
Results of the research show that preschool teachers of both countries cite various causes that prevent the
execution of individual movement activities in their group of children. These are inadequate space, lack of
finance, lack of adequate devices for work, etc.. What is very important is the finding, that the Slovenian and
Portuguese preschool teachers are willing to further educate to raise the quality of their work, Slovenian
preschool teachers also indicated areas on which they must develop and deepen their knowledge. Both the
Slovenian and Portuguese educators are prepared to further educate and train for the implementation of
movement activity for preschool children also in order to acquire new knowledge and approaches and a more
competent and professional knowledge to carry out the movement activity practice.
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September 2013, Vol. 3, No. 9, 673-684

End-Users Preferences Applicable to Quality Landscape
Design Course Material Production for Distance and E-learning
in Ghana
Albert Amoah Saah
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana

In fast developing countries, such as Ghana, physical development increasingly competes for space with relatively
dwindling natural environment in human communities. This brought design complexities for development in Ghana
to the fore with implications for educational and developmental strategies in architecture. Landscape design may be
a sustainable design interface, between physical development and natural environment, to conserve nature, enhance
aesthetics and efficient land use as solution. Government of Ghana in 2005 mandated KNUST (Kwame Nkrumah
University of Science and Technology), Kumasi to urgently provide learning experience for increasing number of
students and professional architects, quantity surveyors, and horticulturist by using traditional face-to-face as well
as distance and e-learning. However, much as there was curriculum for landscape design for regular students, there
existed no quality course material for distance and e-learning pathways. Study therefore sought to explore and
develop end-user preferences applicable to landscape design course material that is appropriate for distance and
e-learning at KNUST. Survey methods and descriptive statistics were employed in data collection and analysis
respectively, using sample size of 178. Results showed VARK (visual, aural, read/write, and kinesthetic sensory
modalities) models kinetic learners style had a mean of 1.46 which was higher than the mean (x =1.26). End-users
in the study access learning process x =1.24 and assess their learning progress with x =1.34. They perceived
quality in distance learning material product (x =1.05) with 145 (81.5%). However, existing materials designed
allowed them access presentation to their senses: sight (58.4%), hearing (29.8%), and touch (10.7%). Study
concluded that producing quality landscape design course material for distance and e-learning will be enhanced by
applying end-users preferences.
Keywords: curriculum and learning, landscape design course, distance and e-learning
Introduction

Background of the Study
Ghanas physical development increasingly competes for space with relatively dwindling natural
environment, making design complexities for development imperative. Landscape design may be a sustainable
design interface for solution. Those seeking further training have the opportunity to do so in the dual mode
institution of KNUST, Kumasi. Its current academic programmes in landscape design reach only residential

Albert Amoah Saah, Ph.D., researcher, Centre for E-learning Technologies, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and
Technology.
DAVID PUBLISHING
D
QUALITY LANDSCAPE DESIGN COURSE MATERIALS PRODUCTION

674
on-campus students, though their urgent needs and demands require a distance learning mode as well. Distance
learning materials for landscape design courses will have to be produced for use by the increasing number of
the would be end-users who are professional architects, quantity surveyors, and horticulturists, and cannot leave
their home and work to study in residence. Distance and e-learning strategies grant the learner autonomy and
advantage to learn anywhere, anytime, and at their own pace accessing open educational resource or course
writer-customised material design.
Research Problem
Course developers and curriculum designers will have to produce distance learning materials that result in
a learning experience that impacts the learners cognition, skills, and behaviour enriching learners total life.
The course developer and writer, therefore, require knowledge and application of those end-users preferences
to develop quality landscape design course material for distance and e-learning at KNUST (Kwame Nkrumah
University of Science and Technology), Kumasi, Ghana.
Current landscape design courses available at the College of Planning and Architecture have been
designed not for the distance and e-learning pathways. This creates a gap in curriculum and a lack of course
material that would have been suitable for the distance learners or students described in this study as the
end-users, based on their preferences. The study, therefore, sought to identify these preferences by determining
the perceptions of quality course materials and application of end-users preferences to developing quality
landscape design course materials for distance and e-learning.
Research Objective and Questions
In general, the study sought to determine the influential factors that affect the development and production
of distance learning materials.
The objective of study stated above led to the following research questions:
(1) What demographic and distance learning experience of respondents predisposed them to their
perception of quality and participation in distance learning at KNUST?
(2) What learning styles will be most suitable for end-users of the course materials for landscape design
course at KNUST?
(3) What quality-components do end-users prefer in course materials when accessing the distance learning
process, and assessing their own learning progress at KNUST?
(4) What are learners perceptions of production system and of quality in product of the learning
materials?
Literature Review
End-user and learning style. Course designers and especially writers need to identify and apply learning
styles of their end-users. There is a correlation between learning style and preferences (Kolb, 1984). Based on
Kolbs theory, Kvan and Yunyan (2005) also concluded from their learning style experiment on architecture
students that there is significant correlation between students learning styles and academic performance in
architectural studio. They further suggested that studio teachers assess students learning styles early and
fashion studio programmes to cover the diverse learning styles.
Learning style is an individuals natural or habitual pattern of acquiring and processing information in
learning situations. A core concept is that individuals differ in how they learn (J ames & Gardner, 1995). The
idea of individualized learning styles originated in the 1970s, and has greatly influenced education (Pashler,

675
McDaniel, Rohrer, & Bjork, 2008).
One of the most common and widely-used (Leite, Svinicki, & Shi, 2009) categorizations of the
various types of learning styles is Flemings (2001) VARK model (visual, aural, read/write, and
kinesthetic sensory modalities, sometimes VAK), which expanded upon earlier neuro-linguistic
programming (VARK) model. Hawk and Shah (2007) summed this up in the following: (1) visual learners;
(2) auditory learners; and (3) kinaesthetic learners. The work of Learning Disabilities Pride Online (2008)
is supportive of this model.
End-users quality preferences echoed. In literature, the end-users of course materials, understand
quality in terms of what authorities describe as follows. Kolarik (1999) indicated that quality concept is
complicated. Some authorities have defined quality based on customer benefits as well as customer burden.
Some authorities stated the definition of quality in rigid term as follows: Meeting and exceeding customer
needs and expectations; common expression and fitness for use according to J uran (1989). Further,
Crosby (1979) stated it as conformance to requirements. Others are to be aimed at the needs of the
consumer, present and future (Deming, 1986); and The total composite product and service characteristics
of marketing, engineering, manufacture, and maintenance through which the product and service in use will
meet the expectations of the customer (Feigenbaum, 1983); The loss (from function variation and harmful
effects) a product causes to society after being shipped, other than any losses caused by its intrinsic function
(Taguchi, 1986); In a more flexible manner, Radford (1992), Shewhart (1980), and Ishikawa (1985)
respectively as follows, stated some quality definitions; Mishra (2007) also applied the ISO 9000:2000
(International Organization for Standardizition) quality definition The totality of features and characteristics
of a product or service that bears on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs to quality assurance to
higher education.
Quality in course materials. Course material is distinct from learning material: One is subject specific
while the other refers to the medium that carries the material (Saah, 2012). They are distance learning materials.
Quality is the standard of how sound something is as measured against other similar things; general
excellence; a distinctive feature (Soanes, 2001). Literature explains that different persons and professions have
described quality differently (Stewart-Smith, 1994). The individuals may describe quality based on their
personal experience that associates with a good or service; and what burden it takes in acquiring and using the
product and the satisfaction derives (Kolalik, 1999).
A working group from the Board of Education in Finland, groups their guidelines for producing
educational content of high quality in four sections. These include pedagogical quality that refers to features in
the learning materials that support learning and the applicability of the material in teaching and learning
processes. Usability refers to the technical structure and interface design of the learning materials as well as the
ease of use arising from these features. Usability is dependent on the users experience. Accessibility in this
context means that the learning materials are accessible to everyone, regardless of their age, physical or mental
capacity, disabilities, or health. Production quality refers to the concept that the production of online learning
materials fulfils quality criteria if it is carried out in a controlled and documented manner, steered by
knowledge-based, skills-based, and learning-based goals, and if the product meets professional standards (Lind,
2005).
Quality products demanded and supplied in distance education system. Quality products demanded
by distance learners and supplied by course developers and writers are paramount in the distance education

676
system. To this end, Nunan (1991) commented that what is lacking in terms of quality in distance education
are the perceptions of teachers (facilitators and course writers). They judge quality from the perspective of a
particular discipline. Their perception is generally academic or subject-oriented. Furthermore, Lampikoski
(1992) concluded his study of external and internal factors, which influence the quality in distance education
that, the influence of the internal factors is greater than the influence of the external factors. In the end,
students in distance education systems are in the best position to assess the quality of any particular distance
education program. Ehlers (2004) argued for a quality concept focusing on a learners or end-users
perspective.
Quality theories for production. Concerning process theories for production, Kolarik (1999) had
established that the process (inputthroughputoutput) is an important aspect of the production system for
every product. He further indicated that people (who are the customers and consumers, the target groups
whose choices affect characteristics of the product) are part of the production system. Also, those principles (of
quality standards of practice and values) are required for quality products to be made.
For Project Management Theories for Production, a quality product requires a perspective of it as a
project (constraints of time, cost, quality, and risk). These theories see production of course materials as a
project (Good, 2003). In project management objectives, a project is a planned series of related activities for
achieving a specific business objective (C. K. Laudon & J . P. Laudon, 2007).
Production system for quality learning product is also important. In creating quality, a process designed
for end-user effectiveness and efficiency is also necessary. Kolarik (1999) proposed a production system very
helpful in this study. The effect of production system is benefit or has added value.
From the field of production and quality, in combination with scientific bases for production, researcher
formulated the conceptual framework for production theories and best practices that factor into the production
of distance learning materials produced by distance learning institutes. The conceptual framework is shown in
Figure 1.

Figure 1. Conceptual framework for theory mix and quality product output for the QCMW (quality course matrial
writing) template. (Source: Adapted from A. A. Saah, 2012).
The Theory
Mix for a
production
model
Human Expertise (Knowledge & Technical
skills) & Experience (organizational) in open
distance and e-learing publishing industry
Technology (Equipment, Software
applications, & Material resources)
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Marketing concepts (market
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people, and publicity
Project panagement (Project
lifecycle)

677
Method
Research Design
Study is an exploratory research type (Weiers, 2002), hence, the following research design is adopted.
Data collection and processing, as well as data presentation and analysis were done accordingly for this study in
quality course material development and production for distance and e-learning pathways.
Population of the study. The accessible population comprised the 460 students who were final-year
students and graduates of KNUST, Department of Horticulture and Department of Architecture. They formed
the social system of the study. They were of a target population of distance and e-learners who would be
combining their working with studying.
Sampling method and sample. The study employed non-probability sampling methods. Quota sampling
techniques were used for stratifying population into sub-groups including final-year students and graduated
professionals. Also, convenience sampling was adopted for selecting the individual members in each sub-group
of the population. Sampling methods yielded 201 respondents. Sample size was determined with method by
Krejcie and Morgan (1970).
Data Collection and Processing
Gosling (1995) recommended survey for this type of study. Experience survey was, therefore, used to
collect a broad range of information (quantitative and qualitative) about the population. The emphasis was on
quantitative data, which could be analyzed, using statistical methods which gave precise estimates. The
qualitative information was used to help interpret the quantitative finding.
Data collection. Information was needed to answer questions regarding respondents demographic and
distance learning experience that influenced their perception of quality and participation in distance learning;
their learning styles that will be most suitable for end-users of the course materials landscape design course;
quality-components end-users prefer in course materials when accessing the distance learning process, and
assessing their own learning progress; and learners perceptions of production system and of quality in product
of the learning materials. Questionnaire as a data collection instrument (Weiers, 2002) was designed in the
Likert 5-scale format to measure the respondents attitudes or perceptions of variables that are related to
research questions 2, 3, and 4. Data for research question 1 were collected with closed single or dichotomous
questions for respondents sexes. Closed multiple was used for information regarding respondents age,
education, and distance learning experience. The entire questionnaire was structured into 17 items/variables in
four sections. It was finally self-administered to respondents after a pre-test with a similar representative
sample. Field data for the study were accessed in 2010 and 2013.
Data processing. Information from respondents was processed. This involved editing for corrections and
consistency of returned questionnaire entries for accurate responses and inputting into SPSS (Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences). The process yielded 178 respondents viable for analysis.
Presentation and Analysis of Data
After collecting and processing data, the next step was presenting and analysing them. This was done as
follows.
Presentation of data. Data processed were presented in chart and tabular forms to make analysing easier
and clearer. One figure and four tables were generated from the study. Figure 1 represented the conceptual
framework for theory mix and quality product output for the QCMW template; Table 1 was a tabular

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presentation of respondents demographics; Table 2 was tabular presentation showing VARK model styles
respondents identified themselves with; Also, Table 3 was tabular presentation of responses showing
respondents preferences for quality components in course material; and the forth was Table 4 which was a
tabular presentation of responses measuring respondents perception of production system.
Data analysis. The study analyzed the measured perceptions and preferences of respondents. The SPSS
was used in the analysis for descriptive statistics in Table 1. As shown in Tables 2, 3, and 4, the mean and x
were also determined and compared for their respective variables to make the statistical analysis possible and
discussion coherent.
Results and Discussion
Presentation and Analysis of Responses to Research Question 1
Research question 1: What demographics and distance learning experience of respondents predisposed
them to their perception of quality and participation in distance learning?
Presentation of findings for research question 1. Sex, age, and educational and professional background
were presented in Table 1.

Table 1
Tabular Presentation of Respondents Demographics
Values
Variables
Respondents
Total
Student
architects
Professional
architects
Professional
horticulturists
f % f % f % f %
Sex
Female 12 6.74 6 3.37 9 5.06 27 15.17
Male 71 39.89 23 12.92 57 32.02 151 84.83
Total 83 46.63 29 16.29 66 37.08 178 100
Age (yrs.)
<20 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0.56
20-24 60 1.12 0 0 0 0 6 3.37
25-29 22 4.49 4 2.25 19 10.67 33 18.54
30-34 1 3.37 9 5.06 16 8.99 46 25.84
35-39 0 3.37 11 6.18 6 3.37 51 28.70
40+ 0 3.93 5 2.80 25 14.05 41 23.04
Total 83 46.63 29 16.29 66 37.08 178 100
Educational & professional background
Bachelor degrees 56 31.46 2 1.12 41 23.04 91 51.12
Master degrees 23 12.92 8 4.49 2 1.12 5 2.81
Postgradute/professional diploma 4 2.25 19 10.68 23 12.92 82 46.07
Total 83 46.63 29 16.29 66 37.08 178 100

Statistical analysis of data from research question 1. Statistical analysis covered responses to
respondents sex, age, and educational and professional qualification. They were discussed as follows.
Sex of respondents. Sex of respondents distributed as follows: female 27 (15.17%) and male 151
(84.83%). This compares with the view that more men than women access tertiary education (Dzidonu, 2003).
Age of respondents. Respondents age showed that most of the respondents were mature students, 30
years old and above within 30-34 years old (46, 25.84%), 35-39 years old (51, 28.65%), and 40+years old (41,

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23.04%). This showed that they were adults, and pursuing an adult learning strategy.
Respondents educational and professional qualification. Regarding academic program pursued by
respondents, results showed that 91 (51.12%) were enrolled for bachelor degrees, 5 (2.81%) master degrees,
and 82 (46.07%) reading for their postgraduate diploma and professional certificates. It is observed that
undergraduate and graduate programs were equally being pursued by learners.
Respondents distance learning experience. In their response to the questions, Which of your senses
have been engage in distance learning by distance learning materials?, the following were realised: sight
(58.4%), hearing (29.8%), touch (10.7%), smell (0.6%), and taste (0.6%). This implied that quality course
materials had been mostly accessed by sight (technical presented quality) and hearing, showing that audio
visual was key in distance learning materials.
Research question 2: What learning styles will be most suitable for end-users of the course materials
landscape design course at KNUST?
Presentation of finding for research question 2. Below, in Table 2, is the tabular presentation of
learners responses to learner/learning styles based on VARK model.

Table 2
Tabular Presentation Showing VARK Model Styles Respondents Identified With Themselves
Values
Variables
SD D U A SA
Mean, x -2 -1 0 1 2
f % f % f % f % f %
VARK model 1.26
Auditory learners 10 5.6 8 4.5 18 10.1 55 30.9 87 48.9 1.13
Visual learners 10 5.6 7 3.9 15 8.4 51 28.7 95 53.4 1.20
Kinaesthetic learners 7 3.9 4 2.2 10 5.6 36 20.2 121 68.0 1.46
Notes. SD =Strongly disagree, D =Disagree, U =Unsure, A =Agree, and SA =Strongly agree.

Statistical analysis of research question 2. For students and professional architects, quantity surveyors,
and horticulturists in the study, the mean scores of auditory learners (x =1.13), visual learners (x =1.20), and
kinaesthetic learners (x =1.46). This showed that much as course materials had to employ auditory and visual
learning styles, the kinaesthetic style devices were to be used mostly in practical work. Fleming (2001) claimed
that visual learners have a preference for seeing (think in pictures; visual aids, such as overhead slides,
diagrams, handouts, etc.). Auditory learners do best learn through listening (lectures, discussions, tapes, etc.).
Tactile or kinaesthetic learners prefer to learn via experiencemoving, touching, and doing (active exploration
of the world; science projects; experiments; etc.). Its use in pedagogy allows curriculum and course developers
as well as writers to prepare course materials that address each of these areas. Students can also use the model
to identify their preferred learning style and maximize their educational experience by focusing on what
benefits them the most.
Research question 3: What quality components do learners prefer in course materials when accessing the
distance learning process, and assessing their learning own progress?
Presentation of finding for research question 3. Below, in Table 3, is the tabular presentation of

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learners responses to the two major factors: (1) accessing the learning process; and (2) assessing the learning
progress.

Table 3
Tabular Presentation of Responses Showing Respondents Preference for Quality Components in Course
Materials
Values
Variables
SD D U A SA
Mean,
x
-2 -1 0 1 2
f % f % f % f % f %
Learners access the learning process with: 1.24
(1) Preliminary pages features 1.08
Title page: course code and course title 8 4.5 1 0.6 6 3.4 90 50.6 73 41.0 1.23
Copyright page: publisher logo, name and contact of
publisher, copyright information, ISBN (international
standard book number)
6 3.4 13 7.3 30 16.9 80 44.9 49 27.5 0.86
Note from publisher to learner (how to use the
learning/course material)
3 1.7 8 4.5 11 6.2 83 46.6 73 41.0 1.21
Author: name and qualification, occupation, and professional
memberships
4 2.2 13 7.3 8 4.5 89 50.0 64 36.0 1.03
(2) Course introduction 1.26
Course description or overview, course outline 3 1.7 8 4.5 7 3.9 76 42.7 84 47.2 1.29
Course objectives 3 1.7 8 4.5 7 3.9 76 42.7 84 47.2 1.29
Evaluation and grading policy 5 2.8 6 3.4 14 7.9 80 44.9 73 41.0 1.18
Resources required for course 5 2.8 4 2.2 15 8.4 60 33.7 94 52.8 1.31
Citations and bibliography, reading list/textbooks 5 2.8 6 3.4 14 7.9 80 44.9 73 41.0 1.18
List of abbreviation, list of symbols, notes on symbols and
abbreviations
4 2.2 2 1.1 5 2.8 87 48.9 80 44.9 1.33
Course study schedule, and learning journal 3 1.7 9 5.1 17 9.6 66 37.1 83 46.6 1.22
(3) Reference items 1.53
Table of contents, table of figures, and footnotes/endnotes 6 3.4 4 2.2 4 2.2 87 48.9 77 43.3 1.26
Captions: tables, figure, equation, and appendices 2 1.1 4 2.2 18 10.1 96 53.9 58 32.6 1.80
(4) Technical features (readability) 1.19
Visuals with colour: graphics, illustrations, and figures 6 3.4 6 3.4 11 6.2 64 36.0 91 51.1 1.28
Appropriate page size and volume of material 6 3.4 7 3.9 7 3.9 85 47.8 73 41.0 1.19
Links and transitional phrases/words 3 1.7 5 2.8 20 11.2 86 48.3 64 36.0 1.14
Comfortable font size, type face, and style 8 4.5 11 6.2 20 11.2 68 38.2 71 39.9 1.03
Comfortable line spacing 3 1.7 8 4.5 16 9.0 70 39.3 81 45.5 1.22
Language appropriateness and level 2 1.1 6 3.4 12 6.7 80 44.9 78 43.8 1.27
(5) Technical features (usability) 1.03
Video clip/interactive CD-ROM 4 2.2 8 4.5 35 19.7 50 28.1 81 45.5 1.10
Links 6 3.4 8 4.5 28 15.7 55 30.9 81 45.5 1.11
Icons and dialogue boxes 6 3.4 12 6.7 35 19.7 72 40.4 53 29.8 0.87
(6) Pedagogy outline of unit (subject matter content) 1.32
Unit introduction 4 2.2 0 0.0 2 1.1 61 34.3 111 62.4 1.54
Unit learning objectives 5 2.8 1 0.6 7 3.9 81 45.5 84 47.2 1.34
Unit content 5 2.8 8 4.5 18 10.1 79 44.4 68 38.2 1.11
Unit interactive sessions (deductive and inductive reasoning)
with examples, exercises/solutions
4 2.2 4 2.2 8 4.5 64 36.0 98 55.1 1.39
Numbering and bulleting: learning points 3 1.7 6 3.4 21 11.8 80 44.9 68 38.2 1.15

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(Table 3 to be continued)
Course material divided into topical units 3 1.7 3 1.7 13 7.3 72 40.4 87 48.9 1.33
Supportive data and worked examples 4 2.2 5 2.8 5 2.8 42 23.6 122 68.5 1.53
New terms and key words 5 2.8 5 2.8 15 8.4 70 39.3 83 46.6 1.24
Reading activity 4 2.2 8 4.5 15 8.4 90 50.6 61 34.3 1.10
Web activity 4 2.2 2 1.1 9 5.1 60 33.7 103 57.9 1.44
Learners assessing the learning progress with: 1.34
(7) Questions and problems 1.44
Self-assessment questions 4 2.2 1 0.6 6 3.4 54 30.3 113 63.5 1.52
Unit assignment questions 2 1.1 2 1.1 11 6.2 63 35.4 100 56.2 1.43
Discussion questions, review questions 3 1.7 3 1.7 9 5.1 55 30.9 108 60.7 1.47
Course quizzes 4 2.2 5 2.8 8 4.5 74 41.6 87 48.9 1.32
(8) Summaries 1.35
Unit summary 4 2.2 4 2.2 11 6.2 67 37.6 92 51.7 1.34
Course summary 2 1.1 4 2.2 8 4.5 79 44.4 85 47.8 1.35
(9) Answers and feedbacks 1.23
Author feedback: in self-grading answers and answer tips 7 3.9 3 1.7 8 4.5 69 38.8 91 51.1 1.31
Learner feedback: of learning material quality, subject matter 3 1.7 6 3.4 13 7.3 76 42.7 80 44.9 1.26
Facilitator feedback: from facilitator to assignments 4 2.2 7 3.9 11 6.2 97 54.5 59 33.1 1.12

Statistical analysis of research question 3. Descriptive statistics showed generally higher agreements
with the assertion that learners do have quality components they would prefer to see in course materials for
accessing learning process and assessing learning progress. For accessing learning process, respondents
expressed agreement on preliminary pages features (x =1.08), reference items (x =1.53), pedagogy outline of
subject matter content (x =1.32), course introduction (x =1.26), technical features of readability (x =1.19),
preliminary pages features (x =1.08), and technical features of usability (x =1.03). All of these contributed to
the mean score for accessing learning process to be 1.24.
Respondents also showed agreement with statements on technical features (readability) of materials (x =
1.19). For technical features (usability, x =1.03). Further, questions and problems had the mean score of 1.44,
summaries 1.35, and mean score 1.23 for answers and feedbacks. These did contribute to overall mean score
of respondents assessing learners progress, as x =1.34. This was higher than that of accessing the learning
process, which was x =1.24. This means that highly valued internal factors do increase distance learners
demand for quality in distance education. Kolarik (1999) agreed that those who directly benefit from their
use of a good or service do demand quality thereof. And this is what is of value to customers and end-users
(Bradbery, 1991).
This meant that a course writing template that will enhance end-users accessing learning process and
assessing their learning progress should contain end-users preferences in Table 3.
The research Question 4: What are learners perceptions of quality in product of the learning materials?
This was answered below by presenting and analyzing its data. See Table 4 below.
Presentation of Finding for Research Question 4. Below, in Table 4, is the tabular presentation of
learners responses to perceiving quality in distance learning material product.

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Table 4
Tabular Presentation of Responses Measuring Respondents Perception of Production System
Values
Variables
SD D U A SA
Mean,
x
-2 -1 0 1 2
f % f % f % f % f %
Perceive quality in distance learning material product as in the: 1.05
(1) Pedagogy (it does assist learner to access learning process
and assess learners progress in learning)
5 2.8 3 1.7 29 16.3 85 47.8 56 31.5 1.03
(2) Presentation (what is presented to the senses of the learner) 5 2.8 2 1.1 26 14.6 87 48.9 58 32.6 1.07
(3) Policy direct by what policy exist in the distance learning
institute, Tertiary Education Project of Ghana
5 2.8 2 1.1 27 15.2 87 48.9 57 32.0 1.06
(4) Personal being selective choice depending on adult
experience and learner characteristics
8 4.5 14 7.9 16 9.0 69 38.8 71 39.9 1.02

Statistical analysis of research question 4. With respect to how learners perceive production system for
distance learning material to be, the learners had a positive perception of the system that will ensure the quality
they required.
Overall, respondents expressed agreement with the production system. They expressed satisfaction with
the efficiency of the system (x =0.84), product supporting pedagogy and learning (x =1.03), presentation
engaging the senses (x =1.07), and distance learning policy (x =1.06), personal being selective choice
depending on adult experience and learner characteristics (x =1.02).
In summary, respondents end-users preferences have been determined to support VARK model (see
Table 2) and QCMW template (see Table 3 and Figure 1), and been successfully applicable to production of
quality landscape design course material for distance and e-learning at the Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology. Quality, production, and project management theories and practice explained by
Good (2003), C. K. Laudon and J. P. Laudon (2007), Kolarik (1999), Hill (1992), Adam and Ebert (1987), and
Heizer and Render (1993) did support effective and efficient development and production of distance learning
materials.
Conclusion
The study successfully determined the influential factors that affect development and production of course
writing template for distance and e-learning materials from the end-users preferences. Existing materials
designed to allow end-users access presentation to their senses: sight (58.4%), hearing (29.8%), and touch
(10.7%). And end-users in the study having accessed learning process x =1.24 and assessed their learning
progress with x =1.34; and having perceived quality in distance learning material product (x =1.05) with 145
(81.5%), respondents have more than agreed to the entire variables. Study identified end-users preferences;
knowledge of which course developers and writers required for designing, developing, and deploying quality
landscape design course materials for distance and e-learning pathways. When applied, there will no longer be
gap in curriculum and course material quality suitable for the distance learners. This will go a long way to
provide landscape design course leverage to make the landscape design at Department of Architecture and
Planning, a sustainable design interface for solution in fast developing country Ghana, where physical
development increasingly would have competed for space with relatively dwindling natural environment in
human communities. The educational strategy would have been delivered. Study concluded with the

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proposition: Application of end-users quality preferences enhances production of quality landscape design
course materials for distance and e-learning at KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana.
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September 2013, Vol. 3, No. 9, 685-692
A Comparative Study on Obedient/Disobedient Behavior

in Secondary +1 Level Students

Satish Kumar Kalhotra
Maulana Azad National Urdu University,
Hyderabad, India
Vishakha Sharma
Thakur P.G.College of Education,
Dhaliara, Himachal Pradesh, India

The present study was carried out to compare the obedient/disobedient behavior in secondary +1 level students.
Objectives of the study were: (1) to study and compare the obedience/disobedience in secondary +1 level students
on gender basis; (2) to study and compare the obedient/disobedient behavior in secondary +1 level students in
relation to their stream (arts/science); and (3) to study the interactional effect of gender and stream on the
obedient/disobedient behavior in secondary +1 level school students. ODTS (obedient-disobedient tendency scale)
by Mehta and Hasnain was used for the present study. The results reveal that males are disobedient in their
behavior, whereas, females show the mixed behavior, i.e., both obedience and disobedience; arts students are
disobedient, i.e., both boys and girls in comparison to science stream students; gender and stream have a significant
interactional effect on the obedient/disobedient behavior of secondary +1 level students.
Keywords: behavior, adolescent, obedience, disobedience
Introduction
Behaviour is a way in which an individual or a group acts relating to community, state, or national affairs,
broadly speaking, anything an organism does, including his/her overt physical actions, internal physiological
and emotional process, and implicit mental activities. Hence, the way in which an individual interacts and
behaves in society (i.e., in home, institution, family members, and peer members) is called behaviour.
Behaviour of an organism is entirely based upon his or her previous experiences, either they were
satisfying or annoying. Behavior elicited also depends upon the types of rearing, parents, school, and
community, an organism got in his/her life time. These standards are the products of the formative experiences
and pressures from the groups around them. And also in the democratic society, every individual must have the
ability to use inner control and his/her willingness to accept responsibilities for his/her behaviour.

Adolescence is the most important period of human life. Poets have described it as the spring of life and
an important era in the total life span. The word adolescence came from a Greek word adolescere, which
means to grow to maturity. Many researchers had viewed adolescence under three sub-stages. According to
Hurlock (1986), it was divided into three sub-stages: (1) early adolescence (aged 1012); (2) middle
adolescence (aged 1417); and (3) late adolescence (aged 18-mid20). Early adolescence is considered as the

* Acknowledgements: This paper is conceptualized based on researches by the authors, the study was delimited with the help of
aera, sample, and secondary +1 students of J ammu region (India).
Satish Kumar Kalhotra, asst. professor, Ph.D., Department of Education and Training, Maulana Azad National Urdu University.
Vishakha Sharma, asst. professor, Ph.D., Thakur P.G.College of Education, Dhaliara.
DAVID PUBLISHING
D
OBEDIENT/DISOBEDIENT BEHAVIOR IN SECONDARY +1 LEVEL STUDENTS
686
most difficult time due to profound physical, cognitive, and contextual changes. Middle adolescence occurs
during the high school years. The onset of adolescence varies from culture to culture, depending on the
socio-economic conditions of a country. In this period, great changes occur in all development dimension of an
individual. Adolescents are not so well coordinated and graceful as adults, but they are better coordinated than
children. As soon as a child enters the adolescence, his social roles and responsibilities change. Change in roles
requires adjustment to new situations in a different way. The adolescents have to change his/her old habit of
childhood in home, school, and society. Society expects them as graceful as adults because of their size, but do
not accord them with full adult responsibilities.
In the misbehavior regarding morality, the adolescents satisfy their emotional disturbances, conflicts, and
frustrations by steeling, injuring, and doing fraud, etc., but the most common and serious behavior problem
shown by adolescence is disobedience. Many adolescents, when unable to find the path to approval, resolve
their conflicts by exaggerating independence. The antonym of disobedience is obedience, and the behavior
which is shown according to the set rules and regulations is called obedience.
Comparative Study of Obedient/Disobedient Behavior in Secondary + 1 Level Students
Dictionary of Education defines the meaning of obedience as compliance in action with
dictates or desire of an authority. Obedience can also be defined as a pattern of conduct dictated by a
set of rules and regulations enforced by a superior.
The new meaning of obedience must be expanded to include constructive direction toward responsible
behavior, that children should be made to learn, to work out problems by themselves, to make decisions in the
light of their own effect upon others, to accept responsibilities and limitations, and to plan and carry out project.
Dictionary of Education defines the meaning of disobedience as the behavior that is
antisocial in nature. Disobedience denotes a type of behavior in which the performers or the peoples
actions or deeds do not confirm to the expectations of society or an authority. It can be said that when the
impulses and energies are allowed to go directionless, the result is disobedience, while, if they are controlled
and well directed, it is obedience. A person who rebels the established norms of society or an authority is a
disobedient person.
Most of the adolescents are suffering from behavioral problems and showing disobedient behavior. In
disobedient behavior, the adolescents violate the laws and mores set by an authority.
Some of the characters shown by disobedient adolescents are:
(1) In school
(a) Coming late to school;
(b) Showing truant behavior;
(c) Copying in examination;
(d) School absence;
(e) Making noise in class;
(f) Doing fraud with fellow pupils and teachers;
(g) Telling lies to teachers;
(h) Upsurge of sex feeling;
(i) Destroying school property;
(2) In home
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(a) Fighting with parents;
(b) Abusing and injuring siblings;
(c) Fighting for pocket money;
(d) Using bad language and abusing words at home;
(e) Showing irresponsible behviour at home.
Disobedient adolescents are basically those unhappy children who have not organized themselves for
productive work, the ones who feel grossly inadequate and unimportant, the quiet or withdrawn children, and
the shy or fearful ones who often come quietly in and out of school and receive no more than passing
consideration.
Review of Related Literature
The phase review of literature consists of two key words: review and literature. The term review
means to organize the knowledge of a specific area of a research. In research methodology, the term literature
refers to the knowledge of a particular area of an investigation of any discipline, which includes theoretical,
practical, and its research studies. The review of literature gives the researchers an understanding of the
research methodology, which refers to the way of study, which is to be conducted.
In the present study, the researcher has reviewed the following studies conducted in the field of
obedient/disobedient behavior.
Barra (2005) found:
(1) Disobedience/aggression increased the risk of cognitive/concentration problems which predicted
emotional immunity, while, hyperactivity predicted disobedience/aggression;
(2) Teachers global opinion of poor achievement predicted cognitive/concentration problems and poor
conduct predicted hyperactivity:
(a) Behavioural problems rated by parents in the first grade predicted their persistence;
(b) Detection of problems in the first grade predicted the sixth grade outcomes, providing information
for implementing preventive interventions.
Bierbaum, Henrich, and Zigler (2004) in their study on obedient/disobedient behavior in children with
intellectual disability found that:
(1) Compared to both mental age and chronological age of comparison groups, children with intellectual
disability showed increased disobedient behavior, when faced with the inappropriate level task;
(2) But they showed no significant difference on the appropriate level task.
Kumar and Shravan (2006) pointed out that:
(1) Boys differed significantly from girls in obedient/disobedient tendency, i.e., boys were
disobedience tendency of govt. and private aided school students;
(2) There was no interaction between sex and types of school as far as obedience/disobedience tendency
was concerned.
Objectives of the Study
(1) To study and compare the obedience/disobedience in secondary +1 level students on gender basis;
(2) To study and compare the obedient/disobedient behavior in secondary +1 level students in relation to
their stream (arts/science);
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(3) To study the interactional effect of gender and stream on the obedient/disobedient behavior in
secondary +1 level school students.
Hypotheses
(1) There is no significant difference in obedient/disobedient behavior in secondary +1 level students in
relation to gender;
relation to their stream;
relation to the interactional of gender and stream.
Sample
A sample of 200 students of both sexes (male & female) and streams (arts & science) was drawn randomly
from the schools.
Tools
In the present research, ODTS (obedient-disobedient tendency scale) by Mehta and Hasnain (1984) was
used to test the reliability (N =100) of the test applying Spearman-Brown formula, and the reliability
coefficient of correlation was found to be 0.57.
Test-retest method (N =100) =0.68.
Analysis & Interpretation
Each cell entry in the A B table (see Table 1) was a sum of 30 observations. With the help of this table,
and from the original score of a correction term, total sum of squares, the treatment sum of squares, and within
sum of squares which were calculated are as follows.

Table 1
A B Summary Table
Boys A
1
Girls A
2
Total
Arts B
1
805 926 1,731
Science B
2
955 987 1,942
Total 1,760 1,913 3,673

Correction term (c) =
1
2
1
=
(3673)
2
120
=112,424.4;
Total sum of the squares (SS
1
) =(2S
2
+27
2
+3u
2
+36
2
+S4
2
) c =114,119 11,242.4;
SS
1
=1,694.6;
Sum of the squares between (SS between) =
(805)
2
+ (926)
2
+ (955)
2
+ (987)
2
30
11,2424.4 =SS between =
632.1;
Sum of squares within (SS
w
) =SS
w
SS between =1,694.6 632.1;
SS
w
=1,062.5.
The analysis of variance, up to this point, resulted in a partitioning of the total sum of squares and degree
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of freedom into two parts. One part is associated with differences among the four treatment means and is based
on k 1=3 df. The other part is associated with the variation.
Within each treatment group and has k (n 1) =116.
This analysis is shown in Table 2.

Table 2
Analysis of Variance Showing the Treatment Sum of Squares and the Sum of Squares Within Treatment
Source of variation Sum of squares df Mean square F
Between treatment 632.1 3 210.7
Within treatment 1,062.5 116 9.15
Total 1,694.6 119 23.027
Note. Significant at 0.01 level.

As Table 2 shows, testing the treatment mean square for significance, theF-value is 23.07. From Table 2,
it can be seen that for df = 3 and df = 116, F =23.027 is significant at 0.01 level of confidence. Thus, it can be
inferred that treatment means differ significantly.
Main effect: The main effects of A and B were calculated with the help of data of Table 1, each cell entry
of Table 1 was a sum of 60 observations. The sum of squares on main effects for A was obtained as:
SS
A
=
(1,760)
2
- (1,913)
2
60
=112,619.48 112,424.4;
SS
A
=196.08.
The sum of squares for B was based on the sum of B
1
and B
2
given. Each of these sums was based on
the 60 observations, and sum of squares for B was equal to:
SS
B
=
(1,731)
2
- (1,942)
2
60
=112,424.4;
SS
B
=371.31.
Interactional Effect
Finally, theA B interaction, sum of squares was obtained by subtracting the two sum of squares from
treatment sum of squares as follows:
SS
AB
= SS
bct
(SS
A
+ SS
B
) = 6S2.1u (19S.u8 S71.S1);
SS
AB
=65.86.
The summary of complete analysis of variance is given in Table 3. The value of F that has been entered
in table was obtained by dividing each mean square that was to be tested for significance by error mean square,
that is, within treatment mean square.

Table 3
Complete Analysis of Variance for Factorial Experiment
Source of variation Sum of square df Mean square F
A 195.08 1 195.08 21.32
B 371.31 1 371.31 40.5
A B 65.08 1 65.08 7.17
Error 1,062.5 116 9.15
Total 1,693.97 119
Note. Significant at 0.01 level.
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Interpretation of Results
Effect of Gender on Obedienct/Disobedient Behaviour
Table 3 shows that F-ratio for the main effect of gender (A) came out to be 21.32, which is significant at
0.01 level of confidence. Thus, there is a significant sex difference in obedient/disobedient behaviour of
secondary + 1 level school students. Boys differs significantly from girls in obedient/disobedient
behaviorHence, the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in obedient/disobedient behavior in
secondary +1 stage students in relation to their gender was rejected.
Also, Table 4 shows that the mean score of boys in obedient/disobedient behavior on ODTS came out to
be 29.33, and that of girls was 31.88, thus, indicating the boys were disobedient, as the mean score was less
than normal value (34).
Girls showed obedience/disobedience as their mean score fall in obedient/disobedient behavior in between
30-34.

Table 4
The Mean Scores of Boys Are Girls of Arts and Science Stream
Arts (B
1
)
Boys (A
1
)
Total mean score
Girls (A
2
)
Total mean score
Total
Total mean score
805 26.83 926 30.86 1,731 28.84
Science (B
2
) 955 31.83 987 32.90 1,942 32.36
Total 1,760 29.33 1,913 31.88

Hence, it can be said that girls are less disobedient than boys. These results are in agreement with those of
Kumari Shushma (2002), Kumar Suneel (2003), and Kumar (2006).
Effect of Stream on Obedient/Disobedient Behaviour
Table 3 shows that F-ratio for main effect of stream (B) came out to be 40.5, which is significant at 0.01
level of confidence. It means that there is a significant stream difference in obedient/disobedient behavior in
secondary + 1 level school students. And arts students differed significantly from science students in
obedient/disobedient behavior.
The null hypothesis, there is no significant difference in obedient/disobedient behavior in secondary +1
student in relation to their stream, was rejected.
Also Table 4 shows that the mean score of arts students in obedience/disobedience of science came out to
be 28.84, and that of science students was 32.36, thus, indicating that arts students were disobedient, as mean
score was less than the norm value (34).
Science students were obedient/disobedient as their mean score fall in norm value for obedient/disobedient
(30-34).
Thus, it can be said that science students were less disobedient compared to arts students.
Table 3 shows that F-ratio for the interactional effect of gender and stream was 7.17, which is significant
even at 0.01 level of confidence. Thus, there is an interactional effect of gender and stream on the
obedient/disobedient behavior of secondary +1 level students.
Thus, the null hypothesis, there is no interactional effect of gender and stream on the obedient/disobedient
secondary +1 behavior of +1 level students was rejected.
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Conclusions
(1) Males are disobedient in their behavior, whereas, females show the mixed behavior, i.e., both
obedience and disobedience;
(2) Comparing the obedient/disobedient behavior between the two stream, i.e., arts and science, the arts
students are disobedient, i.e., both boys and girls in comparison to science streams students;
(3) Gender and stream have a significant interactional effect on the obedient/disobedient behavior of
secondary +1 level students.
Educational Implications
(1) The teacher and parents combinedly should indentify the causes of disobedience, and try to remove
them, so that students grow up as obedient and responsible citizens;
(2) Educational setup and school environment must lessen the emotional stresses and strains being faced
by students;
(3) The teachers should act as friends or philosophers, guide the students, and must show sympathetic
behaviour towards them;
(4) No favouritism should occur, neither in classrooms nor at homes;
(5) Community members should give appropriate freedom to children so that they can take their decisions
on their own;
(6) By certain measure, the menace of disobedience should be removed, so that 100% harvests of
resources spent on students can be done.
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September 2013, Vol. 3, No. 9, 693-701

An Empirical Research on DDL in L2 Writing

An Xue-hua, Xu Ming-ying
Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China

L2 (second language) writing teaching and research is greatly influenced by the advent of computer technology.
This paper reviews papers, in the field of DDL (data-driven learning) in L2 writing, published in international
journals and in Chinese journals, and differences are found in research methodology, research perspective, and
research realm. Based on the analysis of the differences, the study aims at finding out the effects of the application
of DDL in L2 teaching classroom. The present study, employing semi-structured writing and learning journals,
explores how English learners perceive the use of corpora in their writing process. Based on the statistics, it is
concluded that DDL in L2 writing is beneficial for vocabulary acquisition. However, corpus consultation does not
work well for all learners. Learners attitudes toward the use of corpus are various. The major findings may find
application in teaching practice, and implications for teaching are discussed.
Keywords: DDL (data-driven learning), L2 (second language) writing, corpora, China
Introduction

The advent of computers has provided a new and powerful research and teaching methodology for
language related studies. Corpus linguistics, based on computer technology, can be utilized to analyze large
data efficiently, which is a new research paradigm (Wang, 2008). Corpus linguistics has greatly impacted L2
(second language) writing teaching and research, widening L2 research methodology (Lee & Swales, 2006),
and enriching teaching approaches (Flowerdew, 2010; Hyland, 2006). From the 1980s, corpus linguistics is one
of the most promising methodologies that can inform L2 writing and research (Hyland, 2003; Bloch, 2009;
Conrad, 2000, 2008; Granath, 2009; Stapleton & Radia, 2009). Corpus-based L2 writing will have an attractive
and promising prospect in the future, and data-driven writing teaching should be emphasized in China (Wang,
2008).
However, the use of corpora in L2 writing class is more talked about than tested in empirical studies. In
this paper, the use of corpora in academic writing is used in class. The purpose is two-fold: Firstly, this paper
aims at finding out the effects of corpora in learning process; and Secondly, students feedback on the use of
corpora is analyzed.
In corpus linguistics, corpus refers to a large collection of naturally occurring texts for linguistic study
(Biber, Conrad, & Reppen, 1998). With the aid of software, researchers can conduct relevant language theory
and application research. Concordancer is the list of retrieved words and sentences with given linguistic items
in the middle. The KWIC (key word in context) is the common format with key words in the middle of the

* This paper is supported by teaching reform fund of Dalian University of Technology (Project No. MS201312 and No.
J GXM201254).
An Xue-hua, M.A., lecturer, School of Foreign Languages, Dalian University of Technology.
Xu Ming-ying, Ph.D., associate professor, School of Foreign Languages, Dalian University of Technology.
DAVID PUBLISHING
D
AN EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ON DDL IN L2 WRITING

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concordance display. With the rapid development of computer technology, up to date, there have been several
corpora with abundant language data in the world. The corpora are updated regularly. BNC (British national
corpus), is made up of 4,124 texts of different genres, with 10% of written texts and 90% of spoken texts.
COCA (corpus of contemporary American English), created by Mark Davies of Brigham Young University, is
the largest freely-available corpus of English, and a large and balanced corpus of contemporary American
English. The corpus contains more than 450 million words of text and is equally divided among spoken, fiction,
popular magazines, newspapers, and academic texts. The interface allows you to search for exact words or
phrases, wildcards, lemmas, part of speech, or any combinations of these. Besides, there are corpora for specific
purpose, for example, the BAWE (British academic written English) corpus, covering Arts and Humanities,
Social Sciences, Life Sciences, and Physical Sciences. The MICASE (Michigan corpus of academic spoken
English) focuses on academic discourse, including settings in lectures, experiment, and office and library
services in American universities. In China, the last decade has witnessed the growth of corpora and related
studies. CLEC (Chinese learner English corpus) is a large collection of Chinese English learners English
compositions, from different levels of proficiency, ranging from senior high school to university learners. The
corpus is error-tagged according to an error marking scheme of 61 types of error, including various lexical,
grammatical, semantic, and sentence level errors. CLEC is developed to study English learners errors in
English learning and provide feedback to English teaching practice (Yang, Gui, & Yang, 2005). SWECCL
(spoken and written English corpus of Chinese learners) includes both spoken and written language data (Wen
& Wang, 2005).
DDL (data-driven learning) is rooted in computer science and was first coined by Johns in 1991 (J ohns,
1986; 1991). DDL can improve learners inductive learning ability through the analysis of large data. Based on
traditional language learning 3p process: presentation, practice, and production, J ohns advocated a new
trilogy, research, practice, and improvisation (J ohns, 1997). The previous studies have shown that DDL is
beneficial for language learning in several ways: Firstly, KWIC will provide learners the most common
language formats and structures; Secondly, learners can experience real language in authentic contexts, but
not artificial language in grammar books and dictionaries. Thus, learners language awareness could be raised;
and Thirdly, learners could improve inductive learning capability in analyzing large quantities of language data.
Literature Review
There has been extensive research on the application of DDL in L2 writing. Lee and Swales (2006)
investigated four non-English-speaking doctoral students and explored how the students made use of corpora.
One of the tasks is to compile a corpus of their own writing, and compile an expert corpus, and make
comparison between the two. It is revealed that students found it useful to make the comparison between the
two corpora, and compared with dictionary, they preferred to refer to corpus for language help. The researchers
also argued that the doctoral students could make better use of corpora due to their high motivation and
motivation is a significant factor. Kennedy and Miceli (2010) developed and evaluated apprenticeship in
learner corpus consultation. Taking into the learners language level, the researchers trained three learners the
skills of pattern-hunting and pattern-defining tools. The result shows that learners attitude and computer
literacy influence the effect of DDL. Gaskell and Cobb (2004) conducted a research on 20 low-intermediate
English learners in Canada, and investigated their ability to make revision with the help the concordancer. The
result showed that concordancer reference may not be the miracle cure for sentence errors (Gaskell & Cobb,

695
2004, p. 315). Chambers and OSullivan (2004) and OSullivan and Chambers (2006) conducted a two-phase
corpus training project, involving eight graduate students and 14 undergraduate students respectively. The
researchers concluded that DDL was particularly useful for the acquisition of lexical grammatical patterns. The
two-phase study revealed that postgraduate students are more active than the undergraduates. However, Yoon
and Hirvelas (2004) study involved intermediate and advanced learners, and the result showed that
intermediate learners benefit from DDL more than the advanced learners.
Liu, Ge, and Li (2012) conducted an experiment, comparing DDL and traditional writing teaching modes.
The result was that DDL is more helpful to learners than traditional writing teaching methodology. Zhang and
Xu (2011) combined genre analysis and corpus approach in language teaching, and argued that the paradigm
worked better. Wang (2012) analyzed the motivation of corpus-based English vocabulary teaching from the
perspective of schema theory, lexical approach, and lexical grammar, and explored the application of corpora
use in vocabulary teaching. Zhang (2002) investigated the English majors use of the verb make. Deng and
Xiao (2005) studied grammatical verbs in university learners argumentative writing. Wang and Zhang (2006)
analyzed university students use of lexical chunks in argumentative writing. Liang (2006) revealed that text
cohesion and the overall writing capability were correlated. He (2009) investigated word misuse in 290 essays
written by Chinese learners. Chu and Zhao (2011) examined the use of adversative conjunctions in English
argumentative essays by engineering majors in a Chinese university, based on self-compiled learner corpora.
There has been extensive research on the application of DDL and corpus-based language research
published. However, the applicability is more talked about than tested with empirical research (Yoon, 2011).
Comparing the literature reviewed, there are differences between research published in international journals
and research in China.
The international studies are mainly in-depth qualitative studies and case studies (Cresswell, 2007; Lee &
Swales, 2006; Chambers & OSullivan, 2004; OSullivan & Chambers, 2006; Kennedy & Miceli, 2010),
addressing concrete and specific questions. Therefore, the generalization of the research results should be
exercised cautiously (Yoon, 2011), and some of the results are contradictory with each other. For example, the
two-phase studies of Chambers and OSullivan (2004) and OSullivan and Chambers (2006) showed that
postgraduates are more motivated than the undergraduates, whereas, Yoon and Hirvelas (2004) study showed
that the intermediate learners benefited from DDL more than the advanced learners. The studies in China are
generally large-scale quantitative research and theoretical discussion (Liu, Ge, & Li, 2012; Wang, 2012). The
research questions are more general and broad. The results would have proved to be more useful to future
teaching and research.
The international studies focus more on writing process, including teaching design, corpus as language
reference model, writing design, learning strategy, learners differences, etc.. The studies in China focus more
on the written product analysis. Based on a large quantity of learner corpora, language use is much discussed.
The studies in international articles mainly deal with English for academic purpose, while the studies in
China study the behavior of English for general purpose (Zhang, 2002; Li, 2003; Deng & Xiao, 2005; Wang &
Zhang, 2006). However, there is an urgent need for academic reading and writing teaching in high school in
China (Luo & Chen, 2012). Cai (2010; 2012) had been appealing to redirect English teaching from test-oriented
EGP (English for general purposes) to research-oriented EAP (English for academic purposes) in Chinese high
school. In published articles, the theoretical discussion outnumbers empirical studies.
This paper, therefore, intends to investigate whether DDL can enhance learning process, in the context of

696
China, by referring to corpora outside of class on their own, and Chinese English learners attitudes toward the
use of corpora are also discussed.
Methodology
Corpus Used
The corpus used in this study is COCA through the free online interfaces by Brigham Young University.
COCA is chosen because it is the largest freely-available corpus of English, and the only large and balanced
corpus of American English according to the official website introduction to COCA. It contains more than 450
million words of text and covers spoken, fiction, popular magazines, newspapers, and academic texts, which is
also updated regularly. The interface may efficiently allow learners to search for words, phrases, wildcards,
lemmas, part of speech, or any combinations of these, which helps learners gain deep insight into how language
is used in authentic contexts. COCA is valuable language learning resources for Chinese English learners.
Participants
The participants of the study are the teacher researchers students in Academic English Writing class. The
students have mainly passed the CET-4 (College English Test, Band 4), which is the authoritative English
proficiency for non-English majors in China. During the first year in college, only English for general purpose,
for example, English reading and writing, listening and speaking, is open to them. During the second year of
learning, two EAP courses are open to them, namely, English for Academic Exchange and Academic English
Writing, for two semesters respectively. One course is open for one semester. Both courses last for 12 weeks.
For comparison, two classes are chosen to decide the effect of DDL in classroom teaching, with 33 students in
experiment group and 31 students in control group.
Procedure
The experiment group was introduced the COCA and the basic concept of corpus in the first week. During
the following two weeks, the teacher showed the students how to search for the targeted words and expressions
on the Website. The functions of list, KWIC, chart, and compare were introduced and examples were provided
in demo form. Because of the limited hands on exercise in class, students were asked to explore the corpus on
their own, based on some guiding questions. The guiding questions were basically intended to let learners get
familiar with Coxheads AWL (academic word list), due to their limited access to academic English texts
before. In the seventh week, the students in experiment group were asked to write a semi-structured abstract,
which was designed to elicit target data. During the rest of the teaching weeks, learners more focused on
reading experts writing published in academic journals.
The control group was given the same guiding questions as the experiment group. Because of their little
access to academic texts during the first year of learning, the learners were first introduced academic words and
the importance of them, based on Coxheads AWL. Based on the guiding questions, and some experts writing
published in journals, students were asked to give presentation on their findings in groups of 4-5 learners each
week. In the seventh week, the students in the control group were also asked to write a semi-structured abstract,
which is the same as that in experiment group. To make sure learners got equal chances to learn, during the
eighth week on, the control group also worked on COCA till the end of teaching week.
The semi-structured abstract aims at eliciting learners use of research verbs like investigate, examine,
study, etc..; the use of the adjective previous to show others work done in the past; and the use of the noun

697
method. The semi-structured abstract is in form of translation exercise from Chinese to English, with five
sentences. Both groups were given 15 minutes to translate the five sentences into English to make an abstract of
a paper. To test students ability to search information from corpus, the teacher applied for a computer
classroom, providing each student an Internet-connected computer. The experiment group was asked to use the
functions developed during the training session. The control group sat in the ordinary classroom with no
computers, but they were allowed to refer to any type of reference tools, like dictionaries, textbooks, reading
materials, etc..
To see how the students perceive corpus consultation, both groups were asked to hand in learning journals
they experienced in DDL in writing process. The journals can be written in either English or Chinese to help
convey their idea. Some guiding questions were provided to them, including their perceived technical/language
problems/difficulties, in what way corpus might be beneficial, their overall use of corpus in writing process,
etc..
Research Questions
The study aims at answering two questions:
Research question 1: Is corpus consultation beneficial to language learners?
Research question 2: What are learners attitudes towards corpus consultation process?
Results and Discussion
Results of Semi-structured Writing
The use of verbs investigate, examine, and study. The first elicited word is the verb, indicating
the major content of the paper. Students responses are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1
The Use of the Verb Investigate
This paper investigates/ed We investigate This paper investigate Investigation Other verbs
Experiment group 17 3 6 1 6
Control group 13 0 8 1 9

About 17 (51.5%) of the experiment group, and 13 (41.9%) of the control group, can use the
grammatically correct form of the verb. There are three more responses using the pronoun we to refer to the
agent doing the research, in the experiment group. Six from experiment group, eight from control group use
This paper investigate. One from both groups uses the noun investigation. Some students use other verbs,
like focus on, find, and suggest, etc..
It can be seen that students from the experiment group, who referred to corpus for language help, can do
slightly better than the control group. Around 18.2% out of experiment group and 25.8% out of control group
use the targeted word, but fail to use the right grammatical form.
The use of the adjective previous. The second elicited word is the adjective, showing the writer has
reviewed literature in the past. Students responses are summarized in Table 2.
The targeted sentence is In previous research, there has been lots of discussion on this topic. Some
prefer the more familiar word form past, and produce In the past research. However, in this session,
students answers focus more on the use of previous and past. Though in terms of academic convention,
previous is more preferable than past. Besides these two, there are a small number of other responses, like

698
before, last, and former.

Table 2
The Use of the Adjective Previous
Previous Past Before Last Former
Experiment group 22 10 1 0 0
Control group 15 14 0 1 1

The use of the noun method. The last elicited word is the noun method, indicating the research
methodology part of the paper. Students responses are summarized in Table 3.

Table 3
The Use of the Noun Method
Method Interview is used
Experiment group 30 3
Control group 29 2

It can be seen from the responses that the great majority of students choose to use the word method. A
few choose to omit the use of the noun and choose the passive voice form.
Results of Learning Journals
Both groups are asked to hand in their learning journals on the use of corpus. In the 12th week, 64 learning
journals are collected, 24 in English, 19 in Chinese, and 21 in both English and Chinese.
Of all the journals collected, 41 (64%) think corpus consultation is beneficial for their understanding of
word use in context, and 38 (39%) like COMPARE function. Thirty (47%) report that they like to explore the
use of words in KWIC. However, 21 (33%) report that in KWIC analysis, they will get lost in too many
concordancers. Eighteen (28%) think corpus consultation is time consuming and they prefer to look up the
words in the dictionary.
Altogether, 29 (45%) clearly state that they find corpus consultation a good way of learning English, 21
(33%), on the contrary, do not like corpus. Another 14 (22%) are not very sure of their perception of corpus.
Some of them find the several weeks are not enough for them to explore the functions of corpus, and some are
restricted by limited internet access.
Discussion
Comparing the elicited results, it can be seen that verbs may constitute more problems for L2 writing.
Chinese-speaking learners find tense-aspect change in English is difficult, and therefore will have more
difficulties in producing the correct forms. The use of This paper investigate... is typical of this type of
grammar errors. A second problem for the students is the use of academic English in terms of formality. The
use of We investigate reflects the learners preference for active voice. However, in academic writing, the
personal pronouns like I and we are generally avoided to show impersonality. Besides, the use of past is
definitely acceptable in spoken form, but is not as common as previous in the designed setting. A third
problem observed from the elicited data is that learners tend to make fewer errors with the use of nouns.
From the learning journals, it can be seen that learners have mixed attitudes towards corpus consultation in
writing tasks. Learners in the two groups have been trained to use corpus for language help. Learners, who have
positive attitudes towards corpus consultation, find it useful, especially in word use in context, and in the

699
comparison of words. They are easy with the computers and are interested in developing more functions of
corpus. Learners, who have negative attitudes, find KWIC time-consuming. They are overwhelmed with too
many analyses they have to make. However, they reported in-class training session enlightening to them. There
are still some learners, who would remain conservative about corpus. Their understanding is limited by less
exercise on their own. They want to combine the dictionary with the corpus use.
Conclusion and Implications for Teaching Pedagogy
With the establishment of English as a lingua franca, and the improvement of Basic English education,
there is an urgent need of English publishing skills among postgraduate students. At present, a lot of
universities would require the graduates to publish articles in SCI (Science Citation Index) journals in order to
get a diploma (Li & Flowerdew, 2007). Luo and Chen (2012) conducted a need analysis of academic English
among the universities of science and technology. The result showed that the postgraduate learners need
academic reading and academic writing more than listening and speaking. Furthermore, in recent College
English reform program, Cai (2010; 2012) had always advocated the establishment of EAP courses. Therefore,
academic writing in higher education level is very important.
However, writing, as well as academic writing, is much influenced by social, cultural norm, and political
factors. Therefore, localized writing pedagogy, taking local characteristics into consideration, is very important.
DDL in L2 writing in the context of China should be more informed and tested by research.
More Individualized Teaching Resources
Based on DDL, writing teaching resources should be developed to meet the needs of Chinese English
learners. So far, DDL learning has not yet fundamentally impacted foreign language teaching, especially
teaching materials (Romer, 2009, as cited in Zhen & Wang, 2010). Therefore, teaching resources based on
DDL can be a promising prospect for L2 writing teachers.
More Individualized Teaching Pedagogy
From the teaching experience, it can be concluded that corpus consultation works better for some, but not
all. So, teaching pedagogy may be emphasized to make more learners benefit from the learning experience.
More Related Research and Teaching Practice
The present research is a small part of the teacher researchers action research. The problems reflected
herein might be biased and generalization of the finding is difficult due to the small scale of research realm. To
inform teaching, more research in this field is advocated.
To conclude, this study reviews papers, in the field of DDL in L2 writing, published in international
journals and in Chinese journals. A further comparison of the journals shows that there are some differences,
from three aspects: research methodology, research perspective, and research realm. Particularly, this study
focuses on DDL in academic writing class. Based on semi-structured writing and learning journals, this study
explores how English learners make use of corpora in their writing process. The result shows that learners
performance and journals reflect different situations. Learners attitudes toward the use of corpus are also
mixed. Hopefully, the results may find application in teaching practice. Finally, implications for teaching are
discussed.


700
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September 2013, Vol. 3, No. 9, 702-706

The Research of Cooperative Learning Effects on College
Students Learning Anxiety
Ma Yan-hong
Qufu Normal University, Shandong, China

Since Krashen put forward the Affective Filter Hypothesis, more and more concern has been paid to the anxiety
problem in second and foreign language teaching and learning. Meanwhile, CL (cooperative learning) has gained
much attention in recent years, both at home and abroad. Most researches (Oxford & Ehrman, 1993; Kagan, 1994;
Slavin, 1995) on CL indicated that CL is a classroom procedure which can lower anxiety and improve learning
outcomes. Although the researches abroad have suggested that CL has a positive impact on reducing foreign
language learning anxiety, few empirical researches on CL have been conducted in China. Moreover, according to
the authors observation, anxiety is most obvious in oral English activities. Therefore, this thesis attempts to
investigate some Chinese non-English freshmens foreign language learning anxiety. Two classes are involved in
the study: one as the experimental class instructed with CL method, the other as the control class taught with the
traditional teaching method. By using a classical instrument, the FLCAS (foreign language classroom anxiety scale),
this study examined the subjects foreign language learning anxiety. According to the analysis and comparison of
the first and second FLCAS, the author finds CL has a significant effect on reducing students foreign language
learning anxiety.
Keywords: foreign language learning, anxiety, CL (cooperative learning)
Introduction

Since the 1970s, with the shift in second and foreign language learning from teachers teaching to
learners learning, the individual differences leading to the different learning outcomes have become the heated
topics in academic research. Under this circumstance, researchers start to rediscover the value and importance
of affective factors in language learning and teaching. It has been realized that affective factors are at least as
important as cognitive factors, because in the presence of overly negative emotions, our optimal learning
potential may be compromised.
According to Krashens (1982) Affective Filter Hypothesis, learners with low anxiety, high motivation,
and self-confidence have low filters and so obtain and let in plenty of inputs. Learners with high anxiety, low
motivation, and low self-confidence have high filters and so receive little input and allow even less in.
Therefore, as one of the important affective variables, anxiety plays a fundamental role in creating individual
differences in second and foreign language learning. Language anxiety poses potential problems because it
can interfere with the acquisition, retention, and production of the new language (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991,
p. 86).

Ma Yan-hong, M.A., lecturer, Department of Foreign Language Teaching, Qufu Normal University.
DAVID PUBLISHING
D
COOPERATIVE LEARNING EFFECTS ON COLLEGE STUDENTS LEARNING ANXIETY

703
With the shift in language instruction from teaching to learning, CL (cooperative learning) based on
student-centered educational philosophy has become one of the popularized models of instruction in second and
foreign language classrooms. CL has been proved to be one of the most creative and practical approaches and
strategies in classroom. Many countries, like America, Australia, and J apan, have employed this approach in
the teaching of various subjects, especially, in the language classroom.
Although, most of the researches abroad have suggested that CL has a positive impact on reducing foreign
language learning anxiety, very few investigations have been made to look at the effectiveness of CL in oral
English teaching in Chinas context. According to many researchers (Price, 1991), speaking a foreign language
in front of other students results in the most anxiety. Based on the authors observation, anxiety is most obvious
when students express themselves in English in public. Therefore, research is needed to apply CL in Chinese
college oral English teaching, and look at the effectiveness of CL on Chinese college students foreign
language learning anxiety.
Models of CL
Think-Pair-Share
The most basic but useful cooperative activity is think-pair-share, developed by Kagan (1994). In this
activity, a question is posed or an issue is presented (by other learners or the teacher), and learners are given
some time to reflect, take notes, or engage in free writing before turning to another learner and sharing what
they have just thought and written about. After sharing in pairs, the members of the pair share their ideas with a
larger group. It results in increased student participation and improved retention of information.
STAD (Student Teams Achievement Division)
STAD, developed by Slavin (1980), is an extremely well researched, effective approach for students to
master the basic facts and information. An essential component of STAD is competition among groups. STAD
is made up of five interlocking components: class presentations, teams, quizzes, individual improvement scores,
and team recognition. These components are described below, which are adapted on the base of the description
by Kagan (1992, p. 176).
Class presentations. Materials in STAD are initially introduced in a class presentation. This is most often
in a lecture discussion conducted by the teacher. Teaching materials must be clearly focused on the STAD unit.
In this way, students realize that they must pay careful attention during the class presentation, because that will
help them do well on the quizzes, and their quiz scores determine their team scores.
Teams. A team is composed of four or five students who represent a cross-section of the class in academic
performance, sex, and race or ethnicity. The major function of a team is to prepare its members to do well on
the quizzes. After the teacher presents the material, the team meets to study worksheets or other materials. Most
often, the study takes the form of students quizzing one another back and forth to be sure that they understand
the content, or working out problems together and correcting any misconceptions if teammates make mistakes.
Quizzes. After the teacher presentation and team practice, the students take individual quizzes. The
quizzes are composed of course content-relevant questions, which students must answer. They are designed to
test the knowledge gained by students from class presentations and during team practice.
Individual improvement scoring. In addition to the quiz score, students receive an improvement score
each week indicating how well they are performing compared to their usual level of performance.

704
Team recognition. Every week, teams receive recognition for the sum of the improvement scores of the
team members. The teacher prepares a newsletter to announce team scores, which also recognizes individuals
who showed the greatest improvement or got perfect papers, and reports cumulative team standings. In addition
to the newsletter, many teachers use bulletin boards, special privileges, small prizes, or other rewards to
emphasize the idea that doing well as a team is important.
To sum up, the team is the most important feature of STAD. At every point, emphasis is placed on team
members doing their best for the team and helping their members. The team provides the peer support for
academic performance that is important for effects on learning, and the team provides the mutual concern and
respect that are important for effect on such outcomes as inter-group relations, self-esteem, and acceptance of
mainstreamed students.
Methodology
Two classes are involved in the study: one as the experimental class instructed with the CL method, the
other as the control class taught with the traditional teaching method.
Tools Used
The instrument used in this study is the FLCAS.
From Table 1, we can get the information of foreign language learning anxiety in the two classes before
the experiment.

Table 1
Independent Samples T-test of Anxiety Between the Two Classes From the First FLCAS
Class N Mean T Sig. (2-tailed)
Communication apprehension
EC 35 38.2286
-0.524 0.602
CC 33 39.0000
Fear of negative evaluation
EC 35 24.1714
0.284 0.777
CC 33 23.8788
General feeling of anxiety
EC 35 39.5429
0.477 0.635
CC 33 38.7879
Overall anxiety
EC 35 101.9429
0.080 0.936
CC 33 101.6667
Notes. EC: experimental class and CC: control class.

For communication apprehension, the mean scores of the two classes in the above table told us that
students in the control class had more communication apprehension than students in the experimental class had.
However, the p value indicated that the difference between the two classes was not significant.
As for fear of negative evaluation, it can be seen that experimental class students fear of negative
evaluation was higher than that in the control class. Judging from the p value, students in the two classes
indicated no obvious difference in fear of negative evaluation.
As far as general feeling of anxiety was concerned, students in the experimental class had more general
feeling of anxiety than those in the control class had. But the p value proved that the difference in general
feeling of anxiety between the two classes was not significant.
For the overall anxiety, the mean scores of the two classes were very close, and the p value indicated there

705
was no significant difference in foreign language learning anxiety between the two classes.
From the above discussion, we can come to the conclusion that the experimental class and the control class
were more or less at the same anxiety level before the experiment.
The results (see Table 2) show that the experimental class made great progress in the reduction of
communication apprehension, fear of negative evaluation, and general feeling of anxiety after experiencing CL
activities.

Table 2
Independent Samples T-test of Anxiety Between the Two Classes From the Second FLCAS
Class N Mean T Sig. (2-tailed)
Communication apprehension
EC 35 35.0286
-2.860 0.006
CC 33 39.3939
Fear of negative evaluation
EC 35 20.0571
-3.891 0.000
CC 33 23.9394
General feeling of anxiety
EC 35 36.0000
-1.434 0.045
CC 33 38.2121
Overall anxiety
EC 35 91.0857
-2.954 0.005
CC 33 101.5455
Notes. EC: experimental class and CC: control class.
Conclusions
CL reduced students communication apprehension. Under CL, various oral activities provided a
communicative environment for learners to engage in conversations and discussion. The increased cooperation
and interaction in student-student relationship and student-teacher relationship created a relaxing and
harmonious learning atmosphere. The safety of small groups not only encouraged students participation, but
also ultimately changed their psychology, since it saved students from being exposed to a large number of
audience alone.
CL reduced students fear of negative evaluation. Fear of failing or appearing foolish is a constant threat to
the interaction in the language classroom, especially, when the teacher asks questions which only a few
students can answer. However, with the introduction of CL in the oral English classroom, this debilitating
anxiety was reduced when the possibility of providing a correct or acceptable answer was increased and when
learners had an opportunity to try out their contributions with each other before being asked to offer them to the
entire class.
CL also reduced students general feeling of anxiety. General feeling of anxiety refers to students
apprehension over academic evaluation and other general anxiety about the English class. In CL activities,
students concern was drawn to the cooperation and interaction rather than the competition among group
members. The various forms of activities motivated students participation and aroused their interest in English
learning. Evaluations were conducted in a very relaxing and enjoyable way, such as interviews, role-plays, etc..
Since students knew they could get support both from the teacher and peer in looking for the answers, they
were not as worried about the test result as before.
References
Arnold, J . (2000). Affect in language learning. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

706
Crandall, J . J . (1999). Cooperative language learning and affective factors. In J . Armold (Ed.), Affect in language learning.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ghaith, G. M., & Yaghi, H. (1998). Effect of cooperative learning on the acquisition of second language rules and mechanics.
System, 26, 223-234.
Kagan, S. (1994). Cooperative learning (2nd ed.). San J uan Capistrano, C.A.: Kagan Cooperative Learning.
Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
MacIntyre, P. D., & Gardner, R. C. (1991). Methods and results in the study of anxiety and language learning: A review of the
literature. Language Learning, 41, 85-117.
Oxford, R. (1999). Anxiety and the language learner: New insights. In J . Arnold (Ed.), Affect in language learning (pp. 58-67).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Oxford, R. L., & Ehrman, M. (1993). Second language research on individual differences. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics,
13, 188-205.
Price, M. L. (1991). The subjective experience of foreign language anxiety: Interviews with highly anxious students. In E. K.
Horwitz, & D. J . Young, Language anxiety (pp. 101-108). Englewood Cliffs, N.J .: Prentice Hall.
Slavin, R. E. (1980). Using student team learning. Baltimore, M.D.: Kopkins Learning Project.
Slavin, R. E. (1995). Cooperative learning (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

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