University of Greenwich

Literature survey report On Solar-Powered digital thermometer with wireless interface By Ifeanyi Vincent Okafor 000802071

MSc Electronics and o!!unications En"ineerin" Supervisor# Mr $nt%ony &easey 28'01'201( University of Greenwich Medway School of Engineering
1

MSc Electrical & Electronic Engineering MSc Embedded Systems MSc Electronics & Communications Engineering MSc Electrical Power Engineering
Declaration of riginality

I t%e undersi"ned) declare t%at t%e *ork contained *it%in t%is report is co!pletely !y o*n+ $ny !aterial t%at %as not ,een ori"inated ,y !e %as ,een clearly !arked and t%e creators identified+ -a!e Si"nature /ate ............................... ............................... ...............................

$ssi"n!ent ourse

............................... ...............................

Co n t e n t s
ontents++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++2 Solar0po*ered di"ital t%er!o!eter *it% *ireless interface++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++( 2

%apter One++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++( 1+0 Introduction++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++( 1+1 /efinition of so!e ter!s++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++( 1+2 1ro,le!s addressed++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++2 1+3 Benefits to t%e industry and society++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++2 1+( $i!+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++2 1+2 O,4ectives+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++2 1+5 Scope++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++5 1+7 6ey delivera,les of t%e pro4ect+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++5 1+8 1otential risks+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++5 %apter 7*o+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++7 2+0Literature survey++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++7 2+1 7e!perature sensors+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++7 2+1+1 6inds of 7e!perature sensors+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++7 2+1+2 7ypes of 7e!perature sensors+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++7 2+1+3 1erfor!ance c%aracteristics+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++10 2+1+( /esi"nin" a di"ital t%er!o!eter++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++10 2+2 Ener"y 8arvestin"++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++11 2+2+1 ate"ories of ener"y %arvestin"++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++12 2+2+2 Solar Ener"y++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++12 2+3 Ener"y stora"e devices+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++1( 2+3+1 Supercapacitors as ener"y stora"e devices++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++12 2+3+2 $pplications of supercapacitors+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++12 2+3+3 8y,rid approac%# Solar po*er and Supercapacitors+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++15 2+( Lo* po*er tec%ni9ues and :i",ee *ireless+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++15 %apter 7%ree+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++17 3+0 1ro4ect *ork plan+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++17 %apter &our+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++18 (+0 Su!!ary+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++18 ;eferences+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++1<

Solar0po*ered di"ital t%er!o!eter *it% *ireless interface %apter One

1+0 !ntroduction
7%e *orld today no* %arvests ener"y fro! t%e sun+ 7%e sun %as ,een used for lots of t%in"s in t%e ti!e past like dryin" clot%s) ,ut recently it %as ,eco!e used as a source of po*er+ 7%e depletion of t%e resources availa,le and t%e pollution of t%e environ!ent %as led to !ore researc% and increased a*areness into t%e use and i!portance of solar po*er =7ea!s+eas+!uo%io+edu) 201(>+ Solar ener"y is ,eco!in" a "ood option for t%e po*erin" of !ost devices ,ecause it is very environ!ent0friendly) it doesn?t e!it car,on and it is 9uite cost effective =1al! and 8eden et al+) 2001>+ 7oday solar po*er %as !any applications in t%e *orld like solar0po*er *ater %eatin") c%ar"in" ,atteries *it% solar po*er) po*erin" a %o!e *it% solar ener"y+ One application of solar0po*er is in t%e c%ar"in" of supercapacitors for po*erin" a di"ital t%er!o!eter+ $ t%er!o!eter c%ecks for t%e de"ree or intensity of %eat present in a su,stance or o,4ect in de"rees or &a%ren%eit+ 7%e easy and accuracy at *%ic% t%e te!perature results are read and collected is very i!portant =Svelto and @alAerano et al+) 1<<<>+ 7%is pro4ect involves t%e desi"n of a circuit consistin" of a solar c%ar"er for c%ar"in" a supercapacitor) a super0capacitor as a po*er stora"e device and a source of po*er supply for a di"ital t%er!o!eter) $ di"ital t%er!o!eter !akin" use of a te!perature sensor *it% %i"% accuracy to !easure t%e eBternal te!perature and ,roadcast t%is te!perature at re"ular intervals over a :i"Bee *ireless net*ork+ 7%is :i"Bee *ireless net*ork is suc% t%at people can easily access t%e various te!perature readin"s taken ,y t%e t%er!o!eter+ C%ile t%is "oes on) t%e focus s%ould ,e on a po*er0efficient circuit) co!pact circuit not too ,ulky and finally a cost0effective circuit+ 7%is pro4ect *ill ans*er t%e 9uestion of %o* !uc% ener"y fro! t%e sun can ,e stored up usin" a supercapacitor) so t%at t%e di"ital t%er!o!eter is continuously in operation+

"#" Definition of some terms

So!e of t%e key tec%nolo"ies are defined ,elo* for ,etter understandin" of t%e pro4ect# Solar cell# It is a solid0state electrical device =p0n 4unction> t%at converts li"%t ener"y directly into electricity =/ > usin" p%otovoltaic effect+ $n electric field is set0up in a solar cell due to t%e !ove!ent of electrons and %oles =8ersc% and :*ei,el) 1<82>+ Solar cells are 9uite cost effective) and produce "reen ener"y+ Su$er-Ca$acitors# 7%ese are electronic devices t%at can provide %i"%er po*er outputs and can store lots of ener"y+ 7%ey can also ,e called Dltracapacitors+ 7%is *ill ,e used to store ener"y fro! sunli"%t so t%at t%e di"ital t%er!o!eter operations continuously+ Digital thermometer# 7e!perature is not only a critical p%ysical para!eter in industry ,ut also in a"riculture) !odern scientific researc% and a variety of %i"%0tec% develop!ent and researc%+ $ t%er!o!eter !easures t%e te!perature per unit ti!e+ $ t%er!o!eter can ,e said to ,e accurate if it can !easure a "iven te!perature *it% t%e !ini!al error possi,le =Svelto and @alAerano et al+) 1<<<>+ 7%is t%er!o!eter *as ,uilt to ,e a po*er0saverE ,y reducin" t%e intervals at *%ic% readin"s are taken+ (

%ig&ee 'ireless# 7%is *ill provide a *ireless interface for !y circuit+ It %as lo* po*er consu!ption and is very easy to use+ $ si!ple ,lock dia"ra! of t%e pro4ect is s%o*n ,elo*#
Solar ells Super0 apacitor c%ar"er control

/i"ital 7%er!o!eter =7e!perature Sensor>

:i"Bee Cireless

(igure ") * Sim$le System &loc+ Diagram of the $ro,ect

1+2 Problems addressed

Most po*er sources are not environ!ent0friendly like t%e ,attery and t%e "rid syste!+ 7%e di"ital t%er!o!eter is solar0po*ered) *%ic% is environ!ent0friendlyE %o*ever *%en t%ere is no sun) t%e di"ital t%er!o!eter can?t !easure t%e te!perature+ 7%is pro,le! *as resolved ,y introducin" super0capacitors *%ic% stores so!e of t%e ener"y fro! t%e sun t%ere,y ena,lin" t%e di"ital t%er!o!eter to *ork continuously even *it%out sunli"%t+ 7%e pro,le! of ,ulky circuitry siAe) po*er0efficiency and ease of accessin" te!perature readin"s on de!and *ill also ,e addressed+

1+3 &enefits to the industry and society

7%e ,enefit of t%is pro4ect to t%e industry and society is t%at it provides an en%anced and easier *ay of takin" accurate te!perature readin"s+ It also provides a continuously runnin" t%er!o!eter one t%at can run in t%e a,sence of sunli"%t+ 7%e *eat%er0forecaster *ill ,enefit "reatly fro! t%is) also *%en t%is circuitry is connected to a %eater) it can ,enefit t%e fa!ily durin" t%e *inter period) ,ecause durin" t%is period) t%e sun is not out) ,ut t%e ener"y stored *ill keep t%e te!perature sensor runnin") and *%en t%e te!perature is too cold) t%e %eater is turned on+

1+( *im
7o desi"n a po*er0efficient) co!pact) functional and relia,le circuit t%at can operate continuously in an outdoor environ!ent+

1+2 b,ectives
1> 2> 3>

7o !ake a te!perature sensor t%at is accurate to 0+2 7o !ake a solar c%ar"er for supercapacitors+ 7o trans!it t%e te!perature t%rou"% :i"Bee *ireless at re"ular intervals+ 2

1+5 Sco$e
7%ere are several !et%ods t%at could ,e used to po*er t%is circuitry like a ,attery and a fuel cell %o*ever t%e circuit is to ,e Solar0po*ered only) and t%e type of *ireless circuitry to ,e used is :i"Bee+

1+7 -ey deliverables of the $ro,ect

1> 2> 3>

$nalysis of t%e po*er availa,ility and t%e syste! po*er re9uire!ents $ syste! desi"n $ prototype syste! *it% a test receiver and e!,edded soft*are for t%e sensor unit+

1+8 Potential ris+s

So!e of t%e potential risks involved in t%is pro4ect include#
1>

7%e circuit !i"%t take lon"er t%an t%e re9uired duration to desi"n if care ,ecause of unforeseen contin"encies and also ,ecause t%e pro4ect is a ,i" and ti!e0de!andin" one+ 7%e circuit !i"%t not function as eBpected+ 7%ere !i"%t ,e risk of co!ponent da!a"e or unavaila,ility+

2> 3>

%apter 7w o

.#/ Literature survey .#" 0em$erature sensors

7e!perature sensors are vital to al!ost every aspect of people?s everyday life+ 7e!perature sensors are devices used to !easure t%e te!perature of a !ediu!+ 7%ere are 2 kinds on te!perature sensors# contact sensors and noncontact sensors+ 8o*ever) t%e 3 !ain types are t%er!o!eters) resistance te!perature detectors) and t%er!ocouples+ $ll t%ree of t%ese sensors !easure a p%ysical property =i+e+ volu!e of a li9uid) current t%rou"% a *ire>) *%ic% c%an"es as a function of te!perature+ In addition to t%e 3 !ain types of te!perature sensors) t%ere are nu!erous ot%er te!perature sensors availa,le for use =Bo"%ossian and Bro*n et al+) 2005>+

.#"#" -inds of 0em$erature sensors

i1 Contact Sensors

ontact te!perature sensors !easure t%e te!perature of t%e o,4ect to *%ic% t%e sensor is in contact ,y assu!in" or kno*in" t%at t%e t*o =sensor and t%e o,4ect> are in t%er!al e9uili,riu!) in ot%er *ords) t%ere is no %eat flo* ,et*een t%e!+ EBa!ples include# 7%er!ocouples) ;esistance 7e!perature /etectors =;7/s>) &ull Syste! t%er!o!eters) Bi!etallic 7%er!o!eters =Bo"%ossian and Bro*n et al+) 2005>+ ii1 2on-contact Sensors

Most co!!ercial and scientific noncontact te!perature sensors !easure t%e t%er!al radiant po*er of t%e Infrared or Optical radiation received fro! a kno*n or calculated area on its surface or volu!e *it%in it+ $n eBa!ple of noncontact te!perature sensors is a pyro!eter Bo"%ossian and Bro*n et al+) 2005>+

.#"#. 0y$es of 0em$erature sensors

i1 0hermocou$le

It is !ade fro! t*o dissi!ilar !etals t%at "enerate electrical volta"e in direct proportion to c%an"es in te!perature+ 7%ese t*o dissi!ilar !etals are 4oined to"et%er at one end to for! a !easurin" %ot 4unction+ 7%e ot%er end kno*n as t%e reference cold 4unction is connected 7

across an electronic !easure!ent device+ $ t%er!ocouple "enerates !easure!ent si"nals in response to a difference in te!perature ,et*een t%e !easurin" and reference 4unctions =Electronic te!perature sensors) 2001>+ 7a,le 1 s%o*in" co!!on !etal te!perature and E!f values *%ile fi"ure 2 sc%e!atic dia"ra! of %o* a t%er!ocouple *orks+

*lloy 0y$e 1latinu!0;%odiu! Iron0 onstantan %ro!el0$lu!el

Emf 3alue at ./ 8C 0+113 !V 1+01< !V 0+7<8!V

Emf 3alue at 9/ 8C 0+2<< !V 2+282 !V 2+023 !V

Emf 3alue at "// 8C 0+5(5 !V 2+25< !V (+0<5 !V

0able ") Common Metal 0em$erature and Emf 3alues 4&oghossian and &rown et al#5 .//61

(igure .) Schematic diagram of how the thermocou$le functions 4&oghossian and &rown et al#5 .//61

ii1

7esistance 0em$erature detector

7%is is a varia,le resistor t%at *ill c%an"e its electrical resistance in direct proportion to c%an"es in te!perature in a precise) repeata,le and nearly linear !anner+ C%en a kno*n electric volta"e passes t%rou"% a conductor) t%e resistance varies ,ased on t%e te!perature of t%e conductor+ 7%is resistance can ,e !easured and *ill correspond to a specific te!perature+ 1latinu! is co!!only used in a ;7/ due to its purity) linearity and sta,ility over a *ide ran"e of te!peratures =Electronic te!perature sensors) 2001>+ 7a,le 2 ,elo* s%o*s t%e te!perature 8

and resistance ran"es of co!!on !etals used in !akin" ;7/s *%ile fi"ure 3 is a sc%e!atic dia"ra! s%o*in" t%e ;7/ structure+

Element Metal

0em$erature 7ange

&ase 7esistance

0C74:;:;8C1

opper -ickel 1latinu!

0100 F 250 G 0100 F 250 G 0250 F 800 G

10 H at 0 G 120 H at 0 G 100 H at 0 G

0+00(27 0+00572 0+003<15

0able .) Common metal tem$erature and resistance ranges 4&oghossian and &rown et al#5 .//61

(igure <) Schematic Diagram of 7esistance 0em$erature Structure 4&oghossian and &rown et al#5 .//61

iii1

0hermometers

7%er!o!eters are t%e !ost co!!on te!perature sensors encountered in si!ple) everyday !easure!ents of te!perature+ 7*o eBa!ples of t%er!o!eters are t%e &illed Syste! and Bi!etal t%er!o!eters+ 7%ere are t*o classifications of t%e t%er!o!eter and t%ey include t%e analo" and di"ital t%er!o!eter+

iv1

0hermistor

<

7%e 7%er!istor is anot%er type of te!perature sensor) *%ose na!e is a co!,ination of t%e *ords 78E;M0ally sensitive res0IS7O;+ $ t%er!istor is a type of resistor *%ic% c%an"es its p%ysical resistance *it% c%an"es in te!perature+ 7%er!istors are "enerally !ade fro! cera!ic !aterials suc% as oBides of nickel) !an"anese or co,alt coated in "lass *%ic% !akes t%e! easily da!a"ed+ 7%eir !ain advanta"e over snap0 action types is t%eir speed of response to any c%an"es in te!perature) accuracy and repeata,ility+ Most types of t%er!istorIs %ave a -e"ative 7e!perature oefficient of resistance or =-7 >) t%at is t%eir resistance value "oes /OC- *it% an increase in t%e te!perature ,ut so!e *it% a 1ositive 7e!perature oefficient) =17 >) t%eir resistance value "oes D1 *it% an increase in te!perature are also availa,le =Storr) 2013>+ 7%e fi"ure ( ,elo* s%o*s a t%er!istor+

(igure =) Showing a 0hermistor 4Storr5 ./"<1#

.#"#< Performance characteristics

Selectin" t%e ,est te!perature sensor is a critical task+ So!e key perfor!ance c%aracteristics t%at s%ould ,e considered include# $ccuracy) Interc%an"ea,ility) Beta 7olerance) Sta,ility) and Moisture Induced &ailure =7e!perature sensors# perfor!ance c%aracteristics) 2003>+ i1 *ccuracy) 7%is refers to %o* eBact a specific te!perature is reflected ,y a specific resistance+ ii1 &eta 0olerance) Indicator of t%e s%ape of t%e resistance versus te!perature curve+ 7%is is also a deviation in t%e overall resistance and te!perature curve+ iii1 Stability) 7%is refers to t%e variation over ti!e in t%e resistance of a sensor influenced pri!arily ,y prolon"ed elevated te!perature eBposure+ It varies ,ased on sensor fa,rication !et%ods and encapsulation !aterials+ iv1 Moisture !nduced (ailure# 7%is is t%e "reatest cause of failure in t%er!istors+ It is often difficult to pinpoint in an application+

.#"#= Designing a digital thermometer

10

7%e di"ital t%er!o!eter *ill no* ,e discussed ,ecause it *as used in t%e pro4ect+ 7%ey are !any *ays to desi"n a di"ital t%er!o!eter ,ut t%e !ost co!!on one is t%e use of ;esistance te!perature resistors =;7/> and 7%er!istors+ $ co!!only used 1latinu! t%er!istor is a pt0 100 sensor *%ic% offers eBcellent accuracy over a *ide te!perature ran"e+ It %as a resistance of 100 o%!s at 0 G and 138+( o%!s at 100 G + 7%ere are also 171000 sensors t%at %ave a resistance of 1000 o%!s at 0 G =1icotec%+co!) 201(>+ 7%e relations%ip ,et*een te!perature and resistance is approBi!ately linear over a s!all te!perature ran"e# for eBa!ple) if assu!e t%at it is linear over t%e 0 to 100 G ran"e) t%e error at 20 G is 0+( G + &or precision !easure!ent) it is necessary to linearise t%e resistance to "ive an accurate te!perature+

=Svelto and @alAerano et al+) 1<<<> desi"ned a di"ital t%er!o!eter *%ic% is co!pact and %avin" accuracy "reater t%an 0+1 over a near roo! te!perature =010 to 20 > ,ased on an $nderson?s loop and a pt0100 sensor+ 7%is t%er!o!eter %as a %i"% accuracy) lo* po*er consu!ption) porta,le and 9uite ineBpensive+ -on0linearity reduces t%e accuracy of a te!perature sensorE one *ay of co!pensatin" for non0linearity usin" t%e pt0100 sensor is ,y takin" t%e te!perature readin"s severally+ 7%er!al drift causes a reduction in t%e accuracy of t%e 7e!perature sensor pt0100) %o*ever =Svelto and @alAerano et al+) 1<<<> propose for furt%er *ork) t%e use of an additional ,uffer a!plifier and a lo*er resistance value to reduce t%e t%er!al drift) and t%ere,y ac%ieve a %i"%er accuracy+ 7%e need for ,etter data ac9uisition and !onitorin" in industrial environ!ent pro!pted t%e need for t%e desi"n of a precision !icroprocessor ,ased 20c%annel di"ital t%er!o!eter ,y =SkendAic and Beros et al+) 1<88>+ 7%is t%er!o!eter is e9uipped *it% linearisin" soft*are and async%ronous co!!unication c%annel for easy transfer of te!perature readin"s to a co!puter+ 7raditional te!perature t%er!o!eter cannot !eet t%e re9uire!ents of te!perature !easure!ent in our *orld today) t%erefore t%e desi"n of a di"ital t%er!o!eter ,ased on a sin"le c%ip !icrocontroller is proposed ,y =:%an") 2010> *%ic% %as so!e stron" points *%en co!pared to t%e traditional t%er!o!eter suc% as ,ein" !ore convenient to o,tain readin"s fro! %avin" a *ide ran"e of te!perature !easure and accurate te!perature !easure!ent) ,ein" cost effective) and a !ultifunctional t%er!o!eter) *%ic% tri""ers an alar! *%en a set upper te!perature %as ,een eBceeded+ It e!ploys t%e use of a te!perature sensor *%ic% reads t%e !easured te!perature directly and easily and a !icrocontroller *%ic% acts on t%e !easured te!perature to display t%e output in di"ital for!+

.#. Energy >arvesting

Lo* po*er e9uip!ent suc% as *ireless sensors %ave a %u"e potential for *orld c%an"in" applications) ,ut one of t%e ,ottle0necks so far %as ,een desi"nin" ,attery po*ered syste! *it% a reasona,le *orkin" life+ Ener"y %arvestin" is t%e a,ility to eBtract ener"y fro! t%e environ!ent to drive electronic devices independently fro! t%e ,atteries or !ains po*er+ It is also called ener"y scaven"in" = ees Links) 200<>+

11

Ener"y scaven"in" is i!portant ,ecause it %as t%e potential to replace t%e use of ,atteries) t%erefore it is environ!ental0friendly) it is !aintenance free and it provides !eans for eBploitin" alternative sources of po*er+

.#.#" Categories of energy harvesting

Ener"y %arvesters can ,e cate"oriAed into t*o na!ely# 7ricklers and Bursters+ 7%e !ostly used ener"y ,urster is t%e dyna!o) a sort of reverse step en"ine) *%ere instead of ener"y ,ein" used to create !otion) !otion is used to create ener"y+ Dnfortunately t%is type of ener"y %arvestin" is 9uite eBpensive+ $not%er ener"y ,urster is t%e pieAo ele!ent) *%ere ener"y is created fro! !ec%anical torsion+ 8ere t%e a!ounts of ener"y are relatively lar"e) %o*ever F pieAo ele!ents are 9uite sensitive to *ear and tear and !akin" t%ese pieAo ele!ents relia,le and dura,le !akes t%e! also 9uite eBpensive+ 7%e !ost *ell kno*n ener"y trickler is t%e solar cell+ 7o ,e usa,le for sense and control net*orks it is i!portant t%at t%e ener"y is stored and controlled+ Solar cells %ave a ,i" advanta"e# t%ey are relatively c%eap) and t%ey %ave a serious dra*,ack# t%ey only *ork *%en t%ere is li"%t+ $not%er trickler ener"y %arvester is a peltier ele!ent t%at taps into t%e ener"y strea! t%at co!es into eBistence *%en t*o sides of one o,4ect %ave a different te!perature) e"+ a *all of a %ouse) *%ere t%e outside te!perature is different co!pared to t%e inside te!perature+ Dsually a te!perature difference of 2 de"rees elsius "ives enou"% usa,le ener"y+ Dnfortunately also t%e dependa,ility of peltier ele!ents is li!ited ,ecause of t%e fact t%at te!perature differences usually cannot ,e controlled) and contrary to solar cells) peltier ele!ents are relatively eBpensive+ =1i!entel and Musilek) 2010>

.#.#. Solar Energy

Solar or ot%er li"%t ener"y can ,e converted to electric po*er usin" solar cells+ 7%e !a"nitude of ener"y "enerated varies fro! approBi!ately 12!CJs9+c! in noon0ti!e sunli"%t to 10KCJs9+c! in indoor incandescent li"%tin"+ 7%e ener"y output depends on t%e !aterial used+ rystalline !aterials suc% as silicon and "alliu! arsenide %ave !oderate a,sorption efficiency and %i"% conversion efficiency =20022L> *%ile t%in fil! !aterials suc% as cad!iu! telluride %ave %i"% a,sorption efficiency and lo*er conversion efficiency =M10L>+ $ sin"le solar cell output is 0+5V ,ut panels *it% series of suc% cells can "enerate any re9uired volta"e for t%e circuit =6ansal and Srivastava) 2002>+ 7%e ta,le 3 ,elo* s%o*s t%e efficiency and cost of various !aterials used for !akin" a solar cell+ Solar cell ty$e;material Efficiency Cost 1> rystalline silicon cell 20022L Most eBpensive 2> 1oly crystalline silicon cell 12020L %eaper 3> $!orp%ous silicon cell 8012L %eapest 0able <) 0able showing the efficiency and cost of various solar cell ty$es Sunli"%t consists of little particles of solar ener"y called p%otons+ $s li"%t is incident on t%e solar cell) so!e of t%e p%otons are reflected) pass ri"%t t%rou"% or a,sor,ed ,y t%e solar cell+ C%en enou"% p%otons are a,sor,ed ,y t%e ne"ative layer of t%e solar cell) electrons are freed fro! t%e ne"ative se!iconductor !aterial and !oved to t%e positive layer creatin" a volta"e 12

differential+ C%en 2 layers are connected to an eBternal load) t%e electrons flo* t%rou"% t%e circuit creatin" electricity =Solar Ener"y) 2007>+ &i"ure 2 ,elo* s%o*s a solar cell+

(igure 9) Showing the diagram of a solar cell 4Solar Energy5 .//?1

Solar ener"y %as !any applications *%ic% include its use in t%e c%ar"in" of a ,attery+ =Liu and Makaran) 200<> eBa!ines t%e use of solar ener"y to c%ar"e a ,attery+ 7*o *ays are eBa!ined one is to connect t%e solar cell directly to t%e ,attery and usin" a diode to prevent reverse current fro! t%e ,attery+ 7%e advanta"es of suc% a syste! are t%e si!plicity and lo* cost+ 7%e disadvanta"es are# 1> t%e 1V panel can only provide c%ar"in" current *%en its output volta"e is %i"%er t%an t%e ,attery volta"eE 2> t%e c%ar"in" current *ill decrease *%en t%e volta"e difference decreases due to a increasin" ,attery volta"e or a decreasin" 1V output volta"eE 3> t%e syste! does not al*ays *ork at t%e opti!al to convert t%e availa,le solar po*er into electricity+ 7%e fi"ure 5a ,elo* s%o*s t%e set0up of t%is syste!+

(igure 6a) Showing a solar-$owered battery charger using a diode 7o i!prove t%e syste! perfor!ance) a controller can ,e added ,et*een t%e 1V panel and t%e ,attery as s%o*n in &i"ure 5, ,elo*+ 7%e controller is usually a / J/ converter+ It s%ould ,e a ,uckJ,oost to take into account conditions *%ere t%e 1V panel volta"e is %i"%er or lo*er t%an t%e ,attery volta"e+ In suc% a syste! an opti!al control al"orit%! can ,e i!ple!ented to convert t%e !aBi!u! availa,le solar po*er into electricity and c%ar"e t%e ,attery+ 13

(igure 6b) Showing a solar-$owered battery charger using a diode Solar ener"y also %as its application in teleco!!unication+ (Palm and Heden et al., 2001)
designed a solar-powered mobile telephony. They tried to bring sustainable development by replacing older technologies and increasing the use of both renewable energy and telecommunications. Ericsson is an example of a company offering solar powered solutions in telecommunications. The use of solar power reduces CO2 emissions compared to the traditional grid-powered alternative. In some parts of the world where electricity is expensive, unreliable or not available at all, the benefits of telecommunication cannot reach them but with solar power such places can enjoy telecommunications.

$n application of solar ener"y in t%e c%ar"in" of a supercapacitor is eBa!ined ,y =Leder and Sutor et al+) 2002>+ $ solar po*ered lo* po*er sensor !odule *it% a radio co!!unication and a user interface *as desi"ned+ 7%is syste! uses t%e dou,le layer capacitor =super capacitor> to ,uffer ener"y to reac% uninterrupted operation every day and ni"%t period+ 7%is syste! can operate even *%en t%ere is no sunli"%t ,ecause t%e solar ener"y c%ar"es t%e super capacitor to full capacity+

.#< Energy storage devices

Ener"y stora"e devices are devices t%at store ener"y for future use+ Most rene*a,le ener"y source suc% as solar and *ind po*er depends on t%e *eat%er+ 7%e efficiency of po*er supplied ,y t%ese rene*a,le ener"y sources can ,e !aBi!iAed *%en paired *it% t%e ener"y stora"e devices+ 7%ere are various cate"ories of ener"y stora"e devices+ 7a,le ( ,elo* s%o*s t%e various ener"y stora"e devices =Ener"ystora"e+or"+uk) 2012>+ + -inds of Energy storage Sources devices i> %e!ical ener"y stora"e ii> Electroc%e!ical stora"e 8ydro"en) ,iofuelsJ,io!ass) li9uid nitro"en) oBy0%ydro"en

ener"y Battery and &uel cells Super capacitor and apacitors 8ot *ater stora"e tank) stora"e %eater and stea! accu!ulator

iii> Electrical ener"y stora"e iv> 7%er!al ener"y stora"e

1(

v> Mec%anical ener"y stora"e

8ydraulic accu!ulator) fly*%eel ener"y stora"e

0able =) showing the various +inds of energy storage devices 4Energystorage#org#u+5 ./".1

.#<#" Su$erca$acitors as energy storage devices

Super capacitors are ,eco!in" increasin"ly popular as an ener"y stora"e device in !odern society today+ It is a device t%at stores enor!ous a!ount of po*er+ 7%ey are also kno*n as Dltracapacitors or Electric dou,le layer capacitors+ Supercapacitors are capacitors *it% %i"%er capacitance values+ $ perfor!ance co!parison ,et*een a supercapacitor and a ,attery# Lit%iu! ion is s%o*n in ta,le 2 ,elo*+

(unction %ar"e ti!e ycle life ell volta"e Specific ener"y =C%Jk"> Specific po*er =CJk"> ost per C% Service life =in ve%icle> %ar"e te!perature /isc%ar"e te!perature

Su$erca$acitor 1F10 seconds 1 !illion or 30)000% 2+3 to 2+72V 2 =typical> Dp to 10)000 N20 =typical> 10 to 12 years F(0 to 52G =F(0 to 1(<G&> F(0 to 52G =F(0 to 1(<G&>

@ithium-ion 4general1 10F50 !inutes 200 and %i"%er 3+5 to 3+7V 100F200 1)000 to 3)000 N0+200N1+00 =lar"e syste!> 2 to 10 years 0 to (2G =32Gto 113G&> F20 to 50G =F( to 1(0G&>

0able 9) Performance com$arison between su$erca$acitor and &attery) @i-ion 4&atteryuniversity5 ./"=1 =Oao and :%an" et al+) 2005> co!pares t%e various advanta"es of usin" t%e super capacitor over t%e ,atteries *%ic% is also seen fro! ta,le 2 a,ove it can ,e seen t%at super0capacitor %as a faster c%ar"e rate t%an t%e ,attery) t%e cycle life is unli!ited) t%e 1o*er density is lar"er t%an t%at of t%e ,attery) t%e service life is lon"er t%an t%at of t%e ,attery) and it %as an eBcellent lo*0te!perature c%ar"e and disc%ar"e perfor!ance+ On t%e ot%er %and t%e ,attery %as a %i"%er specific ener"y t%an t%e supercapacitor) t%e ,attery cost less t%an t%e supercapacitor+

.#<#. *$$lications of su$erca$acitors

Supercapacitors are used in ,ot% lo* po*er and %i"% po*er applications+ i1 @ow $ower a$$lications) $s a ,ackup for !e!ory functions in a *ide ran"e of consu!er products suc% as !o,ile p%ones) laptops and radio tuners) used in pulsed applications to provide peak po*er assistance to prolon" ,attery life in devices re9uirin" %i"% current ,ursts 12

suc% as usin" !ec%anical actuators di"ital ca!eras or *ireless trans!itters =Dltracapacitor+net) 2012>+ ii1 >igh $ower a$$lications) Supercapacitors are also used to provide fast actin" s%ort ter! po*er ,ack up for D1S applications+ By co!,inin" a capacitor *it% a ,attery,ased uninterrupti,le po*er supply syste!) t%e life of t%e ,atteries can ,e eBtended+ 7%e ,atteries provide po*er only durin" t%e lon"er interruptions) reducin" t%e peak loads on t%e ,attery and per!ittin" t%e use of s!aller ,atteries+ In electric and %y,rid ve%icles to facilitate re"enerative ,rakin") can add 12L to 22L to t%e ran"e of t%e ve%icle =Dltracapacitor+net) 2012>+

.#<#< >ybrid a$$roach) Solar $ower and Su$erca$acitors

7%e co!,ination of a rene*a,le po*er source like t%e solar cell and supercapacitor results to
in reliable power source. (Thounthong and Sikkabut et al., 2010) in their paper examines how a power plant can be powered by the combination of the fuel cell, solar cell and supercapacitor. The solar cell acts as the main power source; the fuel cell provides power to support the solar cell. The supercapacitor functions as an auxiliary source for storing energy for later use.

&urt%er *ork on the hybrid approach was done by (Zhang and Wang et al., 2012). Here a
photovoltaic system is used to charge a supercapacitor and its charging efficiency, storage performance and efficiency examined. When compared to the battery, the supercapacitors can go through a lot of charge and discharge cycles without degrading.

.#= Low power techniques and Zigbee wireless

1o*er consu!ption is a key para!eter for consideration in t%e desi"n of electronic devices+ 7%e "eneral ai! of t%e lo*0po*er desi"ner is to reduce current consu!ption ,y !ini!iAin" t%e supply volta"e) circuit co!pleBity) clockin" fre9uencies) dc current source values) and capacitance of s*itc%in" nodes+ Many desi"n tec%ni9ues %ave ,een developed to reduce po*er and ,y t%e 4udicious application of t%ese tec%ni9ues) syste!s are tuned for t%e ,est po*erJperfor!ance trade0offs+ $n I ?s total po*er consu!ption co!prises t*o types) static and dyna!ic+ Static po*er typically co!es fro! leaka"e current and dc current sources+ /yna!ic current consu!ption) *%ic% is fre9uency0dependent) often do!inates total po*er+ It co!es fro! t%e c%ar"in" and disc%ar"in" of capacitive nodes and t%e cro*,ar action of s*itc%in" transistors connected ,et*een t%e supplies =S%earer) 2012> =7aylor) 2012>+ 7%e operation of a typical !o,ile device can ,e rou"%ly classified into t*o different !odes# t%e active !ode and t%e sleep !ode+ In t%e active !ode) all t%e co!!unication !odules are turned on to support data eBc%an"e at lo* latency+ On t%e ot%er %and) durin" t%e sleep !ode) t%e !o,ile device turns off t%e ;& and ot%er co!!unication !odules until it *akes up a"ain to process data traffic+ 7%e !o,ile device consu!es po*er supply ener"y at a !uc% %i"%er rate in t%e active !ode t%an in t%e sleep !ode+ 7%e lon"er t%e !o,ile device stays in t%e sleep !ode) t%e !ore po*er it saves+ 7%e procedures for !o,ile devices to transit fro! t%e active !ode to t%e sleep !ode "enerally differ in i!ple!entations+ Oet) t%ey s%are si!ilar features+ In "eneral) if a !o,ile re!ains idle for a certain period *it%out seein" any data traffic) it *ill enter t%e sleep !ode+ =Men" and S%iu et al+) 2012> in t%is paper assu!ed t%e !o,ile device s*itc%es fro! t%e active !ode to t%e sleep !ode *%en a fiBed a!ount of *aitin" ti!e %as elapsed since t%e last data eBc%an"e+ $n illustrative eBa!ple is s%o*n in t%e fi"ure 7 ,elo*+ 15

(igure# ?) shows transitions between the active and slee$ modes on mobile devices 4Meng and Shiu et al#5 ./".1# 7%e *%ole syste! *%ic% includes t%e solar cell) t%e supercapacitor and t%e di"ital t%er!o!eter needs a *ireless interface *it% *%ic% people can easily access t%e various te!perature readin"s *%ic% %ave ,een taken ,y t%e t%er!o!eter+ 7%e :i"Bee *ireless is a "ood option for t%e pro4ect ,ecause it %as t%e a,ility to operate in sleep !ode t%ere,y savin" ener"y+ =@arnett and Mc!a%on et al+) 2005> s%o*s %o* t%e :i"Bee *ireless can ,e used for lower power operation in
the remote sensing of current. The use of wireless technology (ZigBee) instead of wired technology is becoming popular and provides a convenient solution for applications where remote sensing of a current is desirable. The ZigBee wireless has the ability to work in a special mode called sleep mode. In this mode power consumption is at its lowest and ,attery life can ,e eBtended to ei"%t !ont%s+ :i"Bee perfor!s *ell in electrically noisy environ!ents+

Cha$ter 0hree

3+0 1ro4ect *ork

plan

7%e pro4ect plan is represented in a @antt c%art and s%o*s t%e duration of 5 !ont%s fro! pro4ect proposal till dissertation report delivery+ 7%e @antt c%art s%o*s t%e tasks) t%e various p%ases) duration of t%e tasks and t%e dependency infor!ation+ It also s%o*s t%e !ilestones *it% dates and t%e delivera,les suc% as t%e dissertation report and presentation+ 7%e @antt c%art s%o*s t%e critical pat% of t%e pro4ect usin" lines t%at connect dependent tasks to eac% ot%er to for! a net*ork of tasks+ $ll t%e tasks *it%in t%e critical pat% are "iven 17

priority as t%is affects pro4ect success+ &or eBa!ple) t%e critical pat% is affected ,y co!pletion or delay in one of t%e predecessors and t%is affect t%e overall ti!in" of t%e pro4ect+ 7%e vertical aBis s%o*s t%e tasks accordin"ly s%o*in" ot%er infor!ation like t%e predecessors) t%e sc%edule !ode includin" start and finis% dates+ 7%e %oriAontal aBis represents t%e sc%edule of eac% individual task as ,ars like a ,ar c%art+ 7%e ,ars s%o* t%e len"t% of t%e sc%eduled ti!e for eac% individual task+ 7%e successor and predecessor connection is also s%o* in t%is part of t%e @antt c%art+ 7%is pro4ect is divided into 2 p%asesE the "st $hase is s%o*in" t%e pro4ect selection process+ $t t%is point of t%e pro4ect) a pro4ect topic is c%osen and t%e researc% proposal is filled and su,!itted+ 7%e pro4ect proposal for! su,!ission acts as t%e final !ilestone for t%is p%ase+ 0he .nd $hase s%o*s t%e Literature revie* p%ase+ 7%is is *%ere data is collected) preli!inary researc% is done and t%e ,ody of t%e pro4ect is drafted+ 7%e ,ody of t%e pro4ect is t%e final !ilestone for t%is p%ase+ 7%e key delivera,le %ere is t%e analysis of t%e po*er availa,ility and t%e syste! po*er re9uire!ents+ 0he <rd $hase s%o*s t%e desi"n and i!ple!entation p%ases+ 7%is is *%ere t%e desi"n eBperi!ent of t%e solar cell) di"ital t%er!o!eter and supercapacitor and :i"Bee *ireless is carried out+ 7%e desi"n eBperi!ent carried out on t%e supercapacitor and :i"Bee *ireless act as t%e final !ilestone for t%is p%ase+ 7%e key delivera,les %ere are a syste! desi"n and a prototype syste! *it% a test receiver and e!,edded soft*are for t%e sensor unit+ 0he =th $hase s%o*s t%e testin" and verification p%ases+ 7%is is *%ere testin" is carried out on t%e solar cell) di"ital t%er!o!eter and supercapacitor and :i"Bee *ireless+ 7%e testin" carried out on t%e supercapacitor and :i"Bee *ireless act as t%e final !ilestone for t%is p%ase+ 0he final $hase s%o*s t%e draftin" of t%e final c%apters) t%e conclusion) proof0readin" t%e *%ole pro4ect and su,!ittin"+ 7%e final !ilestone for t%is p%ase is t%e pro4ect defense preparation+ 7%e key delivera,le %er is &inal /issertation report

Cha$ter (our

=#/ Summary
7%e co!,ination of rene*a,le source of po*er# solar ener"y and ener"y stora"e devices# supercapacitors *ill open t%e door for ne* possi,ilities+ $ !eans of easily accessin" te!perature data over a *ireless net*ork is ac%ieved+ Lo* po*er considerations ,efore t%e researc% co!!enced) "ave rise to t%e full %arnessin" of t%e sleep !ode of t%e :i",ee *ireless+ 7%is researc% *as eBplanatory ,ecause series of eBperi!ents and test *%ere carried out to "et infor!ation for !y pro4ect+ 7%e tec%ni9ues e!ployed *%ere) carryin" out literature revie*) usin" data collection tec%ni9ues =e9uip!ent0,ased ac9uisition> suc% as tests *it% di"ital si"nal oscilloscopes) co!puter0aided desi"ns and si!ulations) p%ysical tests and ot%er o,servations+ 18

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