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    [From Bolshevik “korenizatsiia” or “indigenization” to non-indigenous vanguardism and Stalinist cultural ethnocide; Historical background on the need to support the roll back of repressive V. Putin's Russian ethnic autocracy against native peoples in Crimea, Chechnya, Dagestan, Ingushetia, etc.] … Attention to the elitist and whipsaw quality of the debate among regional leftists in the last century about the role of the “Indian Question” will repay large rewards for those interested in the relationship between indigenous peoples, non-Indian power structures (including those claiming to act on the former’s behalf), and the danger of the latter falling into vanguardismo and paternalism, both by those representing the establishment and those who pretend to change it. The role of the Soviet Union and the Marxist thinkers who preceded its foundation is of particular interest because of the critical, if transitory, role they played in popularizing Indian nationalism during years in which the international Marxist perspective swung 360 degrees with regard to race and ethnicity: at first, race and ethnicity were unimportant, then it was heralded as the key to regional revolution, and in time, again relegated to obscurity. … The retreat by the Comintern anticipated a jarring about face in Soviet ethnic politics. Between 1932 and 1941, through a “Great Retreat” that paralleled the beginnings of the centralization of the Soviet economy, Soviet power abandoned the policy of encouraging and consolidating the ethno-nationality of the minorities. Russian geopolitical insecurity about the possibility that “diaspora nationalities,” such as Poles, Finns, Belorussians, Romanians and Ukrainians, were “fifth columns” for their co-nationals in neighboring states, resulted in a security driven policy of what later was called “ethnic cleansing.” The sustained period of terror reasserted Russian dominance and non-Russians were subsumed into what was for all intents and purposes a new Russian Empire, disguised under the Orwellian doctrine of the “Friendship of Peoples.” National institutions went into decline and suspect nationalities were deported. The 10 years between 1935 and 1945, in particular, saw greater appeals to Russian nationalism, and by the time of World War II, the focus had degenerated into anti-Semitism. The Tatars, Chechens and Ingush were particularly difficult to sovietize because they were clan-based, Muslim mountain people. Resistant to Soviet collectivization policy, they had also been at odds with the Russians even before the revolution of 1917. Almost all Chechens and Ingush were deported to Soviet Asia, in an effort to destroy them not as individuals, but as a people. This cultural ethnocide was their punishment for being particularly recalcitrant to Sovietization. Soviet ethnic cleansing, Terry Martin wrote, was “not accompanied by overt intentional murder. However, the ethnic deportations always included many arrests that resulted in incarceration in high-mortality prison camps.” The Soviet ethnic cleansing was distinctive for “the degree of its professionalization (including the professionalization of mass murder),” the extent of its commitment to total ethnic removal, and especially its practice in conditions of peace. It signaled an end to efforts to woo ethnic minorities into the Soviet orbit for quite some time." ____________________________________ This text was originally published in Peoples of the Earth; Ethnonationalism, Democracy and the Indigenous Challenge in 'Latin' America (Lexington Books, 2010) © 2014 Martin Edwin Andersen. All rights domestic and international reserved. May be quoted or cited or reproduced with credit to Martin Edwin Andersen and Lexington Books.

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    Elite Neglect and "Rediscovery" -- Indigenous Peoples and the Pre-V. Putin Experience in the Russia of the USSR

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    [From Bolshevik “korenizatsiia” or “indigenization” to non-indigenous vanguardism and Stalinist cultural ethnocide; Historical background on the need to support the roll back of repressive V. Putin's Russian ethnic autocracy against native peoples in Crimea, Chechnya, Dagestan, Ingushetia, etc.] … Attention to the elitist and whipsaw quality of the debate among regional leftists in the last century about the role of the “Indian Question” will repay large rewards for those interested in the relationship between indigenous peoples, non-Indian power structures (including those claiming to act on the former’s behalf), and the danger of the latter falling into vanguardismo and paternalism, both by those representing the establishment and those who pretend to change it. The role of the Soviet Union and the Marxist thinkers who preceded its foundation is of particular interest because of the critical, if transitory, role they played in popularizing Indian nationalism during years in which the international Marxist perspective swung 360 degrees with regard to race and ethnicity: at first, race and ethnicity were unimportant, then it was heralded as the key to regional revolution, and in time, again relegated to obscurity. … The retreat by the Comintern anticipated a jarring about face in Soviet ethnic politics. Between 1932 and 1941, through a “Great Retreat” that paralleled the beginnings of the centralization of the Soviet economy, Soviet power abandoned the policy of encouraging and consolidating the ethno-nationality of the minorities. Russian geopolitical insecurity about the possibility that “diaspora nationalities,” such as Poles, Finns, Belorussians, Romanians and Ukrainians, were “fifth columns” for their co-nationals in neighboring states, resulted in a security driven policy of what later was called “ethnic cleansing.” The sustained period of terror reasserted Russian dominance and non-Russians were subsumed into what was for all intents and purposes a new Russian Empire, disguised under the Orwellian doctrine of the “Friendship of Peoples.” National institutions went into decline and suspect nationalities were deported. The 10 years between 1935 and 1945, in particular, saw greater appeals to Russian nationalism, and by the time of World War II, the focus had degenerated into anti-Semitism. The Tatars, Chechens and Ingush were particularly difficult to sovietize because they were clan-based, Muslim mountain people. Resistant to Soviet collectivization policy, they had also been at odds with the Russians even before the revolution of 1917. Almost all Chechens and Ingush were deported to Soviet Asia, in an effort to destroy them not as individuals, but as a people. This cultural ethnocide was their punishment for being particularly recalcitrant to Sovietization. Soviet ethnic cleansing, Terry Martin wrote, was “not accompanied by overt intentional murder. However, the ethnic deportations always included many arrests that resulted in incarceration in high-mortality prison camps.” The Soviet ethnic cleansing was distinctive for “the degree of its professionalization (including the professionalization of mass murder),” the extent of its commitment to total ethnic removal, and especially its practice in conditions of peace. It signaled an end to efforts to woo ethnic minorities into the Soviet orbit for quite some time." ____________________________________ This text was originally published in Peoples of the Earth; Ethnonationalism, Democracy and the Indigenous Challenge in 'Latin' America (Lexington Books, 2010) © 2014 Martin Edwin Andersen. All rights domestic and international reserved. May be quoted or cited or reproduced with credit to Martin Edwin Andersen and Lexington Books.

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    110 views7 pages

    Elite Neglect and "Rediscovery": Chapter Three

    Uploaded by

    Martin Edwin Andersen
    [From Bolshevik “korenizatsiia” or “indigenization” to non-indigenous vanguardism and Stalinist cultural ethnocide; Historical background on the need to support the roll back of repressive V. Putin's Russian ethnic autocracy against native peoples in Crimea, Chechnya, Dagestan, Ingushetia, etc.] … Attention to the elitist and whipsaw quality of the debate among regional leftists in the last century about the role of the “Indian Question” will repay large rewards for those interested in the relationship between indigenous peoples, non-Indian power structures (including those claiming to act on the former’s behalf), and the danger of the latter falling into vanguardismo and paternalism, both by those representing the establishment and those who pretend to change it. The role of the Soviet Union and the Marxist thinkers who preceded its foundation is of particular interest because of the critical, if transitory, role they played in popularizing Indian nationalism during years in which the international Marxist perspective swung 360 degrees with regard to race and ethnicity: at first, race and ethnicity were unimportant, then it was heralded as the key to regional revolution, and in time, again relegated to obscurity. … The retreat by the Comintern anticipated a jarring about face in Soviet ethnic politics. Between 1932 and 1941, through a “Great Retreat” that paralleled the beginnings of the centralization of the Soviet economy, Soviet power abandoned the policy of encouraging and consolidating the ethno-nationality of the minorities. Russian geopolitical insecurity about the possibility that “diaspora nationalities,” such as Poles, Finns, Belorussians, Romanians and Ukrainians, were “fifth columns” for their co-nationals in neighboring states, resulted in a security driven policy of what later was called “ethnic cleansing.” The sustained period of terror reasserted Russian dominance and non-Russians were subsumed into what was for all intents and purposes a new Russian Empire, disguised under the Orwellian doctrine of the “Friendship of Peoples.” National institutions went into decline and suspect nationalities were deported. The 10 years between 1935 and 1945, in particular, saw greater appeals to Russian nationalism, and by the time of World War II, the focus had degenerated into anti-Semitism. The Tatars, Chechens and Ingush were particularly difficult to sovietize because they were clan-based, Muslim mountain people. Resistant to Soviet collectivization policy, they had also been at odds with the Russians even before the revolution of 1917. Almost all Chechens and Ingush were deported to Soviet Asia, in an effort to destroy them not as individuals, but as a people. This cultural ethnocide was their punishment for being particularly recalcitrant to Sovietization. Soviet ethnic cleansing, Terry Martin wrote, was “not accompanied by overt intentional murder. However, the ethnic deportations always included many arrests that resulted in incarceration in high-mortality prison camps.” The Soviet ethnic cleansing was distinctive for “the degree of its professionalization (including the professionalization of mass murder),” the extent of its commitment to total ethnic removal, and especially its practice in conditions of peace. It signaled an end to efforts to woo ethnic minorities into the Soviet orbit for quite some time." ____________________________________ This text was originally published in Peoples of the Earth; Ethnonationalism, Democracy and the Indigenous Challenge in 'Latin' America (Lexington Books, 2010) © 2014 Martin Edwin Andersen. All rights domestic and international reserved. May be quoted or cited or reproduced with credit to Martin Edwin Andersen and Lexington Books.

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    Peoples of the Earth; Ethnonationalism, Democracy and the Indigenous Challenge in Latin America (Lexington 2010)

    Chapter Three

    Elite Neglect and Rediscovery


    Miguel Angel May May, a tall man among the Maya, handsome, no in his !"s, ith a touch of gray in his hair # # # spea$s %ucatecan Maya so elo&uently that hen young people ho ha'e (egun to lose their language and culture first hear him, they shed tears for hat has (een and hat can (e in the %ucat)n# May May tells the story ith # # # rage and pride# # ## *A Maya, of the middle class, li$e me,+ May May said, * ent into a ,ord dealership here in M-rida# .e intended to (uy a ne pic$up truc$# .e as ell dressed, (ut clearly Maya# /he dealer offered him ten pesos to ash a truc$#+ It is a common e0perience for people of color in a hite orld# /he %ucat)n is not entirely a hite orld, yet the Maya suffer the most se'ere pre1udice of any large ethnic group in Me0ico# In the language of pre1udice in Me0ico, the Maya are said to (e people ith (ig heads and no (rains, too short, too dar$ and ith a strange, laugha(le 2panish accent# Earl Shorris, in Mad Mel and the Maya i

    Attention to the elitist and whi saw !"ality o# the de$ate a%ong regional le#tists in the last &ent"ry a$o"t the role o# the 'ndian ("estion will re ay large rewards #or those interested in the relationshi $etween indigeno"s eo les, non)'ndian ower str"&t"res (in&l"ding those &lai%ing to a&t on the #or%er*s $ehal#), and the danger o# the latter #alling into 'anguardismo and aternalis%, $oth $y those re resenting the esta$lish%ent and those who retend to &hange it+ ,he role o# the So-iet .nion and the Marxist thin/ers who re&eded its #o"ndation is o# arti&"lar interest $e&a"se o# the &riti&al, i# transitory, role they layed in o "lari0ing 'ndian nationalis% d"ring years in whi&h the international Marxist ers e&ti-e sw"ng 120 degrees with regard to ra&e and ethni&ity3 at #irst, ra&e and ethni&ity were "ni% ortant, then it was heralded as the /ey to regional re-ol"tion, and in ti%e, again relegated to o$s&"rity+ So-iet oli&y on nationality, whi&h re&ei-ed little attention $e#ore the #all o# the .SS4, tra&es its earliest $eginnings to the Manifesto written $y 5arl Marx and 6rederi&/ Engels+ ,hey arg"ed that &a italis% wo"ld di%inish national arti&"larity to the oint where ra&e and ethni&ity did not %atter, and held that thro"gh the ex erien&e o# &lass &on#li&t wor/ers wo"ld learn that their interests lay with one another+ ,he idea hel ed $"rnish Marxis%*s attra&ti-eness, and the early 7olshe-i/ arty ended " with an inordinate re resentation o# s"$8"gated (and th"s disad-antaged) ethni& %inorities+ 'n arri-ing at the notion that, altho"gh their "lti%ate goal was "ni-ersalisti&, they o"ght to ta/e the national !"estion into a&&o"nt in the interi%, the 7olshe-i/s also drew #ro% the ideas o# the 9ewish La$or 7"nd, as well as the wor/s o# A"strian so&ial de%o&rats who so"ght to a eal to the wor/ing &lass and to reser-e ethno)national &"lt"res+ 6irst, :+'+ Lenin (lo&/ed in in&i ient &o% etition with ;oodrow ;ilson and the .nited States o-er the i% ortan&e o# nationality), and then 9ose h Stalin i&/ed " on a -ariant o# this a eal $y o##ering land, $read and sel#)deter%ination #or ethni& nationalities+ ,h"s the <ew So-iet Man was $orn in -ario"s nationalist &ost"%es+ ,he !"estion
    1

    re%ained, howe-er3 ;as this a strategi& %o-e or a signal o# real ideologi&al &o%%it%ent to l"ralis%= ,he oli&ies "rs"ed $y the early 7olshe-i/s, $oreni3atsiia or indigeni0ation was a ro hyla&ti& + + + designed to de#"se and re-ent the de-elo %ent o# nationalis%+ii ,he oli&y ro-ided #or the ethni& &onsolidation o# the new So-iet .nion*s %any eo les and s e&i#i&ally so"ght, $y %eans o# %assi-ely re&r"iting non) 4"ssians as lo&al &adre in the >o%%"nist arty, to extend the e##e&ti-e rea&h o# So-iet ower $y %a/ing it ta/e root in non)4"ssian soil+ .ni#ied national lang"ages were &reated+ S&hools, &"lt"ral and s&ienti#i& instit"tions were esta$lished? assi%ilation was dis&o"raged? and a oli&y o# %o$ili0ation was initiated that ranged #ro% the re "$li&s, thro"gh the o$lasts, and down to indi-id"al &olle&ti-e #ar%s+ Sha ing and in#or%ing these oli&ies was the so)&alled @ied%ont rin&i le (na%ed a#ter the national &ore " on whi&h the %odern 'talian state was #or%ed), the ostentatio"s ro%otion o# national instit"tions,iii where$y the res e&t#"l treat%ent o# nations within the .SS4 was %eant to ro-ide to their &o)nationals o"tside the So-iet $orders a $enign -iew o# the &o%%"nist regi%e+ ,his was seen as a way o# #a&ilitating their in&or oration in the #"t"re into an ex anded So-iet state+ Aowe-er, $y #a-oring the non)4"ssian nationalities, the %a8ority 4"ssian nation was la&ed at a disad-antage, with 4"ssian &ha"-inis% stri&tly "nished+ ,he strategi& nat"re o# the o ening to E"ro e*s %inorities &an $e seen in a 1B2C @olit$"ro de&ree, whi&h s e&i#i&ally %andated that $order region %inorities sho"ld ha-e %ore national rights than %inorities in the So-iet &entral regions+ Meanwhile, the >o%intern, (the >o%%"nist 'nternational, also /nown as the ,hird 'nternational) an international >o%%"nist organi0ation #o"nded in Mos&ow in Mar&h 1B1B to &lai% leadershi as the -ang"ard o# the glo$al re-ol"tiono# the world so&ialist %o-e%ent, hel ed $ring the iss"e o# indigeno"s rights and the national !"estion s"rro"nding 'ndian str"ggles in the A%eri&as into the non)'ndian world o# the A%eri&as+ 'n So"th A%eri&a, the wor/s o# Lenin and Stalin la&ed the right to sel#) deter%ination o# national %inorities within the &ontext o# anti)&olonial str"ggle? the >o%intern ro osed the &reation o# an 'ndian 4e "$li& along the lines o# the old 'n/a /a antinsuyu+ ,he >o%intern, wrote Latin A%eri&an historian Mar& 7e&/er, -iewed Latin A%eri&an &o"ntries as si%ilar to %"ltinational 4"ssia itsel#, their s"$ordinate nationalities li-ing side $y side with a do%inant ;estern &"lt"re+ D ressed nations had the right to sel#)deter%ination, in&l"ding the right to esta$lish their own inde endent nations+ Minority o "lations, howe-er, had the right to the reser-ation and de-elo %ent o# their lang"ages and &"lt"res, $"t not the right to se&ede to #or% se arate states+i,he 6irst Latin A%eri&an >o%%"nist >on#eren&e held in 7"enos Aires in 9"ne 1B2B, &a"sed the %ostly E"ro)&entri& &o%%"nist arties o# the region to dis&o-er the
    2

    'ndian ("estion+ A year earlier the Sixth >ongress o# the >o%intern had addressed the art that ra&ial and ethni& %inorities were to lay in the &ontext o# a &o"ntry*s re-ol"tionary " hea-al+ ,he eriod, noted one s&holar, o##ers a "ni!"e window thro"gh whi&h to -iew de$ates within the le#t o-er the role o# ethni&ity in the $"ilding o# a so&ial %o-e%ent+- 't was at the Argentine %eeting that @er"-ian 9osE >arlos MariFteg"i set the stage #or s"$se!"ent generations o# le#tists to t"rn their $a&/s on the indigeno"s (and arti&"larly, the &"lt"ral) agenda, &lai%ing that their o ression was d"e to their stat"s in the region*s &lass str"&t"re rather than to end"ring !"estions o# ra&e, ethni&ity or national identi#i&ation+ 'n his extensi-e treatise El ro$le%a de las ra0as en la A%eri&a Latina (,he @ro$le% o# 4a&e in Latin A%eri&a), MariFteg"i held that the 'ndian ("estion was in its essen&e art o# a larger ro$le% relating to the "ne!"al distri$"tion o# land and related e&ono%i& ex loitation+ Ae too/ iss"e with the >o%intern*s s"ggestion that an 'ndian a"tono%o"s re "$li& $e &reated, "sing &lass arg"%ents to re$"t the 4ed %etro olis* ro osal3 ,he &onstr"&tion o# an a"tono%o"s state #ro% the 'ndian ra&e wo"ld not lead to the di&tatorshi o# the 'ndian roletariat, nor %"&h less the #or%ation o# an 'ndian state witho"t &lasses+ E-ent"ally, he said, an 'ndian $o"rgeois state wo"ld $e &reated that shared all the internal and external &ontradi&tions o# other $o"rgeois states+ As 7e&/er ointed o"t, MariFteg"i*s -iew re#le&ted a #"nda%ental di-ision $etween ethno)&"lt"ral and oliti&al de#initions o# nationalis%, with the @er"-ian an&hored in the $elie# that So"th A%eri&a*s existing nation)states were already too esta$lished to &all #or rethin/ing their &on#ig"ration+ At its &ore, MariFteg"i &hallenged essentialist notions o# nationalis%+ MariFteg"i e% hasi0ed that 'ndian o-erty and %arginali0ation were #"nda%entally an iss"e o# &lass o ression, and that the sol"tion to 'ndian ro$le%s lay in ending the a$"si-e #e"dalisti& land ten"re atterns "nder whi&h 'ndians s"##ered+-i At $otto%, the &ontending -iews o# the two le#tist #a&tions in 7"enos Aires shared a -ang"ardist orientation and, altho"gh osed as $enign in its intent, the MariFteg"i -iew a&t"ally aralleled that o# %ore &onser-ati-e indigenistas who ro%oted indigenismo, the assi%ilation o# 'ndians rather than re&ognition o# their &"lt"ral distin&ti-eness # MariFteg"i held that the 'ndian str"ggle #or%ed $"t art o# a larger $attle $y wor/ers and easants to &reate a new so&ialist so&ietyin essen&e a re-ol"tionary &lass)$ased -ariant o# assi%ilationis%+ 'n addition, the >o%intern*s -iews were extra olations o# ideas set down $y Lenin and Stalin? MariFteg"i hi%sel# a arently did not &ons"lt with <ati-e A%eri&an leaders in arri-ing at his own &on&l"sions+ -ii 7e&/er oints o"t that in MariFteg"i*s se%inal 2e'en Interpreti'e Essays on Peru'ian 4eality he e&hoed L"is :al&Fr&el*s &o%%ent that the 'ndigeno"s roletariat awaits its Lenin + + + i% lying that the %o-e%ent #or their li$eration wo"ld &o%e #ro% an external so"r&e rather than #ro% within their &o%%"nities+ 'n ro$ing who this Lenin %ight $e, 7e&/er &ites the words o# 'sraeli historian Gerardo Lei$ner, who &ontrasts the idea o# a ," a& A%ar")style restoration o# /a antinsuyu with an "r$an mesti3o indigenista leading
    1

    'ndians in a %oderni0ing so&ialist re-ol"tion+ /he first can (e interpreted as a reactionary impulse and MariFteg"i o osed it, and the second re&uires the inter'ention of outsiders such as Mari)tegui#('tali&s added)+-iii <on)'ndians li/e MariFteg"i, and their desire to s"$s"%e indigeno"s de%ands thro"gh an e&ono%i& ris% la&ed the @er"-ian*s osition in o osition to the &"lt"ral and national de%ands, howe-er in&hoate or di-erse, %ade $y 'ndian eo les+ MariFteg"i*s death less than a year a#ter the &on#eren&e re%o-ed one o# Latin A%eri&a*s intelle&t"als %ost interested in the 'ndigeno"s !"estion, there$y de ri-ing >entral and So"th A%eri&an %ilitants o# anything $"t a #ree0e)#ra%e o# his -iews on the -ital iss"e+ (>onte% orary le#tists, nonetheless, &ontin"e to gi-e ho%age to MariFteg"i as a -isionary &ha% ion o# indigeno"s eo les+ ;riting in the Marxist Monthly 4e'ie , 4oxanne H"n$ar)Drti0 ad%itted that the @er"-ian was ne-er a$le to -isit the Andean region and had no indigeno"s &olleag"es+ Aowe-er, she &ontin"ed, than/s to the g"iding light and -ision o# MariFteg"i*s wor/, $oth &o%%"nist and indigeno"s organi0ers early on were &ogni0ant that the 'ndigeno"s eo les o# the Andes are nationalities, whi&h, in the Marxist)Leninist sense, ha-e the right to sel#) deter%ination, altho"gh MariFteg"i arg"ed against the ra&ti&ality o# a se arate Andean state+) 6or its art, the >o%intern a eared to lose interest in laying the indigeno"s &ard in its e##orts to ro%ote re-ol"tion in the he%is here? it ne-er held another &ontinental &ongress and the 'ndian ("estion a eared %ostly to #ade #ro% le#twing oliti&s #or se-eral generations+ Aowe-er, altho"gh the >o%intern*s s e&i#i& role in o "lari0ing 'ndian nationalis% in the de$ate ended " $eing short li-ed, the So-iet idea o# en&a s"lating their str"ggle as that o# nationalities is seen as &ontri$"ting %"&h later to indigeno"s de%ands+ix ,he retreat $y the >o%intern anti&i ated a 8arring a$o"t #a&e in So-iet ethni& oliti&s+ 7etween 1B12 and 1BI1, thro"gh a Great 4etreat that aralleled the $eginnings o# the &entrali0ation o# the So-iet e&ono%y, So-iet ower a$andoned the oli&y o# en&o"raging and &onsolidating the ethno)nationality o# the %inorities+ 4"ssian geo oliti&al inse&"rity a$o"t the ossi$ility that dias ora nationalities, s"&h as @oles, 6inns, 7elor"ssians, 4o%anians and ./rainians, were #i#th &ol"%ns #or their &o) nationals in neigh$oring states, res"lted in a se&"rity dri-en oli&y o# what later was &alled ethni& &leansing+ ,he s"stained eriod o# terror reasserted 4"ssian do%inan&e and non)4"ssians were s"$s"%ed into what was #or all intents and "r oses a new 4"ssian E% ire, disg"ised "nder the Drwellian do&trine o# the 6riendshi o# @eo les+ <ational instit"tions went into de&line and s"s e&t nationalities were de orted+ ,he 10 years $etween 1B1C and 1BIC, in arti&"lar, saw greater a eals to 4"ssian nationalis%, and $y the ti%e o# ;orld ;ar '', the #o&"s had degenerated into anti)Se%itis%+ ,he ,atars, >he&hens and 'ng"sh were arti&"larly di##i&"lt to so-ieti0e $e&a"se they were &lan)$ased, M"sli% %o"ntain eo le+ 4esistant to So-iet &olle&ti-i0ation oli&y, they had also $een at odds with the 4"ssians e-en $e#ore the re-ol"tion o# 1B1J+
    I

    Al%ost all >he&hens and 'ng"sh were de orted to So-iet Asia, in an e##ort to destroy the% not as indi-id"als, $"t as a eo le+ ,his &"lt"ral ethno&ide was their "nish%ent #or $eing arti&"larly re&al&itrant to So-ieti0ation+ So-iet ethni& &leansing, ,erry Martin wrote, was not a&&o% anied $y o-ert intentional %"rder+ Aowe-er, the ethni& de ortations always in&l"ded %any arrests that res"lted in in&ar&eration in high) %ortality rison &a% s+ ,he So-iet ethni& &leansing was distin&ti-e #or the degree o# its ro#essionali0ation (in&l"ding the ro#essionali0ation o# %ass %"rder), the extent o# its &o%%it%ent to total ethni& re%o-al, and es e&ially its ra&ti&e in &onditions o# ea&e+x 't signaled an end to e##orts to woo ethni& %inorities into the So-iet or$it #or !"ite so%e ti%e+ ;ithin the Latin A%eri&an &ontext, the exa% le o# how Mexi&an le#tists e-ol-ed in their thin/ing a$o"t the role o# indigeno"s eo les in state #or%ation ro-ides an early exa% le o# the %ani "lation o# an indigeno"s ast and &onte% orary yearning+ 'n the two de&ades #ollowing that Mexi&o*s &i-il war, indigenismo $e&a%e one o# the %ost ower#"l -oi&es in ex laining &"lt"re and so&iety + + + &reating a "$li& s a&e #or the 'ndian in ost)re-ol"tionary Mexi&o + + + and whose i%age was a&&lai%ed + + + as a %odel #or the #"t"re o# the nation+ As Alexander S+ Hawson has ointed o"t, the ideali0ed 'ndian was $ased on those indigeno"s eo les who &o"ld tra&e their an&estry to a s lendid re)>olo%$ian ast and who e%erged #ro% this ers e&ti-e not si% ly a &"lt"ral i&on, $"t at ti%es + + + the -ery %odel o# egalitarian oliti&s, so&ial &ons&ien&e, and -irt"e that Indigenistas (and re-ol"tionaries in general) so"ght to "se to &onstr"&t a %odern re-ol"tionary order+ 6ar #ro% $eing an Kother,* this 'ndian was &learly an integral %e%$er o# the national &o%%"nity+ 'n this &ontext, so%e 'ndian &"lt"ral ra&ti&es $e&a%e in Mexi&o a <ew ;orld e!"i-alent to the Sta/hano-ian ;or/erthe %ythi& s" erhero o# so&ialist realis% in the So-iet .nionas a %odel #or ideali0ed -al"es and s e&i#i& re-ol"tionary so&ial re#or%s+ Hawson notes that3 ;hile &ertain traditions, s"&h as the "se o# wit&h do&tors, re resented an i% edi%ent to rogress, other #a&ets o# 'ndian so&ial organi0ation, s"&h as their &o%%"nal traditions, &o"ld ser-e as a %odel #or a %ore e!"ita$le and K rogressi-e* nation+ LAM &learly + + + %ythologi0ed &onstr"&tion o# the relationshi $etween the 'ndian &o%%"nal ast and the agrarian re#or% ro%ised $y the 4e-ol"tion + + + rested on an "nderstanding that 'ndians ossessed a dee ro rietary lo-e #or the land+ + + + ;ith the ad-ent o# >ardenis%o Lthe ideologi&al "nder innings o# the %o-e%ent headed $y @resident La0aro >FrdenasM and the o "lari0ation o# Marxist no%en&lat"re, Indigenistas in&reasingly &a%e to des&ri$e sele&t 'ndian &"lt"res as the e!"als o# oor mesti3os L eo le o# %ixed an&estryM+ + + + @art o# a larger &"rrent in >ardenis%o whi&h -alori0ed the 'ndian as &entral to the nation while de&rying the e##e&ts o# &lass ex loitation, this -iew oint %ade 'ndians %e%$ers o# a single roletariat whi&h in&l"ded the "r$an oor and other campesinos# As a &lass, 'ndians (li/e other r"ral oor) were o ressed, $a&/ward, and in need o# -ast a%o"nts o# #inan&ial and other
    C

    assistan&e, $"t they existed &learly within a #ra%ewor/ o# a nation in whi&h their &"lt"ral Kotherness* was really only a %atter o# e&ono%i& ro$le%s &reated $y their o ression+xi Early non)Marxist e##orts to get indigeno"s rights on the international agenda, another s&holar noted, re%ained &"rio"sly ho$$led $y olari0ing >old ;ar ha$its and sloganeering that itted the ;est*s #o&"s on indi-id"al rights against the Eastern 7lo&*s &lai% that gro" rights were all that really %attered+ xii E-en the 1BIN .nited <ations .ni-ersal He&laration o# A"%an 4ights #ailed not only to not s e&i#i&ally designate sa#eg"ards #or indigeno"s eo les $"t "tterly #ailed to en&o% ass the &ir&"%stan&es and the world-iews o# indigeno"s eo les + + + ,o "t it $l"ntly, the light o# indigeno"s and %inority eo les was -irt"ally in-isi$le as an international iss"e when the .nited <ations was #o"nded, and re%ained so #or twenty)#i-e years therea#ter+xiii

    + /he 5ation, He&e%$er 1N, 2002+ + ,erry Martin, /he Affirmati'e Action Empire; 5ations and 5ationalism in the 2o'iet 6nion , + 122+ iii + Martin, ,he Drigins o# So-iet Ethni& >leansing, /he 7ournal of Modern .istory, :ol+ J0, <o+ I , He&+, 1BBN, + N12+ i+ 7e&/er, MariFteg"i, o + &it+, + I2I+ + 6ran&is&a da Ga%%a, La 'nterna&ional >o%"nista, MariFteg"i y el Kdes&"$ri%iento* del indOgena, Anuario Mariateguiano, :ol+ B+ <o+ B, 1BBJ, + C1+ -i + 7e&/er, MariFteg"i, o + &it+, + ICN, IC2+ -ii + 7e&/er, o + &it+, + IJ1+ -iii + Gerardo Lei$ner, El mito del socialismo ind8gena de Mari)tegui, + 1CC? 7e&/er, MariFteg"i, o + &it+, + IJ1 ix + Melina Sel-erston)S&her, Ethnopolitics in Ecuador9 Indigenous 4ights and the 2trengthening of Democracy , + 21? 7e&/er, MariFteg"i, o + &it+, + IJ1? H"n$ar)Drti0, 'ndigeno"s 4esistan&e in the A%eri&as and the Lega&y o# MariFteg"i, Monthly 4e'ie , Se te%$er, 200B+ x + Martin, ,he Drigins o# So-iet Ethni& >leansing, o + &it+, + N21, N22+ xi + Alexander S+ Hawson, 6ro% Models #or the <ation to Model >iti0ens3 Indigenismo and the K4e-indi&ation* o# the Mexi&an 'ndian, 1B20)I0, 7ournal of Latin American 2tudies, :ol+ 10, <o+ 2 (May 1BBN), + 2N0, 2N2)2NI, 2NN)2NB, 2BI)2BC+ xii + ,"ll$erg, o + &it+, + C2+ xiii + 4i&hard A+ 6al/, .uman 4ights .ori3ons9 /he Pursuit of 7ustice in a :lo(ali3ing ;orld , + C1, 111+
    ii

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