Mechatronics 10 (2000) 555569

MR uid, foam and elastomer devices

J. David Carlson*, Mark R. Jolly
Lord Corporation, Materials Division, 110 Lord Drive, Cary, NC, 27511-7900, USA

Abstract Magnetorheological (MR) uids, foams and elastomers comprise a class of smart materials whose rheological properties may be controlled by the application of an external magnetic eld. MR uids are liquids whose ow or shear properties are easily controlled to enable a variety of unique torque transfer or vibration control devices. MR foams, in which the controllable uid is contained in an absorptive matrix, provide a convenient way of realizing the benets of MR uids in highly cost sensitive applications. MR elastomers are solid, rubber-like materials whose stiness may be controlled to provide tunable or adjustable mounts and suspension devices. 7 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Materials whose rheological properties can be varied by application of magnetic elds belong to a specic class of so-called smart materials because they can respond, via solid-state electronics and modern control algorithms, to changes in their environment. In this paper, consideration is given to materials consisting of a suspension of non-colloidal, magnetically-polarizable particles in a non-magnetic medium. These materials respond to applied magnetic elds and are thus referred to as magnetorheological (MR) materials. Such materials can be utilized in devices or can be incorporated in traditional composites to form advanced intelligent composite structures, whose continuum magneto-rheological response can be
* Corresponding author. E-mail address: dave_carlson@lord.com (J.D. Carlson). 0957-4158/00/$ - see front matter 7 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 9 5 7 - 4 1 5 8 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 6 4 - 1

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actively controlled in real-time. Applications that can benet from materials whose rheology can be continuously, rapidly and reversibly varied are numerous. The most common MR materials are of liquid state. The controllable rheological response of such uids results from the polarization induced in the suspended particles by application of an external magnetic eld. The interaction between the resulting induced dipoles causes the particles to form columnar structures, parallel to the applied eld. These chain-like structures restrict the ow of the uid, thereby increasing the viscous characteristics of the suspension. The mechanical energy needed to yield these chain-like structures increases as the applied magnetic eld increases resulting in a eld dependent yield stress. In the absence of an applied eld, the controllable uids exhibit Newtonian-like behavior. The initial discovery and development of MR uids and devices can be credited to Jacob Rabinow at the US National Bureau of Standards [36,40]. Interestingly, this work was almost concurrent with Willis Winslow's work on electrorheological (ER) uids [53]. Except for a urry of interest after their initial discovery, there has been scant information published about MR uids. Only recently has a resurgence in interest in MR uids been seen [46,7,17,19,21,25,31,41,46,51]. The eld-responsive behavior of MR uids is often represented as a Bingham plastic having a variable yield strength (e.g. [38]). For stresses t above the eld dependent yield stress ty, the ow is governed by Bingham's equation: _ , t > ty t t y Zg 1

Below the yield stress (at strains of order 103), the material behaves viscoelastically: t G g, t < t y 2

where G is the complex material modulus. It has been observed in the literature that the complex modulus is also eld dependent [35,52]. While the Bingham plastic model has proved useful in the design and characterization of controllable uid-based devices, true controllable uid behavior exhibits some signicant departures from this simple model. Perhaps the most signicant of these departures involves the non-Newtonian behavior of controllable uids in the absence of a eld [25,32].

2. MR materials 2.1. Composition The composition of MR uids is similar to their ferrouid cousins: a high concentration of magnetizable particles in a non-magnetic medium. Dierences in particle size and composition however result in distinct behavioral dierences. In particular, MR uid particle sizes typically range from 107 to 105 m one to

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three orders of magnitude larger than colloidal ferrouid particles. The larger MR uid particles allow for stable, highly magnetizable materials and reversible particle aggregation. Typical micron-sized MR particles will support hundreds of magnetic domains. Domain dipole rotation in the presence of a eld causes interparticle attraction. Maximum interparticle attraction and thus maximum magnetorheological eect is increased by choosing a particle material with high saturation magnetization Js. Iron has the highest saturation magnetization of known elements with Js=2.1 Tesla. Iron particles with spherical shape obtained from the thermal decomposition of iron pentacarbonyl are commonly used. Alloys of iron and cobalt are known to have slightly higher saturation magnetization (up to Js=2.4 Tesla) and have also been used in MR uids [11]. Typical particle volume fractions are between 0.1 and 0.5. Researchers at BASF [32] have created MR uids using ferrite-based particles on the order of 30 nm in diameter coated with long chain molecules. These uids, which are very similar to ferrouids, are reported to have excellent stability and abrasion properties. They, however, exhibit an order of magnitude less yield strength than iron-based MR uids resulting from inferior magnetic properties of ferrite and the predominance of thermal particle forces. Carrier liquids are typically chosen based upon their rheological and tribological properties and on their temperature stability. Typically, petroleum based oils, silicone, mineral oils, polyesters, polyethers, water, synthetic hydrocarbon oils and others are used. Ashour et al. used a synthetic EAL arctic series lubricant produced by Mobil [2]. Kormann et al. used polar liquids such as: triethylene glycol, diethylene glycol methyl ether, hexyl and cyclohexyl acetate, methyl propionate, and others [32]. MR uids often contain other additives to provide additional lubricating properties, as well as additives that inhibit sedimentation and agglomeration. Sedimentation is typically controlled by the use of thixotropic agents and surfactants such as xantham gum, silica gel [41], stearates and carboxylic acids [53]. The thixotropic networks disrupt ow at ultralow shear rates (the viscosity becomes nearly innite) but thins as the shear rate is increased. Stearates form a network of swollen strands when used in conjunction with mineral oil and synthetic esters that serve to entrap particles and immobilize them. Fine carbon bers have also been used for this purpose [42,43]. The bers build viscosity through physical entanglement but exhibit shear thinning due to shear-induced alignment. 2.2. Basic physical properties A summary of the basic properties of typical MR uids is given in Table 1. MR uids routinely exhibit dynamic yield strengths in excess of 50 kPa for applied magnetic elds of 150250 kA/m [10,25]. The o-state viscosity for MR uids is generally in the range of 0.101.0 Pas at 258C. The ultimate strength of MR uids is limited by magnetic saturation. Operational temperatures for MR uids easily range from 408C to +1508C and are generally limited by the volatility properties of the carrier uid rather than the details of the polarization

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Table 1 Typical MR uid properties [10] Property Maximum yield strength, ty(eld) Maximum eld Plastic viscosity, Zp Operable temperature range Contaminants Response time Density Zp =t2 yfield Maximum energy density Power supply (typical) Typical value 50100 kPa 0 250 kA/m 0.11.0 Pa s 40 to 1508C (limited by carrier uid) unaected by most impurities < milliseconds 34 g/cm3 10101011 s/Pa 0.1 J/cm3 225 V @ 12 A (250 watts)

mechanism. Unlike ER uids, dissipative electric currents and joule energy loss in MR uids are not a concern. One is able to eectively use permanent magnets to energize MR uids with no steady-state power requirement at all. MR uids are not highly sensitive to contaminants or impurities such as are commonly encountered during manufacture and usage. Further, because the magnetic polarization mechanism is not aected by the surface chemistry of surfactants and additives, it is relatively straightforward to stabilize MR uids against particle-liquid separation in spite of the large density mismatch. Most MR uids are quite dense with specic gravity in the range of 34 due to their high content of dense iron particles. The factor Zp =t2 y field is a gure of merit useful in estimating how large a given MR uid device must be in order to achieve a specied level of performance [10,26]. The minimum volume of active uid in a device is proportional to this factor. Typical MR devices require 250 watts of input power. Several commercially available MR uids are given in Table 2. 2.3. Field-responsive eect The eld responsive eect of the two commercial MR uids is shown in Fig. 1. This shear stress data was taken at relatively low shear rates and thus approximates the uid yield stress as dened in Eq. (1). At low elds, MR uids
Table 2 Several commercially available MR uids [34] Controllable uid MRX-126PD MRF-132LD MRF-240BS MRX-336AG Particulate, %(V/V) Fe Fe Fe Fe (03 (03 (03 (03 mm), mm), mm), mm), 26 32 40 36 Carrier uid Hydrocarbon Hydrocarbon Water/Glycol Silicone oil Density (g/ml) 2.66 3.04 3.90 3.47

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Fig. 1. Shear stress versus applied eld for two commercial MR uids.

are seen to exhibit sub-quadratic behavior. Indeed the MR uids exhibit an approximate power law index of 1.75 at low and intermediate elds. This subquadratic behavior is attributed to gradual particle saturation with increasing eld and is, in part, predicted by contemporary models of magnetorheology [22,28]. Beyond elds of about 0.1 Tesla, the eects of bulk magnetic saturation are revealed as a departure from power law behavior. The stress response ultimately plateaus as the MR uids approach complete magnetic saturation. Simple theory predicts that the ultimate yield stress of MR uids is proportional to fJ 2 s where f is the particle volume fraction and Js is the particle saturation magnetization. Fig. 2 demonstrates the quadratic dependency of MR uid yield stress on particle saturation magnetization.

Fig. 2. The quadratic dependency of MR uid stress on particle saturation magnetization. Each data point corresponds to an MR uid made from a dierent iron-based alloy.

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2.4. Zero-eld rheology The viscosity of controllable uids in the absence of a eld is most signicantly a function of the carrier oil, suspension agents, and particle loading. Rheological gures-of-merit for controllable uids [25,26] benet from low uid viscosity, but must be balanced with other uid requirements such as temperature range and particle resuspendability. Because of the inclusion of suspension agents and changes in particle microstructure during shear, most MR uids exhibit signicant shear thinning. 2.5. Magnetic properties Magnetic induction curves, or BH curves, of the MR uids are shown in Fig. 3. As can be seen, the MR uids exhibit approximately linear magnetic properties up to an applied eld of about 0.02/mo A/m (mo=4pe7 Tm/A is the permeability of a vacuum). In this region, the permeabilities are relatively constant at approximately 59 times that of a vacuum. MR uids begin to exhibit gradual magnetic saturation beyond the linear regime. Complete saturation typically occurs at elds beyond 0.4/mo A/m. The intrinsic induction or polarization density (BmoH ) of MR uids at complete saturation is fJs Tesla, where f is the volume percent of particles in the uid and Js is the saturation polarization of the particulate material [28]. Little or no hysteresis can be observed in the induction curves. This superparamagnetic behavior is a consequence of the magnetically soft properties of the iron used as particulate material in these uids and the mobility of this particulate phase.

Fig. 3. Magnetic properties of two commercial MR uids.

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2.6. Magnetorheological elastomers Structurally, eld responsive elastomers can be thought of as solid analogs of eld responsive uids. Like many eld responsive uids, eld responsive elastomers are composed of polarizable particles dispersed in a polymer medium and the physical phenomena responsible for the eld sensitivity of these elastomers is very similar. There are however some distinct dierences in the way in which these two classes of materials are typically intended to operate. The most noteworthy is that the particle chains within the elastomer composite are intended to always operate in the pre-yield regime while eld responsive uids typically operate within a post-yield continuous shear or ow regime. Indeed the `strength' of eld responsive uids is characterized by their eld dependent yield stress while the strength of eld responsive elastomers is typically characterized by their eld dependent modulus. Typically, magnetic elds are applied to the polymer composite during crosslinking such that particle chain (columnar) structures form and become locked in place upon nal cure. Such processing has been used for some time to impart special anisotropic properties on viscoelastic materials. Only recently has the eld responsiveness of the viscoelastic properties of these elastomers been explored. The formation of columnar particle structures within elastomers corresponds to a low dipolar energy state. Shearing of the cured composite in the presence of the eld causes particle displacement from this low energy state, thereby, requiring additional work. In principle, this required additional work rises monotonically with applied eld, thus resulting in a eld dependent shear modulus. Experiments on double lap shear specimens of MR elastomers were reported by Jolly et al. [29]. Testing involved recording the complex modulus of various

Fig. 4. The eect of average composite ux density on the elastic modulus for MR elastomers containing 10% (D), 20% (o) and 30% (x) iron by volume (adapted from Jolly et al. [29]).

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specimens at various frequencies, strains and applied magnetic elds. The eect of average composite ux density on the elastic modulus is shown in Fig. 4 for three test specimens of 10, 20 and 30% carbonyl iron by volume. As can be seen, the change in modulus increases monotonically with increasing volume percentage of iron. While the maximum change in modulus increases to nearly 0.6 MPa as iron volume concentration increases to 30%, the percentage of maximum increase in modulus for the three samples remains relatively constant between 3040%. The same researchers observed a pronounced drop o in the magnetorheological eect and a corresponding increase in eld dependent energy dissipation (tand) at strains above 12%. This strain dependency was attributed to the onset of magnetic yielding of the particle chains. 2.7. Magnetorheological foams MR uid foam devices contain MR uid that is constrained by capillary action in an absorbent matrix such as a sponge, open-celled foam, felt or fabric [7,8]. The absorbent matrix serves to keep the MR uid located in the active region of the device between the poles where the magnetic eld is applied. The absorbent matrix requires only a minimum volume of MR uid that is operated in a direct shear mode without the need for seals, bearings or precision mechanical tolerances. The absorbent matrix is normally attached to one of the poles. Application of the magnetic eld causes the MR uid in the matrix to develop yield strength and resist shear motion. This basic arrangement may be applied in both linear and rotary devices wherever a direct shear mode would normally be used. Because of their open structure, the shape of a MR uid foam device is much less constrained than that of a normal controllable MR uid device. Multiple degrees of freedom are easily accommodated. Linear devices such as dampers may be tubular, at or planar while rotary brakes may take on the form of a localized magnetic `caliper' operating on a thin, un-housed disc. MR uid foam devices are highly robust and exhibit very low o-state forces. They are particularly suitable for low to medium force applications where a high dynamic range is desired. Fluids in these devices are resistant to gravitational settling because of the wicking action of the matrix. 3. Engineering with MR materials 3.1. Typical modes of use Virtually all devices that use MR uids can be classied as having either: (a) a valve mode (ow mode); (b) a direct shear mode (clutch mode); (c) a squeeze lm compression mode; or (d) a combination of these modes. Diagrams of these basic modes of operation are shown in Fig. 5. Examples of valve mode devices include servo-valves, dampers, shock absorbers and actuators. Examples of shear mode

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devices include clutches, brakes, chucking and locking devices, dampers and structural composites. While less well understood than the other modes, the squeeze mode has been explored for use in small amplitude vibration and impact dampers [12,27]. 3.2. Active material volume Eq. (3) gives the minimum active uid volume, V=Lwg, necessary to achieve a desired control ratio Fon/Fo at a given speed S and maximum force Fon. This is the amount of MR uid that must be energized at any given instant in order to achieve a specied mechanical performance. (For an MR damper this is the amount of uid that is actually in the valve, not the total amount of uid that lls the damper.) This minimum uid volume is proportional to uid viscosity and inversely proportional to the square of the yield stress. !  Zp Fon 3 Fon S V rk 2 Foff ty field where k=1 for shear mode devices and k 0 2 for ow mode devices. The above equation often provides a simple means of assessing the feasibility of a given application. Most successful MR uid devices require only a very few cm3 of active uid. For a representative MR uid having a maximum yield strength of 10 s/Pa. 50 kPa and a plastic viscosity of 0.25 Pa s the factor Zp =t2 y field equals 10 Since the maximum energy density that needs to be established in the uid is approximately 0.1 J/cm3, the minimum electrical power requirement in watts is approximately 0.1 times the uid volume (in cm3) divided by the time required to input the energy. (For rotary applications one can simply use torque in N-m and angular speed in rad/s). 3.3. Other practical considerations The bandwidth of controllable uid devices is largely determined by factors extrinsic to the uid such as the dynamics associated with eld generation. These

Fig. 5. Basic operation modes for MR uids.

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include coil dynamics and eddy current eects in MR uid devices. An advantage of MR uids is the ancillary power supply needed to control the uid. MR devices can be powered directly from common, low voltage sources. Further, standard electrical connectors, wires and feedthroughs can be reliably used. This aspect is particularly important in cost sensitive applications and is one of the key advantages of MR uids versus ER uids. Because of the high loading of dense iron, MR uids are heavy. In weight sensitive applications this fact needs to be considered. While the active volume of the MR uid may be quite small, the total uid volume may be signicantly larger depending on the actual application, e.g. long stroke shock absorbers. Of concern in many rotary applications, e.g. clutches, are centrifugal eects. Because of the large density dierence between particles and liquid, centrifugal separation can occur at high rotational speeds. However, for brakes in which the housing is stationary, centrifugation is generally less of a concern because of the continual shear induced remixing. Particle and uid density mismatch are a concern for gravitational settling. However, because of the great exibility one has in choosing surfactants and additives, this concern can usually be addressed successfully. MR uids exhibiting long-term stability with little or no sedimentation are achievable [25,32,34].

4. Applications In parallel to increasing theoretical understanding of these materials, there has been considerable eort over the past decade to improve the practicality of controllable materials. MR uid-based devices have recently enjoyed commercial success in exercise equipment [1,14], for vehicle seat vibration control [11,34] and for primary automotive suspensions [3,13,45]. Although there is currently little published on applications of elastomers with controllable rheology, there is little doubt that there are numerous applications that can make use of controllable stiness and the unique anisotropic characteristics of these elastomers. In this section some of the main application areas of MR uids are reviewed. The reader is also referred to several review articles that discuss applications in more detail [11,26]. 4.1. Applications of MR uids A main application area for MR uids is in devices for torque transfer which include brakes and clutches [1,9,20,39]. Fig. 6a shows a schematic of an MR uidbased disk-type brake (or clutches, if the housing is allowed to rotate). Other basic MR uid-based brake/clutch geometries, including the so-called concentric cylinder-type, are disclosed by Rabinow [39]. MR uid-based brakes are currently commercially available from Lord Corporation and are being used in various exercise equipment [1,11,14]. Controllable uid-based brakes and clutches may

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also soon nd commercial success in various automotive applications and tensioning applications [30]. Another main application area for controllable uids is in dampers and mounts for use in semi-active or adaptive vibration control and snubbing. There has been interest in applying this technology to automotive applications, such as primary suspension [13,45], secondary suspensions [11,34,48] and engine mounts [16,44]. Fig. 6b shows a schematic of an MR uid damper. It can be seen that the operation of this device is fundamentally dierent from that of brakes and clutches, in that MR uid is forced through annular orices rather than being directly sheared. Lord Corporation currently sells the MR damper in Fig. 6b within a system for use in vehicle seat vibration control. Other applications of vibration control using controllable uid dampers include seismic damping [18,46] and helicopter rotor damping augmentation [24]. 4.2. Applications of MR elastomers Elastomers with eld responsive rheology hold promise in enabling simple variable stiness devices. Although there are few applications appearing in the literature for controllable elastomers, there are countless applications for systems

Fig. 6. Rotary MR uid brake (a) and linear MR uid damper (b).

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that employ a variable stiness. Among these are adaptive tuned vibration absorbers (TVAs) [33,49], stiness tunable mounts and suspensions [15,23], and variable impedance surfaces [37]. Ford Motor Company has patented an automotive bushing employing a magnetorheological elastomer [47,50]. The stiness of the bushing is adjusted based on the state of the automobile's power train to reduce suspension deection and improve passenger comfort. For TVAs employing MR elastomers, the fractional change in natural frequency can be calculated in terms of the fractional change in the modulus. In particular, it is easy to show that: s Do DG 1 1 4 oo Go where DG/Go is the fractional change in modulus and Do/oo is the corresponding fractional change in natural frequency. In addition to the eld dependent rheological response of these elastomer composites, utility may also be found in their inherent anisotropic properties. This anisotropy is a result of the unique structure of the particles within the matrix. Indeed, it has been observed that elastomer composite materials are anisotropic in terms of mechanical, magnetic, electrical, and thermal properties. Mechanical anisotropy, for example, may be used to reduce the complexity of elastomer bearings and other laminated systems. Flexible materials with electrical and thermal anisotropy can nd abundant usage in electronics packaging applications. Elastomeric materials with magnetic anisotropy may nd usage in magnetic ux focusing in electromagnetic devices. 4.3. Application of MR foams The basic elements of a simple, linear, MR uid foam damper are shown in Fig. 7a. No seals or bearings are required and only about 3 ml of MR uid are needed. A layer of open-celled, polyurethane foam saturated with MR uid surrounds the steel bobbin and coil. Together, these elements form a piston on the end of the shaft that is free to move axially relative to the tubular housing. The steel tube provides the magnetic ux return path. Since MR foam dampers stress the MR uid in a direct shear mode, maximum force is proportional to the area of active MR uid foam. Control currents of l amp or less and corresponding operating voltages of 12 volts or less are typical. Typical performance curves for a MR sponge damper as described above are shown in Fig. 7b. The low-o state force and large dynamic range possible with this type of damper is readily apparent. MR uid foam dampers exhibit long life. Little wear of the foam matrix occurs as the stresses are carried by the eld induced iron particle structure in the MR uid. Further, performance is largely unaected by wear of the foam. The t of the foam in the gap between the poles is not critical; successful devices have been

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Fig. 7. Simple, low cost MR foam devices: (a) vibration damper; (b) damper performance; and (c) rotary caliper brake.

constructed in which the precompression of the foam ranges from 0 to 70%. The absence of seals, bearings and gas accumulators found in normal uid dampers means that the achievable stroke length is virtually unlimited. Fig. 7c shows a caliper type of brake geometry. Rather than a housing that fully encloses the rotor, the MR uid and magnetic circuit are localized in a simple, magnetic caliper arrangement. The absorbent foam lled with MR uid is attached to the pole faces of the steel yoke. Again, the containment of the MR uid in the absorbent foam eliminates the need for a uid seal. MR foam brakes of this sort can provide a very large controlled torque simply by using a large diameter rotor. If the rotor is very thin it is not even necessary that it be made from a highly magnetically permeable material. Partial arc versions in which the rotor is a pie shaped sector are another possibility.

5. Conclusion The technology of materials with eld responsive rheology is currently enjoying renewed interest within the technical community in terms of fundamental and applied research. Research eorts of the past decade in eld responsive materials

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are beginning to pay o. There are now several commercial MR uids available. Recently, MR uid-based devices have enjoyed commercialization within the exercise industry and transportation industry. The emergence of new applications for controllable materials and the ongoing commercialization of both materials and devices provide an impetus for continued research in this area.

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