Circuit breakers are used in nearly all electrical systems from residential dwellings to electric utility facilities.

. We rely on them to protect our systems from damaging overcurrents and short circuits. Understanding circuit breaker construction and operation is key to realizing their limitations and proper usage Basic components and operation of popular types of circuit breakers, including molded-case (MCCB), insulated-case (ICCB), low-voltage power (LVPCB), medium-voltage air-magnetic (MVACB), and medium-voltage vacuum (MVVCB) circuit breakers.

MCCBs contain five components a frame, operating mechanism, interrupting structure, trip unit, and terminal connections. These components are shown in Fig. 1.

1. Frame houses and supports the components and also provides insulation to contain the arc. 2. Operating Mechanism opens and closes the contacts. 3. InterruptingStructure includes the arc chutes and all current-carrying parts except the trip unit. Arc chutes are designed to interrupt the arc quickly, usually 1.5 to two cycles for MCCBs and ICCBs. 4. Trip Unit senses abnormal current flow and causes the operating mechanism to open the contacts. MCCB trip units are usually of the thermal-magnetic type. 5. Terminal Connections provides a suitable connection from the breaker to the conductor. Moldedcase circuit breakers typically bolt directly to the bus.

ICCBs have the same basic construction as MCCBs, but use solid-state and digital trip units (as opposed to thermal-magnetic trip units) and have much higher interrupting ratings. ICCBs are often draw-out type, as opposed to bolt-in, although they can be either.

LVPCBs (Photo 1 at right) are also known as air-frame and draw-out circuit breakers. There are five major assemblies on a typical LVPCB:

1. Disconnects or Stabs Main disconnects connect the circuit breaker to the main bus. Secondary disconnects connect the circuit breaker to the control circuits.

Ground disconnect connects the circuit breaker to the ground bus. Arcing transfers the arc to the arc runners in the arc chute. Main carry the main load current. Auxiliary make and break the control circuits.

2. Contacts

3. Arc Extinguishers or Arc Chutes interrupt and contain the arc. 4. Operating Mechanism opens and closes the contacts. 5. Overcurrent Trip Device modern circuit breakers have digital trip units, although older units could be air dashpot or oil dashpot types. Typical functions are long-time delay (LTD), short-time delay (STD), instantaneous (INST), and ground fault (GF).

Medium-voltage circuit breakers have the same basic components as their lower voltage counterparts, but use protective relays that are separately mounted in the switchgear. MVVCBs use a vacuum bottle instead of contact assemblies and arc chutes found on MVACBs

Main Disconnects (stabs)

The main disconnects connect the circuit breaker to the bus. LVPCBs typically use either vertical or horizontal rows of straight, spring-loaded fingers to make contact with the bus bar, although on larger frame sizes they may have round or tulip-style disconnects. Most medium-voltage metal-clad circuit breakers will use tulip-style disconnects and have some type of spring around them to ensure good contact with the bus. Mediumvoltage, draw-out circuit breakers have the primary disconnects in the switchgear guarded by a shutter mechanism installed in the switchgear cubicle. As the circuit breaker is removed (racked out), the shutter closes. When the circuit breaker is racked into the connected position, the shutter opens, allowing the primary disconnects to make.

Secondary Disconnects (stabs)

The secondary disconnects bring power from the control circuits into the circuit breaker. The typical arrangement for this breaker is to connect and disconnect these stabs as the breaker is racked in and out of its cubicle.

Ground Disconnect (contact shoe)

The frame of the circuit breaker must be connected to the ground bus so that a short circuit or fault will be taken to ground immediately and allow the protective devices to operate as quickly as possible. The ground disconnect connects the frame of the circuit breaker to the ground bus. The ground disconnect is the first connection made when racking a breaker in and is the last connection broken when racking it out. This ensures that the frame of the breaker is grounded whenever there is a possibility of the frame being energized.

Arcing Contacts
Arcing contacts are designed to prevent the main contacts from being damaged and can be made of alloys of silver, cadmium, tungsten, and zinc. The tungsten, cadmium, and zinc make the arcing contacts harder, so when the contacts open and close they will not deteriorate as quickly. When the circuit breaker opens, the main contacts part first and then the arcing contacts part, drawing the arc across them. When the circuit breaker closes, the arcing contacts make first, again drawing the arc across them. This prevents the main contacts from carrying the arc and preserves them. The contact surfaces are shaped so that they have a rubbing motion, referred to as wipe. Wipe helps clean the contact surface, and is caused by one of the contact surfaces being contoured and the other surface being flat. When the contacts close, the contoured surface will have a wiping motion against the flat surfaced contact. Arcing contacts will usually have an arcing horn on the very top of the contact structure. The arcing horn aids in transferring the arc from the arcing contact to the arc runner in the arc chute.

Main Contacts
The main contacts are constructed of a softer alloy using less tungsten or zinc and more silver. They carry the load current, so they must have a lower resistance to current flow. The mains are larger, which also decreases their resistance. Auxiliary contacts control electrical functions within the circuit breaker, such as turning the spring-charging motor on and off at the appropriate times. On LVPCBs, auxiliary contacts are mounted on the frame of the breaker (Photo 8 at right). Medium-voltage metal-clad switchgear will typically have the auxiliary contacts mounted in the switchgear, rather than the breaker frame. Auxiliary contacts are mechanically driven from the operating mechanism and are used for control and indicating circuits. They are connected to the operating mechanism by a linkage and operate at the same time the main contacts do

Arc Extinguishers
Arc extinguishers (arc chutes) contain the arc, stretch it out, cool it, and deionize it. This occurs within one-tenth of a second or less and is critical to safe operation of the circuit breaker and power system. The time it takes to interrupt an arc is known as the maximum total clearing time the time from the start of the arc until it is completely extinguished. This characteristic is used to properly coordinate power systems so they will trip in the right sequence (selective tripping). Selective tripping is also referred to as power system coordination, as the devices will operate in their proper sequence when this is performed correctly. When the contacts begin to open, the hot arc will rise. Most air circuit breakers will have their arc chutes positioned above the contact assemblies, as the natural tendency of the arc is to rise and aid in extinguishing the arc. The arc is hurried along the process by various components in the arc chute, such as puffers, blowout coils, arc runners, and arcing horns. There are exceptions to this arrangement. One manufacturers breaker positions the arc chute to the rear of the breaker.

Vacuum Bottles
An alternative that has virtually replaced MVACBs is the MVVCB. Vacuum circuit breakers interrupt the arc by denying it air. In a pure vacuum, there can be no arc. Even though the vacuum in vacuum bottles is very good, it isnt perfect so some arcing does take place. The arc is interrupted very quickly, usually in two to three cycles, depending on the application. Photo 13 is a vacuum bottle cut-away to show its components. Vacuum bottles require very little maintenance when compared to air-magnetic contact assemblies. The contact moves only about in. in the vacuum bottle, and the opening springs are much lighter. This reduces wear on the assembly and also reduces the weight, because heavy metal supports and frame can be decreased. The primary components of a vacuum bottle include:
Bottle Made of extremely hardened ceramic or glass. The bottle must contain the explosive force of an arc. Flexible Metal Bellows Soldered/welded to the moving contact stem, it maintains the seal between the moving contact and the bottle. Bellows Shield Protects the metal bellows from the intense heat of the arc. Since the vacuum is not perfect, there will be some arcing inside the bottle.

Contacts No arcing and mains here, just one set of contacts. When an arc is interrupted, some of the metal is vaporized. Most recollects onto the contact surface, while some drifts toward the inside of the bottle. Metal Vapor Condensing (arc) Shield Since some small quantity of the contact face does not recombine onto the contact face, it starts heading toward the bottle wall. The metal vapor condensing shield is designed so both ends are open and do not contact the bottle. Any metal vapor that drifts to it cannot make a short between the contacts.

Circuit breaker operation. Modern operating mechanisms are quick-make, quick-break. This means that the speed of contact operation is independent of the speed of the control handle. Operating mechanisms are also referred to as stored energy mechanisms, because there are both opening springs and closing springs. One set of springs usually has tension on it. For this reason, use extreme care when working on or near circuit breakers. They have heavy moving contact assemblies and powerful springs. If your hand was between the moving and stationary contacts when it closed, it could maim you.

Closing springs do not hold the contacts closed. Over a period of time, they would weaken, causing the contacts to bounce, vibrate, and burn. The contacts are held in the closed position by a prop and roller operating mechanism. The prop and roller puts the contact linkage into a mechanical bind, forcing the contacts to stay tightly closed. A typical prop and roller mechanism is illustrated in Figs. 2, 3, and 4. Figure 2 shows an operating mechanism in the closed position. The insulated coupling (12) holds the contacts closed due to parts 2, 5, 6, 11, and 14 being placed in an interference fit. The trip latch (11) holds the secondary latch (14) from rotating clockwise. The secondary latch is positioned against the secondary latch roller (6 yellow), which in turn extends the cam (main) roller (5 red) against the prop (2). The opening spring (15) is not shown in this view, but is exerting pressure on the contacts to open Note that the secondary latch (14) is held against the secondary latch roller (6), which is pushing the main roller (5) and its linkage into a vertical position. The main roller is in turn held against the Prop (2), which prevents it from overextending. The centerline of the insulating coupling pin is in a straight line with the main roller through the camshaft. In this position, the contacts are unable to open until the linkage collapses, which cannot happen until the trip latch (11) releases the secondary latch (14).

Figure 3 shows the same mechanism in the tripped position. To open the breaker, the trip latch is rotated clockwise, allowing the secondary latch to rotate counter-clockwise. When it does, the main roller (5) and the secondary latch roller (6) collapse. This allows the opening springs to pull the contacts open. Part 7 is a bell crank lever, which is used to change motion in one direction into motion in another direction. As the linkage collapses, the bell crank rotates, allowing the contacts to open.

Figure 4 shows the mechanism in the reset position. This position is the condition of the mechanism just before closing. The trip latch (11) and the secondary latch (14) are reset to the same position as when the breaker is in the closed position. To put the mechanism in this position, the cam (3) has to be rotated slightly counter-clockwise until the prop (2) is lifted up, allowing the main roller (5) and linkage (green) to slip into the crook of the prop. By doing this, the linkage is slightly extended, and the secondary latch (14) engages the front of the frame, as shown (in blue), which allows a gap between the trip latch and the secondary latch. The prop and cam reset to their original position, and, if the breaker close button is pressed, the closing springs will accelerate the contacts closed. The cam and prop will rotate, extending the linkage and forcing the components into the same positions as shown in Fig. 2.

Broken Breakers
In many facilities, the breaker maintenance program consists of "replace when nuisance tripping becomes intolerable." Yet, nuisance tripping isn't the worst failure mode. It's far worse when the breaker just doesn't trip. This failure mode means you have no circuit protection. Breakers fail in this "no trip" mode for a variety of reasons, all of which can be addressed in a way that nearly guarantees this mode will not occur. Among the causes:

Dust accumulation. Grease absent, hardened, or contaminated.

Fatigue of metal parts. Trip linkage is broken or out of adjustment. Dashpot leaked.

If you look at that list, you can see these are essentially "time in service" issues. You can't prevent them, but you can correct them via "fix or replace.

How can you tell if a breaker is good or not? What you don't want to do is "test by tripping." That method merely proves the breaker can be opened it does not prove that the breaker will automatically open or will do so at the correct setting. Doing this with loads on the breaker is extremely unsafe once you get beyond the small branch circuit breakers. Before opening a breaker, remove the loads by opening all downstream breakers (using lockout/tagout). The process of verifying if a breaker is good consists of many tasks. The first task is to remove the loads and take it out of service. Using your DMM, verify that this breaker is deenergized. Now you're ready for the next step, which is a visual and mechanical inspection. Your maintenance procedure for circuit breakers should begin with inspection. That includes such things as:

Inspect breaker cubicle for signs of arcing or flash. Note any issues. Visually examine conductors for discoloration and signs of insulation damage. Look for signs of insect or rodent invasion in the surrounding panel. Look for any broken parts, loose hardware (e.g., a bolt on the floor), and other signs of mechanical damage. In addition, follow the manufacturer's guidelines for:

Testing and inspecting mechanical linkages and other components. Don't try to fix these; order replacements. Cleaning mechanical components. The main issue here is to prevent actually spreading grime via improper cleaning. Lubricating mechanical components. Use the specified lubricant, not whatever's handy. Mixing incompatible greases can easily destroy a $2,500 breaker. Apply only in the amounts and locations specified.

Previously, we addressed some items you should include in your breaker maintenance procedures. Now, we'll look at three more such items. These are typically mentioned together. The industry jargon for these is "check anchorage, alignment, and grounding."

What do these really mean?

Anchorage. Typically, a breaker mounts to its enclosure (or draw-out rack) via several bolts. Check all fastening points. Alignment. This test procedure involves operating the breaker multiple times to ensure the secondary connectors properly engage. The actual testing doesn't take long, but setting it up could take considerable time due to load disconnecting requirements and necessary safety procedures. Grounding. Breakers in your facility are bonded, not grounded (see NEC Art. 100 definitions). At a minimum, visually inspect. To maximize reliability, test the bonding connections with an AC lowohm meter.

When the breaker maintenance procedure says "inspect contacts," do more than just verify their presence. Before examining the breaker contacts, inspect the breaker cubicle. If the breaker operated under load, then there's a good chance you'll see "welding slag" on the bottom or walls of the enclosure. The metallic particles may not be readily visible, so shine a light at various angles to help spot these. Because this metal coating is not part of the original design, it needs to be removed after sufficient lockout/tagout. Use a soft-bristled brush and vacuum; make slow strokes with the brush so you arent creating any clouds of metal particles. If the material still won't come off, make a note to clean the enclosure during the next outage rather than use volatile solvents when the surrounding switchgear is energized. Breaker contacts should look fairly new even after years of service. Why? Because with properly aligned contacts, the only time severe damage should occur is when the breaker operates under load. Before manually operating a breaker, methodically shut down all connected loads. Ideally, you will open a breaker only when there's no current flow across its contacts. Of course, contact surfaces aren't perfectly smooth, and you don't get 100% contact between all surface points on the respective contacts. Some arcing will occur, and over time the surfaces will become pitted. You can typically recondition (by filing or sanding) the contact faces. Make sure you take photographs before and after filing. But consult the breaker manual before reconditioning; there should be a specification on how thick the resultant contact must be. If you can't make that spec, replace the contacts.

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Sometimes, it would be more accurate to call breaker maintenance "breaker breaking" because of the way it gets done. Common breaker maintenance mistakes include:

Dimensional adjustments (e.g., contact wipe). Adjust per the manufacturer's recommendations, but only if they need to be adjusted. Bolted bus connections. Retightening these "just in case they are loose" weakens them. Instead, conduct conductivity measurements across the connections using an AC resistance meter (and infrared inspection prior to breaker maintenance) to identify which connections need corrections. Disassemble and clean, installing any new hardware (e.g., lockwashers) possible, and then tighten to the recommended torque. Lubrication. Use only the lubricant recommended by the manufacturer. If you mix incompatible greases, the resulting compound may be extremely abrasive. Always clean before lubricating, and apply only the recommended amount of lubricant.

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