HOME

EDUCATION

A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE AIMS OF EDUCATION IN THE WESTERN TRADITION

o o o o o o

Home About IPS

Research

 o o o o o o o o o o o
Join IPS Publications Events & Updates

o o
Contact Us

search...

A Critical Review of the Aims of Education in the Western Tradition

Written by Farhan Zainulabideen Abstract [The Western tradition has not been able to find a stable basis on which to rest its aims of education. There is no consensus about the se domain of education to be achieved. Great philosophers of their times appeared with divergent criteria. Do these endless divergences re and present truth? Such an approach naturally runs the risk of degenerating into reactionary evolution. Can a practical alternative system transcendental rather than relative values and upon ends, not means? Where could such an exercise begin if not from the aims? Is it then derives transcendental aims, which also possess consensus of the relevant constituencies? Editors] Introduction This paper explores aims of education as identified by various leading philosophers, pre-eminent nations and prominent ideologies belo Its primary focus is on education for younger children. The study of philosophers in the first part of this paper has been divided into two sections. The first reviews three classical philosophers covering the period from the outset of philosophy as a subject of study in ancient Greece, about 400bc, to what is known as the Europea corresponding roughly to the late 18th century. The second section focuses on Dewey and Russell, both philosophers of the modern, pr Except for John Dewey, whose main strength is thought to be education, the remaining four thinkers are considered to have possessed m influence in spheres outside education. Nevertheless, Plato, Rousseau and Locke have particularly and deeply influenced the Western tr perhaps, was not equally influential in this respect, but his accomplishments in a huge variety of fields place him among the most versa Following the distinguished philosophers, the paper undertakes an analysis of the aims of education set explicitly or implicitly by variou second part. The aims of classical Athens are briefly compared to those of its contemporary China, followed by brief analyses of the un system of imperial Britain; the democratic American approach; the egalitarian perspective; modern liberal education; and fi nally, the approach to education in society. The key purpose of this paper is to learn from the evolution of the Western idea of education. As more and more thought is being expen alternative systems of education, it is of crucial significance that lessons are learnt from the most formidable civilization in the world. An attempt is made in this paper to counter each viewpoint presented by criticism generated thereupon from within the Western traditio for instance, are not used to counter these Western views. This unilateral perspective is intended to reduce the potential fallacy of comp Notably, the views of contemporary Western educational philosophers have not been included here, except in passing where particularl Western educational philosophy is a complex subject, like other contemporary domains of social science, and deserves much closer stu It seems appropriate at this stage that more research avenues are identified that could lead to a foundation or nucleus for developing pol development of alternative systems of education. Whereas a civilizations value system must provide the core elements for a c omprehe science, the experience of other civilizations, both successes and failures, provides the chisel which can help carve the fine details for a design.

Views on the Difficulty in Formulating Aims of Education

Aristotle is not particularly well known for expressing perplexity, but he speaks about the difficulties in setting the aims of education in What should be the character of this public education, and how young persons should be educatedthere is disagreement about t he sub means agreed about the things to be taught, whether we look to virtue or the best life. Neither is it clear whether education is more conc moral virtue. The existing practice is perplexing; no one knows on what principle we should proceed should the useful in life, or shou knowledge, be the aim of our training. The contemporary educational philosopher T. W. Moore of the University of London concurs with Aristotle: Amongst philosophers of educationthere is quite considerable diversity of opinion about what exactly their task is or ought to be. Time and developments have obviously not overcome this millennia-old quandary regarding the aims or purposes of education. When J 1916 landmark classic Democracy and Education that the educational process has no end beyond itself; it is its own end, he was doub persistent fog over the direction of education. However, this suggestion could only lead to contemporary discontent with the aimlessnes The Christian tradition too has found it difficult to reconcile the avalanche of democracy and freedom with its own orthodox tenets c education. But particularly conflicting have been the views of Enlightenment and modern philosophers about the aims and larger purpo

portrayed by the French educational philosopher, Jacques Maritain: Every educator worships a deityfor Spencer it is Nature; for Comte, Humanity; for Rousseau, Liberty; for Freud, Sex; for Durkheim Culture; for Emerson, the Individual. Or perhaps everything is reduced to a question of adaptation to the child or of letting nature take i denying educationif the modern world is so concerned with education, it is, as Chesterton says, because modern man has lost his bea is nor where he is going. Bertrand Russell has translated the differences in educational aims in terms of the kind of person that we wish to produce: Dr [Thomas] Arnold wanted humbleness of mind, a quality not possessed by Aristotles magnanimous man. Nietzsches ideal is not Kantsfor while Christ enjoins love, Kant teaches that no action of which love is the motive can be truly virtuous. And even people w a good character may differ as to their relative importance. One man will emphasize courage, another learning, another kindliness, and the elder Brutus will put duty to the state above family affection; another like Confucius, will put family affection first. All these diverg as to education. We must have some concept of the kind of person we wish to produce, before we can have any definite opinion as to th best. On the one hand are those who, like Dewey, consider the educational process as supreme in itself and which, if intelligently administere goodness in children. The other standpoint is that there are certain values to which all others are subordinate, and that these values shou education. Recently, Winch and Gingell have pointed out the acute problem in setting the aims of education when the underlying values of a socie other. Their specific point of reference is the modern Western society where people of various denominations cohabit. They specifically Jews and atheists in their examples. Moore points out the divergence in educational aims that necessarily arises out of variation in cultures and difference in philosophies: The kind of knowledge and skill which would have satisfied Platos requirement would not have been much to the point in Spencers E Arnold, Cardinal Newman and John Dewey each formulated a different notion of what would count as an educational man. Present-day rulers of Cuba, emergent Africa, and China will no doubt have very different notions from those of 19th century Europe. Each will see what social demands will be made on such a man. It was T. S. Eliot who perhaps best encapsulated the wide divergence in the various assertions about the aims of education when he said When writers attempt to state the purpose of education, they are doing one of two things; they are eliciting what they believe to have be always, and thereby giving their own meaning to the history of the subject; or they are formulating what may not have been, or may hav purpose in the past, but should in their opinion be the purpose directing development in the future. The distinguished writer seems to imply here that there cannot be intrinsic, inherent and undeniable aims of education. At the end of this discussion, it is useful to reflect on this quote from a thoughtful critic of modern education: The most serious weakness in modern education is the uncertainty about its aims. A glance over history reminds us that the most vital a education have envisaged their objectives quite definitely, in terms of personal qualities and social situationsBy contrast, education in distressingly nebulous in its aims. Presented below is an analysis of the stated aims of education. Included in the discussion are those aims that, though unstated, have bee obvious to posterity. The analysis is categorized under aims suggested by (i) classical Western philosophers, (ii) modern Western philo prominent Western societies and ideologies, such as imperial Britain, the democratic tradition, the liberal left, etc.

The Classical Western Philosophers

Plato

In the period from the first blossoming of Western philosophy in ancient Greece until the European Enlightenment, three of the most in tradition are widely considered to be Platos Republic, Rousseaus mile and John Lockes Some Thoughts Concerning Education.

Plato is the earliest important thinker on education. He is also the first to have laid down a comprehensive outlook of education that wa society and its aims. In Republic, Platos primary aim of education is to produce the elites needed to govern the ideal city. The supreme product of the educa king who rules the city. The highest aim of education for Plato is the knowledge of good, which in turn instills the four great virtues: wi justice. As Dewey puts it, no one expresses better than Plato the fact that a society is stably organized when each individual is what he i this way that he is useful to others and contributes best to the whole, and that society becomes a just order. It is the aim of education to citizens and progressively train them for the best use of society. Although there appears some contradiction in Platos account of wheth present in human nature or are created through the education process, the former thought seems more plausible. However, not everyone and thus it is the business of education to identify those with the higher level of qualities and then to develop these to their full potential possessing a more courageous disposition become the defenders of the city in war. Their limit of development is fixed though, by lack o more of this trait, in turn, are capable of higher education. The theory of forms is possibly Platos best known contribution to philosophy. Broadly, he maintains that knowledge is acquir ed, not in coming to know the forms, a term that could be translated as ideas, and these forms are not necessarily present in some other spatio-t may be accessed by studying the world of ideas, entry into which is gained by reasoning, rather than by studying the world of experienc

experience. It is this knowledge of the good that is the most soug ht aim of education in Platos Republic. To achieve knowledge, Plato p habits of mind that allow a person to see the form of good through tough intellectual training in subjects like mathematics, which devel intelligence, concentration, memory and persistence, essential both in further study and in living life well. Karl Popper, in his 1945 classic, The Open Society and Its Enemies, voiced the view that Platos Republic is not advisable reading as a Most forms of government discussed in Republic bear little resemblance or relevance to modern republics. Indeed, the city portrayed in harsh, rigid and un-freea kind of precursor to modern totalitarianism. Russell says of him: Plato possessed the art to dress up illiberal suggestions in such a way that they deceived future ages, which admired the Republic witho was involved in its proposals. It has always been correct to praise Plato, but not to understand him. He thinks that Plato would have said that wisdom consists in knowledge of the good from which it follows that whoever knows what is on Socrates doctrine that no man sins wittingly. To Russell, this view seems remote from reality. To Plato, lying is a government prerogative and one royal lie will deceive the rest of the city, being that God created men of three typ guardians; the second best made of silver should be the soldiers; and the common herd made of iron and brass should do manual labor. according to Russell, is that compulsory acceptance of such myths is incompatible with philosophy, and involves a kind of education th Dewey is perhaps most scathing in his criticism of Plato. He believes that Plato had no perception of the uniqueness of individuals. Wit individual constitutes his own class, his incommensurability with others, there could be no recognition of the infinite diversity of tenden capable of. Hence education would, in Deweys opinion of Plato, soon reach a static limit in each class, for only diversity m akes chang

Locke

John Locke was arguably one of the most influential of the Enlightenment and pre-Enlightenment thinkers, and contributed enormously of modern Western thought. He was an empiricist, influencing the development of epistemology, political philosophy and the liberal th American Revolutionaries, as reflected in the American Declaration of Independence. Locke played a defining role in 18th-century education theory, through two major claims, the theory of mind and theory of self. Before Education, Locke had already presented his theory of mind in the very influential Essay Concerning Human Understanding in 1690, co a tabula rasa, or blank tablet of wax, i.e. it did not contain innate ideas. Significantly, in making this assertion, Locke st ood up agains being inherently possessive of the original sin, as well as the existing Cartesian view, which held that man inherently possessed basic lo Lockes empty mind is impressed by experience. The implications of this for education are manifest in Lockes historical opening stat all the men we meet with, Nine Parts of Ten are what they are, Good or Evil, useful or not, by their Education. Tis that whi ch makes th Lockes second vital contribution stems from his theory of self. He argued that since the mind of a child is empty, it is mor e receptive t grows up: The little, and almost insensible Impressions on our tender Infancies have very important and lasting ConsequencesTher is significant in the formation of the self. Locke was thus, for instance, against letting a foolish maid convince a child that goblins an the night, for darkness shall ever afterwards bring with it those frightful ideas, and they shall be so joined, that he can no more bear the Some Thoughts was a reaction of Lockes disapproval of existing educational methods. Many of his ideas are still among the objects aim educationalists. The original purpose of Locke in Some Thoughts was the individual education of a gentlemans son, not the formation o aim of Lockean education is the development of virtue. For him, virtue is a combination of reason and self-denial, that a man is able to cross his own inclinations, and purely follow what reason directs as best, though the appetite lean the other way. Fundamentally though, Lockes educational philosophy is an effort to show how constitutional monarchy might be preserved and impro suggested that the children of the poor should be kept away from schools, because the elite would fall into the company of undesirables a sense of upbringing than school-based education in the modern sense. He was writing more for the class of people whose sons daug were to grow up into gentlemen under the individual guidance of tutors. These were people who were interested in how their sons grew instead of simply in their intellectual development.

Although Rousseau studied and was deeply influenced by Locke, he was enraged by his teaching methods: People make great fuss abo teach children to read. They invent bureaux and cards, then turn the nursery into a printers shop. Locke would have them t o read by m idea! And the pity of it. There is a better way than any of those, and one which is generally overlooked it consists in the desire to lear Bertrand Russell has this to say of Lockes and Rousseaus educational model: Both consider only the education of an aristocratic boy, to which one mans whole time is devoted. However excellent might be the res with a modern outlook would give it serious considerationThe system is therefore one which c an only be employed by a privileged c would be impossiblewe cannot regard a method of education as satisfactory if it is one which could not possibly be universalEven democratic principle is absent from the treatises of Locke and Rousseau. Although the latter was a disbeliever in aristocracy, he never p disbelief where education was concerned. Twentieth century British educationist Lester Smith hopes that the British education system does not degenerate back into the Lockean important. Critics of Locke also feel that, keen as he was on clarity of knowledge, he did not escape confounding sense-knowledge with one may derive not only different but conflicting doctrines from the premises that his theories afford, i.e. support for both idealism and

Rousseau

Jean-Jacques Rousseaus intellectual range and achievements are staggering. He made epochal contributions to political theory, lit eratu

tract, mile, transformed the debate about child upbringing and was very largely instrumental in altering the Western perception of chil conventional wisdom on the nature of childhood and education with a radical discourse in this fictional novel. In their engaging and bri Edmonds and Eidinow state: Rousseaus bold prescription for how children should be nurtured and educated to lead their lives fully can be found in mile. Initially, In this period of negative education, there is a recommendation that the child be deprived of all books, bar one: Daniel Defoes Robin provides a master class in survival and self sufficiency. By bringing up the boy, mile, outside the community, his tutor will enable the will, and not be prey to popular opinion and the values of the conventional world. (Among many passages acutely discomforting to a Rousseau proclaimed that girls are not like boys, since dependence is a state natural to women.) Probably the most significant aspect of Rousseaus educational thinking is his fresh start. Although he had closely studied Plato and Lo untrammeled by precedent or tradition. Education in the USA and in Europe was profoundly influenced by Rousseau, and the English E considered to be dramatically derived from his words and thoughts. The fundamentals of Rousseaus educational creed are nature and freedom. He believed that children should develop according to n debated, this approach leads to a non-interventionist, hands-off teaching/learning process. This is based on the belief that man is by na by the evils of society. Thus, education in accord with nature furnished the goal as well as the method of instruction and discipline. Th the first step in ensuring a more social society, where natural law is seen to accomplish harmony and balance and to get rid of artificial restrictions. In his celebrated work, Dewey has acknowledged the grand influence of Rousseau in the Western tradition of education but come up w classical genius. Firstly, he suggests that Rousseau has been misunderstood in terms of his emphasis on the natural development of man opposed the existing state of affairs in education and child rearing on the ground that formed neither the citizen (contrived) nor the man proffered the latter rather than the former, in the existing unsatisfactory state of affairs. However, Dewey suggests that there are many s to the formation of citizens as ideally the higher goal. Nevertheless, Dewey goes on to say: The notion of a spontaneous normal developmentis pure mythology. The natural or native powers furnish the initiating and lim iting f not furnish its ends or aims. There is no learning except from a beginning in unlearned powers, but learning is not a matter of the sponta powers. Rousseaus contrary opinion is doubtless due to the fact that he identified God with Nature; to him the original pow ers are who wise and good creatorWhen men attempt to determine the uses to which the original activities shall be put, they interfere wi th a divin social arrangements with Nature, Gods work, is the primary source of corruption in individualsThat neglect, suppression and premat the expense of others, are responsible for many avoidable ills, there can be no doubt. But the moral is not to leave them alone to follow development, but to provide an environment which shall organize them. Although Rousseau came to be widely considered the prophet of liberty and freedom, which led to the rise of individualism in the West acute contradictions.

Modern Western Philosophers of Education

Dewey

Noam Chomsky holds that the two leading thinkers of 20th century in the West were John Dewey and Bertrand Russell. These two preconsidered in this section.

John Dewey is a preeminent Pragmatist who dominated the educational stage in the first half of the 20th century, especially in the Unite concept of education was greater emphasis on broadening intellect and developing problem solving and critical thinking skills. For him teaching of facts, but the integration of skills and knowledge int o pupils lives. As a Pragmatist, he is concerned with immediate issues human interests rather than with long-term considerations of purpose and value: It is well to remind ourselves that education as such has no aim. Only persons, parents, and teachers etc, have aims, not an abstract idea valid aim which can be put in words will, as words, do more harm than good unless one recognizes that they are not aims, but rather su to observe, how to look ahead, and how to choose in liberating the energies of the concrete situations in which they find themselves. For him, education is the fundamental method of social progress and reform since society can formulate its own purpose through educa means and resources, thereby shaping itself with definitiveness and moving its economy in the direction it desires. In his child-centered education revolution, Dewey was much influenced by Rousseau and had similar great faith in natural goodness, if wholesome, intelligent influences. For Dewey, education was a device to facilitate democracy, which to him was the most desirable kin way of life. Although Deweys impact was more potent and immediate in the United States, there are some question marks about the effective ness were integrated into the practices of American public schools. This could be attributed in part to the diffuseness that permeates much of have caused him to be often misinterpreted, even by fellow academics. When education is allied to the practice and institutions of democracy, either for the production of democratic man, or for education it significant difficulty in precisely describing the term democracy. This is because of the vast interpretat ions that it enjoys. Although th of commendation, unfortunately, democratic decisions and practices are sometimes quite compatible with injustice, ineptitude and disas democracy could lead to and thus threw his considerable intellectual weight against it.

Then, if it is claimed that it is in the public interest for society to be democratic, it will be in the public interest too to provide whatever to sustain democracy. But this could be said for any form of social polity. If it were in the public interest to provide a fascist or a comm public interest to provide a fascist or a communist type of education. So, the argument for allying education with democracy quickly ru Moore also argues that, given the relatively short time that children spend in school and the demands made therein on them, there are m in school than elements of democratic politics. Moreover, supposing that there is a case for democracy in schools, which of the various democracy is more appropriate?

Russell

Bertrand Russell exerted a major influence on modern philosophy, especially in the English-speaking world. He influenced major later Wittgenstein, Ayer, Gdel, Popper, Searle, and many others. Russell characterized moral and political writings as lying outside the scop prolific writer on a wide variety of subjects, his best known contributions to the field of education are two books, On Education and Ed Russell distinguishes between education of character and education in knowledge, which he calls instruction. In the controversy betwee which class Russell himself belonged by birth, and democratic education, he favored the latter. Similarly, he favored education as a con against education for material goods. He also believed that knowledge was not intrinsically particularly useful, unless it created some u For Russell, the aim of education is to give a sense of the value of things other than domination, to help create wise citizens of a free co combination of citizenship with liberty, individual creativeness, which means that we regard a child as a gardener regards a young tree, nature which will develop into an admirable form given proper soil, air and light. Russell firmly believed that the proper physical, emotional and intellectual care of the young should lead to four characteristics which f character: vitality, courage, sensitiveness and intelligence. He says, in his typical style: A community of men and women possessing vitality, courage, sensitiveness and intelligence, in the highest degree that education can p from anything that has hitherto existed. Very few people would be unhappyIt is education that gives usbad qualities, and ed ucation virtues. Education is the key to the new world. Russell warned against influencing character by moral considerations. In this respect, he was the anti-thesis of Dewey, as he wanted kn for intellectual purpose, not to prove moral or political conclusions. Dewey on the other hand thought that the impact of the knowledge important problem of moral education. For Dewey, it was futile to conceive the moral end as the unifying end of education unless learn As far as instruction is concerned, Russell held that seven chief qualities, which he called intellectual virtues, should result from intellec curiosity, open mindedness, belief that knowledge is possible though difficult, patience, industry, concentration, and exactness. Given Russells political redoubt apart from his more obvious philosophical bearings, his expression suffers from platitude and diffusen and coherent solutions and policy statements, he resorts to trite truisms, as he himself admits else where. As a point in case, although he children to overcome fears and to liberate their consciousness, a reader will be hard pressed to translate his clichd style into concrete p implementation.

Although Russell attaches considerable importance to forming ones own opinions, this seems to betray an unwarranted confidence in a dependence on experts. He is not blind, however, to the value of expert knowledge and does concede in one of his more famous princip agreed, the opposite opinion cannot be regarded as certain. This, however, appears to be a clich, especially since Russell offers no ass experts from cocksure prophets and dishonest charlatans.

Aims of Education in Different Countries and Ideologies

A general state education is a mere contrivance for moulding people to be exactly like one another; and as the mould in which it casts th pre-dominant power in the government, whether this be a monarch, a priesthood, an aristocracy, or the majority of the existing generati and successful, it establishes a despotism over the mind leading by natural tendency to one over the body.

John Stuart Mill, On Liberty, 1859 Just as philosophers vary in their views on the aims of education, so different cultures and countries diverge in this respect, sometimes t This section takes a look at the aims of education set explicitly or implicitly by some of the prominent nations and polities. Writing in 1926, Bertrand Russell presented a comparative analysis of education and the effects it produced on civilizations in his On E similarities between Athenian and traditional Chinese education, including learning of classical texts, outward practice of worship ritua elegant skepticism, and refined enjoyment of life. However, he also found differences between the two people that he partly attributed t Athens self-destructed whereas the Chinese long remained a stable civilization: The Greeks were energetic while the Chinese were rela devoted their energies to art and science and mutual extermination, in all of which they achieved unprecedented success. They destroye passionate beliefs, whereas Chinese education produced art and stability, although it failed to produce science or progress. For this reas feels, is not suited to the modern world. Russell characterized the English public school system, or Dr. Thomas Arnolds system as he calls it, as aristocratic. It imp arted those v aristocracy to survive. He says, this system sacrificed intellect, sinc e it creates doubt; sympathy, since it interferes with governing infer sake of toughness; and imagination, for firmness. The product of this was to be energetic, stoical, physically fit, and possessed of certai

standards of rectitude, and a conviction that he had an important mission in the world. Russell is surprised at the results achieved, but su will no longer obey even the most virtuous rulers, and that thus aristocracy is out of date. On the British education system, Winch and Gingell in their landmark policy study, Philosophy and Educational Policy, point out that codified. However, it was obvious from the beginning, they claim, what its main purposes were: (i) to provide basic mass education to t combining basic literacy and numeracy with a supportive attitude to the existing socio-political order; (ii) to provide access to grammar education, to those destined for higher levels, the gentry; and (iii) to deliberately isolate a small sector of secondary education from the public school system aimed at maintaining the political elite that would run the British Empire. This system, rigidly hierarchical and e strongly committed to racial superiority and the dominance of lesser people, was understandably reluctant to explicitly adm it what its While Russell maintains that the Dr. Arnold system sacrificed intelligence to virtue, the code of the Board of Education, issued in 190 purpose of the Public Elementary School is to form and strengthen the character and to develop the intelligence of the childr en entruste It will be seen that this elitism works with a variety of political systems, not necessarily under authoritarian regimes. In the UK in the 1 elites governed through elections via limited franchise. However, modern democracies are also considered by some serious political the competition between rival elites. While the British are particularly well known for being intensely class conscious, it is said that class plays a significant part in educatio despite the assertion to the contrary in its Declaration of Independence. A well known study of equal opportunities in America found th between social status and rank in school. More recent studies appear to confirm the status quo, saying public education, wittingly or n involved in the process of reproducing and legitimating class, race, gender, and other inequalities, and that schools have helped more justify the illusion of meritocracy, but not its reality. While the American education system broadly proceeded upon a democratic path of development, it did so, arguably, at a cost. This cos institutionalization of racial bigotry and segregation in some parts of America. Furthermore, the development of a secondary education diversity of the American society, compromised educational standards in order to accommodate all constituencies comfortably. In addit education system also left many parents unhappy. Some problems in adopting democratic methods in education have been pointed out earlier. It can be added here that democratic elector perspectives and tend to be more easily swayed by short-term considerations. They have limited knowledge of policy alternatives and a and existing fashions. Then, there is the ever present danger of tyranny of the majority, as reflected in the above -mentioned impositio wishes of a minority of the population. It would appear, however, that the form of democracy appropriate for schools, supposing any to kind one that maintains the institutional apparatus of democracy, accedes to pupils opinion as far as possible, but where the tea chin opinions when these go against the childrens interests. Princ ipals and teachers who recognize this rather obvious point, however, run th practicing a sham democracy. The practice of democracy in schools must be restricted by the purpose for which schools exist : the edu for their long-term welfare. Similar difficulties are encountered in dealing with equality as a fundamental tenet of education. The difficulties lie particularly in the The general meaning of equal is same. However, in a political or philosophical context, as in slogans such as all men are equal, su since men are not in any interesting sense the same. It may be said then that all men are not equal, but that they deserve equal treatment previous problems, it soon runs into other difficulties. Surely everybody cannot conceivably be treated alike. We do not think, for instan treated as the guilty, or the sick as the healthy, or the women as men, or indeed the children as adults. An egalitarian, faced with the con declare that all men should be treated equally only when their needs and deserts are the same. Plainly, this disclaimer is incontestable, b purview of equality, since it concerns the sense of justice. The educational implications of this analysis are significant. If equality is taken as equal, or if it implies treating all children as equal, absurd. At this point, the egalitarian might retort that he is concerned not with an abstract idea but with equality of opportunity. But th own, primary in which is that such an access may be impossible or undesirable. Educational goods such as schools and teachers themse approach may be undesirable since all schools may not be suitable for all children. Equality in education, then, will not do as a theory. calling for justiceAn equal society of equal men would not meet our common standards of morality and appropriateness; a just so Generally speaking, a liberal education, as the name suggests, is education for freedom. James Freedman describes it in the following te A liberal education ought to make a person independent of mind, skeptical of authority and received views, prepared to forge an identit capable of becoming an individual not bent upon copying other persons. Accordingly, liberal education emphasizes the development of critical thinking skills necessary to attain individual autonomy. Critical t fostering an aggressive, skeptical, questioning bent of mind that tends to problematize situations as it seeks new understanding. Freedom, like equality, is another complicated and ambiguous concept that carries strong emotive force. The idea of freedom is not be alone to do what one wants. A complication in this is that one may be hindered by circumstances that impose physical, mental, financia that true freedom can only be cultivated by self-examination and guarding against idleness, compulsive busyness, and pointless desires; transformation. This point is illustrated in Dostoevskys famous The Brothers Karamazov, where he contrasts worldly freedom with the freedom cultiva character Elder Zossima. Zossima argues that worldly freedom is often a form of slavery to mans unnecessary desires, and thus worldl ability to satisfy desires. For the poor, this means envy and murder; for they have rights but no way of satisfying their desires. Zossima against monastic freedom, characterized by obedience, fasting and prayer. It is only through these that one is able to cut away superfluo thereby gain true freedom. The monks, he contends, is a more vigilant pursuit of freedom.

Another difficulty in allowing freedom is that it may be abused, especially in the case of children, who can have more freedom than is g that not all freedoms are good. The teacher is thus bound to discourage some freedoms. Since liberalism places a significant emphasis on personal fulfillment and, hence, on what are sometimes called self-regarding consider emphasizing self-fulfillment to such a degree that it ignores the need to pay due regard to the interests of others. Since the Western conception of education is deeply rooted in the need for education to prepare young people to live economically satis relationship between economics and the education system is an obvious one. Recently, this relationship has further been supplemented consequences of the democratic approach to education. Thus, the currently fashionable answer is the creation of an educational market, economic mechanism to reconcile the preferences of different groups in a democracy. Briefly, the solution is to allow as many concepti demand for them. A conception will flourish or wither by the rules of demand and supply. The obvious disadvantage of such a system is that the interests of the whole society or the state are not taken into account. It is increasin is no longer a political concept; rather it is wholly an economic concept in which unattached individuals supposedly making rational will ultimately lead to a better society.

It is arguable whether markets can provide solutions to problems that intrinsically require cooperation directed by a central body. Winc Although the child is the beneficiary of the education, it is the parent who chooses and pays for it. The parent is the judge of the quality those children whose parents cannot afford such an education or who are not sufficiently knowledgeable to make a good choice? They looks as if a market system of education is designed to favor the rich, knowledgeable and powerful. Another criticism of the economic relation of education is that, in a market-led education system, there are grounds for suspecting that s educate their children. Although everyone benefits from an educated population, parents have to pay the high costs, with negligible add Western societies. They might pay on account of love or a sense of duty, but it is far from clear that all parents would ensure that their c

Conclusion

The Western tradition has not been able to find a stable basis on which to rest its aims of education. A study of the evolution of Western picture of reactionism: each new solution immediately begs a corresponding new problem, and always threatens to bring the older edifi Philosophers and philosophies of education appear destined to be contested vehemently. With relativism as the modern basis of the We consensus about what the sensitive and highly influential domain of education is supposed to achieve. Different philosophers, each considered a great heavyweight in his own right, appear to possess their own criteria on which they build t others, who are considered equally great. Even a fundamental term like virtue is defined variously by different great philo sophers. While these differences and debates will surely be seen by many as a greatly positive activity, essential for change, dynamism and prog setting in of stagnation and degeneration, the question must surely be asked whether these endless divergences might not simply be a re defining truth and therefore, by extension, the impossibility of the presence of truth. Can possession of truth be claimed, without a co This question about truth is usually always answered in the modern Western tradition in terms of methods and processes the pursu Such an approach naturally runs the risk of degenerating into reactionary evolution, where a civilization is constantly shifting ground in functional environment of a society.

The crucial succeeding question that begs to be asked is this: can a practical alternative system be developed that is rooted in transcende Upon ends instead of upon means? Where could such an exercise begin if not from the aims? Is it then possible to adopt a method that derives transcendental aims, which a of consensus of the relevant constituencies? This article was constructed with a view to sharpening the question, with the hope of generating a more precise basis for an acceptable References Jonathon Dolhenty. What is wrong with Lockes Philosophy. The Radical Academy. http://www.radicalacademy.com/adiphilwrglock Applied Philosophy, Oregon). (Accessed July 08, 2008) Aristotle. Politics. viii. 2. 1337a33. Berlin edition. Chomsky, Noam and C. P. Otero. 2002. Chomsky on Democracy and Education. Routledge. Cranston, M. 1969. John Locke. Rev. ed. Longmans. Deighton, L. C., ed. 1971. The Encyclopaedia of Education. Vol. 4. Macmillan and Free Press. Dewey, John. 2006. Democracy and Education. New Delhi: Cosmo Classics. (Orig. pub. 1916) Dewey, John. 1964. My Pedagogic Creed. In John Dewey on Education: Selected Writings, ed. R. D. Archaubault. The Modern Libra Dimitriadis, Greg and Dennis Carlson. 2003. Promises to Keep: Cultural Studies, Democratic Education and Public Life . RoutledgeFar Dolby, Nadine and Greg Dimitriadis. 2004. Learning to Labor in New Times. With Paul Willis. RoutledgeFarmer. Edmonds, David and John Eidinow. 2006. Rousseaus Dog. HarperCollins. Eliot, T. S. 1948. Notes Towards the Definition of Culture. Faber. Freedman, James. 2003. Liberal Education and the Public Interest. University of Iowa Press. Gary, Kevin. 2006. Leisure, Freedom and Liberal Education. Educational Theory 56 (2).

Hare, William. 1998. Bertrand Russell on Critical Thinking. In Philosophy of Education: 20th World Congress of Philosophy. Boston Jeffrys, M. V. C. 1950. Glaucon: An Inquiry into the Aims of Education. Pitman. Locke, John. 1692. Some Thoughts Concerning Education. Maritain, Jacques. 1962. The Education of Man. New York: Doubleday. Moore, T. W. 1986. Philosophy of Education. Routledge and Kegan Paul. Phillips, Melanie. 1996. Chapter 8. All Must Have Prizes. CITY: Little Brown. Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. 1993. mile. Everymans Library. (Orig. pub. 1762) Rusk, R. R. 1954. Doctrines of the Greatest Educators. Macmillan. Russell, Bertrand. 1989. On Education. Unwin Hyman. Russell, Bertrand. 1997. Philosophy. In The Collected Papers of Bertrand Russell, ed. John G. Slater. Vol. 11. Routledge. Russell, Bertrand. 2003. History of Western Philosophy. Routledge. Schumpeter, Joseph. 1976. Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy. Routledge. Smith, Richard. 2001. John Locke. In Fifty Major Thinkers on Education, eds. Joy, Palmer, Liora Bresler and David E. Cooper. Smith, W. O. Lester. 1966. Education. Penguin Books. Suppes, Patrick. 1996. The Aims of Education. In Philosophy of Education. Urbana-Champagne: University of Illinois. Warner, William Lloyd, Havighurst, Robert James and Loeb, Martin B. 1946. Who Shall be Educated? Kegan Paul. Watt, Stephen. 1997. Introduction to Platos Republic. Wordsworth Classic. Winch, Christopher and John Gingell. 2004. Philosophy and Educational Policy. RoutledgeFalmer. The author, an IPS associate, is Trustee and Secretary of the Risalah Foundation, a non-governmental organization dedicated to resear Islamic schools Aristotle, Politics viii. 2. 1337a33. Berlin edition. TW Moore, Philosophy of Education (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986), p 1 John Dewey, Democracy and Education (Cosmo Classics, New Delhi, 2006), p 52 WO Lester Smith, Education (Penguin Books, 1966), p 57 Jacques Maritain, The Education of Man (Doubleday, New York, 1962), p 65 Maritain, p 41 Bertrand Russell, On Education (Unwin Hyman, 1989), p 33 Lester Smith, p 58 Christopher Winch & John Gingell, Philosophy and Educational Policy (RoutledgeFalmer, 2004), p 9 Moore, p 26 TS Eliot, Notes Towards the Definition of Culture (Faber, 1948), p 96 MVC Jeffrys, Glaucon: An Inquiry into the Aims of Education (Pitman, 1950), p 61 Moore, p 115 Dewey, Democracy, p 94 &a
Few philosophers have had a more profound influence on the course of modern philosophy than Bertrand Russell. The Basic Writings of Bertrand Russell is a comprehensive anthology of Russell's most definitive essays written between 1903 and 1959. First published in 1961, this remarkable collection is a testament to a philosopher whom many consider to be one of the most influential thinkers of the twentieth century. This is an essential introduction to the brilliance of Bertrand Russell.