Anatomy and physiology

Bones and Joints

Postural deviations

Kyphosis - exaggerated curve of thoracic vertebrae, leading to roundshoulders ( hunch-back appearance)

Lordosis - exaggerated curve of lumbar vertebrae

Scoliosis - spine is twisted laterally a sign is often shoulders at different levels

Correcting postural deviations

Kyphosis reduced lung capacity Strengthen trapezius/rhomboids & spine extensors Stretch pectorals & deltoids Lordosis Often associated with adiposity Strengthen muscles that tilt pelvis backwards Strengthen gluteus maximus and rectus abdominis/core Stretch hip flexors and erector spinae

Normal posture

Lordosis

Kyphosis

Anatomical terms of direction

Superior structure higher or closer to head than another Inferior structure lower or closer to foot than another Medial towards midline of body Lateral away from midline of body Anterior/ventral towards front of body Posterior/dorsal towards back of body Superficial towards surface of body Deep - internal or below surface of body Proximal structure/body part closer to point of attachment than another Distal structure/body part further away from point of attachment than another Supine lying face up Prone lying face down 6

Planes of movement

Sagittal plane splits body vertically into left and right sides Transverse plane divides body horizontally into superior and inferior sections Frontal plane runs vertically and divides body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) sections

Joint actions & planes of movement

Movements in sagittal plane: any movement that brings body part in front or behind body - best observed from the side:
Flexion extension/hyperextension Dorsi flexion - plantar flexion

Movements in transverse plane: any movement that rotates (twists) body (or body part):
Medial/internal rotation - lateral/external rotation Rotation to the left or right of the vertebral column Supination - pronation Inversion - eversion Horizontal flexion - horizontal extension Protraction - retraction

Movements in frontal plane: movements out to side of body - best observed either from in front/behind:
Abduction adduction Lateral flexion Elevation - depression

Muscles

Structure of skeletal muscle

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Muscle relaxed Z A A Z

Myosin

Actin

H Muscle contracted Z

Each muscle fibre consists of large numbers of microscopic threads called myofibrils, which in turn consist of two rows of microscopic protein filaments called actin and myosin These bring about muscle contraction

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More muscles

Adductor group
Adductor magnus Adductor brevis Adductor longus Pectineus adducts/flexes hip Gracilis

Abdominal group
Internal obliques External obliques Rectus abdominis Transverse abdominis

Hamstring group
Biceps femoris Semimembranosus Semitendinosus

Hip flexor group (iliopsoas) Quadriceps group

Rectus femoris Vastus medialis Vastus intermedius Vastus lateralis Iliacus Psoas major

Abductor group
Gluteus medius Gluteus minimus Piriformis Tensor fascia latae

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 Rotator cuff group

(shoulder joint stabilisers) Supraspinatus abducts/lateral rotation arm Subscapularis medial rotation arm Infraspinatus lateral rotation arm Teres minor lateral rotation arm

Spine extensors
Erector spinae iliocostalis, longissimus, spinalis Multifidus extension/rotation spine Quadratus lumborum lateral flexion lumbar spine

Shoulder girdle group

Levator scapulae elevates scapula Pectoralis minor protracts scapula Serratus anterior protracts scapula Trapezius Rhomboids major & minor downward rotation scapula Teres major adduction, medial rotation, extension shoulder

Sartorius flexion/lateral rotation hip, flexion knee Biceps, brachialis, brachioradialis flex elbow

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Structure and function of the pelvic floor muscles

= small group of muscles/connective tissue span underneath of pelvis from pubis to coccyx Support pelvic organs (e.g. bladder, intestines) and pelvic girdle The growing uterus during pregnancy can place a lot of stress on the pelvic floor muscles Weak/damaged pelvic floor muscles can lead to incontinence

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Core muscles

Local close to spine (i.e. deep), recruited prior to gross movement

Transverse abdominis Multifidus Quadratus lumborum Internal obliques Pelvic floor Diaphragm

Global superficial
Rectus abdominis External obliques Erector spinae

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Antagonistic muscle pairs

Reciprocal inhibition = whilst the agonist contracts, the antagonist muscle relaxes

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Type 2 (fast twitch) fibres

Type 2a (fast oxidative glycolytic) used in both aerobic & anaerobic work, take on certain type 1 (ST) characteristics through endurance training; greater resistance to fatigue, and are used in activities fairly high in intensity of relatively short duration Type 2b (fast glyoclytic) high firing threshold, used for activities of very high intensity and have a much stronger force of contraction.

[slow twitch fibres = slow oxidative]

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Cardio-respiratory system

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Structure of the heart

Coronary arteries (not on diagram) feeds cardiac/heart muscle with blood

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Valves

Atrio-ventricular valves (bicuspid/mitral & tricuspid)

Between atria and ventricles Prevent backflow of blood into atria

Semi-lunar valves (pulmonary & aortic)

Between ventricles and arteries leaving heart (i.e. pulmonary artery and aorta) Prevents backflow of blood into ventricles

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Coronary circulation

Arteries carrying oxygenated blood from aorta to myocardium (heart muscle) Coronary arteries branch off aorta Blood flow greatest during diastole

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Blood pressure

= pressure of the blood on the artery walls Systolic (SBP) pumping phase of heart (contraction of cardiac muscle) Diastolic (DBP) relaxing phase of heart Increases during exercise (SBP, DBP stable or slight ) Healthy resting BP = 120/80 (systolic over diastolic) 160/100 = hypertension (high BP) CHD risk factor; CV training can decrease resting blood pressure in long-term Hypotension = low BP (<100/<60 mmHg) Long-term, regular exercise can lower blood pressure (both systolic and diastolic)

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Arteriosclerosis/atherosclerosis

Arteriosclerosis Disease causing arteries to harden Atherosclerosis Progressive disease laying down of fatty deposits (atheroma) in arteries Increases resistance to blood flow, increasing blood pressure Risk factors: Sedentary lifestyle Diets high in saturated fat High levels of LDLs in diet Smoking

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Long-term effects of regular exercise

Cardiac/heart muscle stronger Increased stroke volume and cardiac output Decreased heart rate and blood pressure Increased capillarisation improved blood supply to muscles Increased size and number of mitochondria improved aerobic energy production Reduced risk high blood pressure (hypertrension) reduced risk CHD Reduced risk obesity reduced risk diabetes CHD/diabetes risk factors = MODIFIABLE (can be changed; e.g. activity & diet) or NON-MODIFIABLE (cannot be changed; e.g. genetics, ethnicity, gender, age)

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Valsalva effect

Holding breath during exertion (forced expiration against a closed glottis) fluctuations in blood pressure & heart rate

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Energy systems

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Adenosine

ATP ADP + energy for contraction

Adenosine

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The energy systems

Three energy systems (2 anaerobic, 1 aerobic) Energy produced used to resynthesise ATP, not movement

Lots of heat energy release when ATP broken down

Energy systems used to resynthesise ATP affected by intensity and duration of exercise

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1. PC System (phoshocreatine system)

C
ATP

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2. Lactic Acid System

Glycogen
C

Glycolytic = breaking down of carbohydrates into pyruvic acid (LA system also known as anaerobic glycolysis)

Lactic acid

ATP

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3. Aerobic System

O2
Glycogen Fats Protein

CO2

H2O

ATP

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CV thresholds

Lactate threshold - point at which blood lactate begins to accumulate above resting values OBLA intensity where lactate produced in muscles faster than it is cleared 4 mmols/L VO2max maximum amount of oxygen a person can take in, transport and use per min

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Fatigue - causes

ATP resynthesis if not enough ATP available to keep up muscle contraction Hydrogen ion (H+) accumulation - hydrogen ions which disassociate from lactic acid (leaving lactate) increase acidity of muscle acidosis inhibiting action of glycolytic enzymes Glycogen depletion glycogen primary fuel for ATP resynthesis; when completely depleted, muscles unable to carry on contracting as body cannot use fat by itself as fuel Decreased availability of calcium ions depletion of CP stores plus lactic acid build up calcium accumulating in muscle cells calcium ions stop being released for muscle contraction

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The nervous system

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Role and functions of the nervous system (NS)

NS = CNS + PNS (CNS=Central NS/ PNS=Peripheral NS) Homeostasis = maintaining/returning a system to functioning within a normal range

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CNS= brain & spinal cord

Brain Cerebellum = responsible for controlling group action of muscles Spinal cord = link between brain & PNS

PNS = nerves outside spinal cord

Motor neurons (efferent nerves) transmit impulses from CNS to organs, muscles, glands cause muscle contraction/movement (i.e. CNS PNS) Sensory neurons (afferent nerves) sensory receptors in muscles/tendons/joints relay info about muscle dynamics/limb movements to CNS (i.e. PNS CNS)

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Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Responds to internal environment senses hormonal status, and functioning of internal organs Controls cardiac and involuntary muscles, and endocrine glands that secrete hormones We have no conscious control over this branch = involuntary Sympathetic action stimulates/increases activity
Speeds up heart rate, breathing rate, response times, etc Mobilise energy stores to get us ready for action More active during exercise Fight or flight response Catecholamines adrenaline & noradrenaline

Parasympathetic action slow things down

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Somatic nervous system

Responds to external environment senses movement, touch, pain, skin temperature, etc Controls voluntary muscles We have some control over this branch = voluntary

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Nerve cell

Synapse = a place where 2 nerves communicate i.e. The junction between neuron/nerve and target cell

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Principles of muscle contraction

Motor unit = single motor neuron (efferent nerve) + all muscle fibres it innervates When impulse sent down neuron, all fibres in MU are activated, or none = all or none law If impulse > set threshold impulse sent down motor neuron causing activation of fibres Frequency of nerve impulses summate when close together high frequency stronger muscle contraction

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 The more MU recruited, the greater the force Beginners only recruit certain number of MU protects muscle from developing too much force & damaging muscle/connective tissue Training more MU recruited force = enhanced neuromuscular connections improves motor fitness

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Sensory organs

Exteroceptors information received from outside body through sense organs (e.g. skin, eyes, ears, nose) Proprioceptors information received from inside body by proprioceptors (e.g. stretch receptors in muscle); tells brain body position at that moment Chemoreceptors blood acidity levels Baroreceptors blood pressure Thermoreceptors temperature

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Golgi tendon organs (GTO)

Prevents muscles from exerting more force than bones and connective tissue can handle Thin capsules of connective tissue where muscle fibre and tendon meet Triggers reflex action when very high tensions developed within muscle and tendon Causes muscle to relax and antagonist to contract

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Muscle spindle apparatus

Responds to excessive lengthening of muscle = very sensitive receptors between muscle fibres Relays information through afferent (sensory) nerves concerning state of muscle contraction and length of muscle When a muscle is stretched, the spindle is stretched Sends impulse to spinal cord, indicating how much and how fast muscle has been stretched If muscle stretched too far, muscle spindle apparatus will alter tension within the muscle and cause a stretch reflex (also called myotatic reflex), where muscle is automatically contracted and shortened

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Neuromuscular connections and motor fitness

Improved neuromuscular efficiency increased inter-muscular coordination during movement

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Endocrine system

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 Pituitary gland - growth hormone helps with growth/development Adrenal glands hormones regulating nutrient levels
Adrenaline and noradrenaline (catecholamines) Assist sympathetic nerves preparing body for stress - mobilise fat from adipose tissue, stimulate breakdown of glycogen to glucose, increase heart rate, breathing rate, etc.

Pancreas - hormones involved in blood sugar regulation

Insulin lowers blood glucose Glucagon raises blood glucose

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2 Denne Hill Business Centre Womenswold Canterbury Kent CT4 6HD Tel: 01227 831840 Fax: 01227 831850

www.amactraining.co.uk

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