Unit- 3

Modulation In Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) only one sinusoid is taken as basis function modulation. Modulation is achieved by varying the phase of the basis function depending on the message bits. The constellation diagram of BPSK will show the constellation points lying entirely on the x axis. It has no projection on the y axis. This means that the BPSK modulated signal will have an in-phase component (I) but no quadrature component (Q). This is because it has only one basis function. A BPSK modulator can be implemented by NRZcoding the message bits (1 represented by +ve voltage and 0 represented by -ve voltage) and multiplying the output by a reference oscillator running at carrier frequency .

BPSK Modulator

BPSK Demodulation:
For BPSK demodulator, a coherent demodulator is taken as an example. In coherent detection technique the knowledge of the carrier frequency and phase must be known to the receiver. This can be achieved by using a Costas loop or a PLL (phase lock loop) at the receiver. A PLL essentially locks to the incoming carrier frequency and tracks the variations in frequency and phase. For the following simulation , neither a PLL nor a Costas loop is used but instead we simple use the output of the PLL or Costas loop. In the demodulator the received signal is multiplied by a reference frequency generator (assuming the PLL/Costas loop be present). The multiplied output is integrated over one bit period using an integrator. A threshold detector makes a decision on each integrated bit based on a threshold. Since an NRZ signaling format is used with equal amplitudes in positive and negative direction, the threshold for this case would be 0.

BPSK Demodulator

MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES

Multiple accesses is defined as the technique where in more than one pair of earth stations can simultaneously use a satellite transponder. It is a technique used to explore the satellites geometric advantages and is at the core of satellite networking.

These include the three familiar methods: FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA. Another multiple access system called space division multiple access (SDMA) has been suggested in the past. In practice, SDMA is not really a multiple access method but rather a technique to reuse frequency spectrum through multiple spot beams on the satellite. Because every satellite provides some form of frequency reuse (cross-polarization being included), SDMA is an inherent feature in all applications. FDMA:
The terminology multiple access indicates how the radio spectrum resource is intended to be used: by enabling more than one communications signal to pass within a particular band; and the frequency division indicates how the sharing is accomplished: by allocating individual frequencies for each communications signal within the band. In an FDMA scheme, the given Radio Frequency (RF) bandwidth is divided into adjacent frequency segments. Each segment is provided with bandwidth to enable an associated communications signal to pass through a transmission environment with an acceptable level of interference from communications signals in adjacent frequency segments .FDMA is a channel access method used in multiple-access protocols as a channelization protocol. FDMA gives users an individual allocation of one or several frequency bands, or channels. Multiple Access systems coordinate access between multiple users.

The FDMA scheme allows the partitioning of a bandwidth-limited communication channel into a set of independent lower-speed channels, each of which uses its permanently assigned portion of the total frequency spectrum. Each frequency slot contains a unique pair of frequencies needed for Sending its digital signals. The FDMA scheme has some advantages and disadvantages. A major limitation arises from the need for guard bands between adjacent channels in order to avert interference from adjacent channels. These guard bands impose a practical limit on the efciency of an FDMA system. A secondary disadvantage is the need to control the transmitting power of earth stations in such a way that the carrier powers at the satellite input are the same in order to avoid the capture effect. Despite these disadvantages, FDMA is the oldest technique and would remain the most widely used because of investments already made in it. Major advantages of FDMA are its simplicity and relatively low cost in applications, particularly in multiplexing unclustered terminal groups whose aggregate bit rate limit is not constrained.

Single Channel per Carrier

Among the various transmission schemes corresponding to different combinations of multiplexing and modulation is the single channel per carrier (SCPC) scheme. Trafc routing by this scheme is performed according to the one-carrier-per-link principle [6]. For example, each voice (telephone) channel is independently modulated by a separate carrier and is transmitted to the satellite transponder on an FDMA basis. A 36-MHz transponder can carry as many as 800 or more voice channels. TDMA:In TDMA many earth stations in the satellite communications network use a single carrier for transmission via the satellite transponder on a time division basis. The earth stations transmit traffic bursts in a periodic time frame which is termed as TDMA frame. The earth stations during their traffic transmission have the access to the entire bandwidth of the transmission. Time division multiple access (TDMA) is a channel access method for shared medium networks. It allows several users to share the same frequency channel by dividing the signal into different time slots. The users transmit in rapid succession, one after the other, each using his own time slot. This allows multiple stations to share the same transmission medium (e.g. Radio frequency channel) while using only a part of its channel capacity. TDMA is a type of Time-division multiplexing, with the special point that instead of having one transmitter connected to one receiver, there are multiple transmitters. In the case of the uplink from a mobile phone to a base station this becomes particularly difficult because the mobile phone can move around and vary the timing advance required to make its transmission match the gap in transmission from its peers. Features of TDMA Shares single carrier frequency with multiple users Non-continuous transmission makes handoff simpler Slots can be assigned on demand in dynamic TDMA Less stringent power control than CDMA due to reduced intra cell interference. Higher synchronization overhead than CDMA Advanced equalization may be necessary for high data rates if the channel is "frequency selective" and creates inter-symbol interference Cell breathing (borrowing resources from adjacent cells) is more Complicated than in CDMA Frequency/slot allocation complexity Pulsating power envelop: Interference with other devices

For satellite communication TDMA works in the following manner.TDMA systems are used in commercial satellite applications. The first system type is the classic TDMA implementation employing a single modulated carrier occupying the full transponders bandwidth. This system is most common for TDMA networks and is also most efficient from a capacity standards point. Each user is allocated a specific time slot for transmission due to which overlapping is avoided. System capacity is increased as only a single carrier is present at any given time. Disadvantage is that the messages need to be stored, compressed and transmitted during one or more specific timeslots. At network level, all transmissions must be synchronized to avoid collision between the bursts.

CDMA CDMA is a form of multiplexing and a method of multiple access to a physical medium such as a radio channel, where different users use the medium at the same time thanks to using different code sequences. In CDMA the whole bandwidth of the transponder is used all the time and signals from the users are encoded so that information from an individual transmitter can be detected and recovered only by properly synchronized receiving station that knows the code being used. CDMA uses a modulation technique called spread spectrum. Here all the users transmit signals simultaneously on the multiple access schemes.(Spread Spectrum: It refers to a modulation technique that converts the baseband signal to a modulated signal with a spectrum bandwidth that covers or is spread over the band orders of magnitude larger than that normally necessary to transmit the baseband signal itself.) It could be used as a multiple access system by giving each user a unique pseudo random code rather than a unique carrier frequency or time slot. All the users contribute to the noise back ground. To detect the desired signal in the presence of all the interferences, the composite signal is cross-correlated with the known pseudo random number spreading sequence. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) Direct sequence spread spectrum is a modulation technique where the transmitted signal takes up more bandwidth then the information signal that is being modulated. Direct sequence spread spectrum transmissions multiply the data being transmitted by a noise signal. The noise signal is the pseudo random sequence and has a frequency much higher than that of the original signal. It thus spreads the energy of the original signal into a much wider band The resultant signal appears like noise which could be reconstructed to the original signal at the receiving end by multiplying it by the same pseudo random sequence. This process is known as despreading. For de-spreading to work correctly, the transmitter and receiver must be synchronized. Sometimes while sending the signal from the transmitters end, other noises like inter modulation noise and thermal noise are transmitted to the receiver. This is also called as narrow-band interference.

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) It is a method of transmitting radio signals by rapidly switching a carrier among many frequency channels, using the pseudo random sequences (which are known to both transmitter and receiver). Frequency hopping spread spectrum offers three main advantages over fixed frequency transmission techniques:

i) Spread spectrum signals are highly resistant to narrow band interferences. The process of recollecting a spread signal spreads out the interfering signal, causing t to recede into the background. ii) Spread spectrum signals are difficult to intercept. Frequency hopping spread spectrum signals simply appears as an increase in the background noise to a narrow band receiver. iii) Spread spectrum transmission can share a frequency band with many types of conventional transmissions with minimal interference. Interference in frequency hopping spread spectrum is caused at instants when an unwanted signal appears within the pass band of the desired signal. It can occur under following conditions: i) Transmission of other users of multiple-access channel falls Within the range of receivers pass band. ii) Inter modulation noise can be generated due to non- linearitys of receivers channels. Interference is noise like when hopping rate is much higher than the information rate. Interference is coherent when hopping rate is smaller than the information rate.

Data:
Dataistransmittedindigitalformthroughrouterthatdeterminestheproperpathfordatato travelbetweenthenetworks,andforwardsdatapacketstothemodemalongthispath.Modem convertsthisdigitalformofdataintoanalogform.Thefrequencyofthissignalisthenincreased withthehelpofupconverter.Thepowerlevelofthesignalisthenamplifiedbythehighpower amplifier[HPA]andthensenttotheantennaforthetransmission.

Computer

Router

MODEM

UP

HPA

DataReception The data is received by the antenna and then passes through the low noise amplifier That amplifies the weak signal received by the antenna. This amplifies signal is then passed through the down converter that decreases the frequency of the signal.Now this analog signal is then converted to digital signal by the modem. This signal is then routed to the destination computer by the router.

LNA

Down

MODEM

Router

Computer

VoiceExchange:
VoiceTransmission:

Phone

Exchange

MUX

Modem

UP

HPA

Voiceistransmittedthroughrouterthatdeterminestheproperpathfordatatotravelbetweenthe networks, and forwards data packets to the modem along this path. Modem converts this digital form of data into analog form. The frequency of this signal is then increased with the help of up converter. The power level of the signal is then amplified by the high power amplifier [HPA] and thensenttotheantennaforthetransmission. VoiceReception

LNA

Down

MODEM

Exchange

Phone

The voice signal is received by the antenna and then passes through the low noise amplifier that amplifies the weak signal received by the antenna. This amplifies signal is then passed through the downconverterthatdecreasesthefrequencyofthesignal. Now this analog signal is then converted to digital signal by the modem. This signal is then routed tothedestinationbytheexchange

UpConverter

The up converter contains frequency, translating circuits, which convert 70 MHz input signal to signalinthefrequency,rangeof5.85GHzto6.425GHz.Theupconverterhasnominalgainof15 dB, with the nominal power being 0 dBm. The up converter contains filters for suppression of localoscillatorleakandspuriousproducts.Equalizerscompensateforgroupdelayisreducedby thefiltersandkeepamplituderesponsewithinspecifications.

HighPowerAmplifier(HPA):
The high power amplifier amplifies the RF output signal from the up converter to the required power level for transmission to the satellite. Amplifiers for satellite video applications are typically sized in the range from 1watt to 3watt. Amplifiers in the 1 to 10 watt ranges available are solid state configuration. Traveling wave tube (TWT) amplifiers are available in configuration up to approximately 750 watt. For power levels above 750 Watts klystron tube amplifiers are used. The HPA usually contains BPF to reject harmonics and power sampling circuits for monitoring the output transmit power and the reflected power from the antenna. They have also the provision for increase of power from minimum to maximum value. Conventional tube fails to operate satisfactorily above 300 MHz mainly due to transmit time effect.UHFtubestrytoovercomethetransmittimeeffectbyreducingthetubedimensions.

DownConverter:
ThedownconvertercontainsfrequencytranslatingcircuitwhichconvertsfcMHzinputsignalto 70 MHz signal. The down converter contains compensate for group delay introduced by the filtersandkeepamplituderesponsewithinspecifications.

LowNoiseAmplifier(LNA):
The low noise amplifier provides high gain and low noise to establish high system G/Te. G/Te ratio is a figure of merit used to represent the quality of a satellite receiver or an earth station. Total gain G becomes the sum of antenna gain Ga and LNA gain Glna. Te is an effective noise temperatureattheinputofLNA.

Atransponder(alsoTPDR,TR,XPNDR,XPDR)isanelectronicdeviceusedinwireless communications,theworditselfisshorthandfortransmitterresponder. Thisdeviceisprimarilyusedasaretransmitterduetothefactthatitreceivesaparticular signalfromaparticularsource,thenitamplifies(strengthens)thesignalbeforesendingittoa predefinedlocation.Transpondershaveanabnormallylargenumberofapplicationsinourdaily lives.Someofthemostcommonusesare:satellitetelevision,satellitetelephony,airtraffic controlandinautomobiles.Theyarealsoembeddedincarstoopengatesautomatically.We shalllookatsomeoftheseapplicationslater.Firstofallitisimportanttomentionthat transpondersareoftwogeneralvarietieswhichareactivetranspondersandpassive transponders. Activetransponder:Thesedevicesasthenameimplies,continuallyemitradiosignalswhichare trackedandmonitored.Thesecanalsobeautomaticdeviceswhichstrengthenthereceived signalsandrelaythemtoanotherlocation. Thesedevicesaresofrequentlyusedthatweoftenfailtorecognizethem.Forexample,howdo youthinklaptimesofNASCARandformulaonecarsaremonitoredsoaccurately?Wellthe answerliesinthetransponderswhichcarshaveembeddedinthem.EachcarhasauniqueID codewhichistransmittedasthecarmoves.Aspecialcableloopisdugintothegroundatthe startfinishlines.Sowhenthecarszoombythefinishline,theirIDsarerecordedalongwith theirlaptimes.Thesetimesareautomaticallydisplayedonthepositionboardalongwithsplit times,lapsremainingandsoon. Anotherimportantuseofactivetranspondersisinsatellitecommunications.Normallythere arehundredsofthousandsoftinytranspondersembeddedinonesatellite.Thesereceivean incomingsignaloverarangeoffrequencies(band),measuredinhertzandmegahertzand retransmitthesesignalsonadifferentbandsimultaneously.Theincomingsignaloriginating fromapointontheearth(e.g.Abroadcaster),iscalledtheuplinkandtheoutgoingsignalback totheearthiscalledthedownlink.Thelogicbehindusingsatellitesforthispurposeissimple asradiosignalscannotcurvealongthecurvatureoftheearth,theyaresentinastraightlineup andreceiveddowninastraightline.Thisreducestimeofsignaldeliveryandincreasesrange. Nowwecometothepassivetransponderwhichalthoughnotasactiveastheircounterparts stillplayaveryimportantrole.Thesetransponderscontaininformationwhichisusedto identifyparticularobjects.Forexamplepassivetranspondersaresometimesembeddedinour creditcardsandonmagneticlabelsinlargestores.Thesearepairedwithactivetransponders whichamplifyandtranscribetheinformation.