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The first edition of The Sun Also Rises published in 1926 by Scribner's, with du st jacket illustrated by Cleonike Damianakes. The Hellenic jacket design "breath ed sex yet also evoked classical Greece".[1] The Sun Also Rises is a 1926 novel written by American author Ernest Hemingway a bout a group of American and British expatriates who travel from Paris to the Fe stival of San Fermn in Pamplona to watch the running of the bulls and the bullfig hts. An early and enduring modernist novel, it received mixed reviews upon publi cation. Hemingway biographer Jeffrey Meyers writes that it is "recognized as Hem ingway's greatest work",[2] and Hemingway scholar Linda Wagner-Martin calls it h is most important novel.[3] The novel was published in the United States in Octo ber 1926 by the publishing house Scribner's. A year later, the London publishing house Jonathan Cape published the novel with the title of Fiesta. Since then it has been continuously in print. Hemingway began writing the novel on his birthday (21 July) in 1925, finishing t he draft manuscript barely two months later in September. After setting aside th e manuscript for a short period, he worked on revisions during the winter of 192 6. The basis for the novel was Hemingway's 1925 trip to Spain. The setting was u nique and memorable, showing the seedy caf life in Paris, and the excitement of t he Pamplona festival, with a middle section devoted to descriptions of a fishing trip in the Pyrenees. Equally unique was Hemingway's spare writing style, combi ned with his restrained use of description to convey characterizations and actio n, which became known as the Iceberg Theory. On the surface the novel is a love story between the protagonist Jake Barnes a man whose war wound has made him impotent and the promiscuous divorce Lady Brett Ashle y. Brett's affair with Robert Cohn causes Jake to be upset and break off his fri endship with Cohn; her seduction of the 19-year-old matador Romero causes Jake t o lose his good reputation among the Spaniards in Pamplona. The novel is a roman clef; the characters are based on real people and the action is based on real e vents. In the novel, Hemingway presents his notion that the "Lost Generation", c onsidered to have been decadent, dissolute and irretrievably damaged by World Wa r I, was resilient and strong. Additionally, Hemingway investigates the themes o f love, death, renewal in nature, and the nature of masculinity.

Contents [hide] 1 Background 2 Publication history 3 Plot summary 4 Major themes 4.1 Paris and the Lost Generation 4.2 Women and love 4.3 The corrida, the fiesta, and nature 4.4 Masculinity and gender 4.5 Anti-semitism 5 Writing style 6 Reception 7 Legacy and adaptations 8 Notes 8.1 References 8.2 Sources 9 External links Background[edit] In the 1920s Hemingway lived in Paris, was foreign correspondent for the Toronto Star, and traveled to places such as Smyrna to report about the Greco Turkish War . He wanted to use his journalism experience to write fiction, believing that a story could be based on real events when a writer distilled his own experiences in such a way that, according to biographer Jeffrey Meyers, "what he made up was truer than what he remembered".[4]

Hemingway (left), with Harold Loeb, Lady Duff Twysden (in hat), Hadley Richardso n, Donald Ogden Stewart (obscured), and Pat Guthrie (far right) at a caf in Pampl ona, Spain, July 1925. Twysden, Loeb, and Guthrie inspired the characters Brett Ashley, Robert Cohn, and Mike Campbell in The Sun Also Rises. With his wife Hadley Richardson, Hemingway first visited the Festival of San Fer mn in Pamplona, Spain, in 1923, where he became fascinated by bullfighting.[5] Th e couple returned to Pamplona in 1924 enjoying the trip immensely this time accompan ied by Chink Dorman-Smith, John Dos Passos, and Donald Ogden Stewart and his wif e.[6] The two returned a third time in June 1925. That year, they brought with t hem a different group of American and British expatriates: Hemingway's Michigan boyhood friend Bill Smith, Stewart, Lady Duff Twysden (recently divorced), her l over Pat Guthrie, and Harold Loeb.[7] In Pamplona, the group quickly disintegrat ed. Hemingway, attracted to Lady Duff, was jealous of Loeb, who had recently bee n on a romantic getaway with her; by the end of the week the two men had a publi c fistfight. Against this background was the influence of the young matador from Ronda, Cayetano Ordez, whose brilliance in the bullring affected the spectators. Ordez honored Hemingway's wife by presenting her, from the bullring, with the ear of a bull he killed. Outside of Pamplona, the fishing trip to the Irati River (n ear Burguete in Navarre) was marred by polluted water.[7] Hemingway had intended to write a nonfiction book about bullfighting, but then d ecided that the week's experiences had presented him with enough material for a novel.[6] A few days after the fiesta ended, on his birthday (21 July), he began writing what would eventually become The Sun Also Rises.[8] By 17 August, with 14 chapters written and a working title of Fiesta chosen, Hemingway returned to Paris. He finished the draft on 21 September 1925, writing a foreword the follow ing weekend and changing the title to The Lost Generation.[9]

A few months later, in December 1925, Hemingway and his wife spent the winter in Schruns, Austria, where he began revising the manuscript extensively. Pauline P feiffer joined them in January, and against Richardson's advice urged him to sign a contract with Scribner's. Hemingway left Austria for a quick trip to New York to meet with the publishers, and on his return, during a stop in Paris, began an a ffair with Pauline. He returned to Schruns to finish the revisions in March.[10] In June, he was in Pamplona with both Richardson and Pfeiffer. On their return to Paris, Richardson asked for a separation, and left for the south of France.[1 1] In August, alone in Paris, Hemingway completed the proofs, dedicating the nov el to his wife and son.[12] After the publication of the book in October, Richar dson asked for a divorce; Hemingway subsequently gave her the book's royalties.[ 13] Publication history[edit]

Hemingway spent December 1925 in Schruns, Austria, with Hadley and Jack. During that period he wrote The Torrents of Spring. Hemingway apparently maneuvered Boni & Liveright into terminating their contract so he could have The Sun Also Rises published by Scribner's instead. In Decembe r 1925 he quickly wrote The Torrents of Spring a satirical novella attacking Sherw ood Anderson and sent it to his publishers Boni & Liveright. His three-book contra ct with them included a termination clause should they reject a single submissio n. Unamused by the satire against one of their most saleable authors, Boni & Liv eright immediately rejected it and terminated the contract.[14] Within weeks Hem ingway signed a contract with Scribner's, who agreed to publish The Torrents of Spring and all of his subsequent work.[15][note 1] Scribner's published the novel on 22 October 1926. Its first edition consisted o f 5090 copies, selling at $2.00 per copy.[16] Cleonike Damianakes illustrated th e dust jacket with a Hellenistic design of a seated, robed woman, her head bent to her shoulder, eyes closed, one hand holding an apple, her shoulders and a thi gh exposed. Editor Maxwell Perkins intended "Cleon's respectably sexy"[1] design to attract "the feminine readers who control the destinies of so many novels".[ 17] Two months later the book was in a second printing with 7000 copies sold. Su bsequent printings were ordered; by 1928, after the publication of Hemingway's s hort story collection Men Without Women, the novel was in its eighth printing.[1 8][19] In 1927 the novel was published in the UK by Jonathan Cape, titled Fiesta , without the two epigraphs.[20] Two decades later, in 1947, Scribner's released three of Hemingway's works as a boxed set, including The Sun Also Rises, A Fare well to Arms, and For Whom the Bell Tolls.[21] By 1983, The Sun Also Rises had been in print continuously since its publication in 1926, and was likely one of the most translated titles in the world. At that time Scribner's began to print cheaper mass-market paperbacks of the book, in a ddition to the more expensive trade paperbacks already in print.[22] In the 1990 s, British editions were titled Fiesta: The Sun Also Rises.[23] In 2006 Simon & Schuster began to produce audiobook versions of Hemingway's novels, including Th e Sun Also Rises.[24] Plot summary[edit] The protagonist is Jake Barnes, an expatriate American journalist living in Pari s. Jake suffered a war wound that left him impotent; the nature of his injury is not explicitly described. He is in love with Lady Brett Ashley, a twice-divorce d Englishwoman. Brett, with her bobbed hair and numerous love affairs, embodies

the new sexual freedom of the 1920s. Book One is set in the caf society of Paris. In the opening scenes, Jake plays te nnis with his college friend Robert Cohn, picks up a prostitute (Georgette), and runs into Brett and Count Mippipopolous in a nightclub. Later, Brett tells Jake she loves him, but they both know that they have no chance at a stable relation ship. In Book Two, Jake is joined by Bill Gorton, recently arrived from New York, and Brett's fianc Mike Campbell, who arrives from Scotland. Jake and Bill travel sout h and meet Robert Cohn at Bayonne for a fishing trip in the hills northeast of P amplona. Instead of fishing, Cohn stays in Pamplona to wait for the overdue Bret t and Mike. Cohn had an affair with Brett a few weeks earlier and still feels po ssessive of her despite her engagement to Mike. After Jake and Bill enjoy five d ays of tranquility fishing the streams near Burguete, they rejoin the group in P amplona where they begin to drink heavily. Cohn's presence is increasingly resen ted by the others, who taunt him with anti-semitic remarks. During the fiesta th e characters drink, eat, watch the running of the bulls, attend bullfights, and bicker with each other. Jake introduces Brett to the 19-year-old matador Romero at the Hotel Montoya; she is smitten with him and seduces him. The jealous tensi on among the men builds Jake, Campbell, Cohn, and Romero each love Brett. Cohn, wh o had been a champion boxer in college, has fistfights with Jake, Mike, and Rome ro, whom he beats up. Despite his injuries, Romero continues to perform brillian tly in the bullring. Book Three shows the characters in the aftermath of the fiesta. Sober again, the y leave Pamplona; Bill returns to Paris, Mike stays in Bayonne, and Jake goes to San Sebastin in northeastern Spain. As Jake is about to return to Paris, he rece ives a telegram from Brett asking for help; she had gone to Madrid with Romero. He finds her there in a cheap hotel, without money, and without Romero. She anno unces she has decided to go back to Mike. The novel ends with Jake and Brett in a taxi speaking of the things that might have been. Major themes[edit] Paris and the Lost Generation[edit]

Gertrude Stein in 1924 with Hemingway's son Jack. She coined the phrase "Lost Ge neration". The first book of The Sun Also Rises is set in mid-1920s Paris. Americans were d rawn to Paris in the Roaring Twenties by the favorable exchange rate, with as ma ny as 200,000 English-speaking expatriates living there. The Paris Tribune repor ted in 1925 that Paris had an American Hospital, an American Library, and an Ame rican Chamber of Commerce.[25] Many American writers were disenchanted with the US, where they found less artistic freedom than in Europe. Hemingway had more ar tistic freedom in Paris than in the US at a period when Ulysses, written by his friend James Joyce, was banned and burned in New York.[26] The themes of The Sun Also Rises appear in its two epigraphs. The first is an al lusion to the "Lost Generation," a term coined by Gertrude Stein referring to th e post-war generation;[note 2][27] the other epigraph is a long quotation from E cclesiastes: "What profit hath a man of all his labour which he taketh under the sun? One generation passeth away, and another generation cometh: but the earth abideth for ever. The sun also ariseth, and the sun goeth down, and hasteth to h is place where he arose."[28] Hemingway told his editor Max Perkins that the boo k was not so much about a generation being lost, but that "the earth abideth for

ever." He thought the characters in The Sun Also Rises may have been "battered" but were not lost.[29] Hemingway scholar Wagner-Martin writes that Hemingway wanted the book to be abou t morality, which he emphasized by changing the working title from Fiesta to The Sun Also Rises. Wagner-Martin claims that the book can be read either as a nove l about bored expatriates or as a morality tale about a protagonist who searches for integrity in an immoral world.[30] Months before Hemingway left for Pamplon a, the press was depicting the Parisian Latin Quarter, where he lived, as decade nt and depraved. He began writing the story of a matador corrupted by the influe nce of the Latin Quarter crowd; he expanded it into a novel about Jake Barnes at risk of being corrupted by wealthy and inauthentic expatriates.[31]

Hemingway at home in his apartment on the Left Bank, Paris, 1924 The characters form a group, sharing similar norms, and each greatly affected by the war.[30] Hemingway captures the angst of the age and transcends the love st ory of Brett and Jake, although they are representative of the period: Brett is starved for reassurance and love and Jake is sexually maimed. His wound symboliz es the disability of the age, the disillusion, and the frustrations felt by an e ntire generation.[30] Hemingway thought he lost touch with American values while living in Paris, but his biographer Michael Reynolds claims the opposite, seeing evidence of the auth or's midwestern American values in the novel. Hemingway admired hard work. He po rtrayed the matadors and the prostitutes, who work for a living, in a positive m anner, but Brett, who prostitutes herself, is emblematic of "the rotten crowd" l iving on inherited money. It is Jake, the working journalist, who pays the bills again and again when those who can pay do not. Hemingway shows, through Jake's actions, his disapproval of the people who did not pay up.[32] Reynolds says tha t Hemingway shows the tragedy, not so much of the decadence of the Montparnasse crowd, but of the decline in American values of the period. As such, the author created an American hero who is impotent and powerless. Jake becomes the moral c enter of the story. He never considers himself part of the expatriate crowd beca use he is a working man; to Jake a working man is genuine and authentic, and tho se who do not work for a living spend their lives posing.[33] Women and love[edit] The twice-divorced Lady Brett Ashley represented the liberated New Woman (in the 1920s, divorces were common and easy to be had in Paris).[34] James Nagel write s that, in Brett, Hemingway created one of the more fascinating women in 20th-ce ntury American literature. Sexually promiscuous, she is a denizen of Parisian ni ghtlife and cafs. In Pamplona she sparks chaos: in her presence, the men drink to o much and fight. She also seduces the young bullfighter and becomes a Circe in the festival.[35] Critics describe her variously as complicated, elusive, and en igmatic; Donald Daiker writes that Hemingway "treats her with a delicate balance of sympathy and antipathy."[36] She is vulnerable, forgiving, independent qualiti es that Hemingway juxtaposes with the other women in the book, who are either pr ostitutes or overbearing nags.[37] Nagel considers the novel a tragedy. Jake and Brett have a relationship that bec omes destructive because their love cannot be consummated. Conflict over Brett d estroys Jake's friendship with Robert Cohn, and her behavior in Pamplona affects Jake's hard-won reputation among the Spaniards.[35] Meyers sees Brett as a woma n who wants sex without love while Jake can only give her love without sex. Alth ough Brett sleeps with many men, it is Jake she loves.[38] Dana Fore writes that

Brett is willing to be with Jake in spite of his disability, in a "non-traditio nal erotic relationship."[39] Other critics such as Leslie Fiedler and Nina Baym see her as a supreme bitch; Fiedler sees Brett as one of the "outstanding examp les of Hemingway's 'bitch women.'"[40][41] Jake becomes bitter about their relat ionship, as when he says, "Send a girl off with a man .... Now go and bring her back. And sign the wire with love."[42] Critics interpret the Jake Brett relationship in various ways. Daiker suggests tha t Brett's behavior in Madrid after Romero leaves and when Jake arrives at her summ ons reflects her immorality.[43] Scott Donaldson thinks Hemingway presents the Jak e Brett relationship in such a manner that Jake knew "that in having Brett for a f riend 'he had been getting something for nothing' and that sooner or later he wo uld have to pay the bill."[44] Daiker notes that Brett relies on Jake to pay for her train fare from Madrid to San Sebastin, where she rejoins her fianc Mike.[45] In a piece Hemingway cut, he has Jake thinking, "you learned a lot about a woma n by not sleeping with her."[46] By the end of the novel, although Jake loves Br ett, he appears to undergo a transformation in Madrid when he begins to distance himself from her.[46] Reynolds believes that Jake represents the "everyman," an d that in the course of the narrative he loses his honor, faith, and hope. He se es the novel as a morality play with Jake as the person who loses the most.[47] The corrida, the fiesta, and nature[edit]

Hemingway (in white trousers and dark shirt) fighting a bull in the amateur corr ida at Pamplona fiesta, July 1925. In The Sun Also Rises, Hemingway contrasts Paris with Spain, and the frenzy of t he fiesta with the tranquillity of the Spanish countryside. Spain was Hemingway' s favorite European country; he considered it a healthy place, and the only coun try "that hasn't been shot to pieces."[48] He was profoundly affected by the spe ctacle of bullfighting, writing, It isn't just brutal like they always told us. It's a great tragedy and the most b eautiful thing I've ever seen and takes more guts and skill and guts again than anything possibly could. It's just like having a ringside seat at the war with n othing going to happen to you.[48] He demonstrated what he considered the purity in the culture of bullfighting calle d aficin and presented it as an authentic way of life, contrasted against the inaut henticity of the Parisian bohemians.[49] To be accepted as an aficionado was rar e for a non-Spaniard; Jake goes through a difficult process to gain acceptance b y the "fellowship of aficin."[50] The Hemingway scholar Allen Josephs thinks the novel is centered on the corrida (the bullfighting), and how each character reacts to it. Brett seduces the young matador; Cohn fails to understand and expects to be bored; Jake understands ful ly because only he moves between the world of the inauthentic expatriates and th e authentic Spaniards; the hotel-keeper Montoya is the keeper of the faith; and Romero is the artist in the ring he is both innocent and perfect, and the one who bravely faces death.[51] The corrida is presented as an idealized drama in which the matador faces death, creating a moment of existentialism or nada (nothingne ss), broken when he vanquishes death by killing the bull.[52]

Hemingway named his character Romero for Pedro Romero, shown here in Goya's etch ing Pedro Romero Killing the Halted Bull (1816). Hemingway presents matadors as heroic characters dancing in a bullring. He consi dered the bullring as war with precise rules, in contrast to the messiness of th e real war that he, and by extension Jake, experienced.[30] Critic Keneth Kinnam on notes that young Romero is the novel's only honorable character.[50] Hemingwa y named Romero after Pedro Romero, an 18th-century bullfighter who killed thousa nds of bulls in the most difficult manner: having the bull impale itself on his sword as he stood perfectly still. Reynolds says Romero, who symbolizes the clas sically pure matador, is the "one idealized figure in the novel."[53] Josephs sa ys that when Hemingway changed Romero's name from Guerrita and imbued him with t he characteristics of the historical Romero, he also changed the scene in which Romero kills a bull to one of recibiendo (receiving the bull) in homage to the h istorical namesake.[54] Before the group arrives in Pamplona, Jake and Bill take a fishing trip to the I rati River. As Harold Bloom points out, the scene serves as an interlude between the Paris and Pamplona sections, "an oasis that exists outside linear time." Mo re importantly, on another level it reflects "the mainstream of American fiction beginning with the Pilgrims seeking refuge from English oppression" the prominent theme in American literature of escaping into the wilderness, as seen in Cooper , Hawthorne, Melville, Twain, and Thoreau.[55] Fiedler calls the theme "The Sacr ed Land"; he thinks the American West is evoked in The Sun Also Rises by the Pyr enees and given a symbolic nod with the name of the "Hotel Montana."[40] In Hemi ngway's writing, nature is a place of refuge and rebirth, according to Stoltzfus , where the hunter or fisherman gains a moment of transcendence at the moment th e prey is killed.[52] Nature is the place where men act without women: men fish, men hunt, men find redemption.[40] In nature Jake and Bill do not need to discu ss the war because their war experience, paradoxically, is ever-present. The nat ure scenes serve as counterpoint to the fiesta scenes.[30] All of the characters drink heavily during the fiesta and generally throughout t he novel. In his essay "Alcoholism in Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises," Matts Djo s says the main characters exhibit alcoholic tendencies such as depression, anxi ety and sexual inadequacy. He writes that Jake's self-pity is symptomatic of an alcoholic, as is Brett's out-of-control behavior.[56] William Balassi thinks tha t Jake gets drunk to avoid his feelings for Brett, notably in the Madrid scenes at the end where he has three martinis before lunch and drinks three bottles of wine with lunch.[57] Reynolds, however, believes the drinking is relevant as set against the historical context of Prohibition in the United States. The atmosph ere of the fiesta lends itself to drunkenness, but the degree of revelry among t he Americans also reflects a reaction against Prohibition. Bill, visiting from t he US, drinks in Paris and in Spain. Jake is rarely drunk in Paris where he work s but on vacation in Pamplona, he drinks constantly. Reynolds says that Prohibit ion split attitudes about morality, and in the novel Hemingway made clear his di slike of Prohibition.[58] Masculinity and gender[edit] Critics have seen Jake as an ambiguous representative of Hemingway manliness. Fo r example, in the bar scene in Paris, Jake is angry at some homosexual men. The critic Ira Elliot suggests that Hemingway viewed homosexuality as an inauthentic way of life, and that he aligns Jake with homosexual men because, like them, Ja ke does not have sex with women. Jake's anger shows his self-hatred at his inaut henticity and lack of masculinity.[59] His sense of masculine identity is lost he is less than a man.[60] Elliot wonders if Jake's wound perhaps signifies latent homosexuality, rather than only a loss of masculinity; the emphasis in the novel , however, is on Jake's interest in women.[61] Hemingway's writing has been call ed homophobic because of the language his characters use. For example, in the fi

shing scenes, Bill confesses his fondness for Jake but then goes on to say, "I c ouldn't tell you that in New York. It'd mean I was a faggot."[62] In contrast to Jake's troubled masculinity, Romero represents an ideal masculine identity grounded in self-assurance, bravery, competence, and uprightness. The Davidsons note that Brett is attracted to Romero for these reasons, and they spe culate that Jake might be trying to undermine Romero's masculinity by bringing B rett to him and thus diminishing his ideal stature.[63] Critics have examined issues of gender misidentification that are prevalent in m uch of Hemingway's work. He was interested in cross-gender themes, as shown by h is depictions of effeminate men and boyish women.[64] In his fiction, a woman's hair is often symbolically important and used to denote gender. Brett, with her short hair, is androgynous and compared to a boy yet the ambiguity lies in the fac t that she is described as a "damned fine-looking woman." While Jake is attracte d to this ambiguity, Romero is repulsed by it. In keeping with his strict moral code he wants a feminine partner and rejects Brett, among other things, because she will not grow her hair. Anti-semitism[edit]

Mike lay on the bed looking like a looked at me. 'Hello Jake' he said very slowly. ttle sleep for a long time ....' 'You'll sleep, Mike. Don't worry, 'Brett's got a bullfighter,' Mike good thing, what?'

death mask of himself. He opened his eyes and 'I'm getting a little sleep. I've wanted a li boy.' said. 'But her Jew has gone away .... Damned

The Sun Also Rises [65] Hemingway has been called anti-Semitic, most notably because of the characteriza tion of Robert Cohn in the book. The other characters often refer to Cohn as a J ew, and once as a 'kike'.[66] Shunned by the other members of the group, Cohn is characterized as "different," unable or unwilling to understand and participate in the fiesta.[66] Cohn is never really part of the group separated by his differ ence or his Jewishness.[30] Critic Susan Beegel goes so far as to claim, "Heming way never lets the reader forget that Cohn is a Jew, not an unattractive charact er who happens to be a Jew but a character who is unattractive because he is a J ew."[67] Hemingway critic Josephine Knopf speculates that Hemingway might have w anted to depict Cohn as a "shlemiel" (or fool), but she points out that Cohn lac ks the characteristics of a traditional shlemiel.[68] Cohn is based on Harold Loeb, a fellow writer who rivaled Hemingway for the affe ctions of Lady Duff (the real-life inspiration for Brett). Biographer Michael Re ynolds writes that in 1925, Loeb should have declined Hemingway's invitation to join them in Pamplona. Before the trip he was Lady Duff's lover and Hemingway's friend; during the fiasco of the fiesta, he lost Lady Duff and Hemingway's frien dship. Hemingway used Loeb as the basis of a character remembered chiefly as a " rich Jew."[69] Writing style[edit] The novel is well known for its style, which is variously described as modern, h ard-boiled, or understated.[70] As a novice writer and journalist in Paris, Hemi

ngway turned to Ezra Pound who had a reputation as "an unofficial minister of cult ure who acted as mid-wife for new literary talent" to mark and blue-ink his short stories.[71] From Pound, Hemingway learned to write in the modernist style: he u sed understatement, pared away sentimentalism, and presented images and scenes w ithout explanations of meaning, most notably at the book's conclusion, in which multiple future possibilities are left for Brett and Jake.[70][note 3] The schol ar Anders Hallengren writes that because Hemingway learned from Pound to "distru st adjectives," he created a style "in accordance with the esthetics and ethics of raising the emotional temperature towards the level of universal truth by shu tting the door on sentiment, on the subjective."[72] F. Scott Fitzgerald told Hemingway to "let the book's action play itself out amo ng its characters." Hemingway scholar Linda Wagner-Martin writes that, in taking Fitzgerald's advice, Hemingway produced a novel without a central narrator: "He mingway's book was a step ahead; it was the modernist novel."[73] When Fitzgeral d advised Hemingway to trim at least 2500 words from the opening sequence, which was 30 pages long, Hemingway wired the publishers telling them to cut the openi ng 30 pages altogether. The result was a novel without a focused starting point, which was seen as a modern perspective and critically well received.[74]

Each time he let the bull pass so close that the man and the bull and the cape t hat filled and pivoted ahead of the bull were all one sharply etched mass. It wa s all so slow and so controlled. It was as though he were rocking the bull to sl eep. He made four veronicas like that ... and came away toward the applause, his hand on his hip, his cape on his arm, and the bull watching his back going away .

bullfighting scene from The Sun Also Rises [75] Wagner-Martin speculates that Hemingway may have wanted to have a weak or negati ve hero as defined by Edith Wharton, but he had no experience creating a hero or protagonist. At that point his fiction consisted of extremely short stories, no t one of which featured a hero.[30] The hero changed during the writing of The S un Also Rises: first the matador was the hero, then Cohn was the hero, then Bret t, and finally Hemingway realized "maybe there is not any hero at all. Maybe a s tory is better without any hero."[76] Balassi believes that in eliminating other characters as the protagonist, Hemingway brought Jake indirectly into the role of the novel's hero.[77] As a roman clef, the novel bases its characters on living people, causing scanda l in the expatriate community. Hemingway biographer Carlos Baker writes that "wo rd-of-mouth of the book" helped sales. Parisian expatriates gleefully tried to m atch the fictional characters to real identities. Moreover, he writes that Hemin gway used prototypes easily found in the Latin Quarter on which to base his char acters.[78] The early draft identified the characters by their living counterpar ts; Jake's character was called Hem, and Brett's was called Duff.[79] Although the novel is written in a journalistic style, Frederic Svoboda writes t hat the striking thing about the work is "how quickly it moves away from a simpl e recounting of events."[80] Jackson Benson believes that Hemingway used autobio graphical details as framing devices for life in general. For example, Benson sa ys that Hemingway drew out his experiences with "what-if" scenarios: "what if I were wounded in such a way that I could not sleep at night? What if I were wound ed and made crazy, what would happen if I were sent back to the front?"[81] Hemi ngway believed that the writer could describe one thing while an entirely differ

ent thing occurs below the surface an approach he called the iceberg theory, or th e theory of omission.[82]

If a writer of prose knows enough of what he is writing about he may omit things that he knows and the reader, if the writer is writing truly enough, will have a feeling of those things as strongly as though the writer had stated them. The dignity of movement of an ice-berg is due to only one-eighth of it being above w ater. A writer who omits things because he does not know them only makes hollow places in his writing.

Hemingway explained the iceberg theory in Death in the Afternoon (1932).[83] Balassi says Hemingway applied the iceberg theory better in The Sun Also Rises t han in any of his other works, by editing extraneous material or purposely leavi ng gaps in the story. He made editorial remarks in the manuscript that show he w anted to break from the stricture of Gertrude Stein's advice to use "clear restr ained writing." In the earliest draft, the novel begins in Pamplona, but Hemingw ay moved the opening setting to Paris because he thought the Montparnasse life w as necessary as a counterpoint to the later action in Spain. He wrote of Paris e xtensively, intending "not to be limited by the literary theories of others, [bu t] to write in his own way, and possibly, to fail."[84] He added metaphors for e ach character: Mike's money problems, Brett's association with the Circe myth, R obert's association with the segregated steer.[85] It wasn't until the revision process that he pared down the story, taking out unnecessary explanations, minim izing descriptive passages, and stripping the dialogue, all of which created a " complex but tightly compressed story."[86] Hemingway said that he learned what he needed as a foundation for his writing fr om the style sheet for The Kansas City Star, where he worked as cub reporter.[no te 4][87] The critic John Aldridge says that the minimalist style resulted from Hemingway's belief that to write authentically, each word had to be carefully ch osen for its simplicity and authenticity and carry a great deal of weight. Aldri dge writes that Hemingway's style "of a minimum of simple words that seemed to b e squeezed onto the page against a great compulsion to be silent, creates the im pression that those words if only because there are so few of them are sacramental." [88] In Paris Hemingway had been experimenting with the prosody of the King Jame s Bible, reading aloud with his friend John Dos Passos. From the style of the bi blical text, he learned to build his prose incrementally; the action in the nove l builds sentence by sentence, scene by scene and chapter by chapter.[30]

Paul Czanne, L'Estaque, Melting Snow, c. 1871. Writer Ronald Berman draws compari son between Czanne's treatment of this landscape and the way Hemingway imbues the Irati River with emotional texture. In both, the landscape is a subjective elem ent seen differently by each character.[89] The simplicity of his style is deceptive. Bloom writes that it is the effective use of parataxis that elevates Hemingway's prose. Drawing on the Bible, Walt Whi tman and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Hemingway wrote in deliberate understat ement and he heavily incorporated parataxis, which in some cases almost becomes cinematic.[90] His skeletal sentences were crafted in response to Henry James's observation that World War I had "used up words," explains Hemingway scholar Zoe Trodd, who writes that his style is similar to a "multi-focal" photographic rea

lity. The syntax, which lacks subordinating conjunctions, creates static sentenc es. The photographic "snapshot" style creates a collage of images. Hemingway omi ts internal punctuation (colons, semicolons, dashes, parentheses) in favor of sh ort declarative sentences, which are meant to build, as events build, to create a sense of the whole. He also uses techniques analogous to cinema, such as cutti ng quickly from one scene to the next, or splicing one scene into another. Inten tional omissions allow the reader to fill the gap as though responding to instru ctions from the author and create three-dimensional prose.[91] Biographer James Mellow writes that the bullfighting scenes are presented with a crispness and cl arity that evoke the sense of a newsreel.[92] Hemingway also uses color and visual art techniques to convey emotional range in his descriptions of the Irati River. In Translating Modernism: Fitzgerald and H emingway, Ronald Berman compares Hemingway's treatment of landscape with that of the post-Impressionist painter Paul Czanne. During a 1949 interview, Hemingway t old Lillian Ross that he learned from Czanne how to "make a landscape." In compar ing writing to painting he told her, "This is what we try to do in writing, this and this, and woods, and the rocks we have to climb over."[93] The landscape is seen subjectively the viewpoint of the observer is paramount.[94] To Jake, landsc ape "meant a search for a solid form .... not existentially present in [his] lif e in Paris."[94] Reception[edit] Hemingway's first novel was arguably his best and most important and came to be seen as an iconic modernist novel, although Reynolds emphasizes that Hemingway w as not philosophically a modernist.[95] In the book, his characters epitomized t he post-war expatriate generation for future generations.[96] He had received go od reviews for his volume of short stories, In Our Time, of which Edmund Wilson wrote, "Hemingway's prose was of the first distinction." Wilson's comments were enough to bring attention to the young writer.[97]

No amount of analysis can convey the quality of The Sun Also Rises. It is a trul y gripping story, told in a lean, hard, athletic narrative prose that puts more literary English to shame. Mr. Hemingway knows how not only to make words be spe cific but how to arrange a collection of words which shall betray a great deal m ore than is to be found in the individual parts. It is magnificent writing.

The New York Times review of The Sun Also Rises, 31 October 1926.[98] Good reviews came in from many major publications. Conrad Aiken wrote in the New York Herald Tribune, "If there is a better dialogue to be written today I do no t know where to find it"; and Bruce Barton wrote in The Atlantic that Hemingway "writes as if he had never read anybody's writing, as if he had fashioned the ar t of writing himself," and that the characters "are amazingly real and alive."[1 8] Many reviewers, among them H.L. Mencken, praised Hemingway's style, use of un derstatement, and tight writing.[99] Other critics, however, disliked the novel. The Nation's critic believed Hemingw ay's hard-boiled style was better suited to the short stories published in In Ou r Time than his novel. Writing in the New Masses, Hemingway's friend John Dos Pa ssos asked: "What's the matter with American writing these days? .... The few un sad young men of this lost generation will have to look for another way of findi ng themselves than the one indicated here." Privately he wrote Hemingway an apol ogy for the review.[18] The reviewer for the Chicago Daily Tribune wrote of the

novel, "The Sun Also Rises is the kind of book that makes this reviewer at least almost plain angry."[100] Some reviewers disliked the characters, among them th e reviewer for The Dial, who thought the characters were shallow and vapid; and The Nation and Atheneum deemed the characters boring and the novel unimportant.[ 99] The reviewer for The Cincinnati Enquirer wrote of the book that it "begins n owhere and ends in nothing."[1] Hemingway's family hated it. His mother, Grace Hemingway, distressed that she co uld not face the criticism at her local book study class where it was said that he r son was "prostituting a great ability .... to the lowest uses" expressed her dis pleasure in a letter to him: The critics seem to be full of praise for your style and ability to draw word pi ctures but the decent ones always regret that you should use such great gifts in perpetuating the lives and habits of so degraded a strata of humanity .... It i s a doubtful honor to produce one of the filthiest books of the year .... What i s the matter? Have you ceased to be interested in nobility, honor and fineness i n life? .... Surely you have other words in your vocabulary than "damn" and "bit ch" Every page fills me with a sick loathing.[101] Still, the book sold well, and young women began to emulate Brett while male stu dents at Ivy League universities wanted to become "Hemingway heroes." Scribner's encouraged the publicity and allowed Hemingway to "become a minor American phen omenon" a celebrity to the point that his divorce from Richardson and marriage to Pfieffer attracted media attention.[102] Reynolds believes The Sun Also Rises could only have been written in 1925: it pe rfectly captured the period between World War I and the Great Depression, and im mortalized a group of characters.[103] In the years since its publication, the n ovel has been criticized for its anti-Semitism, as expressed in the characteriza tion of Robert Cohn. Reynolds explains that although the publishers complained t o Hemingway about his description of bulls, they allowed his use of Jewish epith ets, which showed the degree to which anti-Semitism was accepted in the US after World War I. Cohn represented the Jewish establishment and contemporary readers would have understood this from his description. Hemingway clearly makes Cohn u nlikeable not only as a character but as a character who is Jewish.[104] Critics of the 1970s and 1980s considered Hemingway to be misogynistic and homophobic; by the 1990s his work, including The Sun Also Rises, began to receive critical r econsideration by female scholars.[105] Legacy and adaptations[edit] Hemingway's work continued to be popular in the latter half of the century and a fter his suicide in 1961. During the 1970s, The Sun Also Rises appealed to what Beegel calls the lost generation of the Vietnam era.[106] Aldridge writes that T he Sun Also Rises has kept its appeal because the novel is about being young. Th e characters live in the most beautiful city in the world, spend their days trav eling, fishing, drinking, making love, and generally reveling in their youth. He believes the expatriate writers of the 1920s appeal for this reason, but that H emingway was the most successful in capturing the time and the place in The Sun Also Rises.[107] Bloom says that some of the characters have not stood the test of time, writing that modern readers are uncomfortable with the anti-semitic treatment of Cohn's character and the romanticization of a bullfighter. Moreover, Brett and Mike bel ong uniquely to the Jazz Age and do not translate to the modern era. Bloom belie ves the novel is in the canon of American literature for its formal qualities: i ts prose and style.[108]

The novel made Hemingway famous, inspired young women across America to wear sho rt hair and sweater sets like the heroine's and to act like her too and changed writ ing style in ways that could be seen in any American magazine published in the n ext twenty years. In many ways, the novel's stripped-down prose became a model f or 20th-century American writing. Nagel writes that "The Sun Also Rises was a dr amatic literary event and its effects have not diminished over the years."[109] The success of The Sun Also Rises guaranteed interest from Broadway and Hollywoo d. In 1927 two Broadway producers wanted to adapt the story for the stage but ma de no immediate offers. Hemingway considered marketing the story directly to Hol lywood, telling his editor Max Perkins that he would not sell it for less than $ 30,000 money he wanted his estranged wife Hadley Richardson to have. Conrad Aiken thought the book was perfect for a film adaptation solely on the strength of dia logue. Hemingway would not see a stage or film adaption anytime soon:[110] he so ld the film rights to RKO Pictures in 1932,[111] but only in 1956 was the novel adapted to a film of the same name. Peter Viertel wrote the screenplay. Tyrone P ower as Jake played the lead role opposite Ava Gardner as Brett and Errol Flynn as Mike. The royalties went to Richardson.[112] Hemingway wrote more books about bullfighting: Death in the Afternoon was publis hed in 1932 and The Dangerous Summer was published posthumously in 1985. His dep ictions of Pamplona, beginning with The Sun Also Rises, helped to popularize the annual running of the bulls at the Festival of St. Fermin.[113] Notes[edit] 1.Jump up ^ The Torrents of Spring has little scholarly criticism as it is consi dered to be of less importance than Hemingway's subsequent work. See Oliver (199 9), 330 2.Jump up ^ Hemingway may have used the term as an early title for the novel, a ccording to biographer James Mellow. The term originated from a remark in French made to Gertrude Stein by the owner of a garage, speaking of those who went to war: "C'est une gnration perdue" (literally, "they are a lost generation"). See Me llow (1992), 309 3.Jump up ^ Hemingway wrote a fragment of an unpublished sequel in which he has Jake and Brett meeting in the Dingo Bar in Paris. With Brett is Mike Campbell. See Daiker (2009), 85 4.Jump up ^ "Use short sentences. Use short first paragraphs. Use vigorous Engl ish. Be positive, not negative." References[edit] 1.^ Jump up to: a b c Leff (1999), 51 2.Jump up ^ Meyers (1985), 192 3.Jump up ^ Wagner-Martin (1990), 1 4.Jump up ^ Meyers (1985), 98 99 5.Jump up ^ Meyers (1985), 117 119 6.^ Jump up to: a b Balassi (1990), 128 7.^ Jump up to: a b Nagel (1996), 89 8.Jump up ^ Meyers (1985), 189 9.Jump up ^ Balassi (1990), 132, 142, 146 10.Jump up ^ Reynolds (1989), vi vii 11.Jump up ^ Meyers (1985), 172 12.Jump up ^ Baker (1972), 44 13.Jump up ^ Mellow (1992), 338 340 14.Jump up ^ Mellow (1992), 317 321 15.Jump up ^ Baker (1972), 76, 30 34 16.Jump up ^ Oliver (1999), 318 17.Jump up ^ qtd. in Leff (1999), 51 18.^ Jump up to: a b c Mellow (1992), 334 336

19.Jump up ^ Leff (1999), 75 20.Jump up ^ White (1969), iv 21.Jump up ^ Reynolds (1999), 154 22.Jump up ^ McDowell, Edwin, "Hemingway's Status Revives Among Scholars and Re aders". The New York Times (July 26, 1983). Retrieved 27 February 2011 23.Jump up ^ "Books at Random House". Random House. Retrieved 31 May 2011. 24.Jump up ^ "Hemingway books coming out in audio editions" MSNBC.com (February 15, 2006). Retrieved 27 February 2011. 25.Jump up ^ Reynolds (1990), 48 49 26.Jump up ^ Oliver (1999), 316 318 27.Jump up ^ Meyers (1985), 191 28.Jump up ^ Ecclesiastes 1:3 5, King James Version. 29.Jump up ^ Baker (1972), 82 30.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Wagner-Martin (1990), 6 9 31.Jump up ^ Reynolds (1990), 62 63 32.Jump up ^ Reynolds (1990), 45 50 33.Jump up ^ Reynolds (1990), 60 63 34.Jump up ^ Reynolds (1990), 58 59 35.^ Jump up to: a b Nagel (1996), 94 96 36.Jump up ^ Daiker (2009), 74 37.Jump up ^ Nagel (1996), 99 103 38.Jump up ^ Meyers (1985), 190 39.Jump up ^ Fore (2007), 80 40.^ Jump up to: a b c Fiedler (1975), 345 365 41.Jump up ^ Baym (1990), 112 42.Jump up ^ qtd. in Reynolds (1990), 60 43.Jump up ^ Daiker (2009), 80 44.Jump up ^ Donaldson (2002), 82 45.Jump up ^ Daiker (2009), 83 46.^ Jump up to: a b Balassi (1990), 144 146 47.Jump up ^ Reynolds (1989), 323 324 48.^ Jump up to: a b qtd. in Balassi (1990), 127 49.Jump up ^ Mller (2010), 31 32 50.^ Jump up to: a b Kinnamon (2002), 128 51.Jump up ^ Josephs (1987), 158 52.^ Jump up to: a b Stoltzfus (2005), 215 218 53.Jump up ^ Reynolds (1989), 320 54.Jump up ^ Josephs (1987), 163 55.Jump up ^ Bloom (2007), 31 56.Jump up ^ Djos (1995), 65 68 57.Jump up ^ Balassi (1990), 145 58.Jump up ^ Reynolds (1990), 56 57 59.Jump up ^ Elliot (1995), 80 82 60.Jump up ^ Elliot (1995), 86 88 61.Jump up ^ Elliot (1995), 87 62.Jump up ^ Mellow (1992), 312 63.Jump up ^ Davidson (1990), 97 64.Jump up ^ Fore (2007), 75 65.Jump up ^ Hemingway (2006 ed), 214 66.^ Jump up to: a b Oliver (1999), 270 67.Jump up ^ Beegel (1996), 288 68.Jump up ^ Knopf (1987), 68 69 69.Jump up ^ Reynolds (1989), 297 70.^ Jump up to: a b Wagner-Martin (1990), 2 4 71.Jump up ^ Meyers (1985), 70 74 72.Jump up ^ Hallengren, Anders. "A Case of Identity: Ernest Hemingway", Nobelp rize.org. Retrieved 15 April 2011. 73.Jump up ^ Wagner-Martin (2002), 7 74.Jump up ^ Wagner-Martin (1990), 11 12 75.Jump up ^ Hemingway (2006 ed), 221

76.Jump up ^ qtd. in Balassi (1990), 138 77.Jump up ^ Balassi (1990), 138 78.Jump up ^ Baker (1987), 11 79.Jump up ^ Mellow (1992), 303 80.Jump up ^ Svoboda (1983), 9 81.Jump up ^ Benson (1989), 351 82.Jump up ^ Oliver (1999), 321 322 83.Jump up ^ qtd. in Oliver (1999), 322 84.Jump up ^ Balassi (1990), 136 85.Jump up ^ Balassi (1990), 125, 136, 139 141 86.Jump up ^ Balassi (1990), 150; Svoboda (1983), 44 87.Jump up ^ "Star style and rules for writing". The Kansas City Star. KansasCi ty.com. Retrieved 15 April 2011. 88.Jump up ^ Aldridge (1990), 126 89.Jump up ^ Berman (2011), 59 90.Jump up ^ Bloom (1987), 7 8 91.Jump up ^ Trodd (2007), 8 92.Jump up ^ Mellow (1992), 311 93.Jump up ^ Berman (2011), 52 94.^ Jump up to: a b Berman (2011), 55 95.Jump up ^ Wagner-Martin (1990), 1, 15; Reynolds (1990), 46 96.Jump up ^ Mellow (1992), 302 97.Jump up ^ Wagner-Martin (2002), 4 5 98.Jump up ^ "The Sun Also Rises". (October 31, 1926) The New York Times. Retri eved 13 March 2011. 99.^ Jump up to: a b Wagner-Martin (2002), 1 2 100.Jump up ^ qtd. in Wagner-Martin (1990), 1 101.Jump up ^ qtd. in Reynolds (1998), 53 102.Jump up ^ Leff (1999), 63 103.Jump up ^ Reynolds (1990), 43 104.Jump up ^ Reynolds (1990), 53 55 105.Jump up ^ Bloom (2007), 28; Beegel (1996), 282 106.Jump up ^ Beegel (1996), 281 107.Jump up ^ Aldridge (1990), 122 123 108.Jump up ^ Bloom (1987), 5 6 109.Jump up ^ Nagel (1996), 87 110.Jump up ^ Leff (1999), 64 111.Jump up ^ Leff (1999), 156 112.Jump up ^ Reynolds (1999), 293 113.Jump up ^ Palin, Michael. "Lifelong Aficionado" and "San Fermn Festival". in Michael Palin's Hemingway Adventure. PBS.org. Retrieved 23 May 2011. Sources[edit] Aldridge, John W. (1990). "Afterthought on the Twenties and The Sun Also Rises". in Wagner-Martin, Linda (ed). New Essays on Sun Also Rises. New York: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0-521-30204-3 Baker, Carlos (1972). Hemingway: The Writer as Artist. Princeton: Princeton UP. ISBN 978-0-691-01305-3 Baker, Carlos (1987). "The Wastelanders". in Bloom, Harold (ed). Modern Critica l Interpretations: Ernest Hemingway's "The Sun Also Rises". New York: Chelsea Ho use. ISBN 978-1-55546-053-2 Balassi, William (1990). "Hemingway's Greatest Iceberg: The Composition of The Sun Also Rises". in Barbour, James and Quirk, Tom (eds). Writing the American Cl assics. Chapel Hill: North Carolina UP. ISBN 978-0-8078-1896-1 Baym, Nina (1990). "Actually I Felt Sorry for the Lion". in Benson, Jackson J. (ed). New Critical Approaches to the Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway. Durham: Duke UP. ISBN 978-0-8223-1067-9 Beegel, Susan (1996). "Conclusion: The Critical Reputation". in Donaldson, Scot t (ed). The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Cambridge UP. ISB

N 978-0-521-45574-9 Benson, Jackson (1989). "Ernest Hemingway: The Life as Fiction and the Fiction as Life". American Literature. 61 (3): 354 358 Berman, Ronald (2011). Translating Modernism: Fitzgerald and Hemingway. Tuscalo osa: Alabama UP. ISBN 978-0-8173-5665-1 Bloom, Harold (1987). "Introduction". in Bloom, Harold (ed). Modern Critical In terpretations: Ernest Hemingway's "The Sun Also Rises". New York: Chelsea House. ISBN 978-1-55546-053-2 Bloom, Harold (2007). "Introduction". in Bloom, Harold (ed). Ernest Hemingway's "The Sun Also Rises". New York: Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7910-9359-7 Daiker, Donald (2009). "Lady Ashley, Pedro Romero and the Madrid Sequence of Th e Sun Also Rises". The Hemingway Review. 29 (1): 73 86 Davidson, Cathy and Arnold (1990). "Decoding the Hemingway Hero in The Sun Also Rises". in Wagner-Martin, Linda (ed). New Essays on Sun Also Rises. New York: C ambridge UP. ISBN 978-0-521-30204-3 Djos, Matt (1995). "Alcoholism in Ernest Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises". The H emingway Review. 14 (2): 64 78 Donaldson, Scott (2002). "Hemingway's Morality of Compensation". in Wagner-Mart in, Linda (ed). Ernest Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises: A Casebook. New York: Oxf ord UP. ISBN 978-0-19-514573-1 Elliot, Ira (1995). "Performance Art: Jake Barnes and Masculine Signification i n The Sun Also Rises". American Literature. 63 (1): 77 94 Fiedler, Leslie (1975). Love and Death in the American Novel. New York: Stein a nd Day. ISBN 978-0-8128-1799-7 Fore, Dana (2007). "Life Unworthy of Life? Masculinity, Disability, and Guilt i n The Sun Also Rises. The Hemingway Review. 16 (1): 75 88 Hemingway, Ernest (1926). The Sun Also Rises. New York: Scribner. 2006 edition. ISBN 978-0-7432-9733-2 Josephs, Allen (1987). "Torero: The Moral Axis of The Sun Also Rises". in Bloom , Harold (ed). Modern Critical Interpretations: Ernest Hemingway's "The Sun Also Rises". New York: Chelsea House. ISBN 978-1-55546-053-2 Kinnamon, Keneth (2002). "Hemingway, the Corrida, and Spain". in Wagner-Martin, Linda (ed). Ernest Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises: A Casebook. New York: Oxford UP. ISBN 978-0-19-514573-1 Knopf, Josephine (1987). "Meyer Wolfsheim and Robert Cohn: A Study of a Jew Typ e and Sterotype". in Bloom, Harold (ed). Modern Critical Interpretations: Ernest Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises". New York: Chelsea House. ISBN 978-1-55546-0532 Leff, Leonard (1999). Hemingway and His Conspirators: Hollywood, Scribner's and the making of American Celebrity Culture. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 97 8-0-8476-8545-5 Mellow, James (1992). Hemingway: A Life Without Consequences. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-37777-2 Meyers, Jeffrey (1985). Hemingway: A Biography. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0 -333-42126-0 Mller, Timo (2010). "The Uses of Authenticity: Hemingway and the Literary Field, 1926 1936". Journal of Modern Literature. 33 (1): 28 42 Nagel, James (1996). "Brett and the Other Women in The Sun Also Rises". in Dona ldson, Scott (ed). The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Cambri dge UP. ISBN 978-0-521-45574-9 Oliver, Charles (1999). Ernest Hemingway A to Z: The Essential Reference to the Life and Work. New York: Checkmark Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-3467-3 Reynolds, Michael (1990). "Recovering the Historical Context". in Wagner-Martin , Linda (ed). New Essays on Sun Also Rises. New York: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0-5 21-30204-3 Reynolds, Michael (1999). Hemingway: The Final Years. New York: Norton. ISBN 97 8-0-393-32047-3 Reynolds, Michael (1989). Hemingway: The Paris Years. New York: Norton. ISBN 97 8-0-393-31879-1 Reynolds, Michael (1998). The Young Hemingway. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393

-31776-3 Roy, Pinaki (2012). "A Portrait of Hemingway as a Young Man: Rereading Fiesta". The Atlantic Critical Review Quarterly (ISSN 0972-6373; ISBN 978-81-269-1789-1) , 11(3), July September 2012: 68-81. Svoboda, Frederic (1983). Hemingway & The Sun Also Rises: The Crafting of a Sty le. Lawrence: Kansas UP. ISBN 978-0-7006-0228-5 Stoltzfus, Ben (2005). "Sartre, "Nada," and Hemingway's African Stories". Compa rative Literature Studies. 42 (3): 228 250 Trodd, Zoe (2007). "Hemingway's Camera Eye: The Problems of Language and an Int erwar Politics of Form". The Hemingway Review. 26 (2): 7 21 Wagner-Martin, Linda (2002). "Introduction". in Wagner-Martin, Linda (ed). Erne st Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises: A Casebook. New York: Oxford UP. ISBN 978-0-1 9-514573-1 Wagner-Martin, Linda (1990). "Introduction". in Wagner-Martin, Linda (ed). New Essays on Sun Also Rises. New York: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0-521-30204-3 White, William (1969). The Merrill Studies in The Sun Also Rises. Columbus: C. E. Merrill. Young, Philip (1973). Ernest Hemingway. St. Paul: Minnesota UP. ISBN 978-0-8166 -0191-2 External links[edit] Hemingway Archives, John F. Kennedy Library The Sun Also Rises: Bibliography, Washington State University

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Categories: 1926 novels Novels by Ernest Hemingway Modernist novels American autobiographical novels Novels set in the Roaring Twenties Charles Scribner's Sons books Novels set in Paris Novels set in France Novels set in Spain

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