CHAPTER 1

SEQUENCES AND INFINITE SERIES (10 meetings)

Sequences and limit of a sequence
Monotonic and bounded sequence
Infinite series of constant terms
Infinite series of positive terms
Alternating series
Power series
Differentiation and Integration of Power Series
Taylor and Maclaurin series

CHAPTER OBJECTIVE
At the end of the chapter, you should be able
to:
1.Determine if a given sequence is convergent or
divergent.

2.Determine if a given series is convergent or
divergent.

3.Differentiate/integrate an infinite series.
CHAPTER OBJECTIVE
At the end of the chapter, you should be able
to:

4. Find the interval and radius of convergence of
a given series.

5. Write the Maclaurin/Taylor series expansion
of a function.
1.1 Sequences
A sequence of real numbers
is a function that assigns to each positive integer
a number .

DOMAIN:

The numbers in the range are called the elements
or terms of the sequence.


1 2
, ,..., ,...
n
a a a
n
n
a
N
Some books use Domain: W
1.1 Sequences
NOTATIONS:
{ }
1
n
n
a
+
=
{ }
n
a
( )
{ }
f n
Whats next in the sequence?




0, 3, 8, 15, 24, 35,

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,
1 1 3 1 3 5 1 3 5 7
, , , ,
2 2 4 2 4 6 2 4 6 8


1 3 5 7 9
2 4 6 8 10


48
21
NOTE
Fibonacci sequence: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,

Iterative/Recursive Relation (difference equation):
+ 2 = + 1 + ,
(1) = 1, (2) = 1

General term (solution to the difference equation):
=
5 + 5
10
1 + 5
2
1
+
5 5
10
1 5
2
1


FYI: lim

(+1)
()
= =
1+ 5
2
= 1.618 (golden ratio)
Recurrence
formula
Explicit
formula
OUR INTEREST IN SEQUENCES:
Behavior of
( )
f n
n +
as
Let .
( )
lim
n
f n L
+
=
OUR INTEREST IN SEQUENCES:
Some indicators of existence of limit:
increasing or decreasing
bounded
monotonicity is not necessary
boundedness is necessary but not sufficient
Example 1.
Let .
( )
2
1 f n n =
n
( )
f n
1 2 3 4
5
6 7
0 3
8
15
24 35 48
n
( )
f n
1 2 3 4
5
6 7
0 3
8
15
24 35 48
1
10
Example 2.
Let .
( ) ( )
1
1
n
g n
+
=
n
( )
g n
1 2 3 4
5
6 7
1 1
1
1 1
1 1
n
( )
g n
1 2 3 4
5
6 7
1
1 1
1
1 1
1 1
1
1
Example 3.
Let .
( )
n
h n e

=
n
( )
h n
1 2 3 4
5
6 7
1
e
2
1
e
3
1
e
4
1
e
5
1
e
6
1
e
7
1
e
n
( )
h n
1 2 3 4
5
6 7
1
e
2
1
e
3
1
e
4
1
e
5
1
e
6
1
e
7
1
e
1
Example 4.
Let .
( ) ( )
1
1
n
j n
n
=
n
( )
j n
1 2 3 4
5
6 7
1
1
2
1
3

1
4
1
5

1
6
1
7

n
( )
j n
1 2 3 4
5
6 7
1
1
2
1
3

1
4
1
5

1
6
1
7

1
1
1
{ } ( )
+
=
e
1
1
where 3.9 1
assume [0,1]
n n n n
x x x x
x
Example 5. Try this in MS Excel
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 10 20 30 40 50
Chaos!
The Limit of a Sequence
The limit of a sequence f is the real
number L if for any , however small,
there exists a number such that if
is a natural number and if ,
then .
0 > c
0 > N
N n >
( ) c < L n f
n
We write:
( )
lim
n
f n L
+
=
Example
Consider
lim

1
1

= 1
For any real number > 0, take
=
1

If > , then
>
1

>
1

>
1

> 1
1

1 .


We need to find this Illustration:

Suppose = 0.01

=
1
0.01
= 100

Hence, for all > 100, the
distance 1
1

1 is less
than 0.01.

Theorem.
If and is defined for every

positive integer then .
( )
lim
x
f x L
+
= f
( )
lim
n
f n L
+
=
Recall: lim 0
n
n
e

+
=
Note that is defined for
every positive integer and .
( )

=
x
f x e
lim 0
x
x
e

+
=
Definition.
If in , exists,

Then the sequence is said to be convergent.
Otherwise it is divergent.
( )
lim
n
f n L
+
=
L
Which of the ff sequences is/are
convergent?
3 4
n
n

`
+
)
( )
2
tan Arc n
n

`
)
7
1
n
n

| |
+
`
|
\ .

)
3 4
cos
2
n
n n

| |
+
`
|
+
\ .
)
( )
{ }
1
1
n+

!
10
n

`
)
( )
3
2 !
n
n


`
+

)
NOTE
Speed of functions, ranking:
- constant (e.g. 10)
- logarithmic (e.g. log n, log(n
2
))
- fractional power (e.g. sqrt(n))
- linear (e.g. n, 5n+10)
- loglinear (e.g. n log n, log n!)
- quadratic (e.g. n
2
, 7n
2
+9)
- cubic (e.g. n
3
, 8n
3
+5n+2)
- higher degree polynomials
(FYI: 2
log n
is as fast as polynomials)
- exponential (e.g., 2
n
, 1.1
n
2
, n
n
) where base>1
- factorial (e.g. n!, 2n!+3)

Can you still
remember
how to get
horizontal
asymptote?
Use LHR!
1.2 Monotonic and Bounded Sequences
Monotone Convergence Theorem (MCT)
for Sequences.
A bounded monotonic sequence is
convergent.
When are sequences monotonic?
bounded?
1.2 Monotonic and Bounded Sequences
Definitions.
A sequence is monotonic if it is either
increasing or decreasing for all n.
A sequence is monotone increasing if
{ }
n
a
1
,
n n
a a n N
+
s e
A sequence is monotone decreasing if
{ }
n
a
1
,
n n
a a n N
+
> e
How do we determine if a sequence is
monotonic or not?
1
n
n
a
a
+
1. Observe .

2. Obtain . Then Compare result to

1(one).

2. Find .

( )
' f x
n
a
Definitions.
A sequence is bounded if it has both
an upper bound and a lower bound.
A real number is a lower bound
of the sequence if
l
,
n
l a n N s e
A lower bound is the greatest lower
bound (glb) of the sequence if for all
lower bound .
l g s
g
l
Definitions.
A real number is an upper bound
of the sequence if
u
,
n
u a n N > e
An upper bound is the least upper bound
(lub) of the sequence if for all upper
bound .
u v >
v
u
Example 1.
5 1
2
n
n
+

`
)
( )
5 1
2
x
f x
x
+
=
Let
Since ,
( )
2
2
'
4
f x
x

( )
< > ' 0 1 f x x f
is decreasing.
Now, .
5 1
0
2
n
n
+
> f
has 0 as a lower bound (5/2
is the glb)
and 3 as an upper bound.

Thus, the sequence is monotonic and bounded.
Example 2.
!
10
n

`
)
!
10
n
n
a = Let
( )
1
1 !
10
n
n
a
+
+
=

Now,
( )
1
! 10
10 1 !
n
n
a
n
a n
+
=
+
( )
1
1 n
=
+
1 <
That is,
+
< >
1
1
n n
a a n

Thus, the sequence is monotonic (increasing).
Example 2.
!
10
n

`
)

Thus, the sequence is unbounded.
Note that .
!
0
10
n
>
has 0 as a lower bound (1/10 is the glb)
but has no upper bound.
!
10
n

`
)
Example 3.
( )
{ }
1
1
n+

n
n
a
1 2 3 4
5
6 7
1 1
1
1 1
1 1
Recall:

Thus, the sequence is bounded but is neither
increasing nor decreasing.
Example 4.
( )
3
2 !
n
n


`
+

)
( )
3
2 !
n
n
a
n
=
+
Let
( )
1
1
3
3 !
n
n
a
n
+
+
=
+

Now,
( )
( )
1
1
3 !
3
2 !
3
n
n
n
n
a
n
a n
+
+
+
=
+
( )
3
3
n +
=
That is,
+
> >
1
1
n n
a a n

Thus, the sequence is monotonic (decreasing).
1 >
Example 4.
( )
3
2 !
n
n


`
+

)

Thus, the sequence is bounded.
Note that .
( )
3
0
2 !
n
n
>
+
has 0 as a lower bound
and has as an upper bound.
( )
3
2 !
n
n


`
+

)
REMARKS:
A bounded monotone decreasing sequence
converges to its greatest lower bound.
Similarly, a bounded monotone increasing
sequence converges to its least upper
bound.
Example (MCT is not applicable but has a
limit):
Let .
( ) ( )
1
1
n
j n
n
=
n
( )
j n
1 2 3 4
5
6 7
1
1
2
1
3

1
4
1
5

1
6
1
7

n
( )
j n
1 2 3 4
5
6 7
1
1
2
1
3

1
4
1
5

1
6
1
7

1
1
1
REMARKS:
Relaxing MCT: It is not necessary that the
sequence be monotonic initially, only that
they be monotonic from some point on,
that is, for n>K.
Two eventually similar sequences have
the same limit.