ME1008 100

ROBOTICS

3 0 0

(Common to Mechanical, Automobile and P oduction ! co e" OB#ECTI$ES To int oduce the ba%ic conce&t%, &a t% o' obot% and t(&e% o' obot%To ma)e the %tudent 'amilia *ith the +a iou% d i+e %(%tem% 'o obot, %en%o % and thei a&&lication% in obot%, & o, ammin, o' obot% To di%cu%% about the +a iou% a&&lication% o' obot%, -u%ti'ication, im&lementation and %a'et( o' obot 1. /012AME1TA3S O/ ROBOT 4 Robot 5 2e'inition 5 Robot Anatom( 5 Co!o dinate S(%tem%, 6o ) En+elo&e, t(&e% and cla%%i'ication 5 S&eci'ication% 5 Pitch, 7a*, Roll, #oint 1otation%, S&eed o' Motion, Pa( 3oad 5 Robot Pa t% and Thei /unction% 5 1eed 'o Robot% 5 2i''e ent A&&lication% 8. ROBOT 2RI$E S7STEMS A12 E12 E//ECTORS 10 Pneumatic 2 i+e% 5 9(d aulic 2 i+e% 5 Mechanical 2 i+e% 5 Elect ical 2 i+e% 5 2.C. Se +o Moto %, Ste&&e Moto , A.C. Se +o Moto % 5 Salient /eatu e%, A&&lication% and Com&a i%on o' all the%e 2 i+e% End E''ecto % 5 : i&&e % 5 Mechanical : i&&e %, Pneumatic and 9(d aulic : i&&e %, Ma,netic : i&&e %, $acuum : i&&e %; T*o /in,e ed and Th ee /in,e ed : i&&e %; Inte nal : i&&e % and E<te nal : i&&e %; Selection and 2e%i,n Con%ide ation% 3. SE1SORS A12 MAC9I1E $ISIO1 10 Re=ui ement% o' a %en%o , P inci&le% and A&&lication% o' the 'ollo*in, t(&e% o' %en%o % 5 Po%ition o' %en%o % (Pie>o Elect ic Sen%o , 3$2T, Re%ol+e %, O&tical Encode %, Pneumatic Po%ition Sen%o %", Ran,e Sen%o % (T ian,ulation P inci&le, St uctu ed, 3i,htin, A&& oach, Time o' /li,ht Ran,e /inde %, 3a%e Ran,e Mete %", P o<imit( Sen%o % (Inducti+e, 9all E''ect, Ca&aciti+e, 0lt a%onic and O&tical P o<imit( Sen%o %", Touch Sen%o %, (Bina ( Sen%o %, Analo, Sen%o %", 6 i%t Sen%o %, Com&liance Sen%o %, Sli& Sen%o % Came a, / ame : abbe , Sen%in, and 2i,iti>in, Ima,e 2ata 5 Si,nal Con+e %ion, Ima,e Sto a,e, 3i,htin, Techni=ue%. Ima,e P oce%%in, and Anal(%i% 5 2ata Reduction, Se,mentation, /eatu e E<t action, Ob-ect Reco,nition, Othe Al,o ithm%. A&&lication% 5 In%&ection, Identi'ication, $i%ual Se +in, and 1a+i,ation. ?. ROBOT @I1EMATICS A12 ROBOT PRO:RAMMI1: 10 /o *a d @inematic%, In+e %e @inematic% and 2i''e ence%; /o *a d @inematic% and Re+e %e @inematic% o' Mani&ulato % *ith T*o, Th ee 2e, ee% o' / eedom (In 8 2imen%ional", /ou 2e, ee% o' / eedom (In 3 2imen%ional" 5 2e+iation% and P oblem% Teach Pendant P o, ammin,, 3ead th ou,h & o, ammin,, Robot & o, ammin, 3an,ua,e% 5 $A3 P o, ammin, 5 Motion Command%, Sen%o Command%, End e''ecte command%, and Sim&le & o, am% A. IMP3EME1TATIO1 A12 ROBOT ECO1OMICS 8 R:$, A:$; Im&lementation o' Robot% in Indu%t ie% 5 $a iou% Ste&%; Sa'et( Con%ide ation% 'o Robot O&e ation%; Economic Anal(%i% o' Robot% 5 Pa( bac) Method, E0AC Method, Rate o' Retu n Method. TEBT BOO@ 1. M.P.: oo+e , CIndu%t ial Robotic% 5 Technolo,(, P o, ammin, and A&&lication%D, Mc: a*! 9ill, 8001 Re'e enceS 1. /u.@.S. :on>al>.R.C., and 3ee C.S.:., CRobotic% Cont ol, Sen%in,, $i%ion and Intelli,enceD, Mc: a*!9ill Boo) Co., 1E84 8. 7o am @o en, CRobotic% 'o En,inee %D, Mc: a*!9ill Boo) Co., 1EE8

UNIT-1 FUNDAMENTALS OF ROBOT

Robot Definition Robot Anatomy Co-ordinate Sy tem !or" En#e$o%e Ty%e and &$a ifi&ation S%e&ifi&ation 'it&() *a+) Ro$$ ,oint Notation S%eed of Motion 'ay Load Robot 'art and T(eir F-n&tion Need for Robot Different A%%$i&ation

1.1 Robot Definition

The Robotic% Indu%t ie% A%%ociation (RIA" de'ine% obot in the 'ollo*in, *a(F /An industrial robot is a programmable, multi-functional manipulator designed to move materials, parts, tools, or special devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks0 An indu%t ial obot con%i%t% o' a numbe o' i,id lin)% connected b( -oint% o' di''e ent t(&e%, Cont olled and monito ed b( a com&ute . To a la ,e e<tend, the &h(%ical con%t uction o' a obot e%emble% a human a m.

1.1 Robot Anatomy 2%(y i&a$

tr-&t-re of robot3

Robot anatom( i% conce ned *ith the &h(%ical con%t uction and cha acte i%tic% o' the bod(, a m, and * i%t, *hich a e the com&onent o' the obot mani&ulato . ! Ba e.!'i<ed a e mobile ! T(e mani%-$ator! a m *hich %e+e al de, ee% o' ' eedom (2O/". ! T(e end-effe&tor or 4ri%%er- holdin, a &a t o tool ! Dri#e or a&t-ator 5 Cau%in, the mani&ulato a m o end e''ecto to mo+e in a %&ace. ! Contro$$er *ith ha d*a e G %o't*a e %u&&o t 'o ,i+in, command% to the d i+e% ! Sen or ! To 'eed bac) the in'o mation 'o %ub%e=uent action o' the a m o , i&&e % a% *ell a% to inte act *ith the en+i onment in *hich the obot i% *o )in,. ! Interfa&e 5 Connectin, the obot %ub%(%tem to the e<te nal *o ld.

6hich con%i%t o' a numbe o' com&onent that allo*ed be o iented in a +e it( o' &o%ition .mo+ement% bet*een the +a iou% com&onent% o' the bod(, a m, and * i%t a e & o+ided b( a %e ie% o' -oint%. The%e -oint mo+ement% u%uall( in+ol+e eithe otation o %lidin, motion%.

Robot C$a ifi&ation

Robot% ma( be cla%%i'ied, ba%ed onF H Ph(%ical con'i,u ation o Co!o dinate S(%tem% H cont ol %(%tem% C$a ifi&ation Ba ed on '(y i&a$ Confi4-ration 2or3 Co-ordinate Sy tem 5 H Ca te%ian con'i,u ation H C(lind ical con'i,u ation H Pola con'i,u ation H #oint!a m con'i,u ation

Carte ian Confi4-ration5

Robot% *ith Ca te%ian con'i,u ation% con%i%t o' lin)% connected b( linea -oint% (3". :ant ( obot% a e Ca te%ian obot% (333". 1otation 3OOF Con%i%t% o' th ee %lidin, -oint%, t*o o' *hich a e o tho,onal Othe name% include ectilinea obot and <!(!> obot

Cy$indri&a$ Confi4-ration5
Robot% *ith c(lind ical con'i,u ation ha+e one ota ( (R" -oint at the ba%e and linea (3" -oint% %ucceeded to connect the lin)%.

The de%i,nation o' the a m 'o thi% con'i,u ation can be TR3 o TRR. Robot% *ith the de%i,nation TR3 a e al%o called %&he ical obot%. Tho%e *ith the de%i,nation TRR a e al%o called a ticulated obot%. An a ticulated obot mo e clo%el( e%emble% the human a m.

'o$ar Coordinate
1otation TR3F

Con%i%t% o' a %lidin, a m (3 -oint" actuated elati+e to the bod(, *hich can otate about both a +e tical a<i% (T -oint" and ho i>ontal a<i% (R -oint"

,oint-arm Confi4-ration5
The -ointed!a m i% a combination o' c(lind ical and a ticulated con'i,u ation%. The a m o' the obot i% connected to the ba%e *ith a t*i%tin, -oint. The lin)% in the a m a e connected b( ota ( -oint%. Man( comme ciall( a+ailable obot% ha+e thi% con'i,u ation

SCARA Robot

1otation $RO SCARA %tand% 'o Selecti+el( Com&liant A%%embl( Robot A m I

Simila to -ointed!a m obot e<ce&t that +e tical a<e% a e u%ed 'o %houlde and elbo* -oint% to be com&liant in ho i>ontal di ection 'o +e tical in%e tion ta%)%

Sim%$e Com%ari on

Confi4-ration Carte ian &oordinat e Cy$indri&a$ &oordinat e SCARA &oordinat e S%(eri&a$ &oordinat e Re#o$-te &oordinat e

Ad#anta4e

Di ad#anta4e

3 linea a<e%, ea%( to +i%uali>e, Can onl( each ' ont o' it%el', i,id %t uctu e, ea%( to & o, am e=ui e% la ,e 'loo %&ace, a<e% ha d to %eal 8 linea a<e% J1 otatin,, can CanKt each abo+e it%el', ba%e each all a ound it%el', each otation a<i% a% le%% i,id, linea and hei,ht a<e% i,id, otational a<e% i% ha d to %eal, *onKt each a<i% ea%( to %eal a ound ob%tacle% 1 linea J 8 otatin, a<e%, hei,ht a<i% i% i,id, la ,e *o ) a ea 'o 'loo %&ace 1 linea J 8 otatin, a<e%, lon, ho i>ontal each 8 *a(% to each &oint, di''icult to & o, am o''!line, hi,hl( com&le< am CanKt each a ound ob%tacle%, %ho t +e tical each

3 otatin, a<e% can each abo+e 2i''icult to & o, am o''!line, 8 o o belo* ob%tacle%, la ,e%t ? *a(% to each a &oint, mo%t *o ) a ea 'o lea%t 'loo %&ace com&le< mani&ulato

Body of Roboti& Arm

Mo%t obotic a m% u%e the 'ollo*in, -oint t(&e%F

'ri mati& or $ider 6oint in *hich the lin) i% %u&&o ted on a linea %lide bea in,, and linea l( actuated b( ball %c e*% and moto % o c(linde %. Re#o$-te or rotary 6oint o'ten d i+en b( elect ic moto % and chainLbeltL,ea t an%mi%%ion%, o b( h(d aulic c(linde % and le+e %. S%(eri&a$ 6oint , the%e a e the thi d mo%t utili>ed -oint and -u%t %lide cau%in, a e+ol+in, mo+ement. S&re+ 6oint , the%e -u%t 'ollo* the th ead o' the a<i% in %&i al to mo+e alon, the a<i%. Cy$indri&a$ 6oint , the%e a e +e ( a e and a e u%e in %ome e=ui&ment li)e Pa allel Robot% o /l(in, %imulato Mechani%m. 4

6ith the combination o' the%e -oin%, +a iou% obotic a m% con'i,u ation a e 'o med.The com&lete bod( o' the obotic a m% u%uall( i% attached to %ome 'o m o' %t uctu al ' ame%, 'o e<am&le%, machine table to& o 'acto ( 'loo . The%e %t uctu al ' ame% in man( ca%e% a e not mo+able.

La+ 7eroF A obot ma( not in-u e humanit(, o , th ou,h inaction, allo* humanit( to come to ha m. La+ OneF A obot ma( not in-u e a human bein,, o , th ou,h inaction, allo* a human bein, to come to ha m, unle%% thi% *ould +iolate a hi,he o de la*. La+ T+oF A obot mu%t obe( o de % ,i+en it b( human bein,%, e<ce&t *he e %uch o de % *ould con'lict *ith a hi,he o de la*. La+ T(reeF A obot mu%t & otect it% o*n e<i%tence a% lon, a% %uch & otection doe% not con'lict *ith a hi,he o de la*.

C$a ifi&ation Ba ed on Contro$ Sy tem 5

1. Point!to!&oint (PTP" cont ol obot 8. Continuou%!&ath (CP" cont ol obot 3. Cont olled!&ath obot

'oint to 'oint Contro$ Robot 2'T'35

The PTP obot i% ca&able o' mo+in, ' om one &oint to anothe &oint. The location% a e eco ded in the cont ol memo (. PTP obot% do not cont ol the &ath to ,et ' om one &oint to the ne<t &oint. Common a&&lication% includeF H Com&onent in%e tion H S&ot *eldin, H hole d illin, H Machine loadin, and unloadin, H A%%embl( o&e ation%

Contin-o- -'at( Contro$ Robot 2C'35

The CP obot i% ca&able o' &e 'o min, mo+ement% alon, the cont olled &ath. 6ith CP ' om one cont ol, the obot can %to& at an( %&eci'ied &oint alon, the cont olled &ath. All the &oint% alon, the &ath mu%t be %to ed e<&licitl( in the obotM% cont ol memo (. A&&lication% St ai,ht!line motion i% the %im&le%t e<am&le 'o thi% t(&e o' obot. Some continuou%!&ath cont olled obot% al%o ha+e the ca&abilit( to 'ollo* a %mooth cu +e &ath that ha% been de'ined b( the & o, amme . In %uch ca%e% the & o, amme manuall( mo+e% the obot a m th ou,h the de%i ed &ath and the cont olle unit %to e% a la ,e numbe o' indi+idual &oint location% alon, the &ath in memo ( (teach-in". T(&ical a&&lication% includeF H %& a( &aintin, H 'ini%hin, H ,luin, H A c *eldin, o&e ation%

Contro$$ed-'at( Robot5
In cont olled!&ath obot%, the cont ol e=ui&ment can ,ene ate &ath% o' di''e ent ,eomet ( %uch a% %t ai,ht line%, ci cle%, and inte &olated cu +e% *ith a hi,h de, ee o' accu ac(. :ood accu ac( can be obtained at an( &oint alon, the %&eci'ied &ath. Onl( the %ta t and 'ini%h &oint% and the &ath de'inition 'unction mu%t be %to ed in the obotM% cont ol memo (. It i% im&o tant to mention that all cont olled!&ath obot% ha+e a %e +o ca&abilit( to co ect thei &ath.

Robot !or" En#e$o%e or Rea&(5

Robot each, al%o )no*n a% the *o ) en+elo&e o *o ) +olume, i% the %&ace o' all &oint% in the %u oundin, %&ace that can be eached b( the obot a m. Reach i% one o' the mo%t im&o tant cha acte i%tic% to be con%ide ed in %electin, a %uitable obot becau%e the a&&lication %&ace %hould not 'all out o' the %elected obotM% each. E

/o a Ca te%ian con'i,u ation the each i% a ectan,ula !t(&e %&ace. /o a c(lind ical con'i,u ation the each i% a hollo* c(lind ical %&ace. /o a &ola con'i,u ation the each i% &a t o' a hollo* %&he ical %ha&e. Robot each 'o a -ointed!a m con'i,u ation doe% not ha+e a %&eci'ic %ha&e.

T(e Roboti& ,oint

A obot -oint i% a mechani%m that &e mit% elati+e mo+ement bet*een &a t% o' a obot a m. The -oint% o' a obot a e de%i,ned to enable the obot to mo+e it% end!e''ecto alon, a &ath ' om one &o%ition to anothe a% de%i ed. 10

The ba%ic mo+ement% e=ui ed 'o a de%i ed motion o' mo%t indu%t ial obot% a eF 1. Rotational movement: Thi% enable% the obot to &lace it% a m in an( di ection on a ho i>ontal &lane. 8. Radial movement: Thi% enable% the obot to mo+e it% end!e''ecto adiall( to each di%tant &oint%. 3. Vertical movement: Thi% enable% the obot to ta)e it% end!e''ecto to di''e ent hei,ht%. The%e de, ee% o' ' eedom, inde&endentl( o in combination *ith othe %, de'ine the com&lete motion o' the end!e''ecto . The%e motion% a e accom&li%hed b( mo+ement% o' indi+idual -oint% o' the obot a m. The -oint mo+ement% a e ba%icall( the %ame a% elati+e motion o' ad-oinin, lin)%. 2e&endin, on the natu e o' thi% elati+e motion, the -oint% a e cla%%i'ied a% prismatic o revolute. Prismatic joints a e al%o )no*n a% %lidin, a% *ell a% linea -oint%. The( a e called prismatic becau%e the c o%% %ection o' the -oint i% con%ide ed a% a ,ene ali>ed & i%m. The( &e mit lin)% to mo+e in a linea elation%hi&. Revolute joints &e mit onl( an,ula motion bet*een lin)%. Thei +a iation% includeF H Rotational -oint (R" H T*i%tin, -oint (T" H Re+ol+in, -oint ($" In a & i%matic -oint, al%o )no*n a% a %lidin, o linea -oint (3", the lin)% a e ,ene all( &a allel to one anothe . In %ome ca%e%, ad-oinin, lin)% a e &e &endicula but one lin) %lide% at the end o' the othe lin). The -oint motion i% de'ined b( %lidin, o t an%lational mo+ement% o' the lin)%. The o ientation o' the lin)% emain% the %ame a'te the -oint mo+ement, but the len,th% o' the lin)% a e alte ed. A otational -oint (R" i% identi'ied b( it% motion, otation about an a<i% &e &endicula to the ad-oinin, lin)%. 9e e, the len,th% o' ad-oinin, lin)% do not chan,e but the elati+e &o%ition o' the lin)% *ith e%&ect to one anothe chan,e% a% the otation ta)e% &lace. A t*i%tin, -oint (T" i% al%o a otational -oint, *he e the otation ta)e% &lace about an a<i% that i% &a allel to both ad-oinin, lin)%. A e+ol+in, -oint ($" i% anothe otational -oint, *he e the otation ta)e% &lace about an a<i% that i% &a allel to one o' the ad-oinin, lin)%. 0%uall(, the lin)% a e ali,ned &e &endicula to one anothe at thi% )ind o' -oint. The otation in+ol+e% e+olution o' one lin) about anothe . 11

18

Robot S%e&ifi&ation
A&&-ra&yF 9o* clo%e doe% the obot ,et to the de%i ed &ointN 6hen the obotM% & o, am in%t uct the obot to mo+e to a %&eci'ied &oint, it doe% not actaull( &e 'o m a% &e %&eci'ied. The accu ac( mea% ue %uch +a iance. That i%, the di%tance bet*een the %&eci'ied &o%ition that a obot i% t (in, to achie+e (& o, ammin, &oint", and the actual B, 7 and O e%ultant &o%ition o' the obot end e''ecto . Re%eatabi$ityF The abilit( o' a obot to etu n e&eatedl( to a ,i+en &o%ition. It i% the abilit( o' a obotic %(%tem o mechani%m to e&eat the %ame motion o achie+e the %ame &o%ition. Re&eatablit( i% i% a mea%u e o' the e o o +a iabilit( *hen e&eatedl( eachin, 'o a %in,le &o%ition. Re&eatabilit( i% o'ten %malle than accu ac(.

De4ree of Freedom 2DOF3 ! Each -oint o a<i% on the obot int oduce% a de, ee o' ' eedom. Each 2O/ can be a %lide , ota (, o othe t(&e o' actuato . The numbe o' 2O/ that a mani&ulato &o%%e%%e% thu% i% the numbe o' inde&endent *a(% in *hich a obot a m can mo+e. Indu%t ial obot% t(&icall( ha+e A o I de, ee% o' ' eedom. 3 o' the de, ee% o' ' eedom allo* &o%itionin, in 32 %&ace (B, 7, O", *hile the othe 8 o 3 a e u%ed 'o o ientation o' the end e''ecto ((a*, &itch and oll". I de, ee% o' ' eedom a e enou,h to allo* the obot to each all &o%ition% and o ientation% in 32 %&ace. A 2O/ e=ui e% a e%t iction to 82 %&ace, o el%e it limit% o ientation%. A 2O/ obot% a e commonl( u%ed 'o handlin, tool% %uch a% a c *elde %. Re o$-tionF The %malle%t inc ement o' motion o di%tance that can be detected o cont olled b( the obotic cont ol %(%tem. It i% a 'unction o' encode &ul%e% &e e+olution and d i+e (e.,. eduction ,ea " atio. And it i% de&endent on the di%tance bet*een the tool cente &oint and the -oint a<i%.

13

En#e$o%eF A th ee!dimen%ional %ha&e that de'ine% the bounda ie% that the obot mani&ulato can each; al%o )no*n a% each en+elo&e.

Ma8im-m en#e$o%eF the en+elo&e that encom&a%%e% the ma<imum de%i,ned mo+ement% o' all obot &a t%, includin, the end e''ecto , *o )&iece and attachment%. Re tri&ted en#e$o%e i% that &o tion o' the ma<imum en+elo&e *hich a obot i% e%t icted b( limitin, de+ice%. O%eratin4 en#e$o%eF the e%t icted en+elo&e that i% u%ed b( the obot *hile &e 'o min, it% & o, ammed motion%.

Rea&(F The ma<imum ho i>ontal di%tance ' om the cente o' the obot ba%e to the end o' it% * i%t. Ma8im-m S%eedF A obot mo+in, at 'ull e<ten%ion *ith all -oint% mo+in, %imultaneou%l( in com&limenta ( di ection% at 'ull %&eed. The ma<imum %&eed i% the theo etical +alue% *hich doe% not con%ide unde loadin, condition.. 'ay$oadF The ma<imum &a(load i% the amount o' *ei,ht ca ied b( the obot mani&ulato at educed %&eed *hile maintainin, ated & eci%ion. 1ominal &a(load i% mea%u ed at ma<imum %&eed *hile maintainin, ated & eci!%ion. The%e atin,% a e hi,hl( de&endent on the %i>e and %ha&e o' the &a(load due to +a iation in ine tia.

Robot Se$e&tion
In a %u +e( &ubli%hed in 1E8I, it i% %tated that the e a e I4I obot model% a+ailable in the ma )et. Once the a&&lication i% %elected, *hich i% the & ime ob-ecti+e, a %uitable obot %hould be cho%en ' om the man( comme cial obot% a+ailable in the ma )et. The cha acte i%tic% o' obot% ,ene all( con%ide ed in a %election & oce%% includeF H Si>e o' cla%% H 2e, ee% o' ' eedom H $elocit( H 2 i+e t(&e H Cont ol mode 1?

H Re&eatabilit( H 3i't ca&acit( H Ri,ht!le't t a+e %e H 0&!do*n t a+e %e H In!out t a+e %e H 7a* H Pitch H Roll H 6ei,ht o' the obot 1. i!e of classF The %i>e o' the obot i% ,i+en b( the ma<imum dimen%ion (<" o' the obot *o ) en+elo&e. H Mic o (< P 1 m" H Small (1 m P < P 8 m" H Medium (8 P < P A m" H 3a ,e (< Q A m" 8. "egrees of freedom. The co%t o' the obot inc ea%e% *ith the numbe o' de, ee% o' ' eedom.Si< de, ee% o' ' eedom i% %uitable 'o mo%t *o )%. 3. VelocityF $elocit( con%ide ation i% e''ected b( the obotK% a m %t uctu e. H Rectan,ula H C(lind ical H S&he ical H A ticulated 4. "rive type5 H 9(d aulic H Elect ic H Pneumatic A. #ontrol mode5 H Point!to!&oint cont ol(PTP" H Continuou% &ath cont ol(CP" H Cont olled &ath cont ol I. $ift capacity5 H 0!A ), H A!80 ), H 80!?0 ), and %o 'o th 1A

A%%$i&ation
6ith di''e ent &a(load ca&abilit(, each and de%i,n, a ticulate obot% a e de%i,ned to em&lo( in the 'ollo*in, a&&lication%F A c *eldin, S&ot *eldin, A%%embl( cleanin,L%& a(in, Cuttin, 2ebu in, 2ie ca%tin, :luin,L%ealin, : indin,L&oli%hin, In-ection mouldin, Machine tendin, Mate ial handlin, Pac)in, Palleti>in, Pic)in, P e!machinin, P e%% b a)e tendin,

Medi&a$ Robot
Robot% a e u%ed in medicine becau%e the( a e hi,hl( & eci%ion machine%. B( toolin, *ith %u ,ical in%t ument%, the( ha+e been u%ed in the 'ield o' obotic %u ,e ( to &e 'o m clo%ed!che%t, beatin,!hea t %u ,e (. The 'i %t ,ene ation% o' %u ,ical obot% a enMt t ue autonomou% obot% that can &e 'o m %u ,ical ta%)% on thei o*n, but the( a e lendin, a mechanical hel&in, hand to %u ,eon%. The%e machine% %till e=ui e a human %u ,eon to o&e ate them and in&ut in%t uction%. Remote cont ol and +oice acti+ation a e the method% b( *hich the%e %u ,ical obot% a e cont olled.

Mi$itary Robot
Milita ( obot% a e ca&able o' e&lacin, human% to &e 'o m man(, i' not mo%t combat 'unction% on the battle'ield. Su,,e%ted b( the 0.S. #oint /o ce% Command, the & e%ence o' autonomou% obot%, net*o )ed and inte, ated, on the battle'ield *ill ta)e human out o' the loo& a% ea l( a% 808A. Milita ( obot% ma( loo) li)e +ehicle%, ai &lane%, in%ect% o animal% o othe ob-ect% in an attem&t to camou'la,e o to decei+e the ad+e %a (. 1I

Rema )able %ucce%% ha% been achie+ed *ith unmanned ae ial +ehicle% li)e the P edato d one, *hich a e ca&able o' ta)in, %u +eillance &hoto, a&h%, and e+en accu atel( launchin, mi%%ile% at , ound ta ,et%, *ithout a &ilot. On the , ound, obot% ha+e been de&lo(ed a% mine %*ee&e % and 'o bomb di%&o%al. 2e'ence cont acto % in the 0SA a e de+elo&in, autonomou% R obot %oldie %R, thou,h cu entl( it loo)% mo e li)e tan)% than human%.

S%a&e Robot
S&ace obotic% i% ,ene all( di+ided into t*o main a ea%F obotic mani&ulato % ! %uch de+ice% a e de&lo(ed in %&ace o on &laneta ( %u 'ace% to emulate human mani&ulation ca&abilitie%, and Robotic Ro+e % ! the( a e de&lo(ed on &laneta ( %u 'ace% to emulate human mobilit( ca&abilitie%.

Robot in A-tomobi$e Ind- trie

In the automobile indu%t (, obotic a m% a e u%ed in di+e %e manu'actu in, & oce%%e% includin, a%%embl(, %&ot *eldin,, a c *eldin,, machine tendin,, &a t t an%'e , la%e & oce%%in,, cuttin,, , indin,, &oli%hin,, debu in,, te%tin,, &aintin, and di%&en%in,. Robot% ha+e & o+ed to hel& automa)e % to be mo e a,ile, 'le<ible and to educe & oduction lead time%.

14

E$e&troni& 9Semi-Cond-&tor
A&&lication o' clean oom Robot% in %emiconducto manu'actu in, e%ult% in the eduction in %c a& ' om b o)en *a'e % and chi&%, *hich t an%late into ma-o co%t %a+in,% in *a'e handlin,. The a+oidance o' contamination and the %a+in,% in %c a& ' om d o&&ed *a'e % in machine loadin, and unloadin, can e<ceed million% o' dolla %. T(&icall(, clean Room obot% a e u%ed & edominantl( in machine loadin,, unloadin,, and &a t% t an%'e in %emiconducto indu%t (, thou,h, a%%embl(, &ac)a,in,, and te%tin, & oce%%e% a e othe a&&lication a ea% 'o clean oom obot%.

Food : Be#era4e
6hile 'ood and be+e a,e a&&lication% e& e%ent a %mall ' action o' indu%t ial obotic% in%tallation, it i% *idel( eco,ni>e a% one o' the 'a%te%t , o*in, %e,ment%. The +a%t ma-o it( o' obot% in the /ood G Be+e a,e indu%t ( a e 'ound in the &ac)a,in, a ea, *ith %econda ( 'unction% %uch a% ca%e &ac)in, and &alleti>in, dominatin,. 9i,h!%&eed Mate ial 9andlin, obotic a m% and +i%ion!,uided %(%tem% a e be,innin, to *o ) alon,%ide and!in man( ca%e%!in%tead o' human% in 'ood 'acto ie%.

18

S(i% B-idin4
0nli)e the automobile indu%t ( *he e the u%e o' obot% i% *ide%& ead, %hi&buildin, i% mo e o' a Mone!o'!a! t(&eM & oduction. Thi% ma)e% e''icient and co%t!e''ecti+e obotic im&lementation e<t emel( di''icult to achie+e.

Con tr-&tion
Con%t uction obot% aim to im& o+e the e''icienc( o' *o ) at con%t uction %ite%. 6ith & o&e &lannin, and de+elo&ment, obot% a e u%ed in the a&&lication% li)e inne &i&e c a*lin,, e<ca+ation, load t an%&o t, minin, and %ubme %ion, b ic)la(in,, ea th *o ), 'oundatio03!Oct!800ItL%teel!' ame*o ), & e'ab ication o' ein'o cement, &a+ement *o ) and man( othe %. :ene all(, *he e the e a e dan,e ou% condition% o acce%%ibilit( andLo %&ace limitation% that &e %i%t, obot% *ill be u%ed.

Air&raft : Aero %a&e

Toda(, ai c a't manu'actu e % a e %ee)in, automated %olution%, %&u ed b( the need to 'ab icate hi,h! &e 'o mance *ea&on %(%tem% at lo*e co%t%, a&&l( lean manu'actu in, conce&t%, and achie+e Si< Si,ma =ualit(. A an,e o' ne* automated and obotic & oduction tool% and technolo,ie% can be ada&ted to ai c a't 'ab ication & oce%%e% and method%. Paintin,, d illin,, and com&o%ite 'ab ication a e the be%t candidate% 'o automation. Some e<am&le% o' the obotic% %(%tem u%in, in the ae o%&ace indu%t ( a eF Robotic coatin, %(%tem (e.,. 'u%ela,e, ai ' ame and com&onent" and obotic *ate !-et coatin, emo+al.

1E

!e$din4 Robot in Man-fa&t-rin4 Ind- tria$

6hen 'ollo*in, th ou,h the hi%to ( o' *eldin,, in (ea 1E88, mat i< o' obot% a e em&lo(ed in the automobile indu%t ( to &e 'o m e%i%tance %&ot *eldin, on ca bodie%. /ollo*in, that, mo e and mo e a c *eldin, obot% a e bein, in%talled both in la ,e and %mall manu'actu in, &lant%. Since then, *eldin, obot% a e u%ed in t*o *a(% in manu'actu in, !! a e$ement in a %rod-&tion $ine and a% tand-a$one -nit 2or F$e8ib$e Roboti& Man-fa&t-rin4 Sy tem3 for bat&( %rod-&tion. Thou,h, obot% *o ) *ell 'o e&etiti+e ta%)% on %imila &iece% that in+ol+e *eld% in mo e than one a<i% o *he e acce%% to the &iece% i% di''icult, manu'actu e % *ho ha+e automated thei *eldin, o&e ation% e=ue%t to include mo e 'le<ibilit( to & oce%% a +a iet( o' &a t% *ith the %ame obot %(%tem. Thi% e%ult% in the c eation o' /le<ible Robotic Manu'actu in, S(%tem. The Robot %(%tem he e &o%%e%%e% 'le<ibilit( to 'acilitate =uic) chan,eo+e b( chan,in, the obot end!e''ecto and modi'(in, the obot & o, am. In addition, mate ial handlin, obot% a e u%ed *ithin *eldin, %(%tem% to &o%ition the &a t *hile *eldin, o al%o to loadLunload the &a t into a %econda ( o&e ation %uch a% an in%&ection %tation. Anothe eme ,in, t end i% the u%e o' automated in%&ection o' &a t%, includin, the in%&ection o' *elded -oint% and &a t dimen%ion%. The%e in%&ection %(%tem% can be inte, ated into & oduction e=ui&ment to automaticall( cont ol 'lo* o' con'o min, and non!con'o min, mate ial. /u the enhancement include% the net*o )in, o' 'acto ( e=ui&ment% to allo* %ha in, o' in'o mation %uch a% in%&ection data, & oduction %tatu% to hi,hli,ht the utili>ation o' ca&ital and deli+e =uic) e%&on%e to maintenance i%%ue%.

!(y +e$din4 robot ;

Co t Sa#in45 Automated &a t% in%&ection d amaticall( educe% e*o ) and e&ai co%t% that can occu ' om incon%i%tent o 'ailed manual in%&ection. Labo-r I -e 5 3abou challen,e% (includin, etention and t ainin," a% *ell a% e ,onomic and %a'et( i%%ue% a e %ome ea%on% 'o manu'actu e % to automate thei *eldin, o&e ation% *ith obotic in%tallation%. <-a$ity : Lead Time5 1e* cont olle technolo,( allo*% the motion o' the *eldin, obot to be coo dinated *ith handlin, obot%. Thi% e%ult% in 'a%te t a+el %&eed% and bette =ualit(. Becau%e obot *eldin, im& o+e% *eld e&eatabilit( ! obot% *ill ,i+e & eci%el( the %ame *eld% e+e ( time on *o ) &iece% o' the %ame dimen%ion% and %&eci'ication%, man( manu'actu in, &lant% u%e obotic% *eldin, %(%tem% to im& o+e & oducti+it( and & oduct =ualit(.

Con ideration +(en a-tomate t(e +e$din4 o%eration

'art De i4n 80

!e$din4 %o ition re=-ired ! i' the &a t need% to otate, need% to con%ide co%t incu to in%tall a &o%itione in cont a%t to manual o&e ation. !e$din4 6oint de i4n ! /o in%tance ! 'illet *eld% *o ) bette than butt *eld% 'o automation. Man-fa&t-rin4 %ro&e - ed to %rod-&e %art to be +e$ded ! 9o* e&eatable a e the &a t% to be *elded. (%tam&in,%, la%e cut +%. 'lame cut, etc. " !e$din4 e=-en&e ) 2%art b-i$d--% or di tortion &ontro$3 ! Con%ide i' the &a t% e=ui e %ome t(&e o' *eld %e=uence to cont ol di%to tion, thi% *ill inte u&t the *eldin, c(cle. !e$d fi8t-re de i4n9&o t - Do man-a$ fi8t-re e8i t; I' %o *ill the( *o ) 'o automationN 9o* much *ill ne* tool% co%tN

'rod-&tion Re=-irement 'rod-&tion #o$-me ! 6hat i% the numbe o' unit%N Thi% dete mine% the e=ui&ment utili>ation. N-mber of different a emb$ie yo- +ant to a-tomate on a in4$e &e$$ ! thi% cont ol% the com&le<it( o' the toolin, and cont ol %(%tem. >o+ often do yo- &(an4e-o#er to r-n different %art ; Thi% , eatl( e''ect the toolin, de%i,n and co%t.

Safety &on&ern 2e8%o -re to (a?ard 3 ! I% the manual o&e ation ha>a dou%N /o in%tance 'ume% & oduced b( *eldin, on ,al+ani>ed mate ial. Thi% alone ma( be a ea%on to automate. Pinch &oint%, *eldin, adiation. !or"for&e S O&e ato L *elde a+ailabilit(. S 6o )e % %)ill le+el. Com%etiti#e i -e Lead time ! 6ith automation it ma( educe the lead time 'o manu'actu in, (ou & oduct. Con i tent =-a$ity Co t of a emb$ie ! 6ith automation (ou ma( be able to educe labo , educe %c a&, educe *eld con%umable%, and, the & oce%% can be cont olled and mo e con%i%tent. Cy&$e time re=-irement ! P oduce mo e &a t% in le%% time. ISO ty%e re4-$ation ! P oce%% cont ol ma( be ea%ie to achie+e *ith automation.

81

Materia$ >and$in4 Robot

Mate ial 9andlin, and 3o,i%tic% i% the mo+ement, & otection, %to a,e and cont ol o' mate ial% and & oduct% th ou,hout the & oce%% o' thei manu'actu e and di%t ibution, con%um&tion and di%&o%al. B( 'ittin, the obot *ith an a&& o& iate end!e''ecto (e.,., , i&&e ", the obot can , a%& the ob-ect that need% to be mo+ed. The obot ma( be mounted eithe %tationa ( on the 'loo o on a t a+e %in, unit, enablin, it to mo+e ' om one *o )%tation to anothe . The obot can al%o be ceilin, mounted. Robot% that a e u%ed 'o mate ial handlin, in man( ca%e% can inte 'ace *ith othe mate ial handlin, e=ui&ment %uch a% containe %, con+e(o %, ,uided +ehicle%, mono ail%, automated %to a,eL et ie+al %(%tem%, and ca ou%el%. Robotic mate ial!handlin, a&&lication% an,e ' om tendin, in-ection!moldin, machine% and machine tool%, to eo ientin, &a t% bet*een & oce%%e%, to &ac)a,in, and &alleti>in,.

'i&" and '$a&e

In the &ic).&lace a&&lication%, ob-ect% mo+e =uic)l( and & eci%el(, one at a time, ' om one location to anothe .

'a&"in4
88

Pac)in, a&&lication i% about the u%e o' obot% to o ,ani>e a +a iet( o' item% into bo<e%. It include% ca%e &ac)in, ! %malle bo<e% &ac)ed into la ,e one%, and acet ac) &ac)in, ! man( item% &ic)ed %imultaneou%l( *ith the aid o' , i&&e %.

Ma&(ine Tendin4
The obot & o+ide% both mani&ulati+e and t an%&o t ca&abilitie%. Robot% can be u%ed to , a%& a *o ) &iece ' om a %u&&l( &oint (e.,., a con+e(o belt", t an%&o t it to a machine, o ient it, and then in%e t it into the machine *o ) holde . Thi% ma( e=ui e that the obot %i,nal the machine tool *hen the *o ) &iece i% in the co ect &o%ition, %o that the &a t can be %ecu ed in the *o ) holde . The obot then elea%e% the &a t and *ithd a*% the a m %o that machinin, can be,in. 0&on com&letion o' the machinin,, the obot unload% the *o ) &iece and t an%'e % it to anothe machine o con+e(o . In a obotic cell, a %in,le obot can %e +ice %e+e al machine%. E<am&le% o' machine tendin, 'unction% include the 'ollo*in,F

E<chan,in, machine tool%, %uch a% lathe and machinin, cente %; Stam&in, & e%% loadin, and unloadin,; Tendin, &la%tic in-ection moldin, machine%; 9oldin, a &a t 'o a %&ot *eldin, o&e ation; 3oadin, hot billet% into 'o ,in, & e%%e%; 3oadin, auto &a t% 'o , indin,; 3oadin, ,ea % onto C1C millin, machine% 83

'a$$eti?in49de-%a$$eti?in4
Robotic &alleti>e % and de&alleti>e % u%uall( utili>e ?, A o I!a<i% -ointed a m obot%. Man( &alleti>in, a&&lication% handle mo e than one & oduction line b( buildin, di''e ent load% at multi&le &o%ition% in%ide the obotM% *o ) en+elo&e. Ca%e%, &ail% o ba,% can be &ic)ed indi+iduall(, in o*% o in la(e =uantitie%, de&endin, on the a&&lication. 2e&alleti>in, ' e=uentl( in+ol+e% li'tin, com&lete la(e % o' & oduct and &lacin, them on an un%c amble , *hich o ient% the & oduct 'o the do*n%t eam con+e(o %(%tem. $i%ion %(%tem% a e ' e=uentl( u%ed to accu atel( locate la(e % in de&alleti>in, a&&lication%.

'rimary Benefit
The & ima ( bene'it% o' u%in, obot% 'o mate ial handlin, a eF

To educe di ect labo co%t% and emo+e human% ' om ta%)% that ma( be ha>a dou%, tediou%, o 'ati,uin,. A mate ial handlin, obot can *o ) 8? hou % a da( *ithout *o ie% o 'ati,ue. B( u%in, obotic %(%tem, out&ut% a e con%i%tent and hi,he =ualit(. The u%e o' obot% 'o mo+in, ' a,ile ob-ect% e%ult% in le%% dama,e to &a t% du in, handlin,. Im& o+e% & oce%% 'lo* due to & edictabilit( o' c(cle time%; con%i%tentl( un% at %ame %&eed *ith no b ea)%, %hi't chan,e%, la(o''%, o ehi e%.

8?

UNIT- 1 ROBOT DRI@E S*STEMS AND END EFFECTORS

'ne-mati& Dri#e >ydra-$i& Dri#e Me&(ani&a$ Dri#e E$e&tri&a$ Dri#e D.C. Ser#o Motor ) Ste%%er Motor) A.C. Ser#o Motor Sa$ient Feat-re ) A%%$i&ation Com%ari on of A$$ t(e e Dri#e End Effe&tor Ari%%er Me&(ani&a$ Ari%%er ) 'ne-mati& >ydra-$i& Ari%%er ) Ma4neti& Ari%%er ) @a&--m Ari%%er B T+o Fin4ered and T(ree Fin4ered Ari%%er B Interna$ Ari%%er E8terna$ Ari%%er Se$e&tion and De i4n Con ideration

8A

1.1ROBOT DRI@E S*STEMS

The lin)% o' the obot% mo+e about the & e%c ibed a<i% b( ecei+in, the &o*e th ou,h, *hat a e called the d i+e %(%tem%, al%o )no*n a% actuato %. The mo+ement% & oduced ma( be t an%lat% ( in natu e o ota ( about a -oint. At the -oint% the actuato % & o+ide e=ui ed 'o ce o to =ue 'o the mo+ement o' the lin)%. The mo+ement% o' all the lin)% combined to,ethe 'o m the a m end o * i%t motion. The %ou ce o' &o*e 'o the actuato % can be th ou,h the com& e%%ed ai , & e%%u i%ed 'luid o the elect icit(, ba%ed on *hich the( a e cla%%i'ied a% 'ollo*

1.1. BASIC 'NEUMATIC S*STEM Pneumatic %(%tem% u%e & e%%u i>ed ai to ma)e thin,% mo+e. Ba%ic &neumatic %(%tem con%i%t% o' an ai ,ene atin, unit and an ai !con%umin, unit. Ai com& e%%ed in com& e%%o i% not ead( 'o u%e a% %uch, ai ha% to be 'ilte ed, moi%tu e & e%ent in ai ha% to be d ied, and 'o di''e ent a&&lication% in &lant & e%%u e o' ai ha% to be +a ied. Se+e al othe t eatment% a e ,i+en to the ai be'o e it eache% 'inall( to the Actuato %. The 'i,u e 8.1 ,i+e% an o+e +ie* o' a &neumatic %(%tem. P acticall( %ome acce%%o ie% a e added 'o economical and e''icient o&e ation o' %(%tem

8I

/i,. 8.1. Ba%ic Pneumatic S(%tem

Com%re or. A de+ice, *hich con+e t% mechanical 'o ce and motion into &neumatic 'luid &o*e , i% called com& e%%o . E+e ( com& e%%ed!ai %(%tem be,in% *ith a com& e%%o , a% it i% the %ou ce o' ai 'lo* 'o all the do*n%t eam e=ui&ment and & oce%%e% E$e&tri& Motor Elect ic moto i% u%ed to d i+e the com& e%%o . Air Re&ei#er It i% a containe in *hich ai i% %to ed unde & e%%u e .'re -re S+it&(. P e%%u e S*itch i% u%ed to maintain the e=ui ed & e%%u e in the ecei+e ; it ad-u%t% the 9i,h P e%%u e 3imit and 3o* P e%%u e 3imit in the ecei+e . The com& e%%o i% automaticall( tu ned o'' *hen the & e%%u e i% about to e<ceed the hi,h limit and it i% al%o automaticall( tu ned on *hen the & e%%u e i% about to 'all belo* the lo* limit. . Safety @a$#e. The 'unction o' the %a'et( +al+e i% to elea%e e<t a & e%%u e i' the & e%%u e in%ide the ecei+e tend% to e<ceed the %a'e & e%%u e limit o' the ecei+e . . A-to Drain. Ai conden%e% to ,i+e out *ate in the ecei+e and a de+ice called Auto 2 ain di ect% thi% *ate out. C(e&" @a$#e. The +al+e enable% 'lo* in one di ection and bloc)% 'lo* in a counte di ection i% called Chec) $al+e. Once com& e%%ed ai ente % the ecei+e +ia chec) +al+e, it i% not allo*ed to ,o bac) e+en *hen the com& e%%o i% %to&&ed. . 're -re Aa-4e. P e%%u e ,au,e tell% u% the & e%%u e in%ide the com& e%%o ecei+e 3 . Air Dryer.lt i% a de+ice 'o educin, the moi%tu e content o' the *o )in, com& e%%ed ai A'te Fi$ter fi$ter, *hich 'ollo*% the com& e%%ed ai d (e and u%uall( u%ed 'o the & otection o' do*n%t eam e=ui&ment ' om de%iccant du%t etc. i% called a'te 'ilte . The name /ilte e'e % to a de+ice *ho%e & ima ( 'unction i% the emo+al o' in%oluble contaminant% ' om a li=uid o a ,a% *ith the hel& o' &o ou% media. 84

. Ta%%in4 (:oo%enec) connection". Su&&l( ' om MainL9i,h & e%%u e line can be ta)en b( u%in, a &i&e -oint (Tee t(&e". But a,ain to en%u e minimum amount o' *ate in the line thi% connection %hould be ta)en ' om u&%ide a% %ho*n in ' 3.3 Thi% t(&e o' connection i% al*a(% & e'e ed in &neumatic% to a+oid *ate in the lo*! & e%%u e line% and i% called a% :oo%enec) connection. . A-to Drain. The 'unction o' auto d ain i% to let o'' all the *ate emainin, in the tube; 2 ain %hould be &laced at the lo*e%t &oint o' e+e ( tube. Air Ser#i&e Unit. /ilte , Re,ulato and lub icato combined in one de+ice i% &o&ula l( )no*n a% Ai Se +ice 0nit o /.R.3 unit. It% &u &o%e i% to %u&&l( ai to othe %ucce%%i+e a&&lication% in the line. It & o+ide% clean ai at e=ui ed & e%%u e *ith lub icant added to it to inc ea%e the li'e o' e=ui&ment, *hich e=ui e lub ication. . Dire&tion Contro$ @a$#e. 2i ectional!cont ol +al+e a e de+ice% u%ed to chan,e the 'lo* di ection o' 'luid *ithin a PneumaticL9(d aulic ci cuit. The( cont ol com& e%%ed!ai 'lo* to c(linde %, ota ( actuato %, , i&&e %, and othe mechani%m% in &ac)a,in,, handlin,, a%%embl(, and countle%% othe a&&lication%. The%e +al+e% can be actuated eithe manuall( o elect icall(. . 'ne-mati& A&t-ator A de+ice in *hich &o*e i% t an%'e ed ' om one & e%%u i>ed medium to anothe *ithout inten%i'ication. Pneumatic actuato % a e no mall( u%ed to cont ol & oce%%e% e=ui in, =uic) and accu ate e%&on%e, a% the( do not e=ui e a la ,e amount o' moti+e 'o ce. The( ma( be eci& ocatin, c(linde %, otatin, moto % o ma( be a obot end e''ecto %. . S%eed Contro$$er Mo%t o' the &neumatic% a&&lication% e=ui e %&eed cont ol ci cuit% 'o the e<t action and et action o' &neumatic c(linde % %lo*l(. /o thi% a combination o' 'lo* cont ol +al+e% and chec) +al+e% a e u%ed, thi% to&ic i% di%cu%%ed *ith enou,h detail% in the cha&te C$al+e% /u the *e can add 'e* mo e com&onent%, 'i %t Ai inta)e 'ilte and %econd ai inte coole (i' multi%ta,e com& e%%o i% u%ed". /unction o' 'o me i% to & e+ent the ent ( o' +a%t =uantitie% du%t and di t alon, *ith ai and latte i% to cool the ai a,ain to oom tem&e atu e a'te it i% di%cha ,ed ' om lo*!& e%%u e com& e%%o .

1.1.1. Feat-re )
The &neumatic actuato % a e cha acte i%ed b( the 'ollo*in, 'eatu e% H 3o*e%t &o*e to *ei,ht atio. H 9i,hl( com&liant %(%tem. H 2 i't unde load con%tantl(. H 3o*, inaccu ate e%&on%e due to lo* %ti''ne%%. H 3e%% lea)a,e o' ai and not %u%ce&tible to %&a )%. H 0%e% lo* & e%%u e com& e%%ed ai , hence le%% actuation 'o ce o to =ue. H 0%e'ul in on!o'' a&&lication% li)e &ic) and &lace obot%. H Sim&le and lo* co%t com&onent%. 88

 H Reliable and ea%il( a+ailable com&onent%. H The e<act &o%ition% o' the actuato % can be cont olled b( %e +o cont ol +al+e% b( di''e ential mo+ement%.

1.1.1 AD@ANTAAES AND DISAD@ANTAAES OF 'NEUMATICS

H 3o*e co%t H Inhe entl( modulatin, actuato % and %en%o %. H E<&lo%ion & oo' com&onent%. H 9i,h e''icienc( e.,., a elati+el( %mall com& e%%o can 'ill a la ,e %to a,e tan) to meet inte mittent hi,h demand% 'o com& e%%ed ai . H Ea%e o' de%i,n and im&lementation. H 9i,h eliabilit(, mainl( becau%e o' 'e*e mo+in, &a t%. H Ea%( in%tallation and maintenance. 2i%ad+anta,e% H 1eed 'o a com& e%%o & oducin, clean and d ( ai . H Co%t o' ai &i&in,. H 1eed 'o e,ula com&onent calib ation.

A''LICATION OF 'NEUMATICS
H O&e ation o' hea+( o hot doo % H 3i'tin, and mo+in, in %lab mouldin, machine% H S& a( &aintin, H Bottlin, and 'illin, machine% H Com&onent and mate ial con+e(o t an%'e H 0nloadin, o' ho&&e % in buildin,, minin, and chemical indu%t ( H Ai %e&a ation and +acuum li'tin, o' thin %heet% H 2ental d ill%

8E

1.C BASIC >*DRAULIC S*STEM

Fi4. 1.1. Ba i& >ydra-$i& Sy tem

Elect ic Moto Elect ic moto i% u%ed to d i+e the com& e%%o 9(d aulic Pum&. 9(d aulic &um&% con+e t mechanical ene ,( ' om a & ime mo+e (en,ine o elect ic moto " into h(d aulic (& e%%u e" ene ,(. The & e%%u e ene ,( i% u%ed then to o&e ate an actuato Pum&% &u%h on a h(d aulic 'luid and c eate 'lo*. St aine % and /ilte %. To )ee& h(d aulic com&onent% &e 'o min, co ectl(, the h(d aulic li=uid mu%t be )e&t a% clean a% &o%%ible. /o ei,n matte and tin( metal &a ticle% ' om no mal *ea o' +al+e%, &um&%, and othe com&onent% a e ,oin, to ente a %(%tem. St aine %, 'ilte %, and ma,netic &lu,% a e u%ed to emo+e 'o ei,n &a ticle% ' om a h(d aulic li=uid and a e e''ecti+e a% %a'e,ua d% a,ain%t contamination St aine %. A %t aine i% the & ima ( 'ilte in, %(%tem that emo+e% la ,e &a ticle% o' 'o ei,n matte ' om a h(d aulic li=uid. E+en thou,h it% %c eenin, action i% not a% ,ood a% a 'ilte K%, a %t aine o''e % le%% e%i%tance to 'lo*. Fi$ter . A 'ilte emo+e% %mall 'o ei,n &a ticle% ' om a h(d aulic 'luid and i% mo%t e''ecti+e a% a %a'e,ua d a,ain%t contaminate%. The( a e cla%%i'ied a% 'ull 'lo* o & o&o tional 'lo*F

30

(a3 F-$$-F$o+ Fi$ter In a 'ull!'lo* 'ilte , all the 'luid ente in, a unit &a%%e% th ou,h a 'ilte in, element. Althou,h a 'ull!'lo* t(&e & o+ide% a mo e &o%iti+e 'ilte in, action, it o''e % , eate e%i%tance to 'lo*, &a ticula l( *hen it become% di t( (b3 'ro%ortiona$-F$o+ Fi$ter . Thi% 'ilte o&e ate% on the +entu i & inci&le in *hich a tube ha% a na o*in, th oat (+entu i" to inc ea%e the +elocit( o' 'luid 'lo*in, th ou,h it. /lo* th ou,h a +entu i th oat cau%e% a & e%%u e d o& at the na o*e%t &oint. Thi%, & e%%u e dec ea%e cau%e% a %uc)in, action that d a*% a &o tion o' a li=uid do*n a ound a ca t id,e th ou,h a 'ilte element and u& into a +entu i th oat. 're -re Aa-4e A. 're -re Re4-$ator9Un$oadin4 #a$#e. P e%%u e e,ulato %, o'ten e'e ed to a% unloadin, +al+e%, a e u%ed in 'luid &o*e %(%tem% to e,ulate & e%%u e. P e%%u e e,ulato a% the name im&lie%, e,ulate% the & e%%u e in the h(d aulic %(%tem. 6hen it %en%e% a built!u& in & e%%u e in the line% to the %electo +al+e%, it act% %o that the %(%tem automaticall( ,oe% to b(&a%% $al+e%. $al+e% a e u%ed in h(d aulic %(%tem% to cont ol the o&e ation o' the actuato %. $al+e% e,ulate & e%%u e b( c eatin, %&ecial & e%%u e condition% and b( cont ollin, ho* much oil *ill 'lo* in &o tion% o' a ci cuit and *he e it *ill ,o. 're -re Re$ief @a$#e. Relie' +al+e% a e the mo%t common t(&e o' & e%%u e!cont ol $al+e%. The elie' +al+e%K 'unction ma( +a (; de&endin, on a %(%temK% need%. The( can & o+ide o+e load & otection 'o ci cuit com&onent% o limit the 'o ce o to =ue e<e ted b( a linea actuato o ota ( moto . The inte nal de%i,n o' all elie' +al+e% i% ba%icall( %imila . The +al+e% con%i%t o' t*o %ection%F a bod( %ection containin, a &i%ton that i% etained on it% %eat b( a %& in,(%", de&endin, on the model, and a co+e o &ilot!+al+e %ection that h(d aulicall( cont ol% a bod( &i%tonK% mo+ement. The ad-u%tin, %c e* ad-u%t% thi% cont ol *ithin the an,e o' the +al+e%. $al+e% that & o+ide eme ,enc( o+e load & otection do not o&e ate a% o'ten %ince othe +al+e t(&e% a e u%ed to load and unload a &um&. 9o*e+e , elie' +al+e% %hould be cleaned e,ula l( b( educin, thei & e%%u e ad-u%tment% to 'lu%h out an( &o%%ible %lud,e de&o%it% that ma( accumulate. O&e atin, unde educed & e%%u e *ill clean out %lud,e de&o%it% and en%u e that the +al+e% o&e ate & o&e l( a'te the & e%%u e i% ad-u%ted to it% & e%c ibed %ettin, . Dire&tion Contro$ @a$#e. 2i ectional cont ol +al+e% a e de+ice% u%ed to chan,e the 'lo* di ection o' 'luid *ithin a PneumaticL9(d aulic ci cuit. The( cont ol com& e%%ed!ai 'lo* to c(linde %, ota ( actuato %, , i&&e %, and othe mechani%m% in &ac)a,in, handlin,, a%%embl(, and countle%% othe a&&lication%. >ydra-$i& A&t-ator A h(d aulic actuato ecei+e% & e%%u e ene ,( and con+e t% it to mechanical 'o ce and motion. An actuato can be linea o ota (. A linea actuato ,i+e% 'o ce and motion out&ut% in a %t ai,ht line. It i% mo e commonl( called a c(linde but i% al%o e'e ed to a% a am eci& ocatin, moto , o linea moto . A ota ( actuato & oduce% to =ue and otatin, motion. It i% mo e commonl( called a h(d aulic moto o moto Load 31

C(e&" @a$#e. Chec) +al+e% a e the mo%t commonl( u%ed in 'luid!&o*e ed %(%tem% the( allo* 'lo* in one di ection and & e+ent 'lo* in the othe di ection. The( ma( be in%talled inde&endentl( in a line, o the( ma( be inco &o ated a% an inte, al &a t o' a %e=uence, counte balance, o & e%%u e! educin, +al+e. The +al+e element ma( be a Slee+e, cone, ball, &o&&et, &i%ton, %&ool, o di%c. /o ce o' the mo+in, 'luid o&en% a chec) +al+e; bac)'lo*, a %& in,, o , a+it( clo%e% the +al+e . Re er#oir. A e%e +oi %to e% a li=uid that i% not bein, u%ed in a h(d aulic %(%tem. It ha% man( othe im&o tant 'unction% tooFH It al%o allo*% ,a%e% to e<&el and 'o ei,n matte to %ettle out ' om a li=uid. H It 'unction% a% a coole . H It 'unction% a% a Ccoa %e %t aine D, & o+idin, %edimentation o' im&u itie%. H It 'unction% a% an ai and *ate %e&a atot H It 'unction% a% a 'oundation 'o &um&% etc. A & o&e l( con%t ucted e%e +oi %hould be able to di%%i&ate heat ' om the oil, %e&a ate ai ' om the oil, and %ettle out contaminate% that a e in it. It %hould be hi,h and na o* athe than %hallo* and b oad. The oil le+el %hould be a% hi,h a% &o%%ible abo+e the o&enin, to a &um&K% %uction line. Thi% & e+ent% the +acuum at the line o&enin, ' om cau%in, a +o te< o *hi l&ool e''ect, *hich *ould mean that a %(%tem i% & obabl( ta)in, in ai . Mo%t mobile e=ui&ment e%e +oi % a e located abo+e the &um&%. Thi% c eate% a 'looded!&um&!inlet condition. Thi% condition educe% the &o%%ibilit( o' &um& ca+itation%Ta condition *he e all the a+ailable %&ace not 'illed and o'ten metal &a t% *ill e ode. Mo%t e%e +oi % a e +ented to the atmo%&he e. A +ent o&enin, allo*% ai to lea+e o ente the %&ace abo+e the oil a% the le+el o' the oil ,oe% u& o do*n. Thi% maintain% a con%tant atmo%&he ic & e%%u e abo+e the oil.

1.C.1 Feat-re )
/eatu e% o' 9(d aulic Actuato % P o+ide hi,h &o*e in %mall li,ht com&onent% 9a+e 'lat load!%&eed o to =ue %&eed cha acte i%tic% Can o&e ate %a'el( and continuou%l( unde %tall condition% P o+ide %te&le%% +a iation in %&eed 9a+e lon,e li'e and eliabilit( due to the lub icatin, & o&e tie% o' the oil. Can be ea%il( built u%in, eadil( a+ailable %tanda d element%. 9a+e contaminant %en%iti+e element%. 38

 The o&e ation i% noi%(. 9i,he ine tia on the obot -oint%. Po*e lo%% and unclean *o ) a ea due to &o%%ibilit( o' lea). 3e%% de'lection due to lo* com&liance o' the element%.

1.C.1 AD@ANTAAES AND DISAD@ANTAAES >*DRAULICS Ad#anta4e

Th ou,h the u%e o' %im&le de+ice%, an o&e ato can eadil( %ta t, %to&, %&eed u&, %lo* do*n, and cont ol la ,e 'o ce% *ith +e ( clo%e and & eci%e tole ance. 9i,h &o*e out&ut ' om a com&act actuato . 9(d aulic &o*e %(%tem% can multi&l( 'o ce% %im&l( and e''icientl( ' om a ' action o' an ounce to %e+e al hund ed ton% o' out&ut. /o ce can be t an%mitted o+e di%tance% and a ound co ne % *ith %mall lo%%e% o' e''icienc(. The e i% no need 'o com&le< %(%tem% o' ,ea %, cam%, o le+e % to o-tain a la ,e mechanical ad+anta,e. E<t eme 'le<ibilit( o' a&& oach and cont ol. Cont ol o' a *ide an,e o' %&eed and 'o ce% i% ea%il( &o%%ible. Sa'et( and eliabilit(. 9(d aulic %(%tem% a e %mooth and =uiet in o&e ation. $ib ation i% )e&t to a minimum.

Di ad#anta4e
S(%tem com&onent% mu%t be en,inee ed to minimi>e o & eclude 'luid lea)a,e. P otection a,ain%t u%t, co o%ion, di t, oil dete io ation, and othe ad+e %e en+i onment i% +e ( im&o tant. Maintenance o' & eci%ion &a t% *hen the( a e e<&o%ed to bad climate% and di t(! atmo%&he e%. /i e ha>a d i' lea) occu %. Ade=uate oil 'ilt ation mu%t be maintained.

1.C.C A%%$i&ation of >ydra-$i& A&t-ator

0%ed to d i+e the %& a( coatin, obot% 0%ed in hea+( &a t loadin, obot% 0%e'ul in mate ial handlin, obot %(%tem 33

 0%ed to d i+e the -oint% o' a%%embl( (hea+(" obot% 0%e'ul in & oducin, t an%lato ( motion in Ca te%ian obot 0%e'ul in obot% o&e atin, in ha>a dou%, %&a )in, en+i onment% 0%e'ul in , i&&e mechani%m% 1.D MEC>ANICAL DRI@E MEC>ANISMS 6hen the +a iou% d i+in, method% li)e h(d aulic, &neumatic, elect ical %e +o moto % and %te&&in, moto % a e u%ed in obot%, it i% nece%%a ( to ,et the motion in linea o ota ( 'a%hion. 6hen moto % a e u%ed, ota ( motion i% con+e ted to linea motion th ou,h ac) and &inion ,ea in,, lead %c e*%, *o m ,ea in, o bail %c e*%. Ra&" and 'inion Mo#ement The &inion i% in me%h *ith ac) (,ea o' in'inite adiu%". I' the ac) i% 'i<ed, the &inion *ill otate. The ota ( motion o' the &inion *ill be con+e ted to linea motion o' the ca ia,e. Ba$$ S&re+ Sometime% lead %c e*% otate to d i+e the nut alon, a t ac). But %im&le lead %c e*% cau%e ' iction and *ea , cau%in, &o%itional inaccu ac(. The e'o e ball bea in, %c e*% a e u%ed in obot% a% the( ha+e lo* ' iction. The ball% oll bet *een% the nut and the %c e*. A ca,e i% & o+ided 'o eci culation o' the ball%. The ollin, ' iction o' the ball enhance% t an%mi%%ion e''icienc( to about E0U. Aear Train :ea t ain% u%e %&u , helical and *o m ,ea in,. A eduction o' %&eed, chan,e o' to =ue and an,ula +elocit( a e &o%%ible. Po%itional e o % a e cau%ed due to bac)la%h in the ,ea %. >armoni& Dri#e /o %&eed eduction, %tanda d ,ea t an%mi%%ion ,i+e% %lidin, ' iction and bac)la%h. Mo eo+e , it ta)e% mo e %&ace. 9a monic d i+e due to it% natu al & eloadin, eliminate% bac)la%h and , eatl( educe% tooth *ea . 9a monic d i+e% a e %uitable 'o obot d i+e% due to thei %mooth and e''icient action The ha monic d i+e a% %ho*n in /i,. 3.10E i% made u& o' th ee ma-o element%F the ci cula %&line, the *a+e ,ene ato and the 'le< %&line. The ci cula %&line i% a i,id in, *ith ,ea teeth machined on the in%ide diamete . The 'le< %&line i% a 'le<ible in, *ith the teeth cut on it% out%ide diamete . The 'le< %&line ha% 'e*e teeth (%a( 8 teeth le%%" than the ci cula %&line. The *a+e ,ene ato i% elli&tical and i% ,i+en in&ut motion. The *a+e ,ene ato i% a%%embled into the 'le< %&line the enti e a%%embl( o'. 6a+e ,ene ato and 'le< %&line i% &laced into the ci cula %&line %uch that the oute tooth o' 'le< %&line i% in me%h *ith the inte nal teeth o' ci cula %&line

3?

/I:. 8.3 9a monic d i+e element% I' the ci cula %&line ha% 100 teeth and the 'le< %&line ha% E8 teeth, and i' the *a+e ,ene ato ma)e% one com&lete e+olution, the 'le< %&line *ill en,a,e E8 teeth o' the ci cula %&line. Since ci cula %&line ha% 100 teeth and onl( E8 teeth ha+e been in en,a,ement 'o one com&lete otation, the ci cula %alineM% &o%ition ha% been %hi'ted b( 8 teeth. Thu% a'te A0 e+olution% o' the *a+e ,ene ato , the ci cula %&line *ill ha+e made one 'ull otation. The atio o' ha monic d i+e i% 8F 100 o 1F A0. The ,ea atio i% in'luenced b( the numbe o' teeth cut into the ci cula %&line and the 'le< %&line. The ha monic d i+e ha% hi,h to =ue ca&acit(.

1.E. ELECTRIC DRI@ES

'rin&i%$e A otational mo+ement i% & oduced in a oto *hen an elect ic cu ent 'lo*% th ou,h the *indin,% o' the a matu e %ettin, u& a ma,netic 'ield o&&o%in, the 'ield %et u& b( the ma,net%. T(e Main Com%onent Roto , %tato , b u%h and commutato a%%embl(. The oto ha% ,ot *indin,% o' a matu e and the %tato ha% ,ot the ma,net. The b u%h and the commutato a%%emblie% %*itch the cu ent to the a matu e maintainin, an o&&o%ed 'ield in the ma,net%

Ty%e of e$e&tri& dri#e

The mo%t commonl( . 2C Se +o moto . AC Se +o moto . Ste&&e moto . 0%ed elect ic d i+e% in obotic% a e

3A

STE''ER MOTORS
The %te&&e moto % a e uni=ue t(&e o' moto % that & oduce otational mo+ement in the 'o m o' 'inite an,ula %te&%. The inte mittent elect ical &ul%e% ma)e the %te&&e moto %ha't to otate in %te&% The /i,. 8.1? %ho*% the %chematic a an,ement o' the %te&&e moto & inci&le. The %tato in thi% ca%e i% made u& o' 'ou ! elect oma,netic &ole%. The oto i% a &e manent ma,net *ith t*o &ole% 1 and S. 6hen the e<citation o' &ole 8 (P8" i% chan,ed to P3 &ole the ma,netic no th o' the otate% b( EV0 cloc)*i%e. B( continuou% chan,e in e<citation in the o de P8!P3!P? the cloc)*i%e otation i% & oduced in the %ha't o' the oto , *hich e%ult% in continuou% mo+ement

. /i,. 8.?. Schematic o' Ste&&e Moto

3I

34

1.E.1.Feat-re )

38

1.F COM'ARISION OF C>ARACTERISTICS OF ROBOT DRI@E S*STEM

3E

Robot End-Effe&tor
The obot end!e''ecto o end!o'!a m toolin, I% the b id,e bet*een the obot a m and the en+i onment a ound it. 2e&endin, on the ta%), the action% o' the , i&&e +a (. 6hat i% the ideal , i&&e N Should it be li)e a human hand *ith 'in,e % that ha+e 88 de, ee% o' ' eedomN The mo%t %t i)in, thin, about the human hand i% that it can ada&t to the ta%) a% it i% a %en%o ( and communicatin, o ,an. A human bein, decide% the ,lobal &o%ition o' hi% hand ba%ed on the anal(%i% o' hi% e(e and memo ( and then dete mine% hi% choice o' , i& and the nece%%a ( mani&ulation *ith the aid o' %en%o % on hi% %)in, a m and * i%t (/i,. ?.1" A obotic end!e'lecto *hich i% attached to the * i%t o' the obot a m i% a de+ice that enable% the ,ene al!&u &o%e obot to , i& mate ial%, &a t% and tool% to &e 'o m a %&eci'ic ta%). The end! e''ecto % a e al%o called the , i&&e %. The e a e +a iou% t(&e% o' end!e''ecto % to &e 'o m the di''e ent *o ) 'unction%.

T(e #ario- ty%e of 4ri%%er &an be di#ided into t(e fo$$o+in4 ma6or &ate4orie 5
H Mechanical , i&&e % H 9oo)in, o li'tin, , i&&e % H : i&&e % 'o %coo&in, o ladlin, &o*de % o molten metal% o &la%tic% H $acuum cu&% H Ma,netic , i&&e % H Othe %F Adhe%i+e o elect o%tatic , i&&e %.

T(e 4ri%%er may be &$a ified into

Pa t handlin, , i&&e % Tool% handlin, , i&&e % and S&ecial , i&&e % The &a t handlin, , i&&e % a e u%ed to , a%& and hold ob-ect% that a e e=ui ed to be t an%&o ted ' om one &oint to anothe o &laced 'o %ome a%%embl( o&e ation%. The &a t handlin, a&&lication% include machine loadin, and unloadin,, &ic)in, a t% ' om a con+e(o and mo+in, &a t%, etc. The e a e , i&&e % to hold tool% li)e *eldin, ,un o %& a( &aintin, ,un to &e 'o m a %&eci'ic ta%). The obot hand ma( hold a debu in, tool. The , i&&e % o' the obot ma( be %&eciali>ed de+ice% li)e Remote Cent e Com&liance (RCC" to in%e t an e<te nal matin, com&onent into an inte nal membe , +i>, in%e tin, a &lu, into a hole. ?0

The othe t(&e% o' end!e''ecto % em&lo( %ome &h(%ical & inci&le li)e ma,neti%m o +acuum technolo,( to hold the ob-ect %ecu el(

CLASSIFICATION OF END-EFFECTORS An end!e''ecto o' a obot can be de%i,ned to ha+e %e+e al 'in,e %, -oint% and de, ee% o' ' eedom. An( combination% o' the%e 'acto % ,i+e di''e ent , a%&in, modalitie% to the end!e''ecto The ,ene al end!e''ecto % can be , ou&ed acco din, to the t(&e o' , a%&in, Modalit( a% 'ollo*% Mechanical 'in,e % S&ecial tool% 0ni+e %al 'in,e % Mechanical 'in,e % a e u%ed to &e 'o m %ome %&ecial ta%)%. : i&&in, b( mechanical t(&e 'in,e % i% le%% +e %atile and le%% de<te ou% than holdin, b( uni+e %al 'in,e % a% the , i&&e % *ith mechanical 'in,e % ha+e 'e*e numbe % o' -oint% and le%%e 'le<ibilit(. 9o*e+e , the( economi>e the de+ice co%t . The , i&&e % can be %ub , ou&ed acco din, to 'in,e cla%%i'ication%, 'o e<am&le, the numbe o' 'in,e %, t(&icall( t*o!, th ee!, and 'i+e!'in,e t(&e% The t*o!'in,e , i&&e i% the mo%t &o&ula ?1

Mothe cla%%i'ication i% acco din, to the %in,le , i&&e and multi&le , i&&e % mounted on the * i%t. Multi, i&&e %(%tem% %ho*n in /i,. 8.I enable e''ecti+e %imultaneou% e<ecution o' mo e than t*o di''e ent -ob%. 2e%i,n method% 'o each indi+idual , i&&e in a multi, i&&e %(%tem a e %ub-ect to tho%e o' %in,le , i&&e %

/I:. ?.I Multi&le , i&&e Robot end!e''ecto % can be cla%%i'ied on the ba%i% o' the mode o' , i&&in, a% e<te nal and inte nal , i&&in,. The inte nal , i&&in, %(%tem %ho*n in /i,. ?.3(a" , i&% the inte nal %u 'ace o' ob-ect% *ith o&en 'in,e % *he ea% the e<te nal , i&&e %ho*n in A,. ?.3(b" , i&% the e<te io %u 'ace o' ob-ect% *ith clo%ed 'in,e %. Robot end!e''ecto % a e al%o cla%%i'ied acco din, to the numbe o' de, ee% o' ' eedom (2O/" inco &o ated in the , i&&e %t uctu e%. T(&ical mechanical , i&&e % belon, to the cla%% o' I 2O/. A 'e* , i&&e % can be 'ound *ith mo e than 8 2O/%. 0%in, %ome %&ecial toolin, action, obot , i&&e % can be de%i,ned to etain ob-ect% b( elect oma,netic action o unde the action o' +acuum. E and +acuum cu&% a e t(&ical de+ice% in thi% cla%%. 0%uall(, i' the ob-ect% to be handled a e too la ,e and 'e oma,netic in natu e, elect oma,netic , i&&e % ma( be em&lo(ed. In %ome a&&lication% *he e the ob-ect% a e too thin to be handled, the( can be held b( +acuum , i&&e %

?8

0ni+e %al 'in,e % u%uall( com& i%e multi&u &o%e , i&&e % o' mo e than th ee 'in,e % and o mo e than one -oint on each 'in,e *hich & o+ide the ca&acit( to &e 'o m a *ide +a iet( o' , a%&in, and mani&ulatin, a%%i,nment%.

/I:. 8.4Inte nal and e<te nal , i&&e % (a" Inte nal , i&&e (b" E<te nal , i&&e

DRI@E S*STEM FOR ARI''ERS In t(&ical obot , i&&e %(%tem%, the e a e th ee )ind% o' d i+e method% Pneumatic Elect ic 9(d aulic In elect ic d i+e %(%tem, the e a e t(&icall( t*o )ind% o' actuato %, dc moto % and %te&&e moto %. In ,ene al, each moto e=ui e% a&& o& iate eduction ,ea %(%tem% to & o+ide & o&e out&ut 'o ce o to =ue. In the elect ic %(%tem, a %e +o &o*e am&li'ie i% al%o needed to & o+ide a com&lete actuation %(%tem. The &neumatic %(%tem ha% the me it o' bein, le%% e<&en%i+e than othe method%, *hich i% the main ea%on 'o it bein, u%ed in mo%t o' the indu%t ial obot%. Anothe ad+anta,e o' the &neumatic %(%tem i% the lo*!de, ee o' %ti''ne%% o' the ai !d i+e %(%tem. Thi% 'eatu e o' the &neumatic %(%tem can be u%ed e''ecti+el( to achie+e com&liant , a%&in, *hich i% nece%%a ( 'o one o' the mo%t im&o tant 'unction% o' , i&&e %; to , a%& ob-ect% t?ith delicate %u 'ace% ca e'ull(. On the othe hand, the elati+el( limited %ti''ne%% o' the %(%tem ma)e% & eci%e cont ol di''icult ?3

9(d aulic d i+e% u%ed in obot , i&&in, %(%tem% a e u%uall( elect oh(d aulic d i+e %(%tem%. The( ha+e almo%t the %ame con'i,u ation a% &neumatic %(%tem%, thou,h thei 'eatu e% a e di''e ent ' om each othe . A t(&ical h(d aulic d i+e %(%tem con%i%t% o' actuato %, cont ol +al+e% and &o*e unit%. The e a e th ee )ind% o' actuato % in the %(%temF &i%ton c(linde , %*in, moto , and h(d aulic moto . To achie+e &o%itional cont ol u%in, elect ic %i,nal% elect oh(d aulic con+e %ion d i+e% a e u%ed MEC>ANICAL ARI''ERS A mechanical , i&&e i% an end!e''ecto that u%e% mechanical 'in,e % actuated b( a mechani%m to , i& an ob-ect. The 'in,e % a e the a&&enda,e% o' the , i&&e that actuall( ma)e% contact *ith the ob-ect. The 'in,e % a e eithe attached to the mechani%m o a e an inte, al &a t o' the mechani%m. The u%e o' e&laceable 'in,e % allo*% ' o *ea and inte chan,eabilit(. 2i''e ent %et% o' 'in,e % 'o u%e *ith the %ame , i&&e mechani%m can be de%i,ned to accommodate di''e ent &a t% model%. A , i&&e *ith inte chan,eable 'in,e % i% %ho*n in /i,. 8.8 .

/I:. 8.8Mechanical , i&&e *ith inte chan,eable 'in,e % Se+e al )ind% o' , i&&e 'unction% can be eali>ed u%in, +a iou% mechani%m%. / om ob%e +ation% o' the u%able &ai element% in the , i&&in, de+ice, the 'ollo*in, )ind% a e identi'iedF (i" lin)a,e (ii" ,ea !and ac) (iii" cam, (i+" %c e* (+" cable and &ulle( and %o on. The %election o' the%e mechani%m% i% in'luenced b( the )ind o' actuato % to be em&lo(ed and the )ind o' , a%&in, modalit( to be u%ed. Anothe method o' cla%%i'(in, the mechanical , i&&e % i% acco din, to the t(&e o' 'in,e mo+ement u%ed b( the , i&&e . In thi% cla%%i'ication, the , i&&e % can actuate the o&enin, o do%in, o' the 'in,e % b( one o' the 'ollo*in, motion% ??

 Pi+otin, o %*in,in, mo+ement 3inea o t an%lational mo+ement In mo%t a&&lication%, t*o 'in,e % a e %u''icient to hold the *o )&iece. : i&&e % *ith th ee o mo e 'in,e % a e le%% common.

Me&(ani&a$ Ari%%er +it( T+o Fin4er

'i#otin4 or S+in4in4 Ari%%er Me&(ani m Thi% i% the mo%t &o&ula mechanical , i&&e 'o indu%t ial obot%. It can be de%i,ned 'o limited %ha&e% o' an ob-ect, e%&eciall( c(lind ical *o ) &iece. I' actuato % that & oduce linea mo+ement a e u%ed, li)e &neumatic &i%ton! c(linde %, the de+ice contain% a &ai o' %lide !c an) mechani%m%. In the %lide c an) mechani%m %ho*n in 9,. ?.I, *hen the &i%ton 1 i% &u%hed b( &neumatic & e%%u e to the i,ht, the element% in the c an)% 8 and 3, otate counte cloc)*i%e *ith the 'ulc um / and cloc)*i%e *ith the 'ulc um / e%&ecti+el(, *hen B P 1800. The%e otation% ma)e the , a%&in, action at the e<tended end o' the c an) element% 8 and 3. The elea%in, action can be obtained b( mo+in, the &i%ton to the le't. An an,le B

an,in, ' om 1I0W to i% commonl( u%ed. /I:. 8.E Schematic dia, am o' a , i&&e u%in, %lide !c an) mechani%m /i,u e 8.10 i% anothe e<am&le o' %*in,in, , i&&e that u%e% the &i%ton! c(linde . Thi% i% the %*in,! bloc) mechani%m. The %lidin, od 1, actuated b( the &neumatic &i%ton t an%mit% motion b( *a( o' the t*o %(mmet icall( a an,ed %*in,!bloc) lin)a,e% 1!!8!!3!!? and 1T8T3KT?K to , a%& o elea%e the ob-ect b( mean% o' the %ub%e=uent %*in,in, motion% o' lin)% ? and ?K at thei Pi+ot% / and / /i,8.10 Schematic dia, am o' a , i&&e u%in, %*in, bloc) mechani%m ?A

/i,u e8.11 illu%t ate% a t(&ical e<am&le o' a , i&&e u%in, a ota ( actuato in *hich the actuato i% &laced at the c o%% &oint o' the t*o 'in,e %. Each 'in,e i% connected to the oto and the hou%in, o' the actuato , e%&ecti+el(. The actuato mo+ement di ectl( & oduce% , a%&in, and elea%in, action%.

/I:. 8.11 : i&&e *ith a ota ( actuato The cam actuated , i&&e include% a +a iet( o' &o%%ible de%i,n%, one o' *hich i% %ho*n in / 8.18 A cam and 'ollo*e a an,ement, o'ten u%in, a %& in,!loaded 'ollo*e , can & o+ide the o&enin, and clo%in, action o' the , i&&e . The ad+anta,e o' thi% a an,ement i% that the %& in, action *ould accommodate di''e ent %i>ed ob-ect%.

/I:. 8.18 Cam actuated , i&&e /i,u e 8.13 indicate% an e<am&le o' %c e*!t(&e actuation u%ed in the , i&&e de%i,n. The %c e* i% tu ned b( a moto , u%uall( accom&anied b( a %&eed eduction mechani%m. 2ue to the otation o' the %c e*, the th eaded bloc) mo+e%, cau%in, the o&enin, and do%in, o' the 'in,e % de&endin, on the di ection o' otation o' the %c e*

/I:. 8.13 Sc e* t(&e , i&&e

?I

Tran $ation Ari%%er Me&(ani m

T an%lational mechani%m% a e *idel( u%ed in , i&&e % o' indu%t ial obot%. The %im&le%t t an%lational , i&&e u%e% the di ect motion o' the &i%ton c(linde , %ho*n in /i,. 8.1A.. The 'in,e motion co e%&ond% to the &i%ton mo+ement *ithout an( connectin, mechani%m% bet*een them. The d a*bac) i% that %ometime% it i% di''icult to de%i,n the de%i ed %i>e o' the , i&&e , becau%e he e the actuato %i>e decide% the , i&&e %i>e

. /I:. 8.1A T an%lational , i&&e u%in, c(linde &i%ton /i,u e 8.1I %ho*% a t an%lational , i&&e u%in, a h(d aulic o &neumatic &i%ton!c(linde , *hich include% a dual! ac) ,ea mechani%m and t*o &ai % o' %(mmet icall( a an,ed &a allel clo%in, lin)a,e%. The &inion and %ecto ,ea % a e connected to the element% 3 and 3 e%&ecti+el(. 6hen the &i%ton od mo+e% to*a d% le't, the t an%lation o' the, ac) cau%e% the t*o &inion% to otate cloc)*i%e and anticloc)*i%e e%&ecti+el( and & oduce% the , a%&in, action, )ee&in, each 'in,e di ection con%tant. The elea%e action occu % od mo+e% to the i,ht in the %ame *a( *hen the &i%ton

/I:. 8.1I T an%lational , i&&e u%in, &a allel ba lin)a,e%

?4

Rota ( actuato % can al%o be u%ed 'o t an%lational , i&&e mechani%m% a% %ho*n In /i,. 8.14

/I:. 8.14 T an%lational , i&&e u%in, ota ( actuato %

Me&(ani&a$ Ari%%er +it( T(ree Fin4er

The Inc ea%e o' the numbe o' 'in,e % and de, ee% o' ' eedom *ill , eatl( aid the +e %atilit( o' , i&&e %. The main ea%on 'o u%in, the th ee!'in,e , i&&e i% it% ca&abilit( o' , a%&in, the ob-ect in th ee %&ot%, enablin, both a ti,hte , i& and the holdin, o' %&he ical ob-ect% o' di''e ent %i>e )ee&in, the cent e o' the ob-ect at a %&eci'ied &o%ition. Th ee &oint chuc) mechani%m% a e t(&icall( u%ed 'o thi% &u &o%e. /i,u e 8.18 ,i+e% an e<am&le o' thi% , i&&e . Each 'in,e motion i% &e 'o med u%in, ball!%c e* mechani%m. Elect ic moto out&ut i% t an%mitted to the %c e*% attached to each 'in,e th ou,h be+el ,ea t ain% *hich otate the %c e*%. 6hen each %c e* i% otated cloc)*i%e o anticloc)*i%e, the t an%lational motion o' each 'in,e *ill be & oduced, *hich e%ult% in the , a%&in,! elea%in, action

/I:. 8.18 : i&&e u%in, th ee &oint chuc) mechani%m ?8

MA:1ETIC :RIPPERS Ma,netic , i&&e % a e u%ed e<ten%i+el( on 'e ou% mate ial%. In ,ene al, ma,netic , i&&e % o''e the 'ollo*in, ad+anta,e% in obotic handlin, o&e ation% $a iation% in &a t %i>e can be tole ated Pic)u& time% a e +e ( 'a%t The( ha+e abilit( to handle metal &a t% *ith hole% . Onl( one %u 'ace i% e=ui ed 'o , i&&in, The e%idual ma,neti%m emainin, in the *o ) &iece ma( cau%e & oblem%. Mothe &otential di%ad+anta,e i% the & oblem o' &ic)in, u& one %heet at a time ' om a %tac). The ma,netic att action tend% to &enet ate be(ond the to& %heet in the %tac), e%ultin, in the &o%%ibilit( that mo e than a %in,le %heet *ill be li'ted b( the ma,net. Ma,netic , i&&e % %ho*n In 9,. 8.18can u%e eithe elect oma,net% o &e manent ma,net%. Elect oma,netic , i&&e % (/i,. 8.18(b" a e ea%ie to cont ol, but e=ui e a %ou ce o' dc &o*e and an a&& o& iate cont olle . 6hen the &a t i% to be elea%ed, the cont ol unit e+e %e% the &ola it( at a educed &o*e le+el be'o e %*itchin, o'' the elect oma,net. Thi% & ocedu e act% to cancel the e%idual ma,neti%m in the *o ) &lece en%u in, a &o%iti+e elea%e o' the &a t. The att acti+e 'o ce, P o' an elect oma,net i% 'ound ' om Ma<*ellK% e=uation ,i+en b(

Pe manent ma,net% do not e=ui e an e<te nal &o*e and hence the( can be u%ed in ha>a dou% and e<&lo%i+e en+i onment%, becau%e the e i% no dan,e o' %&a )% *hich mi,ht cau%e i,nition in %uch en+i onment%. 6hen the &a t i% to be elea%ed at the end o' the handlin, c(cle, in ca%e o' &e manent ma,net , i&&e %, %ome mean% o' %e&a atin, the &a t ' om the ma,net mu%t be & o+ided. One %uch %t i&&in, de+ice i% %ho*n in /i,. 8.18(a"

?E

/I:. 8.18 Ma,netic , i&&e % (a" Pe manent ma,net t(&e (to Elect o ma,net t(&e $AC00M :RIPPERS 3a ,e 'lat ob-ect% a e o'ten di''icult to , a%&. One %olution to thi% & oblem i% the u%e o' +acuum , i&&e . $acuum , i&&e % a e u%ed 'o &ic)in, u& metal &late%, &an% o' ,la%%, o la ,e li,ht*ei,ht bo<e%. Since the +acuum cu&% a e made o' ela%tic mate ial%, the( a e com&laint. The , i&&e i% tole ant o' e o % in the o ientation o' the &a t and i% e%&eciall( %uited 'o &ic)!and!&lace *o ). /o handlin, %o'te mate ial%, cu&% made o' ha de mate ial a e u%ed A t(&ical +acuum cu& , i&&e i% %ho*n in /i,. 8.1E(a". It i% u%ed e<ten%i+el( 'o li'tin, ' a,ile mate ial%. A com& e%%ed ai %u&&l( and a +entu i a e u%ed to c eate a ,entle +acuum that li't% the &a t The li't ca&acit( o' the %uction cu& (9,. 8.1E(b"" de&end% on the e''ecti+e a ea o' the cu& and the ne,ati+e ai & e%%u e bet*een the cu& and the ob-ect the elation%hi& can be %ho*n b( the e=uation

A0

/i,8.1E..$acuum , i&&e (a" $entu ( de+ice 'o 'lat %u 'ace , i&&in, (b" : i&&e 'o contou ed %u 'ace In%tead o' a +entu i, a +acuum &um& &o*e ed b( an elect ical moto ma( al%o be u%ed A1

AD>ESI@E ARI''ERS An adhe%i+e %ub%tance can be u%ed 'o , a%&in, action in , i&&e de%i,n. The e=ui ement% on the item% to be handled a e that the( mu%t be , i&&ed on one %ide onl(. The eliabilit( o' thi% , i&&in, de+ice i% dimini%hed *ith each %ucce%%i+e o&e ation c(cle a% the adhe%i+e %ub%tance lo%e% it% tac)ine%% on e&eated u%e. To o+e come thi% limitation, the adhe%i+e mate ial can be loaded In the 'o m o' a continuou% ibbon into a 'eedin, mechani%m attached to the obot * i%t . >OOGS) SCOO'S AND OT>ER MISCELLANEOUS DE@ICES 9oo)% can be u%ed a% end!e''ecto % to handle containe % and to load and unload &a t% han,in, ' om o+e head con+e(o %. The item to be handled b( a hoo) mu%t ha+e %ome %o t o' handle to enable the hoo) to hold it 3adle% and %coo&% can be u%ed to handle ce tain mate ial% in li=uid o &o*de 'o m. One o' the limitation% i% that the amount o' mate ial bein, %coo&ed b( the obot i% %ometime% di''icult to cont ol. Othe t(&e% o' , i&&e % Include in'latable de+ice%, in *hich an in'latable bladde i% e<&anded to , a%& the ob-ect. The in'latable bladde i% 'ab icated out o' %ome ela%tic mate ial li)e ubbe , *hich ma)e% it a&& o& iate 'o , i&&in, ' a,ile ob-ect%. In cont a%t to the t(&ical mechanical , i&&e % *he e a concent ated 'o ce i% a&&lied an the ob-ect, the , i&&e a&&lie% a uni'o m , a%&in, & e%%u e a,ain%t the %u 'ace o' the ob-ect. An e<am&le o' thi% t(&e o' , i&&e i% %ho*n in /i,% ?.14(a" and (b".

A8

/I:. ?.14 E<&andin, bladde tot , i&&in, inte nal %u 'ace (a" Bladde 'ull( e<&anded (b" Bladde in%ide the containe

A3

bet*een the &a t %u 'ace and the 'in,e %u 'ace, the accele ation o' the &a t and the o ientation o' the di ection o' motion du in, accele ation *ith e%&ect to the di ection o' the 'in,e %. Thi% ma( be demon%t ated th ou,h the anal(%i% o' %e+e al e<am&le% ,i+en belo*

The &u &o%e o' the , i&&e mechani%m i% to con+e t in&ut &o*e into the e=ui ed motion and 'o ce to , a%& and etain an ob-ect. So the , i&&in, 'o ce e=ui ed mu%t be calculated 'i %t. 6hen the , i&&in, 'o ce i% e%tabli%hed, the e=ui ed actuato 'o ce o to =ue can be com&uted 'o a ,i+en , i&&e de%i,n. The e a e t*o *a(% o' con%t ainin, the &a t in the , i&&e . In the 'i %t *a(, the , i&&e 'in,e % ma( enclo%e the &a t to %ome e<tent, the eb( con%t ainin, the motion o' the &a t. Thi% i% accom&li%hed b( de%i,nin, the contactin, %u 'ace o' the 'in,e % to be in the a&& o<imate %ha&e o' the &a t ,eomet ( a% %ho*n in /i,. ?.18. The %econd *a( o' holdin, the &a t i% b( ' iction bet*een the 'in,e % and the ob-ect. In thi% a&& oach, the 'in,e % mu%t a&&l( a 'o ce that i% %u''icient 'o ' iction to etain the &a t a,ain%t , a+it(, accele ation and an( othe 'o ce that mi,ht a i%e du in, the holdin, &o tion o' the *o )in, c(cle. The ' iction method o' holdin, the &a t% e%ult% in a le%% com&licated and the e'o e le%% e<&en%i+e , i&&e de%i,n and it tend% to be eadil( ada&table to a , eate +a iet( o' *o )&a t%. 9o*e+e the e i% a & oblem *ith the ' iction method that i% a+oided *ith the &h(%ical con%t iction method. I' a 'o ce o' in %u''icient ma,nitude i% a&&lied a,ain%t the &a t in a di ection &a allel to the ' iction %u 'ace% o' the 'in,e % a% %ho*n in /i,. ?.1E, A?

the &a t mi,ht %li& out o' the , i&&e . To e%i%t thi% %li&&a,e, the , i&&e mu%t be de%i,ned to e<e t a 'o ce that de&end% on the *ei,ht o' the &a t, the coe''icient o' ' iction CO1SI2ERATIO1S I1 :RIPPER SE3ECTIO1 A12 2ESI:1 Mo%t o' thi% cha&te ha% been conce ned *ith , i&&e % athe than tool% a% end e''ecto %. A% indicated in Sec. A!?, tool% a e u%ed 'o %&ot *eldin,, a c *eldin,, otatin, %&indle o&e ation%, and othe & oce%%in, a&&lication%. 6e *ill e<amine the toolin, u%ed *ith the%e o&e ation% *hen *e di%cu%% the co e%&ondin, a&&lication% in Cha&%. /ou teen and /i'teen. In thi% %ection, let u% %umma i>e ou di%cu%%ion o' , i&&e % b( enume atin, %ome o' the con %ide ation% in thei %election and de%i,n Ce tainl( one o' the con%ide ation% deal% *ith dete minin, the , a%&in, e=ui ement% 'o the , i&&e En,el Be ,e X de'ine% man( o' the 'acto % that %hould be con%ide ed in a%%e%%in, , i&&in, e=ui ement%. The 'ollo*in, li%t i% Ba%ed on En,el Be ,e M% di%cu%%ion o' the%e 'acto % the &a t %u 'ace to be , a%&ed mu%t be eachable. /o e<am&le, it mu%t not be enclo%ed *ithin a chuc) o othe holdin, 'i<tu e

AA

AI

A4

UNIT-III SENSORS AND MAC>INE @ISION

Re=-irement of a en or) 'rin&i%$e and A%%$i&ation of t(e fo$$o+in4 ty%e of en or 'o ition of en or 2'ie?o E$e&tri& Sen or) L@DT) Re o$#er ) O%ti&a$ En&oder ) 'ne-mati& 'o ition Sen or Ran4e Sen or Trian4-$ation 'rin&i%$e) Str-&t-red) Li4(tin4 A%%roa&() Time of F$i4(t Ran4e Finder ) La er Ran4e Meter 3) 'ro8imity Sen or Ind-&ti#e) >a$$ Effe&t) Ca%a&iti#e) U$tra oni& O%ti&a$ 'ro8imity Sen or To-&( Sen or ) Binary Sen or ) Ana$o4 Sen or !ri t Sen or ) Com%$ian&e Sen or ) S$i% Sen or Camera) Frame Arabber) Sen in4 and Di4iti?in4 Ima4e Data Si4na$ Con#er ion) Ima4e Stora4e)
A8

Li4(tin4 Te&(ni=-e . Ima4e 'ro&e in4 and Ana$y i Data Red-&tion) Se4mentation) Feat-re E8tra&tion) Ob6e&t Re&o4nition) Ot(er A$4orit(m . A%%$i&ation In %e&tion) Identifi&ation) @i -a$ Ser#in4 and Na#i4ation.

AE

Robot Sen or and @i ion

INTRODUCTION The inte action o' the obot *ith the en+i onment %et!u&% need% mechani%m% )no*n a% Sen%o %

Need for en or
Robot ,uidance *ithout ob%t uction. Ob-ect identi'ication ta%)%. 9andlin, the ob-ect%. The %en%o % that & o+ide the in'o mationM% li)e -oint &o%ition, +elocit( and accele ation )no*n a% inte nal %tate %en%o %. The obot% a e bein, ,uided b( the hel& o' +i%ion and an,e %en%o % that a e )no*n a% non!contact e<te nal %tate %en%o %. The ta%) o' ob-ect identi'ication i% done b( & o<imit( and touch %en%o % )no*n a% contact e<te nal %tate %en%o %. The in'o mationM% o' ob-ect handlin, a e %u&&lied a% a 'eedbac) ' om 'o ce and to =ue %en%o % te med a% contact t(&e inte nal %tate %en%o % 'rin&i%$e of %o ition en or 5 Po%ition %en%o % a e u%ed to monito the &o%ition o' -oint%. In'o mation about the &o%ition i% 'ed bac) to the cont ol %(%tem% that a e u%ed to dete mine the accu ac( o' &o%itionin,. In mo%t ca%e% in obot%, a & ima ( inte e%t i% to cont ol the &o%ition o' the a m. The e i% a la ,e +a iet( o' de+ice% a+ailable 'o %en%in, &o%ition. 9o*e+e , the mo%t &o&ula an,ula !&o%ition %en%o % a e the 'ollo*in, de+ice%F a. Encode % b. S(nch o% c. Re%ol+e % d. Potentiomete % En&oder The th ee ,ene al t(&e% o' an,ula !&o%ition encode % u%in, di,ital out &ut a e tachomete inc emental o&tical ab%olute o&tical The tachomete encode i% a %in de+ice that ,ene ate% &ul%e% in e%&on%e to %en%o otation +ice %en%e% onl( inc ement% o' moon and not di ection a ota ( &ul%e ,ene ato that out&ut% a %i,nal e+e ( time a ma,net &a%%e% b(.

I0

 The an,ula e%olution o' thi% de+ice in de, ee% i% 1 *he e ii i% the numbe o' ma,net% I' the de+ice i% ene ,i>ed o %am&led 'o a 'i<ed!time inte +al, the numbe o' out&ut &ul%e% &e unit time e& e%ent% an,ula +elocit(. The inc emental o&tical encode i% illu%t ated in /i,u e I.4.8. It con%i%t% o' a ,la%% di%) ma )ed *ith alte natin, t an%&a ent and o&a=ue %t i& ali,ned adiall(. A &hoto t an%mitte (li,ht %ou ce" i% located on one %ide o' the di%), and a &hoto ecei+e i% on the othe . A% the di%) otate%, the li,ht beam i% alte natel( com&leted and b o)en. The out&ut ' om the &hoto ecei+e % a &ul%e t ain *ho%e ' e=uenc( i% & o&o tional to the %&eed o' otation o' the di%). In a t(&ical encode the e a e t*o %et% o' &hoto t an%mitte % and ecei+e % ali,ned E0 out o' &ha%e. Thi% &ha%in, & o+ide% di ection in'o mation; that i%, i' %i,nal A lead% %i,nal B b( E8K, the encode di%) i% otatin, in one di ection; but i' B lead% A, then it i% ,oin, in the othe di ection. B( countin, the &ul%e% and b( addin, o %ubt actin, ba%ed on the %i,n, it i% &o%%ible to u%e the encode to & o+ide &o%ition in in'o mation *ith e%&ect to a )no*n %ta tin, location. The ab%olute o&tical encode em&lo(% the %ame ba%ic con%t uction a% inc emental o&tical encode % e<ce&t that the e a e mo e t ac)% o' %t i&e% and a co e%&ondin, numbe o' ecei+e % and t an%mitte %. 0%uall(, the %t i&e% a e a an,ed to & o+ide a bina ( numbe & o&o tional to the %ha't an,le. The 'i %t t ac) mi,ht ha+e t*o %t i&e%, the %econd 'ou , the thi d ei,ht, and %o on. In thi% *a( the an,le can be ead di ectl( ' om the encode *ithout an( nece%%a ( countin,. /i,u e 3 illu%t ate% an ab%olute o&tical encode . The e%olution o' an ab%olute o&tical

I1

I8

L@DT T(e $inear #ariab$e differentia$ tran former 2L@DT3

The linea +a iable di''e ential t an%'o me (3$2T" i% anothe t(&e o' &o%ition %en%o , *ho%e con%t uction i% %ho*n in /i,. A.A. It con%i%t% o' a & ima (, t*o %econda ie%, and a mo+able co e. The & ima ( i% e<cited *ith an ac %ou ce. 6hen the co e i% in it% e<act cent al location, the am&litude o' the +olta,e induced in %econda (! *ill be the %ame a% that in %econda (!8. The %econda ie%

I3

1. Ran4e en or 5
The di%tance bet*een the ob-ect and the obot hand i% mea%u ed u%in, the an,e %en%o % 6ithin it i% an,e o' o&e ation. The calculation o' the di%tance i% b( +i%ual & oce%%in,. Ran,e %en%o % 'ind u%e in obot na+i,ation and a+oidance o' the ob%tacle% in the &ath. the ! location and the ,ene al %ha&e cha acte i%tic% o' the &a t in the *o ) en+elo&e o' the obot S done b( %&ecial a&&lication% 'o the an,e %en%o %. The e a e %e+e al a&& oache% li)e, t ian,ulation method, %t uctu ed li,htin, a&& oach and time!o'! I?

'li,ht an,e 'inde % etc. In the%e ca%e% the %ou ce o' illumination can be li,ht!%ou ce, la%e beam o ba%ed on ult a%onic.

Trian4-$ation Met(od
Thi% i% the %im&le%t o' the techni=ue%, *hich i% ea%il( demon%t ated in the /i,. 4.8. The ob-ect i% %*e&t o+e b( a na o* beam o' %ha & li,ht. The %en%o 'ocu%%ed on a %mall %&ot o' the ob-ect %u 'ace detect% the e'lected beam o' li,ht. I' Y8K i% the an,le made b( the illuminatin, %ou ce and YbKi% the di%tance bet*een %ou ce and the %en%o , the di%tance Yc o' the %en%o on the obot i% ,i+en a%

Str-&t-red Li4(tin4 A%%roa&(

Thi% a&& oach con%i%t% o' & o-ectin, a li,ht &atte n the di%to tion o' the &atte n to calculate the an,e. A &atte n in u%e toda( i% a %heet o' li,ht ,ene ated na o* %lit. A% illu%t ated in. /i,. I.3, the inte %ection o' the %heet *ith ob-ect% in theK *o ) %&ace (ield% a li,ht %t i&e *hich i% +ie*ed th ou,h a tele+i%ion came a di%&laced a di%tance B ' om the li,ht %ou ce. The %t i&e &atte n i% IA

ea%il( anal(>ed b( a com&ute to obtain an,e in'o mation. /o e<am&le, an in'lection indicate% a chan,e o' %u 'ace, and a b ea) co e%&ond% to a ,a& bet*een %u 'ace%. S&eci'ic an,e +alue% a e com&uted b( 'i %t calib atin, the %(%tem. One o' the %im&le%t a an,ement% i% %ho*n in /i,F I.31K, *hich e& e%ent% a to& +ie* o' /i,. I .3a. In thi%, a an,ement, the li,ht %ou ce and came a a e &laced at the %ame hei,ht, and the %heet o' li,ht i% &e &endicula to the line -oinin, the o i,in o' the li,ht %heet and the cente o' the came a len%. 6e call the +e tical &lane containin, thi% line the e'e ence &lane. Clea l(, the e'e ence &lane i% &e &endicula to the %heet o' li,ht, and an( +e tical 'lat %u 'ace that inte %ect% the %heet 6ill & oduce a +e tical %t i&e o' li,ht (a e /i,. I.3a" in *hich e+e ( &oint *ill ha+e the %ame &e &endicula di%tance to the e'e ence &lane. ! The ob-ecti+e o'. the a an,ement %ho*n in /i,. I.31K i% to &o%ition the came a %o that e+e ( %uch +e tical %t i&e al%o a&&ea % +e tical in the ima,e &lane. In thi% *a(, e+e ( &oint, the %ame column in the Yima,e *ill be )no*n to ha+e the %ame di%tance to the Y e'e ence &lane

Time-of-F$i4(t Ran4e Finder

In thi% %ection *e di%cu%% th ee method% 'o dete minin, an,e ba%ed on the time! o'!'li,ht conce&t int oduced at the be,innin, o' Sec. I.8. T*o o' the method% utili>e a la%e , *hile the thi d i% ba%ed on ult a%onic. II

One a&& oach 'o u%in, a la%e to dete mine an,e i% to mea%u e the time it ta)e% an emitted &ul%e o' li,ht to etu n coa<iall( (i.e., alon, the %ame &ath" ' ont a e'lectin, %u 'ace. The di%tance to the %u 'ace i% ,i+en b( the %im&le elation%hi& 2 Z cTL8, *he e T i% the &ul%e t an%it time and e i% the %&eed o' li,ht. 't i% o' inte e%t to note that, %ince li,ht t a+el% at a&& o<imatel( I 'tLa%, the %u&&o tin, elect onic in%t umentation mu%t be ca&able o' A0!&% time e%olution in o de to achie+e a [ Y?!inch accu ac( in an,e.

A &ul%ed!la%e %(%tem de%c ibed b( la +i% X& oduce% a t*o!dimen%ional a a( *ith +alue% & o&o tional to di%tance. The t*o!dimen%ional %can i% accom &li%hed b( de'lectin, the la%e li,ht +ia a otatin, mi o . The I4

*o )in, an,e o' thi% de+ice i% on the o de o' I to ? m, *ith an accu ac( o' [ 0.8A cm. An e<am &le o' the out&ut o' thi% %(%tem i% %ho*n hi /i,. I.?. Pa t (a" o' thi% 'i,u e %ho*% a collection o' th ee!dimen%ional ob-ect%, and /i,. I.?1 i% the co e%&ondin, %en%ed a a( di%&la(ed a% a t ima,e in *hich the inten%it( at each &oint i% & o&o tional to the di%tance bet*een the %en%o and the e'lectin, %u 'ace at that &oint (da )e i% clo%e ". The b i,ht a ea% a ound the ob-ect bounda ie% e& e%ent di%continuit( in an,e dete mined b( &o%t & oce%%in, in a com&ute An alte nati+e to &ul%ed li,ht i% to u%e a continuou%!beam la%e and mea%u e the dela( (i.e., &ha%e %hi't" bet*een the out,oin, and etu nin, beam%. 6e illu% t eat thi% conce&t *ith the aid o' /i,. I.A. Su&&o%e that a beam o' la%e li,ht o' *a+elen,th B i% %&lit into t*o beam%. One o' the%e (called the e'e ence beam" t a+el% a di%tance 3 to a &ha%e mea%u in, de+ice, and the othe t a+el% a di%tance I out to a e'lectin, %u 'ace. The total di%tance t a+eled b( the e'lected beam i% Z 3 J 82. Su&&o%e that 2 Z 0. 0nde thi% condition 0 Z 3 and both the e'e ence and e'lected beam% a i+e %imultaneou%l( at the &ha%e mea%u in, de+ice, I' *e let 2 inc ea%e, the e'lected beam t a+el% a lon,e &ath and, the e'o e, a &ha%e %hi't i% int oduced bet*een the t*o beam% at the &oint o' mea%u ement,

'ROHIMIT* SENSORS
The out&ut o' the & o<imit( %en%o % ,i+e% an indication o' the & e%ence o' an ob-ect *ith in the +icinit( -ob o&e ation. In obotic% the%e %en%o % a e u%ed to ,ene ate in'o mation o' ob-ect , a%&in, and ob%tacle a+oidance. Thi% %ection deal% *ith %ome o' the im&o tant & o<imit( %en%o % u%ed in obotic%.

Ind-&ti#e Sen or
'rin&i%$e The 'e oma,netic mate ial b ou,ht clo%e to thi% t(&e o' %en%o e%ult% in chan,e in &o%ition o' the 'lu< line% o' the &e manent ma,net leadin, to chan,e in inductance o' the coil. The induced cu ent &ul%e in the coil *ith chan,e in am&litude and %ha&e i% & o&o tional to ate o' chan,e o' 'lu< line in ma,net

I8

Con tr-&tion The & o<imit( inducti+e %en%o ba%icall( con%i%t% o' a *ound coil located in ' ont o' a &e manent ma,net enca%ed in%ide a u,,ed hou%in,. The lead ' om the coil, embedded in e%in i% connected to the di%&la( th ou,h a connecto

>a$$-Effe&t Sen or
F 'rin&i%$e 9all!E''ect deal% *ith the +olta,e bet*een the t*o &oint% in a conducto *hich chan,e% b( the nea 'ield o' the ma,neti>ed o 'e oma,netic mate ial. The %en%o e<&e ience% a *ea)ened ma,netic 'ield in the clo%e & o<imit( o' a 'e oma,netic mate ial, due to the bendin, o' the 'lu< line% o' the ma,net th ou,h a&& oachin, ob-ect Con tr-&tion5 IE

A %en%o element i% %tationed bet*een the &ole% o' a ho %e %hoe ma,net con%t ucted in%ide a containe . The & inci&le o' o&e ation i% a% de&icted in /i,. 4.A

. The dec ea%e in the %t en,th o' the ma,netic 'ield e%ultin, due to the & o<imit( o' the ob-ect 'ield educe% the +olta,e ac o%% the %en%o . The %en%o ,i+e% bina ( out&ut 'o the deci%ion ma)in, de+ice% o' cont ol 'o 'u the action%. The %ilicon ma)e% the ideal %election 'o a %emiconducto in te m% o' %i>e, %t en,th and ca&acit( to elect ical inte 'e ence & e+ention.

Ca%a&iti#e Sen or
0nli)e inducti+e and 9all!e''ect %en%o % *hich detect onl( 'e oma,netic mate ial%, ca&aciti+e %en%o % a e &otentiall( ca&able (*ith +a iou% de, ee% o' %en%iti+it(" o' detectin, all %olid and li=uid mate ial%. A% thei name im&lie%, the%e %en%o % a e ba%ed on detectin, a chan,e in ca&acitance induced b( a %u 'ace that i% b ou,ht nea the %en%in, element. The ba%ic com&onent% o' a ca&aciti+e %en%o a e %ho*n in /i,. I.18. The %en%in, element i% a ca&acito com&o%ed o' a %en%iti+e elect ode and a e'e ence elect ode. The%e can be, 'o e<am&le, a metallic di%) and in, %e&a ated b( a dielect ic mate ial. A ca+it( o' d ( ai i% u%uall( &laced behind the ca&aciti+e ele ment to & o+ide i%olation. The e%t o' the %en%o con%i%t% o' elect onic ci cuit ( *hich can be included a% an inte, al &a t o' the unit, in *hich ca%e it i% no mall( embedded in a e%in to & o+ide %ealin, and mechanical %u&&o t. 40

The e a e a numbe o' elect onic a&& oache% 'o detectin, & o<imit( ba%ed on a chan,e in ca&acitance. One o' the %im&le%t include% the ca&acito a% &a t o' an

O%cillato ci cuit de%i,ned %o that the o%cillation %ta t% onl( *hen the ca&acitance o' the %en%o e<ceed% a & ede'ined th e%hold +alue. The %ta t o' o%cillation i% then t an%lated into an out&ut +olta,e *hich indicate% the & e%ence o' an ob-ect. Thi% method & o+ide% a bina ( out&ut *ho%e t i,,e in, %en%iti+it( de&end% on the th e%hold +alue. A mo e com&licated a&& oach utili>e% the ca&aciti+e element a% &a t o' a ci cuit *hich i% continuou%l( d i+en b( a e'e ence %inu%oidal *a+e'o m. A chan,e in ca&acitance & oduce% a &ha%e %hi't bet*een the e'e ence %i,nal and a %i,nal de i+ed ' om the ca&aciti+e element. The &ha%e %hi't i% & o&o tional to the chan,e in ca&acitance and can thu% be u%ed a% a ba%ic mechani%m 'o & o<imit( detection. /i,u e I.13 illu%t ate% ho* ca&acitance +a ie% a% a 'unction o' di%tance 'o a & o<imit( %en%o ba%ed on the conce&t% -u%t di%cu%%ed. It i% o' inte e%t to note that %en%iti+it( dec ea%e% %ha &l( &a%t a 'e* millimete %, and that the %ha&e o' the e%&on%e cu +e de&end% on the mate ial bein, %en%ed. T(&icall(. The%e %en%o % a e o&e ated in a bina ( mode %o that a chan,e in the ca&acitance , eate than a & e%et th e%hold T indicate% the & e%ence o' an ob-ect, *hile chan,e% belo* the th e%hold indicate the ab%ence o' an ob-ect *ith e%&ect to detection limit% e%tabli%hed b( the +alue o' T..

U$tra oni& 'ro8imity Sen or

F 'rin&i%$e The & e+iou%l( di%cu%%ed & o<imit( %en%o % a e u%e'ul 'o detection o' 'e o!ma,netic matte onl(. I' the obot ha% to handle othe t(&e o' mate ial% ult a%onic %en%o % 'ind the a&&lication. Con tr-&tion The main &a t in thi% t(&e o' %en%o i% the t an%duce *hich can act both a% t an%mitte and ecei+e . The %en%o i% co+e ed b( a e%in bloc) *hich & otect% ' om du%t and humidit(. /o the acou%tic dam&in,, ab%o be mate ial i% & o+ide a% %ho*n in /i,. 4.I (a". /inall( a metallic hou%in, ,i+e% ,ene al & otection 41

O%eration The acou%tic *a+e% emitted b( the %en%o % each the ob-ect and ,et e'lected and the ecei+e %en%o % the *a+e% to ,ene ate the in'o mation about the & e%ence o' the ob-ect. Thi% t(&e o' o&e ation i% the echomode, t(&e. 6hen the %en%o act% onl( a% the t an%mitte the *a+e% ,et bloc)ed b( the & e%ence o' the ob-ect and the ecei+e ,et% no %i,nal. Thi% t(&e i% )no*n a% o&&o%ed mode. The .echomode t(&e o' o&e ation i% %ho*n

O&tical Sen%o % O&tical Sen%o % a e %imila to ult a%onic %en%o %. The & o<imit( o' the ob-ect i% detected b( the action o' the t a+ellin, li,ht *a+e a% it & o&o,ate% ' om the t an%mitte and e'lected b( the ob-ect to*a d% the ecei+e The /i,. 4.4 %ho*% the con%t uctional detail% o' the o&tical %en%o . The li,ht emitted b( a diode i% 'ocu%%ed b( the t an%mitte len%, on to the ob-ect %u 'ace. The e'lected li,ht *a+e% t a+el bac) and ecei+ed b( the %olid! %tate &hoto diode, th ou,h a ecei+e len%. 6hen the ob-ect i% *ithin the an,e o' the %en%o it i% &o%%ible to 48

detect the & e%en%e o' the ecei+e . The an,e i% de'ined b( the &o%ition and o ientation o' the ob-ect and the 'ocal len,th o' the %en%o len%e%

TOUC> SENSORS
The touch %en%o % ,athe the in'o mationM% e%tabli%hed b( the contact bet*een the &a t% to be handled and the 'in,e % in the mani&ulato end e''ecto %. The %i,nal% o' touch in'o mationM% a e u%e'ul in 3ocatin, the ob-ect%. Reco,ni>in, the ob-ect t(&e. /o ce and to =ue cont ol needed 'o ta%) mani&ulation. The T(&e% o' Touch Sen%o % a e Bina ( %en%o % detect the e<i%tence o' the ob-ect to be handled. e.,. mic o %*itche% and limit %*itche%. Analo, %en%o % & oduce & o&o tional out&ut %i,nal 'o the 'o ce e<e ted locall(. e.,. a code *heel *ith a &lun,e A u%e'ul a&&lication o' bina ( %en%o % i% to u%e it on a obot en,a,ed in contact in%&ection o' the &a t%. A obot *ith %i< de, ee o' ' eedom can & o+ide hi,he manua abilit( com&a ed to th ee a<i% co!o dinate mea%u in, machine . BINAR* SENSORS 43

The de+ice% that deli+e %en%in, %i,nal b( contact at t*o , i&&in, &oint% a e te med the bina ( %en%o %. The 'in,e % a% %ho*n in /i,. 4.1. accommodate the bina ( %en%o %. The contact *ith the &a t% e%ult% in de'lection and thi% in'o mation i% %u''icient to dete mine the & e%ence o' the ob-ect bet*een the 'in,e %. The & o&e , a%&in, and mani&ulation o' the ob-ect in the *o ) en+elo&e can be ea%il( achie+ed th ou,h cente in, o' the 'in,e % a%%i%ted b( the in'o mation ,i+en b( bina ( %en%o %.

. Thi% t(&e o' %en%o % i% 'eatu ed b( %& in, actuated &lun,e connected to a code *heel. The de'lection o' the &lun,e od b( the action o' contact 'o ce, e%ult% in otation o' the *heel *hich ,i+e% an out&ut & o&o tional to the %en%o % 'o ce. The %chematic a an,ement o' the analo, %en%o i% a% %ho*n in /i,. 4.8. ANALOA SENSORS Thi% t(&e o' %en%o % i% 'eatu ed b( %& in, actuated &lun,e connected to a code *heel. The de'lection o' the &lun,e od b( the action o' contact 'o ce, e%ult% in otation o' the *heel *hich ,i+e% an out&ut & o&o tional to the %en%o % 'o ce. The %chematic a an,ement o' the analo, %en%o i% a% %ho*n in /i,. I' ) i% the %& in, ate and S i% the de'lection o' the &lun,e eco ded, the 'o ce o' contact i% ,i+en b(

4?

!ri t en or
/o ce!%en%in, * i%t the &u &o%e o' a 'o ce!%en%in, * i%t i% to & o+ide in 'o mation about the th ee com&onent% o' 'o ce (/, /, and / and the th ee moment% (M%, M and M bein, a&&lied at the end!o'!the!a m. One &o%%ible con%t uction o' a 'o ce!%en%in, * i%t i% illu%t ated in /i,. I!1. The de+ice con%i%t% o' a metal b ac)et 'a%tened to a i,id ' ame. The ' ame i% mounted to the * i%t o' the obot and the tool i% mounted to the cente o' the b ac)et. The 'i,u e %ho*% ho* the %en%o % mi,ht eact to a moment a&&lied to the b ac)et due to 'o ce% and moment% on the tool Since the 'o ce% a e u%uall( a&&lied to the * i%t in combination% it i% 1ece%%a ( to 'i %t e%ol+e the 'o ce% and moment% into thei %i< com&onent% The com&utation can be ca ied out b( the obot cont olle (i' it ha% Ythe e=ui ed com&utational ca&abilit(" o b( a %&eciali>ed am&li'ie de%i,ned 'o thi% &u &o%e. Ba%ed on the%e calculation% the obot cont olle can obtained the e=ui ed e 'o ce% moment% bein, a&&lied at the * i%t. Thi% in'o me , a&&lication%. A% an e<am&le. An It in%e tin, a &e, into, a hole in an a%%embl( a&&lication e=ui e% that the eo' %ide 'o ce% bein, a&&lied to the &e,. Anothe e<am&le i% *he e the obotK% end e''ecto i% e=ui ed to 'ollo* alon, an ed,e o contou o' an i e,ula %u 'ace. Thi% i% called 'o ce accommodation. 6ith thi% techni=ue, ce tain 'o ce% a c %et e=ual to >e o *hile othe % a e %et e=ual to %&eci'ic +alue%. 0%in, 'o ce accommodation, one could

COM'LIANCE Com&liance i% a %&ecial end e''ecto that i% neithe a , i&&e no a & oce%% tool but athe a %en%o o de+ice that 'it% bet*een the obot * i%t and end e''ecto 'o %&ecial a%%embl( a&&lication%. In ,ene al, a com&liant

4A

obot %(%tem i% one that com&lie% *ith e<te nall( ,enente? 'o ce% to modi'( motion 'o the &u &o%e o' ali,nment bet*een matin, &a t%. I' a obot u%e% a 'o ce %en%o (&ie>oelect ic, ma,netic, o %t ain ,au,e%" and modi'ie% it% cont ol %t ate,( ba%ed on %en%o K% out&ut, the te m acti+e com&liance i% u%ed to de%c ibe the beha+io . On the othe hand, i' the obotK% , i&&e i% con%t ucted in %uch a *a( that the mechanical %t uctu e deb i% to com&l( *ith tho%e 'o ce%, the te m &a%%i+e com&liance i% u%ed. The e'o e, & oblem% *ith matin,!&a t ali,nment in a%%embl( and othe a&&lication% a e e%ol+ed u%in, acti+e and &a%%i+e com&liance techni=ue%

A&ti#e Com%$ian&e
The ,ene al ta%) o' in%e tin, a &in into a hole e& e%ent% th ee t(&e% o' contact du in, the & oce%%F (a" The cham'e contact occu % *hen the &in i% not &e 'ectl( ali,ned *ith the hole; (b" i' the &in i% not i,id it *ill otate %li,htl( and %ta t to %lide and ma)e a contact alon, one %ide o' the hole; end (c" i' the mi%ali,nment i% %e+e e, the &in *ill ma)e a t*o!&oint contact *ith the ba%e o' the &in and the 'a *all o' the hole. /i,u e A.8.1 %ho*% ho* a mi%ali,nment o' a &in into *hole e%ult% in an a<ial and late al 'o ce, and a t*i%tin, moment b( a contact 'o ce a&&lied to the * i%t %en%o 'o co ection. B( mo+in, in the co ect di ection *ith the com&liance (/i,u e A.8.8", the obot can educe the%e 'o ce% on the &in 6hitne( (1E83" ha% in+e%ti,ated the 'o ce% e%ultin, ' om &in in%e tion in , eat detail and ha% a i+ed at a ca e'ul anal(%i% o' the 'o ce% actin, on the &in bein, in%e ted into an unham&e ed hole. See /i,u e A.8.3 Acti+e com&liance %(%tem% a% indicated ea lie mea%u e the acti+e 'o ce and to =ue *hen the obot &e 'o m% the & o, ammed ta%) and o'ten a e called /'1K! %en%in, %(%tem%. /o ce!%en%in, %(%tem% allo* the obot to detect chan,e% and +a iation% in the *o ) &iece o toolin, du in, the o&e ation and ada&t the & o, am to co ect them. / %en%in, u%e% an ada&to &laced bet*een the , i&&e and the obot tool &late to mea%u e the 'o ce and to =ue cau%ed b( contact bet*een matin,

4I

44

S$i% Sen or
One o' the ca&abilitie% o' the human hand ce tainl( ta)en 'o , anted i% it% abilit( to dete mine *hen an ob-ect that i% bein, , a%&ed i% %li&&in,. The biolo,ical cont ol %(%tem a%%ociated *ith the hand utili>e% the in&ut% ' om the a&& o& iate %li& ece&to % and cau%e% the , i&&in, 'o ce to be inc ea%ed o dec ea%ed, a% the ca%e ma( be. Machine dete mination o' %li&&a,e o' a &a t o ob-ect *hen in the , a%& o' a obot o othe elect omechanical ChandD i% %till in the e<&e imental %ta,e. O' all the Ce<te nalD obotic %en%e%, %li& detection i% &e ha&% the lea%t de+elo&ed, and in 'act, much o' the e%ea ch in the 'ield ha% been o iented to*a d Pe ha&% a&&lication%. It i% the 'i m belie' o' the autho %, ho*e+e , that thi% %ituation *ill chan,e. Mo%t ce tainl(, in the ne<t 'e* (ea %, a% mo e com&le< and %o&hi%ticated a%%embl( a&&lication% become common&lace, it *ill be nece%%a ( to detect %li& a&idl( and to ad-u%t the , i&&in, 'o ce Con the 'l(D to & e+ent the &a t ' om bein, dama,ed in a 'all. Pe ha&% the %im&le%t *a( to dete mine i' a &a t i% %li&&in, (o ha% not been & o&e l( , a%&ed" i% to u%e *hat i% o'ten te med the li't!and!t ( techni=ue (%ee /i,u e A.E.18". Thi% entail% u%in, the moto cu ent o' a &a ticula -oint o %et o' -oint% on a obot a% a mea%u e o' *hethe o not a &a t i% %li&&in,. In thi% e%&ect, cu ent monito in, can be &e 'o med eithe di,itall( o in an analo, manne . Re,a dle%% o' *hich techni=ue i% em&lo(ed, the , i&&e i% 'i %t o iented co ectl(, ne<t &laced o+e the &a ticula &a t, and then a ce tain minimum , a%&in, 'o ce A&&lied.

48

A% the mani&ulato attem&t% to li't the ob-ect in =ue%tion ' om the %u 'ace (e.,., a &allet, table, o con+e(o " the moto cu ent in one o mo e -oint% %hould inc ea%e due to the added load to =ue. I' no inc ea%e i% detected, the mani&ulato i% commanded to etu n to the %ta tin, &oint. The 'o ce i% then inc emented b( %ome & edete mined amount and the obot Ct ie% a,ain.D The & ocedu e i% e&eated until the monito ed -oint cu ent doe% inc ea%e, at *hich time it i% a%%umed that the &a t i% not %li&&in, and i% & o&e l( , a%&ed The e a e ob+iou% di''icultie% *ith thi% techni=ue. The 'i %t i% that e+en i' the &a t i% %ucce%%'ull( ai%ed abo+e the e%tin, %u 'ace, the e i% no ,ua antee that it *ill not %li& out o' the , i&&e a% the mani&ulato mo+e%. I', in 'act thi% occu % the & ocedu e outlined abo+e *ill not detect the %li&&a,e *hile the obot i% in motion. A %econd & oblem i% that i' a ' a,ile &a t i% to be li'ted, the minimum a&&lied , i&&in, 'o ce %hould be %mall, to a+oid c u%hin,. On the othe hand, a hea+(, mo e obu%t &a t could ea%il( handle a la ,e initial 'o ce. I' the mi< and o de o' &a t% to be li'ted *e e not )no*n a & io i, it i% &o%%ible that eithe dama,e could be done to %ome o that it *ould ta)e 'a too lon, to ac=ui e othe %. The la%t di''icult( *ith the techni=ue i% that monito in, moto cu ent i% not al*a(% e o ' ee. Ca e *ould ha+e to be ta)en to & e+ent %&i)e% due to b u%h noi%e ' om bein, mi%ta)en a% a cu ent abo+e the Cli'tin, th e%hold.D Ob+iou%l(, the u%e o' b u%hle%% moto % *ould educe thi% & oblem but *ould inc ea%e the co%t, due to the need 'o elect onic commutation. In addition to the li't!and!t ( & ocedu e, a numbe o' e<&e imental de+ice% ba%ed on o&tical, ma,netic, o conducti+e %en%in, techni=ue% ha+e been de+elo&ed. 6e no* de%c ibe b ie'l( %e+e al o' the%e %li& detecto %, *hich *e e & o&o%ed b( , ou&% *o )in, in #a&an and 7u,o%la+ia

4E

INTRODUCTION TO MAC>INE @ISION

Machine +i%ion i% conce ned *ith the %en%in, o' +i%ion data and it% inte & etation b( a com&ute . The t(&ical +i%ion %(%tem con%i%t% o' the came a and di,iti>in, ha d*a e, a di,ita\ com&ute , and ha d*a e and %o't*a e nece%%a ( to inte 'ace them. Thi% inte 'ace ha d*a e and %o't*a e i% o'ten e'e ed to a% a & e& oce%%o . The o&e ation o' the +i%ion %(%tem con%i%t% o' th ee 'unction%F 1. Sen%in, and di,iti>in, ima,e data 8. Ima,e & oce%%in, and anal(%i% 3. A&&lication The elation%hi&% bet*een the th ee 'unction% a e illu%t ated in the dia, am o' /i,. 4!1 The %en%in, and di,iti>in, 'unction% in+ol+e the in&ut o' +i%ion data b( mean% o' a came a 'ocu%ed on the %cene o' inte e%t. S&ecial li,htin, techni=ue% a e ' e=uentl( u%ed to obtain an ima,e o' %u''icient cont a%t 'o late & oce%% in,. The ima,e +ie*ed b( the came a i% t(&icall( di,iti>ed and %to ed in com&ute memo (. The di,ital ima,e i% called a ' ame o' +i%ion data, and i% ' e=uentl( ca&tu ed b( a ha d*a e de+ice called a ' ame , abbe . The%e de+ice% a e ca&able o' di,iti>in, ima,e% at the ate o' 30 ' ame% &e %econd. The ' ame% con%i%t o' a mat i< o' data e& e%entin, & o-ection% o' the %cene %en%ed b( the came a. The element% o' the mat i< a e called &ictu e element%, o &i<el%. The numbe o' &i<el% a e dete mined b( a %am&lin, & oce%% &e 'o med on each ima,e ' ame. A %in,le &i<el i% the & o-ection o' a %mall &o tion o' the %cene *hich educe% that &o tion to a %in,le +alue. The +alue i% a mea%u e o' the li,ht inten%it( 'o that element o' the %cene. Each &i<el inten%it( i% con+e ted into a di,ital +alue. (6e a e i,no in, the additional com&le<itie% in+ol+ed in the o&e ation o' a colo +ideo came a." 6e *ill e<amine the detail% o' machine +i%ion %en%in, in Sec. 4!8. The di,iti>ed ima,e mat i< 'o each ' ame i% %to ed and then %ub-ected to ima,e & oce%%in, and anal(%i% 'unction% 'o data eduction and inte & etation o' the ima,e. The%e %te&% a e e=ui ed in o de to &e mit the eal!time a&&lication o' +i%ion anal(%i% e=ui ed in obotic a&&lication%. T(&icall( an ima,e ' ame *ill be th e%holded to & oduce a bina ( ima,e, and then +a iou% 'eatu e mea%u ement% *ill 'u the educe the data e& e%entation o' the ima,e. Thi% data eduction can chan,e the e& e%entation o' a ' ame ' om %e+e al

80

CAMERAS
] Came a% u%e a+ailable li,ht ' om a %cene. ] The li,ht &a%%e% th ou,h a len% that 'ocu%e% the beam% on a &lane in%ide the came a. The 'ocal di%tance o' the len% can be mo+ed to*a dLa*a( ' om the &lane in the came a a% the %cene i% mo+ed to*a d%La*a(. ] An i i% ma( al%o be u%ed to mechanicall( educe the amount o' li,ht *hen the inten%it( i% too hi,h. ] The &lane in%ide the came a that the li,ht i% 'ocu%ed on can ead the li,ht a numbe o' *a(%, but ba%icall( the came a %can% the &lane in a a%te &atte n. ] An elect on ,un +ideo came a i% %ho*n belo*. ! The tube *o )% li)e a %tanda d CRT, the elect on beam i% ,ene ated b( heatin, a cathode to e-ect elect on%, and a&&l(in, a &otential bet*een the anode and cathode to accele ate the elect on% o'' o' the cathode. The 'ocu%%in,Lde'lectin, coil% can 'ocu% the beam u%in, a %imila &otential chan,e, o de'lect the beam u%in, a di''e ential &otential. The %i,ni'icant e''ect occu % at the ' ont o' the tube. The beam i% %canned o+e the ' ont. 6he e the beam i% incident it *ill cau%e elect on% to -um& bet*een the &late% & o&o tional to the li,ht inten%it( at that &oint. The %cannin, occu % in a a%te &atte n, 81

%cannin, man( line% le't to i,ht, to& to bottom. The &atte n i% e&eated %ome numbe o' time% a %econd ! the t(&ical e' e%h ate i% on the o de o' 309>

] Cha ,e Cou&led 2e+ice (CC2" ! Thi% i% a ne*e %olid %tate +ideo ca&tu e techni=ue. An a a( o' cell% a e laid out on a %emiconducto chi&. A , id li)e a a( o' conducto % and in%ulato % i% u%ed to mo+e a collection o' cha ,e th ou,h the de+ice. A% the cha ,e mo+e%, it %*ee&% ac o%% the &ictu e. A% &hoton% %t i)e the %emiconducto the( )noc) an elect on out o' o bit, c eatin, a ne,ati+e and &o%iti+e cha ,e. The &o%iti+e cha ,e% a e then accumulated to dete mine li,ht inten%it(. The mechani%m 'o a %in,le %can line i% %een belo*.

88

Colo +ideo came a% %im&l( u%e colo ed 'ilte % to %c een li,ht be'o e it %t i)e% a &i<el. /o an R:B %can, each colo i% %canned 3 time%.

FRAME ARABBER
] A %im&le ' ame , abbe i% &ictu ed belo*,

83

In the %(%tem. The ' ame , abbe , e& e%entin, the thi d %te&, i% an ima,e %to a,e and com&utation de+ice *hich %to e% a ,i+en &i<el a a(. The ' ame , abbe can +a ( in ca&abilit( ' om one *hich %im&l( %to e% an ima,e to %i,ni'icant com&utation ca&abilit(. In the mo e &o*e 'ul ' ame , abbe %, th e%hold, *indo*in,, and hi%to, am modi'ication calculation% can be ca ied out unde com&ute cont ol. The %to ed ima,e i% then %ub%e=uentl( & oce%%ed and anal(>ed b( the combination o' the ' ame , abbe and the +i%ion cont olle

SENSINA AND DIAITI7INA FUNCTION IN MAC>INE @ISION

Ou de%c i&tion o' the t(&ical machine +i%ion %(%tem in the & ecedin, %ection identi'ied th ee 'unction%F %en%in, and di,iti>in,, ima,e & oce%%in, and anal(%i%, and a&&lication. Thi% and the 'ollo*in, %ection% in the cha&te *ill elabo ate on the%e 'unction%. The & e%ent %ection i% conce ned *ith the %en%in, and di,iti>in, a%&ect% o' machine +i%ion. Ima,e %en%in, e=ui e% %ome t(&e o'. Ima,e 'o mation de+ice %uch a% a came a and a di,iti>e *hich %to e% a +ideo ' ame in the com&ute memo (. 6e di+ide the %en%in, and di,iti>in, 'unction% into %e+e al %te&%. The initial %te& in+ol+e% ca&tu in, the ima,e o' the %cene *ith the +i%ion came a. The ima,e con%i%t% o' elati+e li,ht inten%itie% co e%&ondin, to the +a iou% &o tion% o' the %cene. The%e li,ht inten%itie% a e continuou% analo, +alue% *hich mu%t be %am&led and con+e ted into di,ital 'o m. The %econd %te&, di,iti>in,, i% achie+ed b( an analo,!to!di,ital (AI2" con+e te . The AI2 con+e te i% eithe a &a t o' a di,ital +ideo came a o the ' ont end o' a ' ame , abbe . The choice i% de&endent on the t(&e o' ha d*a e

IMAAE STORAAE
8?

/ollo*in, AI2 con+e %ion, the ima,e i% %to ed in Com&ute memo (, t(&icall( called a ' ame bu''e . Thi% bu''e ma( be &a t o' the ' ame , abbe o in the com&ute it%el'. $a iou% techni=ue% ha+e been de+elo&ed to ac=ui e and acce%% di,ital ima,e%. Ideall(, one *ould *ant to ac=ui e a %in,le ' ame o' data in eal time. The ' ame , abbe i% one e<am&le o' a +ideo data ac=ui%ition de+ice that *ill %to e a di,iti>ed &ictu e and ac=ui e it in !,%. 2i,ital ' ame% a e t(&icall( =uanti>ed to 8 bit% &e &i<el. 9o*e+e a ITbit bu''e i% ade=uate %ince the a+e a,e came a %(%tem cannot & oduce 8 bit% o' noi%e!' ee data. Thu% the lo*e !o de bit% a e d o&&ed a% a mean% o' noi%e cleanin,. In addition the human e(e can onl( e%ol+e about 8I Z I? , a( le+el%. A combination o' o* and column counte % a e u%ed in the ' ame , abbe *hich a e %(nch oni>ed *ith the %cannin, o' the elect on beam in the came a. Thu%, each &o%ition on the %c een can be uni=uel( add e%%ed. To ead the in 'o mation %to ed in the ' ame bu''e , the data i% C, abbedD +ia a %i,nal %ent ' om the com&ute to the add e%% co e%&ondin, to a o*T column combination. Such ' ame , abbe techni=ue% ha+e become e<t emel( &o&ula and a e u%ed ' e=uentl( in +i%ion %(%tem% LIA>TINA TEC>NI<UE AND DE@ICES T(e f-ndamenta$ ty%e of $i4(tin4 de#i&e - ed in robot #i ion are &$a ed into t(e fo$$o+in4 4ro-% a" 2i''u%e %u 'ace 2e+ice% a e e<em&li'ied b( the 'luo e%cent lam&% and li,hted table%. (b" Conden%e & o-ecto % F t an%'o m% an di+e ,in, li,ht %ou ce into a 'ocu%in, li,ht %ou ce. (c" /lood o %&ot & o-ecto F u%ed to illuminate ob-ect %u 'ace a ea% ' om all an,le%. (d" Collimato F i% a de+ice *hich & oduce% &a allel beam o' li,ht on the ob-ect *ho%e ima,e i% to be ca&tu ed. (e" Ima,e % e<am&le %lide & o-ecto % and o&tical enla ,e % & oduce at the ob-ect &lane eal 'o m o' an ima,e. The illumination techni=ue% a e man(. Some %uch %&ecial ca%e% a e li%ted in table 4.1. alon, *ith the a&&lication. The ob-ecti+e o' illumination i% to & o+ide a %uitable en+i onment 'o the came a to & o+ide the eali%tic ima,e% o' the ob-ect in the *o )!%&ace. The e a e ba%icall( t*o ma-o t(&e o' illumination techni=ue%F / ont li,htin, and ea li,htin,. In the ' ont li,htin,, %ou ce o' li,ht i% on the %ame %ide o' the came a and in ea li,htin, techni=ue, the %ou ce o' li,ht i% on the o&&o%ite %ide o' the came a

8A

I$$-mination Te&(ni=-e

IMAAE 'ROCESSINA AND ANAL*SIS

8I

In the indu%t ial a&&lication% the al,o ithm% and & o, am% a e de+elo&ed to & oce%% the ima,e% ca&tu ed, di,iti>ed and %to ed in the com&ute memo (. The %i>e o' data to be & oce%%ed i% hu,e, o' the o de o' 10I *hich i% to be %ub%tantiall( e<ecuted in %econd%. The di''icult and time con%umin, ta%) o' & oce%%in, i% handled e''ecti+el( b( the 'ollo*in, techni=ue% (1" Ima,e data eduction (8" Se,mentation (3" /eatu e e<t action (?" Ob-ect eco,nition. Ima,e 2ata Reduction The &u &o%e o' ima,e data eduction i% to educe the +olume o' data eithe b( ellimination o' %ome o &a t & oce%%in,, leadin, to the 'ollo*in, %ub!techni=ue%.

(a" 2i,ital con+e %ion 2i,ital con+e %ion i% cha acte i>ed b( eduction in numbe o' , a( le+el%. /o a 8!bit e,i%te each &i<el *ould ha+e 88Z8AI , a( le+el%. 6hen 'e*e bit% a e u%ed to e& e%ent &i<el inten%it( the di,ital con+e %ion i% educed, to %uit the e=ui ement%.

SEAMENTATION
] An ima,e can be b o)en into e,ion% that can then be u%ed 'o late calculation%. In e''ect thi% method loo)% 'o di''e ent %el' contained e,ion%, and u%e% e,ion numbe % in%tead o' &i<el inten%itie%.

84

] A %im&le %e,mentation al,o ithm mi,ht be, 1. Th e%hold ima,e to ha+e +alue% o' 1 and 0. 8. C eate a %e,mented ima,e and 'ill it *ith >e o% (%et %e,ment numbe +a iable to one". 3. Scannin, the old ima,e le't to i,ht, to& to bottom. ?. I' a &i<el +alue o' 1 i% 'ound, and the &i<el i% 0 in the %e,mented ima,e, do a 'lood 'ill 'o the &i<el onto the ne* ima,e u%in, %e,ment numbe +a iable. A. Inc ement %e,ment ^ and ,o bac) to %te& 3. I. Scan the %e,mented ima,e le't to i,ht, to& to bottom. 4. I' a &i<el i% 'ound to be 'ull( contained in an( %e,ment, 'lood 'ill it *ith a ne* %e,ment a% in %te&% ? and A.

EDAE DETECTION
] An ima,e (al ead( 'ilte ed" can be chec)ed to 'ind a %ha & ed,e bet*een the 'o e, ound and bac), ound inten%itie%. ] 3etM% a%%ume that the ima,e belo* ha% been & e'ilte ed into 'o e, ound (1" and bac), ound (0". An ed,e detection %te& i% then &e 'o med.

88

OB,ECT RECOANITION Form Fittin4

] It can %ometime% hel& to elate a %ha&e to %ome othe ,eomet ic & imiti+e u%in, com&actne%%, &e imete , a ea, etc. ! elli&%e ! %=ua e ! ci cle ! ectan,le 8E

De&i ion Tree

] In the e+ent that a +e ( limited numbe o' &a t% i% con%ide ed, a deci%ion t ee can be u%ed. The t ee %hould %ta t *ith the mo%t %i,ni'icant 'eatu e% 'i %t, then e+entuall( ma)e deci%ion% on the lea%t %i,ni'icant. T(&ical 'acto % con%ide ed a e, ! a ea ! hole a ea ! &e imete ! ma<imum, minimum and a+e a,e adiu% ! com&actne%% ] An e<am&le o' a deci%ion t ee i% ,i+en belo*. (1oteF thi% can be ea%il( im&lemented *ith i'!then ule% o Boolean e=uation%"

Ba Code% ] Ba code% a e a common *a( to encode numbe %, and %ometime% lette %. ] The code i% %e=uential le't to i,ht, and i% cha acte i>ed b( ba % and %&ace% o' +a ied *idth%. The ba *idth% co e%&ond% to a nume ical di,it%. The%e a e then encoded into ASCII cha acte %. ] To emain noi%e e%i%tant the e a e unu%ed code% in the nume ical %e=uence. I' an( +alue %canned i% one o' the unu%ed +alue% the %can i% dete mined to be in+alid. ] The e a e di''e ent encodin, %cheme%. Code 3ELCodaba ! the%e u%e ba % o' t*o di''e ent *idth% 'o bina ( encodin, Code 188 ! the%e u%e di''e ent ba *idth% u%e% & o&o tional *idth% to encode a an,e o' +alue% 0PC (0ni+e %al P oduct Code" ! EA1 (Eu o&ean A ticle 1umbe in," ! ] The e<am&le belo* %ho*% ho* a numbe i% encoded *ith a ba code. %i< di%tinct cate,o ie%F

MAC>INE @ISION A''LICATIONS

E0

The ea%on 'o inte & etin, the +i%ion %(%tem i% to achie+e %ome & actical ob-ecti+e in obot a&&lication. Machine +i%ion %(%tem% a e bein, u%ed inc ea%in,l( in manu'actu in, and obot automation to &e 'o m +a iou% ta%)% and can be di+ided into 1. In%&ection 8. Pa t identi'ication 3. Pa t o ientation ?. Pa t location A. $i%ual ,uidance and cont ol I. Sa'et( monito in,

In %e&tion i% the bi,,e%t cate,o ( 'o =ualit( cont ol o' &a t%. Acco din, to M. P. : oo+e (1EEI" it i%
e%timated that in%&ection con%titute% a% much i% E0 &e cent o' machine +i%ion. Machine +i%ion in%tallation% in indu%t ( &e 'o m a +a iet( o' automated in %&ection ta%)%, mo%t o' *hich a e eithe on!lineLin!& oce%% o on!lineL&o%t& oce%%. The a&&lication% a e almo%t al*a(% in ma%% & oduction, *he e the time e=ui ed to & o, am and %et u& the +i%ion %(%tem c be %& ead o+e man( thou%and% o' unit%. One hund ed &e cent in%&ection i% done almo%t e<clu%i+el(. T(&ical indu%t ial in%&ection ta%)% include the 'ollo*in,F 2imen%ional mea%u ement o ,au,in, i% u%ed 'o accu ac( and ,eomet ical inte, it(. The &a t% a e mea%u ed o ,au,ed b( the came a, and the dimen%ion% a e calculated and com&a ed *ith a com&ute !%to ed model to dete mine the %i>e +alue%. $e i'ication o' & oduct i% u%ed in 'le<ible automated a%%embl( %(%tem% to +e i'( the & e%ence o' com&onent% in an a%%embled & oduct. $e i'ication o' hole% i% chec)ed b( the +i%ion %(%tem 'o mi%%in, hole%, location, and numbe o' hole% in a &a t. Identi'ication o' 'la*%, de'ect%, o & inted label i% chec)ed on the %ti ! 'ace o' a &a t, *hich o'ten e+eal% a chan,e in e'lectin, li,ht. The +i%ion %(%tem can identi'( the de+iation ' om an ideal model o' the %u 'ace. In addition to o&tical method%, +a iou% no o&tical techni=ue% a e u%ed in in%&ection. The%e include %en%o techni=ue% ba%ed on elect ical 'ield%, adiation, and ult a%onic.

'art identifi&ation i% u%ed comme ciall( in man( a&&lication% *he e the +i%ion %(%tem %to e% data 'o
di''e ent &ai % in acti+e memo ( and u%e% it to eco,ni>e o di%tin,ui%h bet*een &a t% %o that %ome action can be ta)en a% the( ente the *o ) cell. The a&&lication% include countin,, &an %o tin,, and cha acte eco,nition.

'art orientation i% u%ed in &a t% to be , i&&ed in a %&eci'ied manne b( the end e''ecto . The +i%ion %(%tem
%u&&lie% the in'o mation and data to d i+e the , i&&e into, the co ect o ientation 'o &ic)!o !&lace action.

'art $o&ation i% u%ed to locate andoml( &laced &a t% on <, ( a<e%. The +i%ion %(%tem mea%u e% the < and (
di%tance% and identi'ie% the cente o' the came a to coincide *ith the cente o' the andoml( &laced &a t. E1

@i -a$ 4-idan&e and &ontro$ in+ol+e% a&&lication% in *hich a +i%ion %(%tem i% teamed *ith a obot o
othe de+ice% in the obot cell to cont ol the mo+ement o' a machine. E<am&le% o' the%e a&&lication% include Sean t ac)in, in continuou% a c *eldin,, &a t &o%itionin, andLo eo ientation, and bin &ic)in,.

Safety monitorin4 in+ol+e% a&&lication% o' machine +i%ion in *hich the +i%ion %(%tem i% u%ed to monito
the o&e ation o' a & oduction cell. It% &u &o%e i% to detect i e,ula itie% that indicate a condition that i% ha>a dou% to e=ui&ment o &eo&le *o )in, in the cell. It can al%o be u%ed to detect human int ude % *hich mi,ht beat i%) b( *ande in, into the obot cell.

UNIT-I@ Robot "inemati& and Robot %ro4rammin4

For+ard Ginemati& ) In#er e Ginemati& and Differen&e B For+ard Ginemati& and Re#er e Ginemati& of Mani%-$ator +it( T+o) T(ree De4ree of Freedom 2In 1 Dimen iona$3) Fo-r De4ree of Freedom 2In C Dimen iona$3 De#iation and 'rob$em Tea&( 'endant 'ro4rammin4) Lead t(ro-4( %ro4rammin4) Robot %ro4rammin4 Lan4-a4e @AL 'ro4rammin4 Motion Command ) Sen or Command ) End effe&ter &ommand ) And Sim%$e %ro4ram . For+ard "inemati&
The t an%'o mation o' coo dinate% o' the end!e''ecto &oint ' om the -oint %&ace to the *o ld %&ace i% )no*n a% for%ard kinematic t an%'o mation

Re#er e "inemati&
E8

The t an%'o mation o' coo dinate% ' om *o ld %&ace to -oint %&ace i% )no*n a% backward or reverse kinematic t an%'o mation

Robot Ginemati&
INTRODUCTION Robot a m )inematic% deal% *ith the anal(tic %tud( o' the motion o' a obot a m *ith e%&ect to a 'i<ed e'e ence coo dinate %(%tem a% a 'unction o' time. The mechanical mani&ulato can be modelled a% an o&en loo& a ticulated chain *ith %e+e al i,id lin)% connected in %e ie% b( eithe Y e+oluteK o Y& i%maticK -oint% d i+en b( the actuato %. /o a mani&ulato , (the &o%ition and o ientation o' the end!e''ecto a e de i+ed ' om the ,i+en -oint an,le% and lin) &a amete %, the %cheme i% called the 'o *a d )inematic% & oblem I', on the othe hand, the -oint an,le% and the di''e ent con'i,u ation o' the mani&ulato a e de i+ed ' om the &o%ition and o ientation o' the end! e''ecto , the %cheme i% called the e+e %e )inematic% & oblem. / 8.1 illu%t ate% the %cheme o' 'o *a d and e+e %e )inematic%.

IN'UTS51 ANDIC 51

/i,F ?.1/o *a d and in+e %e )inematic% %cheme Re& e%entin, the Po%ition Con%ide in, the e+olute t(&e o' -oint onl(, the &o%ition o' the end!e''ecto can be e& e%ented b( the -oint an,le%, 0 08,...,. 0,, a%,

E3

The &o%ition o' the end!e''ecto can al%o be de'ined in *o ld %&ace a%,

For+ard and Re#er e Ginemati& of Mani%-$ator +it( 1 De4ree of freedom

E?

EA

EI

E4

Addin4 Orientation5 A C-De4ree of Freedom Arm in 21D3 T+o Dimen ion T(e arm +e (a#e been mode$in4 i #ery im%$eB a t+o-6ointed robot arm (a $itt$e %ra&ti&a$ #a$-e e8&e%t for #ery im%$e ta " . Let - add to t(e mani%-$ator a mode t &a%abi$ity for orientin4 a +e$$ a %o itionin4 a %art or too$. A&&ordin4$y) +e +i$$ in&or%orate a t(ird de4ree of freedom into t(e %re#io&onfi4-ration to de#e$o% t(e RR5R mani%-$ator (o+n in Fi4. D-E. T(i t(ird de4ree of

freedom+i$$re%re ent a +ri t

E8

6oint. T(e +or$d %a&e &oordinate

for t(e +ri t end +o-$d be.

EE

A D-De4ree of Freedom Mani%-$ator in 2CD3 T(ree Dimen ion Fi4-re D-F i$$- trate t(e &onfi4-ration of a mani%-$ator in t(ree dimen ion . T(e mani%-$ator (a D de4ree -of freedom5 6oint I 2ty%e T 6oint3 a$$o+ rotation abo-t t(e ? a8i B 6oint 1 2ty%e R3 a$$o+ rotation abo-t an a8i t(at i %er%endi&-$ar to t(e ? a8i B 6oint C i a $inear 6oint +(i&( i &a%ab$e of $idin4 o#er a &ertain ran4eB and 6oint D i a ty%e R 6oint +(i&( a$$o+ rotation abo-t an a8i t(at i %ara$$e$ to t(e 6oint 1 a8i . T(- ) +e (a#e a TRL5 R mani%-$ator.

Let - define t(e an4$e of rotation of 6oint I to be t(e ba e rotation JB t(e an4$e of rotation of 6oint 1 +i$$ be
100

&a$$ed t(e e$e#ation an4$e D.B t(e $en4t( of $inear 6oint C +i$$ be &a$$ed t(e e8ten ion L 2L re%re ent a &ombination of $in" 1 and C3B and t(e an4$e t(at 6oint D ma"e +it( t(e 8 K y %$ane +i$$ be &a$$ed t(e %it&( an4$e D.. T(e e feat-re are (o+n in Fi4. D-F. T(e %o ition of t(e end of t(e +ri t) ') defined in t(e +or$d &oordinate y tem for t(e robot) i 4i#en by

101

108

One fa&et of o-r a%%roa&( in t(e %re&edin4 ana$y i +(i&( (o-$d be noted by t(e reader i t(at +e e%arated t(e orientation %rob$em from t(e %o itionin4 %rob$em. T(i a%%roa&( of e%aratin4 t(e t+o %rob$em 4reat$y im%$ifie t(e ta " of arri#in4 at a o$-tion.

103

Robot 'ro4rammin4
INTRODUCTION Robot% a e becomin, mo e &o*e 'ul, *ith mo e %en%o %, mo e intelli,ence, and chea&e com&onent%. A% a e%ult obot% a e mo+in, out o' cont olled indu%t ial en+i onment% and into uncont olled %e +ice en+i onment% %uch a% home%, ho%&ital%, and *o )&lace% *he e the( &e 'o m ta%)% an,in, ' om deli+e ( %e +ice% to ente tainment. It i% thi% inc ea%e in the e<&o%u e o' obot% to un%)illed &eo&le that e=ui e% obot% to become ea%ie to & o, am and mana,e. The 'le<ibilit( o' a obot %(%tem come% ' om it% abilit( to be & o, ammed. 9o* the obot i% & o, ammed i% a main conce n o' all obot u%e %. A ,ood mechanical a m can be unde utili>ed i' it i% too di''icult to & o, am. A robot program can be defined as a &ath in %&ace to be 'ollo*ed b( the mani&ulato , combined *ith &e i&he al action% that %u&&o t the *o ) c(cle. E<am&le% o' the &e i&he al action% include o&enin, and clo%in, the , i&&e , &e 'o min, lo,ical deci%ion ma)in,, and communicatin, *ith othe &iece% o' e=ui&ment in the obot cell. The method% o' ente in, the command% a eF On!line & o, ammin, 3ead!th ou,h & o, ammin, 6al)!th ou,h & o, ammin, O''!line & o, ammin, Ta%) & o, ammin,.

ON-LINE 'ROARAMMINA
On!line & o, ammin, %(%tem% (/i,u e 1I.1" u%e% a teach &endant to di ect the obotK% mo+ement *hich allo*% t ained &e %onnel &h(%icall( to lead the obot th ou,h the de%i ed %e=uence o' e+ent% b( acti+atin, the a&& o& iate &endant button o %*itch. Po%ition data and 'unctional in'o mation a e Ctau,htD to the obot, and a ne* & o, am i% * itten. Tau,ht data i% %to ed in the &endantK% memo ( then t an%'e ed to the obotK% cont olle . The teach &endant can be the %ole %ou ce b( *hich a & o, am i% e%tabli%hed, o it ma( be u%ed in con-unction *ith an additional & o, ammin, con%ole andLo the obotK% cont olle . 6hen u%in, thi% techni=ue o' teachin, o & o, ammin,, the &e %on &e 'o min, the teach 'unction can be *ithin the obotK% *o )in, en+elo&e, *ith o&e ational %a'e,ua din, de+ice% deacti+ated o ino&e ati+e. The e a e a numbe o' teach &endant t(&e% a+ailable, de&endin, on the t(&e o' a&&lication 'o *hich the( *ill be u%ed. I' the ,oal i% %im&l(

10?

to monito and cont ol a obotic% unit, then a %im&le cont ol bo< %t(le i% %uitable. I' additional ca&abilitie%, %uch a% on the 'l( & o, ammin, a e e=ui ed, mo e %o&hi%ticated bo<e% %hould be u%ed.

T(i i a &on#enient and ea y met(od of %ro4rammin4 +(en ta " are im%$e and re#i ion or ad6- tment &an be made on t(e %ot. >o+e#er) t(e %rod-&tion $ine m- t be to%%ed d-rin4 t(e %ro4rammin4 and t(ere are afety i -e to &on ider) a t(e %ro4rammer m- t +or" +it(in t(e robotL +or" en#e$o%e. Ad#anta4e M Ea i$y a&&e ib$e. Di ad#anta4e M S$o+ mo#ement of t(e robot +(i$e %ro4rammin4 M 'ro4ram $o4i& and &a$&-$ation are (ard to %ro4ram M S- %en ion of %rod-&tion +(i$e %ro4rammin4 10A .

M Co t e=-i#a$ent to %rod-&tion #a$-e M 'oor$y do&-mented.

T(e Tea&( 'endant 2or Man-a$ Contro$ 'endant3

T(e tea&( %endant (a t(e fo$$o+in4 %rimary f-n&tion 5 M Ser#e a t(e %rimary %oint of &ontro$ for initiatin4 and monitorin4 o%eration . M A-ide t(e robot or motion de#i&e) +(i$e tea&(in4 $o&ation . M S-%%ort a%%$i&ation %ro4ram . T(e Tea&( 'endant 2Fi4-re 1F.13 i - ed +it( a robot or motion de#i&e %rimari$y to tea&( Robot $o&ation for - e5 in a%%$i&ation %ro4ram . T(e Tea&( 'endant i a$ o - ed +it( &- tom A%%$i&ation t(at em%$oy /tea&( ro-tineN t(at %a- e e8e&-tion at %e&ified %oint and a$$o+ an O%erator to tea&( O re-tea&( t(e robot $o&ation - ed by t(e %ro4ram. T(ere are t+o ty$e of Tea&( 'endant 5 t(e %ro4rammerL %endant) +(i&( i de i4ned for - e +(i$e an a%%$i&ation i bein4 +ritten and deb-44ed) and t(e o%eratorL %endant) +(i&( i de i4ned for - e d-rin4 norma$ y tem o%eration. T(e o%eratorL %endant (a a %a$m-a&ti#ated +it&() +(i&( i &onne&ted to t(e remote emer4en&y to% &ir&-itry of t(e &ontro$$er. !(ene#er t(i +it&( i re$ea ed) arm %o+er i remo#ed from t(e motion de#i&e. To o%erate t(e Tea&( 'endant $eft (and i %-t t(ro-4( t(e o%enin4 on t(e $eft-(and ide of t(e %endant and t(e $eft t(-mb i - ed to o%erate t(e %endant %eed bar . T(e ri4(t (and i - ed for a$$ t(e ot(er f-n&tion b-tton . T(e ma6or area of t(e Tea&( 'endant are5 1. Li=-id Cry ta$ Di %$ay 2LCD3 1. Data Entry B-tton . T(e data entry b-tton are - ed to in%-t data) norma$$y in re %on e to %rom%t t(at a%%ear on t(e %endant di %$ay T(e data entry b-tton in&$-de *ES9NO) DEL) t(e n-meri& b-tton ) 10I

t(e de&ima$ %oint and t(e REC9DONE b-tton) +(i&( be(a#e $i"e t(e Ret-rn or Enter "ey on a norma$ "eyboard. In many &a e ) a%%$i&ation %ro4ram (a#e - er %re t(e REC9DONE b-tton to i4na$ t(at t(ey (a#e &om%$eted a ta ". C. Emer4en&y Sto% S+it&(. T(e emer4en&y to% +it&( on t(e Tea&( 'endant immediate$y (a$t %ro4ram e8e&-tion and t-rn off arm %o+er. D. U er LED. T(e %endant i in ba&"4ro-nd mode +(en t(e - er LED i in not $it and none of t(e %redefined f-n&tion are bein4 - ed. T(e - er LED i $it +(ene#er an a%%$i&ation %ro4ram i ma"in4 - e of t(e Tea&( 'endant. E. Mode Contro$ B-tton . T(e mode &ontro$ b-tton &(an4e t(e tate bein4 - ed to mo#e t(e robot) +it&( &ontro$ bet+een t(e Tea&( 'endant and t(e a%%$i&ation %ro4ram and enab$e arm %o+er +(en ne&e ary. F. Man-a$ Contro$ B-tton . !(en t(e Tea&( 'endant i in man-a$ mode) t(e e b-tton robot 6oint +i$$ mo#e) or t(e &oordinate a8i a$on4 +(i&( t(e robot +i$$ mo#e. e$e&t +(i&(

P. Man-a$ State LED . T(e man-a$ tate LED indi&ate t(e ty%e of man-a$ motion t(at (a been e$e&ted. Q. S%eed Bar . T(e %eed bar are - ed to &ontro$ t(e robotL %eed and dire&tion. 're in4 t(e %eed bar near t(e o-ter end +i$$ mo#e t(e robot fa ter) +(i$e %re in4 t(e %eed bar near t(e &enter +i$$ mo#e t(e robot $o+er. R. S$o+ B-tton. T(e $o+ b-tton e$e&t bet+een t(e t+o different %eed ran4e of t(e %eed bar . 1J. 'redefined F-n&tion B-tton . T(e %redefined f-n&tion b-tton (a#e %e&ifi&) y tem- +ide f-n&tion a i4ned to t(em) $i"e di %$ay of &oordinate ) &$ear error) et&. 11. 'ro4rammab$e F-n&tion B-tton . T(e %ro4rammab$e f-n&tion b-tton are - ed in &- tom a%%$i&ation %ro4ram ) and t(eir f-n&tion +i$$ #ary de%endin4 -%on t(e %ro4ram bein4 r-n. 11. Soft B-tton . T(e / oft0 b-tton (a#e different f-n&tion de%endin4 on t(e a%%$i&ation %ro4ram bein4 r-n) or t(e e$e&tion made from t(e %redefined f-n&tion b-tton .

104

Lead-T(ro-4( 'ro4rammin4 or Tea&(in4. T(i met(od of tea&(in4 - e a %ro%rietary tea&(

%endant 2t(e robotN &ontro$ i %$a&ed in a Stea&(S mode3) +(i&( a$$o+ trained %er onne$ %(y i&a$$y to $ead t(e robot t(ro-4( t(e de ired e=-en&e of e#ent by a&ti#atin4 t(e a%%ro%riate %endant b-tton or +it&(. 'o ition data and f-n&tiona$ information are Sta-4(tS to t(e robot) and a ne+ %ro4ram i +ritten t(e tea&( %endant &an be t(e o$e o-r&e by +(i&( a %ro4ram i e tab$i (ed) or it may be - ed in &on6-n&tion +it( an additiona$ %ro4rammin4 &on o$e and9or t(e robotN &ontro$$er. !(en - in4 t(i te&(ni=-e of tea&(in4 or %ro4rammin4) t(e %er on %erformin4 t(e tea&( f-n&tion &an be +it(in t(e robotN +or"in4 en#e$o%e) +it( o%erationa$ afe4-ardin4 de#i&e dea&ti#ated or ino%erati#e.

108

FIAURE I@5D-C. ROBOT LEAD-T>ROUA> 'ROARAMMINA OR TEAC>INA.

1.

!a$"-T(ro-4( 'ro4rammin4 or Tea&(in4. A %er on doin4 t(e tea&(in4 (a %(y i&a$ &onta&t
+it( t(e robot arm and a&t-a$$y 4ain &ontro$ and +a$" t(e robotN arm t(ro-4( t(e de ired %o ition +it(in t(e +or"in4 en#e$o%e 2Fi4-re I@5D-D3. FIAURE I@5D-D. !ALG-T>ROUA> 'ROARAMMINA OR TEAC>INA.

10E

D-rin4 t(i time) t(e robotN &ontro$$er i

&annin4 and torin4 &oordinate #a$-e on a fi8ed time ba i .

!(en t(e robot i $ater %$a&ed in t(e a-tomati& mode of o%eration) t(e e #a$-e and ot(er f-n&tiona$ information are re%$ayed and t(e %ro4ram r-n a it +a ta-4(t. !it( t(e +a$"-t(ro-4( met(od of %ro4rammin4) t(e %er on doin4 t(e tea&(in4 i in a %otentia$$y (a?ardo- %o ition be&a- e t(e o%erationa$ afe4-ardin4 de#i&e are dea&ti#ated or ino%erati#e.

C.Off-Line 'ro4rammin4. T(e %ro4rammin4 e tab$i (in4 t(e re=-ired e=-en&e of f-n&tiona$ and
re=-ired %o itiona$ te% i +ritten on a remote &om%-ter &on o$e 2Fi4-re I@5D-E3. Sin&e t(e &on o$e i di tant from t(e robot and it &ontro$$er) t(e +ritten %ro4ram (a to be tran ferred to t(e robotN &ontro$$er and %re&i e %o itiona$ data e tab$i (ed to a&(ie#e t(e a&t-a$ &oordinate information for t(e robot and ot(er e=-i%ment. T(e %ro4ram &an be tran ferred dire&t$y or by &a ette or f$o%%y di & . After t(e %ro4ram (a been &om%$ete$y tran ferred to t(e robotN &ontro$$er) eit(er t(e $ead-t(ro-4( or +a$"-t(ro-4( te&(ni=-e &an be - ed for obtainin4 a&t-a$ %o itiona$ &oordinate information for t(e robotN a8e .

110

FIAURE I@5D-E. OFF-LINE 'ROARAMMINA OR TEAC>INA.

!(en %ro4rammin4 robot +it( any of t(e t(ree te&(ni=-e di &- ed abo#e) it i 4enera$$y re=-ired t(at t(e %ro4ram be #erified and $i4(t modifi&ation in %o itiona$ information made. T(i %ro&ed-re i &a$$ed %ro4ram to-&(--% and i norma$$y &arried o-t in t(e tea&( mode of o%eration. T(e tea&(er man-a$$y $ead or +a$" t(e robot t(ro-4( t(e %ro4rammed te% . A4ain) t(ere are %otentia$ (a?ard if afe4-ardin4 de#i&e are dea&ti#ated or ino%erati#e. Ad#anta4e H E''ecti+e & o, ammin, o' & o, am lo,ic% and calculation% *ith %tate!o'!the!a t debu,,in, 'acilitie%.

111

H 3ocation% a e built acco din, to model% and thi% can mean that & o, amme % *ill ha+e to 'ine tune & o, am% on!line o utili>e %en%o %. . E''ecti+e & o, ammin, o' location%. H $e i'ication o' & o, am th ou,h %imulation and +i%uali>ation. H 6ell documented th ou,h %imulation model *ith a&& o& iate & o, am%. H Reu%e o' e<i%tin, CA2 data. H Co%t inde&endent o' & oduction. P oduction can continue *hile & o, ammin,. H P oce%% %u&&o t tool% 'o in%tance %election o' *eldin, &a amete %. Di ad#anta4e H 2emand% in+e%tin, in an o''!line & o, ammin, %(%tem. H 1eed% e<ten%i+e t ainin,.

Robot 3an,ua,e% and P o, ammin,

ROBOT LANAUAAES Robot lan,ua,e% ha+e been de+elo&ed 'o ea%e o' cont ol o' motion% o' obot% ha+in, di''e ent %t uctu e% and ,eomet ical ca&abilitie%. Some o' the obot lan,ua,e% ha+e been de+elo&ed b( modi'(in, the e<i%tin, ,ene al! &u &o%e com&ute lan,ua,e% and %ome o' them a e * itten in a com&letel( ne* %t(le. P o, ammin, lan,ua,e% ha+e been de+elo&ed b( the &ionee e''o t% o' +a iou% e%ea che % at Stan'o d A ti'icial Intelli,ence 3abo ato (; e%ea ch labo ato ie% o' IBM Co &o ation, unde 0.S. Ai /o ce %&on%o %hi&, :ene al Elect ic Co., 0nimation and man( othe obot manu'actu e %. Some o' the & o, ammin, lan,ua,e% a eF 6A$E, A3, $A3, AM3, MC3, RAI3, 9E3P, RP3, PA3 and A2A 6A$E and A3 6A$E, de+elo&ed at Stan'o d, demon%t ated a obot handTe(e coo dination *hile it *a% im&lemented in a machine +i%ion %(%tem.

118

 3ate a &o*e 'ul lan,ua,e A3 *a% de+elo&ed to cont ol obot a m%. 6A$E inco &o ated man( im&o tant 'eatu e%. T a-ecto ( calculation% th ou,h coo dination o' -oint mo+ement%, end!e''ecto &o%ition% and touch %en%in, *e e %ome o' the ne* 'eatu e% o' 6A$E. But the al,o ithm *a% too com&le< and not u%e ! ' iendl(. The( could not be un in eal!time and on!line. On the othe hand, t a-ecto ( calculation% a e &o%%ible at com&ile time and the( can be modi'ied du in, un time. A3 ha% a %ou ce lan,ua,e, a t an%lato to ,ene ate un ablecode and a un time %(%tem 'o e''ectin, +a iou% motion% o' the obot mani&ulato . The %(nta< o' the lan,ua,e can im&lement +a iou% %ub outine%, in+o)in, acti+itie% bet*een the obot and it% %u oundin,%, +a iou% %tatement% conce nin, SI:1A3S and 6AIT to ca ( on ta%)% in %e=uence. 2i''e ent %en%o % can be inco &o ated and & o, ammin, can ta)e ca e o' %ome condition monito in, %tatement%. The obot mani&ulato mo+ement!command% include +a iou% motion%, +elocitie%, 'o ce%, to =ue%, etc. POI1T7 i% anothe inte acti+e %(%tem and a &a t o' A3 %(%tem $A3 $A3 i% a &o&ula te<tual obot lan,ua,e de+elo&ed b( 0nimation Inc. 'o the P0MA %e ie% o' obot%. $A3 ha% been u&, aded to $A3 II %(%tem *ith mo e inte loc)in, 'acilitie%. $icto Sheinman de+elo&ed $A3 lan,ua,e. $A3 i% +e ( u%e !' iendl(. It & o+ide% aim mo+ement in -oint, *o ld and tool coo dinate%, , i&&in, and %&eed cont ol. 6AIT and SI:1A3 command% can be ,i+en to im&lement a %&eci'ic ta%). The command% a e %ub outine% * itten in BASIC and t an%lated *ith the aid o' an inte & ete . Com&iled BASIC ha% mo e 'le<ibilit(. AM3 A manu'actu in, lan,ua,e, AM3 *a% de+elo&ed b( IBM. AM3 i% +e ( u%e'ul 'o a%%embl( o&e ation% a% di''e ent u%e T obot & o, ammin, inte 'ace% a e &o%%ible. The & o, ammin, lan,ua,e AM3 i% al%o u%ed in othe automated manu'actu in, %(%tem%. The ad+anta,e o' u%in, AM3 i% that inte,e %, eal numbe % and %t in,% can be %&eci'ied in the %ame a,, e,ate *hich i% %aid to be an o de ed %et o' con%tant% o +a iable%. 113

 An a,, e,ate can be u%ed to %&eci'( coo dinate +alue% o' the obotK% -oint% o * i%t &o%ition and o ientation. MC3 0S Ai 'o ce ICAM & o-ect led to the de+elo&ment o' anothe manu'actu in, cont ol lan,ua,e )no*n a% MC3 b( Mc2onnelT2ou,la%. Thi% i% a modi'ication o' the &o&ula APT (Automaticall( P o, ammed Toolin," lan,ua,e u%ed in C1C machine tool% a% man( %imila command% a e u%ed to cont ol machine tool% in CAM a&&lication%. 3ine%, ci cle%, &lane%, c(linde % and man( othe com&le< ,eomet ical 'eatu e% can be de'ined in MC3. RAI3 RAI3 *a% de+elo&ed b( Automatic 'o obotic a%%embl(, in%&ection, a c *eldin, and machine +i%ion. A +a iet( o' data t(&e% a% u%ed in PASCA3 can be u%ed. An inte & ete i% u%ed to con+e t the lan,ua,e into machine lan,ua,e command%. It u%e% Moto ola I8000 t(&e mic ocom&ute %(%tem; It %u&&o t% man( command% and cont ol o' the +i%ion %(%tem. 9E3P 9E3P *a% de+elo&ed b( :ene al Elect ic Com&an(. It act% mo e o le%% li)e RAI3. It ha% the ca&abilit( to cont ol t*o obot a m% at the %ame time. The %t uctu e o' the lan,ua,e i% li)e PASCA3. #ARS #ARS *a% de+elo&ed b( 1ASA #P3. The ba%e o' the lan,ua,e i% PASCA3. #ARS can be inte 'aced *ith P0MA I000 obot 'o unnin, obotic & o, am%. I.1.8 RP3 RP3 *a% de+elo&ed at SRI Inte national. A com&ile i% u%ed to con+e t a & o, am into the code% that can be inte & eted b( an inte & ete . 0nimation P0MA A00 can be cont olled *ith the hel& o' RP3. The ba%ic idea% 11?

o' 3ISP (an Al lan,ua,e" ha+e been o ,ani>ed into a /ORTRA1!li)e %(nta< in RP3. It i% modula and 'le<ible. Be%ide% the%e, the e a e %ome othe lan,ua,e% li)e PA3, A2A etc. PA3 ha% been * itten b( Richa d Paul b( modi'(in, 6A$E and inco &o atin, 'eatu e% o' PASCA3. But the e& e%entation% o' %(nta<e% u%ed in the & o, am a e di''icult to handle. A2A de+elo&ed b( the 2e&a tment o' 2e'en%e (2O2" in 0SA i% a eal!time %(%tem that can be un on %e+e al mic ocom&ute % li)e Oilo,, $AB, Moto ola I8000, etc. A2A i% con+enient 'o cont ollin, the obot% u%ed in a manu'actu in, cell. 2i''e ent te<tual obot lan,ua,e% ha+e di''e ent att ibute%. /a e<am&le, $A3, 9E3P and MC thou,h &o*e 'ul 'o man( %im&le ta%)%, do not ha+e the %ame %t uctu ed modula & o, ammin, ca&abilit( li)e A3, AM3, #ARS and A2A o $A3 II. In a manu'actu in, cell, multi&le obot% o obotic e=ui&ment *o ) in uni%on. Cont ol o' t*o o mo e o&e ation% done b( the obot% in a coo dinated manne i% com&le<. S(nch oni>in, the motion% o' the obot% e=ui e% nece%%a ( %o't*a e command%. A3, A2A, AM3, MC3 ha+e the ca&abilit( o' cont ollin, multi&le a m%. The & o, ammin, lan,ua,e mu%t be ca&able o' e<& e%%in, +a iou% ,eomet ic 'eatu e% li)e -oint an,le%, coo dinate t an%'o mation% %uch a% otation, t an%lation, and +ecto =uantitie%. 9omo,eneou% mat ice% a e u%ed to %&eci'( the otation. Rotation can al%o be %&eci'ied b( Eule an,le%. AM3, RAI3 and $A3 u%e Eule an,le% *hile A3 mani&ulate% homo,eneou% mat i< 'o cont ol. A3 i% +e ( %uitable 'o a%%embl( ta%)% *he ein man( %en%o % a e em&lo(ed, thou,h othe lan,ua,e% li)e AM3 and 9E3P a e 'le<ible enou,h to un +a iou% %ub outine%. Sle*in, and %t ai,ht! line motion% cont ol a e a+ailable *ith mo%t o' the lan,ua,e%. 9o*e+e , in all the obot lan,ua,e%, 'eatu e% li)e edito , inte & ete , com&ile , data mana,ement, debu,,in, a e common. I.8 C3ASSI/ICATIO1 O/ ROBOT 3A1:0A:ES Robot lan,ua,e% can be , ou&ed b oadl( into th ee ma-o cla%%e%F 1. /i %t ,ene ation lan,ua,e 8. Second ,ene ation lan,ua,e 3. 6o ld modellin, and ta%)!o iented ob-ect le+el lan,ua,eH The 'i %t ,ene ation lan,ua,e & o+ide% an o' '!line & o, ammin, in combination *ith the & o, ammin, th ou,h obot &endant teachin,. $A3 i% an e<am&le o' a 'i %t ,ene ation obot & o, ammin, lan,ua,e. The 11A

ca&abilit( o' a 'i %t ,ene ation lan,ua,e i% limited to the handlin, o' %en%o ( data (e<ce&t O1LO// bina ( %i,nal%" and communication *ith othe com&ute %. 9o*e+e , b anchin,, in&utLout&ut Inte 'acin, and command%.

11I

UNIT-E IM'LIMENTATION AND ROBOT ECONOMICS

114

RGV,AGV; Implementation of Robots in Industries Various Steps Safety Considerations for Robot Operations Economic Analysis of Robots 1. ay bac! "et#od $. E%AC "et#od &. Rate of Return "et#od.

Rai$-A-ided @e(i&$e

T RA@ U

2ai'u)uK% So tin, T an%'e $ehicle (ST$" i% a 'a%t, 'le<ible and ea%il( in%talled mate ial t an%&o t %(%tem. ST$% can be u%ed to mo+e load% o' all %i>e% in a *a ehou%e. /o e<am&le, a ST$ ma( be u%ed a% a %o tin, tool 'o ,ood% comin, out o' %to a,e and headin, to %hi&&in,. ST$ 'eatu e% %o tin, and collectin, ca&abilitie% 'o multi&le ASLRS ai%le con+e(o %tation%. It enable% &ic)in, b( o de line and %o tin, b( de%tination to one

118

Fast Moving STV load transfer STV picking STV vs Conveyor STV System Stim lation Se&a ate in&utLout&ut %tation% enable the ST$ to &e 'o m multi&le ta%)% at one time. ST$% a e com&act and mo+e a,ilel( o+e a t ac) %(%tem, enablin, hi,he th ou,h&ut than con+e(o %. The ST$ t ac) can be a an,ed in a loo& o %t ai,ht line to accommodate a +a iet( o' a&&lication%, %uch a% mi<ed S@0 &allet &ic)in,, c(cle countin,, =ualit( in%&ection, load %o tin, and t uc) loadin,. Ad+anta,e% o' ST$% includeF 'e*e moto %, no %in,le &oint o' 'ailu e, hi,h!%&eed, hi,h!th ou,h&ut and e<&an%ion 'le<ibilit( to handle 'utu e , o*th. 2ai'u)uM% ST$% a e de%i,ned 'o %eamle%% inte, ation *ith mini load and unit load ASLRS to e''ecti+el( t an%&o t a* mate ial%, *o )!in!& oce%% andLo 'ini%hed ,ood%. ST$% can al%o inte, ate *ith con+e(o o e ,onomic *o )%tation% to 'acilitate e''icient o de &ic)in, 'o con%olidation and %hi&&in,. Feat-re S 9i,h %&eed S Clo%e o de t a''ic cont ol S Multi&le la(out o&tion% (multi!+ehicle loo& o %in,le!+ehicle %huttle" S $a iet( o' model% (ca ton and &allet handlin," S Mic o& oce%%o cont ol *ith R/ (Radio / e=uenc(" communication S E<&andable b( addin, +ehicle% S Ea%( maintenance S Vuiet o&e ation S So t load% to di''e ent deli+e ( %tation% *ithout com&le< con+e(o inte %ection% S Accommodate a +a iet( o' buildin, la(out, %&ace and &e 'o mance e=ui ement% S Bi!di ectional mo+ement on %in,le %t ai,ht t ac) 'o load &ic)u& and deli+e ( S Modula la(out %im&li'ie% %(%tem modi'icationLe<&an%ion. Inc ea%e %(%tem ca&acit( b( %im&l( addin, +ehicle% 11E

Benefit S Im& o+ed in+ento ( cont ol S Inc ea%ed accu ac( S Inc ea%ed th ou,h&ut S Eliminate% o' %in,le!&oint 'ailu e; %(%tem can continue o&e atin, i' a +ehicle 'ail% S Enhanced & oduct & otection ! %mooth t an%&o t o' item% o ,ood% S%e&ifi&ation The ST$ 'amil( include% & oduct +a iation% %uch a% load handlin, (toteLbo< +%. &allet", la(out (%huttle o loo&", in&utLout&utLt an%'e mechani%m ( olle con+e(o , chain con+e(o , 'o ) to&" and numbe o' +ehicle%. ST$ t ac) can be a an,ed in a loo& o %t ai,ht line to accommodate a +a iet( o' u%e% %uch a% mi<ed S@0 &allet &ic)in,, c(cle countin,, =ualit( in%&ection%, load %o tin, and t uc) loadin,. ST$M% ad+anta,e% o+e con+e(o deli+e ( %(%tem% includeF 'e*e moto %, no %in,le &oint o' 'ailu e, hi,h %&eed, hi,h th ou,h&ut and 'le<ibilit( to e<&and to handle 'utu e , o*th.

Standa Standa Standa Standa

d load *ei,ht ca&acit(F A0!1,A00 ), (110!3,300 lb%." d ho i>ontal %&eedF 100!800 mLmin. (383!IAI 't.Lmin." d t an%'e %&eedF 18!30 mLmin. (3E!E8 't.Lmin." d load 'oot& intF 300!1A00 mm < !3A0!1A00 mm (11.8!AE.1 in. < 13.8!AE.1 in."

'rimary 'rob$em Addre ed5 /loo %&ace o 1eed mo e %&ace 'o & oduction P oducti+it( o 3imited ca&acit( in %to a,e and & oduction a ea% o 3ac) o' e%&on%i+ene%% to & oduct o de % In+ento ( o Poo & oduct acce%%ibilit( o 1o eal!time & oduct t ac)in, (6IP buildu&" E ,onomic% o 6o )e % in ho%tile en+i onment% o 6o )e % *al)in, lon, di%tance% o E<ce%%i+e noi%e le+el% ' om mate ial handlin, e=ui&ment o Sa'et( ha>a d% o 3abo !inten%i+e & oce%%e% 2i%-ointed O&e ation% o Multi&le %ta,in, a ea% o P oduct i% o'ten mo+ed ' om one %ta,in, a ea to anothe o Man( 1on!$alue Added o&e ation% 3abo o 9i,h em&lo(ee tu no+e o 9i,h labo co%t% o Small labo &ool o 3o* -ob %ati%'action A%%$i&ab$e Ind- trie 5 A&&a el Automoti+e 180

Beaut( G Co%metic% Boo) G Publication 2i%t ibution Elect onic% /ood G Be+e a,e 9ou%ehold A&&liance% Pha maceutical% G 9ealthca e Retail Semiconducto Te<tile%

MATERIAL >ANDLINA AND AUTOMATED AUIDED @E>ICLES T .1 I1TRO20CTIO1

A&V U

The 'lo* o' mate ial th ou,h the & oce%%e% i% an im&o tant element in the manu'actu in, %(%tem. Some t(&e o' automation i% e%%ential 'o handlin, o' mate ial% int a!%ho& and inte !%ho& in o de to educe labou co%t and 'ul'il man( othe 'unction%. It i% al%o e=ui ed to ca ( a* mate ial% ' om %to e% to +a iou% *o ) cell% and the 'ini%hed & oduct to the *a ehou%e. The mate ial handlin, element need% to be %(nch oni>ed *ith *o ) %tation% and di''e ent o&e ation% unde a hie a chical com&ute cont ol %(%tem ca&able o' a&&l(in, deci%ion lo,ic to the mo+ement o' mate ial%. Automated ,uided +ehicle% (A:$K%" ma( be con%ide ed a% one o' the %olution% 'o e''ecti+e and economical mate ial handlin,. .8 MATERIA3 9A123I1: Mate ial handlin, ma( be de'ined a% the 'unction% and %(%tem% a%%ociated *ith the t an%&o tation, %to a,e, and &h(%ical cont ol to *o )!in!& oce%% mate ial in manu'actu in,. / om a %(%tem a&& oach, it can be de'ined a% Cu%in, the i,ht method to & o+ide %a'el( the i,ht amount o' the i,ht mate ial at the i,ht &lace, at the i,ht time, in the i,ht %e=uence, in the i,ht &o%ition, in the i,ht condition, and the i,ht co%t.D The &u &o%e o' mate ial handlin, in a 'acto ( i% to mo+e a* mate ial%, *o )!in!& oce%%, 'ini%hed &a t%, tool%, and %u&&lie% ' om one location to anothe to 'acilitate the o+e all o&e ation% o' manu'actu in,.

181

The mate ial cont ol 'unction i% conce ned *ith the identi'ication o' the +a iou% mate ial% in the handlin, %(%tem, thei outin,%, and the %chedulin, o' thei mo+e%. In mo%t 'acto ( o it i% im&o tant that the o i,in, cu ent location, and 'utu e de%tination o' mate ial% be )no*n. Thi% 'unction i% achie+ed th ou,h the %ho& 'loo cont ol %(%tem b( maintainin, accu ate, com&lete, and cu ent eco d% o' all mate ial% in the 'acto (. Thi% cont ol i% %ometime% au,mented b( mean% o' automatic identi'ication %(%tem *ho%e &u &o%e i% to identi'( &a t% a% the( a e mo+ed o %to ed. Mate ial 9andlin, S(%tem% The mate ial handlin, e=ui&ment ma( be cate,o i>ed in man( *a(%. One o' the method% i%F the %ou ce o' the moti+e 'o ce and the %(nch oni>ation o' the load mo+ement%. In &ath moti+e handlin, e=ui&ment, the 'o ce a&&lied to mo+e the load% i% & o+ided b( the t an%&o t &ath it%el', e.,. an e%calato and cable ca %(%tem. In +ehicle moti+e e=ui&ment, the 'o ce a&&lied to mo+e the load% i% & o+ided b( a +ehicle o load &lat'o m, e.,. t uc)%, t ain%, bu%e%, and automobile%. In %(nch onou% t an%&o t %(%tem, all load% mo+in, on the t an%&o t net*o ) o on a %el'!con tained %e,ment o' the net*o ) mo+e %imultaneou%l(, at the %ame %&eed, and *ith a con%tant %&ace bet*een load%. In a non %(nch onou% t an%&o t %(%tem, the load% can mo+e inde&endentl( o' one anothe , u&to the &h(%ical limit% o' the %(%tem, e.,. a %(%tem o' t uc)%, t olle( ca %, and ta<i%. The %(nch onou% + non!%(nch onou% cla%%i'ication i% o' mo%t conce n in a%%embl( %(%tem%. Mate ial 9andlin, E=ui&ment The mate ial handlin, e=ui&ment can be di+ided a%F (a" Manuall( o&e ated de+ice%Thand t uc)%, &o*e ed t uc)%, c ane%, mono ail% and hoi%t%. (b" Automated %(%tem%Tcon+e(o %, A:$K%. (c" Mi%cellaneou% %(%tem%Tindu%t ial obot%, t an%'e mechani%m%, ele+ato %, &i&eline%, containe %, dial inde<in, table%, etc. 1. 9and t uc)%T The%e a e &lat'o m% *ith *heel% 'o manual mo+ement o' item%, unit load%, and bul) mate ial%, e.,. *heelba o*%, t*o and 'ou *heeled t uc)%, hand li't o manuall( o&e ated 'o )Tli't t uc)%. 8. Po*e ed t uc)%T The%e a e &o*e ed +ehicle% *ith &lat'o m 'o mechani>ed mo+ement o' item%, unit load%, and bul) mate ial%. The( a e d i+en b( human bein,%, &o*e ed b( batte (, die%el, o &et ol, e.,. *al)ie t uc)%, idin, t uc)%, 'o )li't t uc)%, %ide loade %, t acto t aile t ain%, and indu%t ial c ane t uc)%. 3. C ane%, mono ail%, and hoi%t%T The%e handlin, de+ice% a e u%uall( manuall( o&e ated, de%i,ned 'o li'tin,, lo*e in,, and t an%&o tin, hea+( ob-ect%, e.,. b id,e c ane%, ,ant ( c ane%, -ib c ane%, o+e head mono ail%, hand and &o*e ed hoi%t%. 188

?. Con+e(o %T. It i% a la ,e 'amil( o' handlin, de+ice%, o'ten mechani>ed, %ometime% automated, de%i,ned to mo+e mate ial% bet*een %&eci'ic location% o+e a 'i<ed &ath, ,ene all( in la ,e =uantitie% o +olume%. E<am&le% include , a+it( con+e(o % (chute%, olle %" and &o*e ed con+e(o % ( olle %, belt, chain, o+e head, in!'loo to*, and ca t!on!t ac)". A. Automated :uided $ehicle% (A:$K%" S(%tem%T The%e a e batte (!&o*e ed, auto maticall( %tee ed +ehicle% de%i,ned to 'ollo* de'ined &ath*a(%. Some a e ca&able o' automat icall( loadin, and unloadin, unit load%. The( a e u%uall( inte 'aced *ith othe automated %(%tem% to achie+e 'ull bene'it% o' inte, ated automation. E<am&le% include d i+e le%% t ain%, &allet t uc)%, and unit load ca ie %. P inci&le% o' Mate ial 9andlin, The & inci&le% 'o mate ial handlin, a eF 1. 0nit load & inci&le Mate ial% to he mo+ed %hould be a,, e,ated into a la ,e unit %i>e, and the unit %i>e %hould be the %ame 'o all mate ial%. The mate ial% a e t(&icall( &laced on a &allet o othe %tanda d!%i>ed containe 'o con+enience in handlin,. The mate ial% and containe a e e'e ed to a% the unit load. The unit load %hould be a% la ,e a% & actical. 8. A+oid &a tial load% F T an%&o t the 'ull unit load *hene+e &o%%ible athe than &a tial load%. 3oad the mate ial handlin, e=ui&ment to it% ma<imum %a'e limit. 3. Sho te%t di%tance & inci&le F Mo+ement% o' mate ial% %hould be o+e the %ho te%t di%tance% &o%%ible. Thi% de&end% on the &lant la(out de%i,n. ?. St ai,ht!line 'lo* ule F The mate ial handlin, &ath %hould be in a %t ai,ht line ' om the &oint o' o i,ination to &oint o' de%tinationF Thi% ule i% con%i%tent *ith the %ho te%t di%tance & inci&le. A. Minimum te minal time & inci&leF Mo+ement o' a unit load con%i%t% o' the mo+e time &lu% the time e=ui ed 'o loadin,, unloadin,, and othe acti+itie% that do not in+ol+e actual tn>n%&o t o' the mate ial%. Minimi>e the%e nonmo+e time%. I. : a+it( & inci&le F 0%e , a+it( to a%%i%t the mo+ement o' mate ial% to the e<tent &o%%ible, at the %ame time ,i+in, con%ide ation to %a'et( and i%) o' & oduct dama,e. 4. Ca ( load% both *a(% F The handlin, %(%tem %hould be de%i,ned and %cheduled, to the e<tent &o%%ible, to ca ( load% in both di ection%. Retu n t i&% *ith em&t( load% a e *a%te'ul. 8. Mechani>ation & inci&le Manual handlin, o' mate ial% %hould be a+oided. The handlin, & oce%% %hould be mechani>ed *he e &o%%ible to inc ea%e e''icienc( and econom(. E. S(%tem% & inci&le% Inte, ate the mate ial% handlin, %(%tem *ith othe %(%tem% in the 'acilit(, includin, ecei+in,, in%&ection, %to a,e, & oduction and a%%embl(, &ac)a,in,, *a ehou%in,, %hi&&in,, and t an%&o tation. 183

10. S(%tem% 'lo* & inci&le Inte, ate the 'lo* o' mate ial% *ith the 'lo* o' in'o mation in handlin, and %to a,e %(%tem%. The in'o mation 'o each item mo+ed %hould include identi'ica tion, o i,ination (&ic) u&" &oint, and de%tination &oint. 11. Pa t o ientation & inci&le F In automated & oduction %(%tem%, the o ientation o' the *o )&a t %hould be e%tabli%hed and maintained th ou,hout the mate ial handlin, & oce%%. Selection o' Mate ial 9andlin, E=ui&ment 6hen %electin, mate ial handlin, e=ui&ment, due e,a d %hould be ,i+en to the 'ollotn, 1. 3o* maintenance co%t%T /e* mo+in, &a t%, %ealed!'o !li'e bea in,% and ,ea bo<e%, acce%%ibilit( 'o maintenance, cont olled dia,no%tic% 'o elect ical and mechanical com&onent%, u%e o' %tanda d, eadil( a+ailable com&onent% and e=ui&ment. 8. Com&liance *ith %a'et( %tanda d%T Ade=uate ,ua din,, & o+i%ion o' eme ,enc( %to& 'acilitie%, inco &o ation o' mechanical and cont ol %a'et( loc)% to,ethe *ith all nece%%a ( audioL+i%ual *a nin,%. a. O&e ational en+i onmentT In addition to tem&e atu e and humidit(, con%ide the 'unctional im&act on e=ui&ment o' %uch thin,% a% ab a%i+e du%t, e<ce%%i+e oil% and , ea%e, %*a ', 'i e, 'lood% and e<&lo%i+e ha>a d%. ?. Bu''e %to a,eT Con%ide ation mu%t be ,i+en to the &o%%ible need 'o Cbu''e %to a,eD in o de to ma<imi>e & oduction e=ui&ment utili%ation and en%u e continuou% o&e ation. A. E''ecti+e u%e o' o&e atin, timeT The ma<imi>ation o' o&e atin, time o' hi,h co%t dedicated unit%, e.,. obot%, i% an im&o tant 'acto in the de+elo&ment o' an economic manu'actu in, %(%tem. Mate ial Sto a,e Mate ial %to a,e i% ine%ca&able in the manu'actu in, %(%tem. Sto a,e i% e=ui ed 'o *o )!in!& oce%% &a t% and deli+e ( o' mate ial ta)en in e<ce%% o' ou immediate need%. A% the com&le<it( o' manu'actu ed & oduct% inc ea%e% and a% the numbe o' o&tion% needed inc ea%e% due to com&etiti+e 'acto %, %to a,e need% inc ea%e ,eomet icall(. Sto a,e ma( be cla%%i'ied a% %tatic %to a,e o li+e %to a,e. Static %to a,e %(%tem% & o+ide onl( a %to a,e medium, *ithout an( & o+i%ion 'o mo+in, o handlin, the load% to be %to ed. 3ine %to a,e %(%tem%, on the othe hand, inte, ate the %to a,e medium *ith inte nal mate ial handlin, de+ice% and &o%%ibl( an inte 'ace to the *o )!in!& oce%% t an%&o t %(%tem. :ene all( %&ea)in,, li+e line %to a,e %(%tem% a e mo e a&& o& iate *hen %&ace i% at a & emium andio *hen the amount o' *o )!in! & oce%% and the %to a,eL et ie+al t an%action ate% a e la ,e. (a" Static %to a,e %(%tem%. Static %to a,e %(%tem% & o+ide onl( a %to a,e %&ace, thu% e=ui in, that the item% to be %to ed a e in%e ted and et ie+ed b( othe mean%. The %tatic %to a,e %(%tem% a eF load location on the 'loo , load %tand, %hel+e%, bin%, etc.

18?

(b" 3i+e %to a,e %(%tem%. 3i+e %to a,e %(%tem% & o+ide not onl( %to a,e location%, but al%o the mechani%m 'o in%e tin, and et ie+in, the %to a,e load%. Some e<am&le% o' li+e %to a,e a e F automatic *o ) chan,e , ca ou%el con+e(o , automated %to a,eL et ie+al %(%tem% (ASLRS", mic oload ASLRS, 'lo* ac). ! (c" Automated %to a,eLRet ie+al %(%tem% (ASLRS". In the ASL mate ial i% deli+e ed to the doo o' the 'acto (, chec)ed, ente ed into the in+ento ( cont ol %(%tem th ou,h eade %, &h(%icall( t an%'e ed to the %to a,e a ea b( machine, and %to ed in the a&& o& iate location *ithout e+e ha+in, been touched b( a human. 6hen a %ho& o de eache% the %to a,e a ea, the & o&e =uantitie% o' each %uba%%embl( o &a t a e emo+ed ' om thei indi+idual location%, con,lome ated (&ic)ed" and t an%&o ted to the de%i ed location, a,ain *ith automated machine (. The & oce%% o' ta)in, the indi+idual &a t% o %uba%%emblie% and &ac)a,e them into a%%embl( unit%, i% called )ittin,. Automation E=ui&ment /o the mode n 'acto ( *e need & o, ammable e=ui&ment. The ea%ie%t challen,e i% to ma)e e=ui&ment to t an%&o t the %ame &a t to the %ame &lace 'o e+e . To %ati%G the e=ui ement% 'o di''e ent con'i,u ation% and o&tion%, it i% nece%%a ( to build +e %atilit( and 'le<ibilit( into the %(%tem. /o thi% &u &o%e, *e el( on the com&ute % to do much o' the -ob. The e=ui&ment mu%t be +e %atile, & o, ammable, and mu%t be able to 'it into the com&ute net*o ). A0TOMATE2 :0I2E2 $E9IC3ES ! A:$% An A:$ i% a com&ute cont olled, d i+e le%% +ehicle u%ed 'o t an%&o tin, mate ial% ' om &oint!to!&oint in a manu'actu in, %ettin,. The( e& e%ent a ma-o cate,o ( o' automated mate ial% handlin, de+ice%. The( a e ,uided alon, de'ined &ath*a(% in the 'loo . The +ehicle% a e &o*e ed b( mean% o' on!boa d batte ie% that allo* o&e ation 'o %e+e al hou % bet*een echa ,in,. The de'inition o' the &ath*a(% i% ,ene all( accom&li%hed u%in, *i e embedded in the 'loo o e'lecti+e &aint on the 'loo %u 'ace. :uidance i% achie+ed b( %en%o % on the +ehicle% that can 'ollo* the ,uide *i e% o &aint. 6hen it a i+e% at the & o&e de%tination, the mate ial i% o'' loaded onto anothe con+e(o o the *o )%tation. The +ehicle i% then di%&atched to the ne<t location o to home to a*ait 'u the o de %. A com&ute cont ol% it% motion. The )e( te m% in A:$ a e :uide &ath T The te m ,uide &ath e'e % to the actual &ath the A:$ 'ollo*% in ma)in, it% ound% th ou,h manu'actu in, &lant. The ,uide &ath ma( be o' the embedded *i e t(&e o o&tical de+ice%. Routin, T It i% the abilit( o' the A:$ to ma)e deci%ion% that allo* it to %elect the a&& o& iate oute a% it mo+e% ac o%% the %ho& 'loo . T a''ic mana,ement T Thi% i% the method to & e+ent colli%ion% and to o&timi>e t a''ic 'lo* and t a''ic &atte n% o' the A:$. The de+ice% u%ed 'o thi% &u &o%e a eF %ho& %i,n%, (ield %i,n%, caution li,ht%, and %to& li,ht%. T(&e% o' A:$K% 18A

2 i+e t acto t am. 1. To*in, +ehicle% T The%e a e the mo%t *idel( u%ed t(&e o' A: $K% and a e called the *o ) ho %e. The( a e mo%t commonl( u%ed 'o t an%&o tin, la ,e amount% o' bul)( and hea+( mate ial% ' om the *a ehou%e to +a iou% location% in the manu'actu in, &lant, e.,. d i+e le%% t ain

8. 0nit load +ehicle% T The( a e u%ed in %ettin,% *ith %ho t ,uide &ath%, hi,h +olume, and need 'o inde&endent mo+ement and +e %atilit(. 6a ehou%e% and di%t ibution cent e% a e the mo%t li)el( %ettin,% 'o the%e +ehicle%. The( can o&e ate in an en +i oninent *he e the e i% not much oom and mo+ement i% e%t icted. /i,. 13.8 %ho*% a unit load t(&e A:$

9i,h li't ,uided +ehicle. 3. 'a$$et tr-&" K The( can be o&e ated manuall( and a e u%ed mo%t ' e=uentl( 'o mate ial handlin, and di%t ibution %(%tem%. The( a e d i+en alon, a ,uide &ath ' om location!to!location and a e unloaded a% the( ,o. Thei ' e=uent u%e i% to mo+e &alleti>ed load%. D. For" tr-&" T The( a e u%ed *hen it i% nece%%a ( to &ic) mate ial% u& at the %ho& 'loo le+el and mo+e it to a location at a hi,he le+el and +ice +e %a. The( t a+el alon, a ,uide &ath. /i,. 13.3 %ho*% a hi,h li't ,uided +ehicle. A. Li4(t $oad @e(i&$e T The( a e u%ed in manu'actu in, %ettin,% *he e the mate ial to be mo+ed i% neithe hea+( no bul)( ( 1 )1". The mo%t common a&&lication o' the li,ht load +ehicle A:$ i% in elect onic% manu'actu in, %ettin,%. I. A emb$y $ine #e(i&$e T Thi% t(&e o' A:$K% a e u%ed in con-unction *ith an a%%embl( line & oce%%, li)e automobile%, to t an%&o t ma-o %uba%%emblie%. A-idan&e of AA@L T(e 4-idan&e of AA@L may be of t(e fo$$o+in4 ty%e 5 1. Man-a$ 4-idan&e. 1. Com%-ter9o%ti&a$ 4-idan&e. C. Se$f 4-idan&e. 18I

The o&ticall( ,uided A:$K% el( on %en%in, de+ice% that 'ollo* a hi,hl( e'lecti+e line alon, the %ho& 'loo . The line ma( be &ainted on the 'loo o a %&ecial e'lecti+e ta&e ma( be u%ed. In eithe ca%e, the line i% liable to be ob%t ucted b( di t, deb i%, o no mal *ea , and the %(%tem become% un eliable. Sel'!,uidance e& e%ent% the o&timum in A:$ technolo,(. 6hen %el'!,uidance o' A:$K% i% accom&li%hed, thi% technolo,( *ill ha+e achie+ed it% 'ulle%t &otential. T(ere are t+o a%%roa&(e - ed for teerin4 AA@L 5 1. Differentia$ %eed teer &ontro$. 8. Steered-+(ee$ teer &ontro$. An A:$ *ith a di''e ential %&eed %tee cont ol %(%tem u%e% t*o inde&endent 'i<ed *heel d i+e% on eithe %ide o' the +ehicle. Thi% allo*% the d i+e on one %ide to o&e ate at a 'a%te %&eed than the d i+e on the othe %ide, the eb( cau%in, the +ehicle to tu n. The am&litude detection ,uidance %en%o 'eed% e=ui ed data to the d i+e %(%tem% %o that the( )no* *hen to tu n. An A:$ u%in, the di''e ential %&eed %tee cont ol %(%tem ha% le't and i,ht %en%in, de+ice% mounted on the ' ont o' the +ehicle. The%e %en%o % ecei+e in'o mation 'o le't o i,ht tu n%. The am&litude detection ,uidance %en%o balance% the %i,nal% ecei+ed ' om the le't and i,ht %en%in, de+ice% . Thi% i% u%ed *ith a%%embl( line +ehicle%, unit load +ehicle%, 'o ) t uc)%, and li,ht load +ehicle%. MATERIAL >ANDLINA AND AUTOMATED AUIDED @E>ICLES The A:$K% u%in, %tee ed!*heel %tee cont ol ha+e a %in,le ' ont *heel that ide% alon, the &aint o ta&e %t i& that ma )% the ,uide &ath alon, the %ho& 'loo . A &ha%e detection ,uidance %en%o detect% *hethe the *heel i% on cou %e, %tee in, to the le't o i,ht o' the ,uide &ath, %end% data bac) to A:$, and the ' on *heel tu n% to com&en%ate %o that the A:$ i% in &ha%e. Thi% i% u%ed *ith a%%embl(!line +ehici t to*in, +ehicle%, unit load +ehicle%, &allet t uc)%, 'o ) t uc)%, and li,ht load +ehicle%. A:$ S(%tem Mana,ement /i,. 13.? illu%t ate% an A:$ %(%tem.

An A:$ %(%tem.

The e a e th ee )e( i%%ue% in A:$ %(%tem mana,ement. The%e a e t a''ic cont ol, +ehicle di%&atch, and %(%tem monito in,. 1. Traffi& Contro$ The e a e th ee method% 'o t a''ic cont ol. 184

(a3 7one &ontro$ ! The >one cont ol %(%tem (/i,. 13.A" i% the mo%t *idel( u%ed in *hich the ,uide &ath a ea% o' the %ho& 'loo a e di+ided into >one%. Onl( one A:$ i% allo*ed in a ,i+en >one at a time. 2b3 For+ard en in4 &ontro$ ! Thi% i% a t a''ic cont ol %(%tem that *o )% *ell *hen mo%t o' the ,uide &ath% a e %t ai,ht. 6ith thi% t a''ic cont ol %(%tem (/i,. 13.I", each A:$ ha% one o mo e %en%in, de+ice% mounted on it% ' ont. The e i% a %&eci'ied an,e o di%tance that mu%t be maintained bet*een A:$K%. The %en%in, de+ice% continuou%l( Cloo)D 'o *a d to %en%e an( ob-ect that 'all% *ithin the %&eci'ied an,e. I' one +ehicle ,et% too clo%e to anothe +ehicle, the %en%o % *ill di ect that +ehicle and cau%e the one in the ea to %to&. /o *a d %en%in, cont ol %(%tem. 2&3 Combination &ontro$ ! It i% u%ed *hen the ,uide &ath %(%tem contain3 lon, %t etche% o' %t ai,ht ,uide &ath but %till ha% inte mittent cu +e% andLo inte %ection%. 1. @e(i&$e Di %at&( The e a e 'i+e method% 'o di%&atchin, an A:$ 2a3 Onboard di %at&( ! In thi% a&& oach, each A:$ ha% a cont ol &anel mounted on it. A human o&e ato u%e% thi% cont ol &anel to & o, am the A:$ %to&% alon, the ,uide &ath. The cont ol &anel can al%o be u%ed to & o, am the A:$ acti+itie% at each %to&. 2b3 Ofiboard Ca$$ Sy tem ! The%e %(%tem% a e u%ed in %ituation% *he e the & oce%% o' t an%'e in, mate ial% ' om the A:$ to a %to& location i% automated. (c" Remote termina$ ! In thi% method, a human o&e ato mo+e% the A:$K% a ound the %ho& 'loo , u%in, the com&ute a% an aid in doin, %o. (d"Centra$ termina$ +ehicle di%&atch i% called cent al com&ute di%&atch. In thi% method, the M a e & o, ammed b( com&ute to mo+e alon, the ,uide &ath and ma)e the nece%%a ( %to&%. (e" Combination di %at&( ! In thi% method, t*o o mo e method% de%c ibed abo+e a e combined to di%&atch the A:$. 3. Sy tem Monitorin4 An ideal monito in, %(%tem i% one that ,i+e% human o&e ato % in%tant, eal!time 'eedbac), on the 'ollo*in, 1. 3ocation o' all +ehicle% *ithin the %(%tem. 8. 3ocation o' mal'unctionin, o ino&e ati+e +ehicle%. 3. Mo+ement o' +ehicle%. ?. Amount o' time +ehicle% %&end at each %to& and en oute bet*een %to&%. A. Statu% o' all +ehicle% in the %(%tem, loaded o unloaded. I. 2e%tination o' all +ehicle% *ithin the %(%tem. 4. Statu% o' the batte ie% in all +ehicle% *ithin the %(%tem F cha ,ed, cha ,in,, o *ee). The e a e th ee t(&e% o' %(%tem% *idel( u%ed 'o monito in, A:$ %(%tem% ; a% de%c ibed 188

belo* (a3 Lo&a$ 'ane$ Monitorin4 The &anel i% a %e ie% o' li,ht% *ithin >one% on the &anel that co e%&ond *ith >one% on the %ho& 'loo . 6hen an A:$ ente % a ,i+en >one, the li,ht on the &anel co e%&ondin, to that >one illuminate%. 6hen the A:$ mo+e% out o' that >one, the li,ht ,oe% out and the li,ht 'o the ne<t >one illuminate%. Thi% monito in, method doe% not tell *hich A:$, *hethe the +ehicle i% loaded o unloaded, *hat the +ehicle de%tination i%, o *hethe the batte ( o' the +ehicle i% cha ,ed o ,ettin, *ee). 2b3 Com%-ter Di %$ay Monitorin4 In the com&ute di%&la( %(%tem, the monito in, data can be di%&la(ed on a com&ute te minal in t*o 'o m% F , a&hic o al&hanume ic. Thi% method ,i+e% the human o&e ato all the in'o mation needed to ta)e nece%%a ( action *hen a b ea)do*n occu %. 2&3 'erforman&e Re%ort Monitorin4 Pe 'o mance e&o t% a e lo,,ed eco d% o' the t(&e o' in'o mation di%&la(ed on the com&ute te minal *ith com&ute di%&la( monito in, o' A:$ %(%tem%. The%e e&o t% ,i+e the hi%to ical eco d o' the &e 'o mance o' each A:$ *ithin the %(%tem.

Com%onent of an AA@
The e%%ential com&onent% o' an A:$ a eF Mechanical %t uctu e 2 i+in, and %tee in, mechani%m actuato % Se +o cont olle % On boa d com&utin, 'acilit( Se +o am&li'ie % /eed bac) com&onent% On boa d &o*e %(%tem. A%%$i&ation of AA@LS The a&&lication% o' A:$K% a e in the 'ollo*in, cate,o ie%F 1. Dri#er$e train o%eration T'o mo+ement o' la ,e =uantitie% o' mate ial% o+e elati+el( la ,e di%tance%. 1. Stora4e9di trib-tion y tem Tunit load ca ie % and &allet t uc)% a e u%ed in the%e a&&lication% b( inte 'acin, *ith ASLRS in a di%t ibution %(%tem. Thi% can al%o be a&&lied in li,ht manu'actu in, and a%%embl( o&e ation%. C. A emb$y $i#e o%eration . Bet*een the *o )%tation%, com&onent% a e )itted and &laced on the +ehicle 'o the a%%embl( o&e ation% that a e to be &e 'o med on the &a tiall( com&leted & oduct at the ne<t %tation. 18E

D. F$e8ib$e man-fa&t-rin4 y tem . The A:$K% a e u%ed a% the mate ial% handlin, %(%tem in the /MS. The +ehicle% deli+e *o ) ' om the %ta,in, a ea to the indi+idual *o ) %tation% in the %(%tem and bet*een %tation% in the manu'actu in, %(%tem. E. Mi &e$$aneo- a%%$i&ation T%uch a% mail deli+e ( in o''ice buildin,% and ho%&ital mate ial handlin, o&e ation%. Ad#anta4e of AA@L The im&o tant ad+anta,e% o' A:$K% a eF A:$K% e& e%ent a 'le<ible a&& oach to mate ial% handlin, a% the( can be com&ute cont olled. The( dec ea%e labou co%t% b( dec ea%in, the amount o' human in+ol+ement in mate ial% handlin,. The( can o&e ate in ha>a dou% en+i onment%. The( a e com&atible *ith & oduction and %to a,e e=ui&ment. The( can handle and t an%&o t ha>a dou% mate ial% %a'el(. I. Reduction in do*ntime o' machine% due to timel( a+ailabilit( o' mate ial%. 4. Im& o+ement in & oducti+it( and & o'it. 8. Continuou% *o ) *ithout int u&tion%.

INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS AND ROBOT S*STEM SAFET*

I.

INTRODUCTION. Indu%t ial obot% a e & o, ammable multi'unctional mechanical de+ice% de%i,ned to mo+e mate ial, &a t%, tool%, o %&eciali>ed de+ice% th ou,h +a iable & o, ammed motion% to &e 'o m a +a iet( o' ta%)%. An indu%t ial obot %(%tem include% not onl( indu%t ial obot% but al%o an( de+ice% andLo %en%o % e=ui ed 'o the obot to &e 'o m it% ta%)% a% *ell a% %e=uencin, o monito in, communication inte 'ace%. Robot% a e ,ene all( u%ed to &e 'o m un%a'e, ha>a dou%, hi,hl( e&etiti+e, and un&lea%ant ta%)%. The( ha+e man( di''e ent 'unction% %uch a% mate ial handlin,, a%%embl(, a c *eldin,, e%i%tance *eldin,, machine tool load and unload 'unction%, &aintin,, %& a(in,, etc. See A&&endi< I$F?!1 'o common de'inition%. Mo%t obot% a e %et u& 'o an o&e ation b( the teach!and! e&eat techni=ue. In thi% mode, a t ained o&e ato (& o, amme " t(&icall( u%e% a &o table cont ol de+ice (a teach &endant" to teach a obot it% ta%) manuall(. Robot %&eed% du in, the%e & o, ammin, %e%%ion% a e %lo*. Thi% in%t uction include% %a'et( con%ide ation% nece%%a ( to o&e ate the obot & o&e l( and u%e it automaticall( in con-unction *ith othe &e i&he al e=ui&ment. Thi% in%t uction a&&lie% to 'i<ed indu%t ial obot% and obot %(%tem% onl(. See A&&endi< I$F?!8 'o the %(%tem% that a e e<cluded. A. ACCIDENTS5 'AST STUDIES. 130

II.

Studie% in S*eden and #a&an indicate that man( obot accident% do not occu unde no mal o&e atin, condition% but, in%tead du in, & o, ammin,, & o, am touch!u& o e'inement, maintenance, e&ai , te%tin,, %etu&, o ad-u%tment. 2u in, man( o' the%e o&e ation% the o&e ato , & o, amme , o co ecti+e maintenance *o )e ma( tem&o a il( be *ithin the obotM% *o )in, en+elo&e *he e unintended o&e ation% could e%ult in in-u ie%. 8. T(&ical accident% ha+e included the 'ollo*in,F A obotM% a m 'unctioned e aticall( du in, a & o, ammin, %e=uence and %t uc) the o&e ato . A mate ial% handlin, obot o&e ato ente ed a obotM% *o ) en+elo&e du in, o&e ation% and *a% &inned bet*een the bac) end o' the obot and a %a'et( &ole. A 'ello* em&lo(ee accidentall( t i&&ed the &o*e %*itch *hile a maintenance *o )e *a% %e +icin, an a%%embl( obot. The obotM% a m %t uc) the maintenance *o )e M% hand. B. ROBOT SAFEAUARDINA. 1. The & o&e %election o' an e''ecti+e obotic %a'e,ua din, %(%tem %hould be ba%ed u&on a ha>a d anal(%i% o' the obot %(%temM% u%e, & o, ammin,, and maintenance o&e ation%. Amon, the 'acto % to be con%ide ed a e the ta%)% a obot *ill be & o, ammed to &e 'o m, %ta t!u& and command o & o, ammin, & ocedu e%, en+i onmental condition%, location and in%tallation e=ui ement%, &o%%ible human e o %, %cheduled and un%cheduled maintenance, &o%%ible obot and %(%tem mal'unction%, no mal mode o' o&e ation, and all &e %onnel 'unction% and dutie%. 8. An e''ecti+e %a'e,ua din, %(%tem & otect% not onl( o&e ato % but al%o en,inee %, & o, amme %, maintenance &e %onnel, and an( othe % *ho *o ) on o *ith obot %(%tem% and could be e<&o%ed to ha>a d% a%%ociated *ith a obotM% o&e ation. A combination o' %a'e,ua din, method% ma( be u%ed. Redundanc( and bac)u& %(%tem% a e e%&eciall( ecommended, &a ticula l( i' a obot o obot %(%tem i% o&e atin, in ha>a dou% condition% o handlin, ha>a dou% mate ial%. The %a'e,ua din, de+ice% em&lo(ed %hould not them%el+e% con%titute o act a% a ha>a d o cu tail nece%%a ( +i%ion o +ie*in, b( attendin, human o&e ato %. >A7ARDS. The o&e ational cha acte i%tic% o' obot% can be %i,ni'icantl( di''e ent ' om othe machine% and e=ui&ment. Robot% a e ca&able o' hi,h!ene ,( ('a%t o &o*e 'ul" mo+ement% th ou,h a la ,e +olume o' %&ace e+en be(ond the ba%e dimen%ion% o' the obot (%ee /i,u e I$F?!I". The &atte n and initiation o' mo+ement o' the obot i% & edictable i' the item bein, R*o )edR and the en+i onment a e held con%tant. An( chan,e to the ob-ect bein, *o )ed (i.e., a &h(%ical model chan,e" o the en+i onment can a''ect the & o, ammed mo+ement%.

1.

A ROBOTNS !ORG EN@ELO'E.

Some maintenance and & o, ammin, &e %onnel ma( be e=ui ed to be *ithin the e%t icted en+elo&e *hile &o*e i% a+ailable to actuato %. The e%t icted en+elo&e o' the obot can o+e la& a &o tion o' the e%t icted en+elo&e o' othe obot% o *o ) >one% o' othe indu%t ial machine% and elated e=ui&ment. Thu%, a *o )e can be hit b( one obot *hile *o )in, on anothe , t a&&ed bet*een them o &e i&he al e=ui&ment, o hit b( 'l(in, ob-ect% elea%ed b( the , i&&e . 131

A obot *ith t*o o mo e e%ident & o, am% can 'ind the cu ent o&e atin, & o, am e oneou%l( callin, anothe e<i%tin, & o, am *ith di''e ent o&e atin, &a amete % %uch a% +elocit(, accele ation, o decele ation, o &o%ition *ithin the obotM% e%t icted en+elo&e. The occu ence o' thi% mi,ht not be & edictable b( maintenance o & o, ammin, &e %onnel *o )in, *ith the obot. A com&onent mal'unction could al%o cau%e an un& edictable mo+ement andLo obot a m +elocit(. Additional ha>a d% can al%o e%ult ' om the mal'unction o', o e o % in, inte 'acin, o & o, ammin, o' othe & oce%% o &e i&he al e=ui&ment. The o&e atin, chan,e% *ith the & oce%% bein, &e 'o med o the b ea)do*n o' con+e(o %, clam&in, mechani%m%, o & oce%% %en%o % could cau%e the obot to eact in a di''e ent manne . I. T*'ES OF ACCIDENTS. Robotic incident% can be , ou&ed into 'ou cate,o ie%F a obotic a m o cont olled tool cau%e% the accident, &lace% an indi+idual in a i%) ci cum%tance, an acce%%o ( o' the obotM% mechanical &a t% 'ail%, o the &o*e %u&&lie% to the obot a e uncont olled. 1. 8. 3. Im%a&t or Co$$i ion A&&ident . 0n& edicted mo+ement%, com&onent mal'unction%, o un& edicted & o, am chan,e% elated to the obotM% a m o &e i&he al e=ui&ment can e%ult in contact accident%. Cr- (in4 and Tra%%in4 A&&ident . A *o )e M% limb o othe bod( &a t can be t a&&ed bet*een a obotM% a m and othe &e i&he al e=ui&ment, o the indi+idual ma( be &h(%icall( d i+en into and c u%hed b( othe &e i&he al e=ui&ment. Me&(ani&a$ 'art A&&ident . The b ea)do*n o' the obotM% d i+e com&onent%, toolin, o end!e''ecto , &e i&he al e=ui&ment, o it% &o*e %ou ce i% a mechanical accident. The elea%e o' &a t%, 'ailu e o' , i&&e mechani%m, o the 'ailu e o' end!e''ecto &o*e tool% (e.,., , indin, *heel%, bu''in, *heel%, debu in, tool%, &o*e %c e*d i+e %, and nut unne %" a e a 'e* t(&e% o' mechanical 'ailu e%. Ot(er A&&ident . Othe accident% can e%ult ' om *o )in, *ith obot%. E=ui&ment that %u&&lie% obot &o*e and cont ol e& e%ent% &otential elect ical and & e%%u i>ed 'luid ha>a d%. Ru&tu ed h(d aulic line% could c eate dan,e ou% hi,h!& e%%u e cuttin, %t eam% o *hi&&in, ho%e ha>a d%. En+i onmental accident% ' om a c 'la%h, metal %&atte , du%t, elect oma,netic, o adio!' e=uenc( inte 'e ence can al%o occu . In addition, e=ui&ment and &o*e cable% on the 'loo & e%ent t i&&in, ha>a d%.

?.

II.

SOURCES OF >A7ARDS. The e<&ected ha>a d% o' machine to human% can be e<&ected *ith %e+e al additional +a iation%, a% 'ollo*%. 1. >-man Error . Inhe ent & io & o, ammin,, inte 'acin, acti+ated &e i&he al e=ui&ment, o connectin, li+e in&ut!out&ut %en%o % to the mic o& oce%%o o a &e i&he al can cau%e dan,e ou%, un& edicted mo+ement o action b( the obot ' om human e o . The inco ect acti+ation o' the Rteach &endantR o cont ol &anel i% a ' e=uent human e o . The greatest problem! however! is overfamiliarity with the robot"s red ndant motions %o that an indi+idual &lace% him%el' in a ha>a dou% &o%ition *hile & o, ammin, the obot o &e 'o min, maintenance on it. Contro$ Error . Int in%ic 'ault% *ithin the cont ol %(%tem o' the obot, e o % in %o't*a e, elect oma,netic inte 'e ence, and adio ' e=uenc( inte 'e ence a e cont ol 138

8.

3. ?. A.

I.

4.

e o %. In addition, the%e e o % can occu due to 'ault% in the h(d aulic, &neumatic, o elect ical %ubcont ol% a%%ociated *ith the obot o obot %(%tem. Una-t(ori?ed A&&e . Ent ( into a obotM% %a'e,ua ded a ea i% ha>a dou% becau%e the &e %on in+ol+ed ma( not be 'amilia *ith the %a'e,ua d% in &lace o thei acti+ation %tatu%. Me&(ani&a$ Fai$-re . O&e atin, & o, am% ma( not account 'o cumulati+e mechanical &a t 'ailu e, and 'ault( o une<&ected o&e ation ma( occu . En#ironmenta$ So-r&e . Elect oma,netic o adio!' e=uenc( inte 'e ence (t an%ient %i,nal%" %hould be con%ide ed to e<e t an unde%i able in'luence on obotic o&e ation and inc ea%e the &otential 'o in-u ( to an( &e %on *o )in, in the a ea. Solution% to en+i onmental ha>a d% %hould be documented & io to e=ui&ment %ta t!u&. 'o+er Sy tem . Pneumatic, h(d aulic, o elect ical &o*e %ou ce% that ha+e mal'unctionin, cont ol o t an%mi%%ion element% in the obot &o*e %(%tem can di% u&t elect ical %i,nal% to the cont ol andLo &o*e !%u&&l( line%. /i e i%)% a e inc ea%ed b( elect ical o+e load% o b( u%e o' 'lammable h(d aulic oil. Elect ical %hoc) and elea%e o' %to ed ene ,( ' om accumulatin, de+ice% al%o can be ha>a dou% to &e %onnel. Im%ro%er In ta$$ation. The de%i,n, e=ui ement%, and la(out o' e=ui&ment, utilitie%, and 'acilitie% o' a obot o obot %(%tem, i' inade=uatel( done, can lead to inhe ent ha>a d%.

II.

IN@ESTIAATION AUIDELINES. I. MANUFACTURED) REMANUFACTURED) AND REBUILT ROBOTS. 1. All obot% %hould meet minimum de%i,n e=ui ement% to en%u e %a'e o&e ation b( the u%e . Con%ide ation need% to be ,i+en to a numbe o' 'acto % in de%i,nin, and buildin, the obot% to indu%t ( %tanda d%. I' olde o ob%olete obot% a e ebuilt o emanu'actu ed, the( %hould be u&, aded to con'o m to cu ent indu%t ( %tanda d%. 8. E+e ( obot %hould be de%i,ned, manu'actu ed, emanu'actu ed, o ebuilt *ith %a'e de%i,n and manu'actu in, con%ide ation%. Im& o&e de%i,n and manu'actu e can e%ult in ha>a d% to &e %onnel i' minimum indu%t ( %tanda d% a e not con'o med to on mechanical com&onent%, cont ol%, method% o' o&e ation, and othe e=ui ed in'o mation nece%%a ( to in%u e %a'e and & o&e o&e atin, & ocedu e%. To en%u e that obot% a e de%i,ned, manu'actu ed, emanu'actu ed, and ebuilt to en%u e %a'e o&e ation, it i% ecommended that the( com&l( *ith Section ? o' the A1SILRIA R1A.0I!1EE8 %tanda d 'o Man fact ring! #eman fact re! and #eb ild of #obots$

II.

INSTALLATION. 1. A obot o obot %(%tem %hould be in%talled b( the u%e % in acco dance *ith the manu'actu e M% ecommendation% and in con'o mance to acce&table indu%t ( %tanda d%. Tem&o a ( %a'e,ua din, de+ice% and & actice% %hould be u%ed to minimi>e the ha>a d% a%%ociated *ith the in%tallation o' ne* e=ui&ment. The 'acilitie%, &e i&he al e=ui&ment, and o&e atin, condition% *hich %hould be con%ide ed a eF In%tallation %&eci'ication%; Ph(%ical 'acilitie%; 133

Elect ical 'acilitie%; Action o' &e i&he al e=ui&ment inte, ated *ith the obot; Identi'ication e=ui ement%; Cont ol and eme ,enc( %to& e=ui ement%; and S&ecial obot o&e atin, & ocedu e% o condition%.

8.

To en%u e %a'e o&e atin, & actice% and %a'e in%tallation o' obot% and obot %(%tem%, it i% ecommended that the minimum e=ui ement% o' Section A o' the A1SILRIA R1A.0I! 1EE8, In%tallation o' Robot% and Robot S(%tem% be 'ollo*ed. In addition, OS9AM% %ocko t&Tago t standards '() CF# *)*+$*4, and *)*+$---. mu%t be 'ollo*ed 'o %e +icin, and maintenance.

III.

CONTROL AND SAFEAUARDINA 'ERSONNEL. /o the &lannin, %ta,e, in%tallation, and %ub%e=uent o&e ation o' a obot o obot %(%tem, one %hould con%ide the 'ollo*in,. 1. RISG ASSESSMENT. At each %ta,e o' de+elo&ment o' the obot and obot %(%tem a i%) a%%e%%ment %hould be &e 'o med. The e a e di''e ent %(%tem and &e %onnel %a'e,ua din, e=ui ement% at each %ta,e. The a&& o& iate le+el o' %a'e,ua din, dete mined b( the i%) a%%e%%ment %hould be a&&lied. In addition, the i%) a%%e%%ment% 'o each %ta,e o' de+elo&ment %hould be documented 'o 'utu e e'e ence. SAFEAUARDINA DE@ICES. Pe %onnel %hould be %a'e,ua ded ' om ha>a d% a%%ociated *ith the e%t icted en+elo&e (%&ace" th ou,h the u%e o' one o mo e %a'e,ua din, de+ice%F Mechanical limitin, de+ice%; 1onmechanical limitin, de+ice%; P e%ence!%en%in, %a'e,ua din, de+ice%; /i<ed ba ie % (*hich & e+ent contact *ith mo+in, &a t%"; and Inte loc)ed ba ie ,ua d%.

8.

11

A!ARENESS DE@ICES. T(&ical a*a ene%% de+ice% include chain o o&e ba ie % *ith %u&&o tin, %tanchion% o 'la%hin, li,ht%, %i,n%, *hi%tle%, and ho n%. The( a e u%uall( u%ed in con-unction *ith othe %a'e,ua din, de+ice%. SAFEAUARDINA T>E TEAC>ER. S&ecial con%ide ation mu%t be ,i+en to the teache o &e %on *ho i% & o, ammin, the obot. 2u in, the teach mode o' o&e ation, the &e %on &e 'o min, the teachin, ha% cont ol o' the obot and a%%ociated e=ui&ment and %hould be 'amilia *ith the o&e ation% to be & o, ammed, %(%tem inte 'acin,, and cont ol 'unction% o' the obot and othe e=ui&ment. 6hen %(%tem% a e la ,e and com&le<, it can be ea%( to acti+ate im& o&e 'unction% o %e=uence 'unction% im& o&e l(. Since the &e %on doin, the t ainin, can be *ithin the obotM% e%t icted en+elo&e, %uch mi%ta)e% can e%ult in accident%. Mi%ta)e% in & o, ammin, can e%ult in unintended mo+ement o action% *ith %imila e%ult%. /o thi% 13?

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ea%on, a e%t icted %&eed o' 8A0 mmL_ o 10 inL_ %hould be &laced on an( &a t o' the obot du in, t ainin, to minimi>e &otential in-u ie% to teachin, &e %onnel. Se+e al othe %a'e,ua d% a e %u,,e%ted in the A1SILRIA R1A.0I!1EE8 %tanda d to educe the ha>a d% a%%ociated *ith teachin, a obotic %(%tem. O'ERATOR SAFEAUARDS. The %(%tem o&e ato %hould be & otected ' om all ha>a d% du in, o&e ation% &e 'o med b( the obot. 6hen the obot i% o&e atin, automaticall(, all %a'e,ua din, de+ice% %hould be acti+ated, and at no time %hould an( &a t o' the o&e ato M% bod( be *ithin the obotM% %a'e,ua ded a ea. /o additional o&e ato %a'e,ua din, %u,,e%tion%, %ee the A1SILRIA R1A.0I!1EE8 %tanda d, Section I.I. ATTENDED CONTINUOUS O'ERATION. 6hen a &e %on i% &e mitted to be in o nea the obot% e%t icted en+elo&e to e+aluate o chec) the obot% motion o othe o&e ation%, all continuou% o&e ation %a'e,ua d% mu%t be in 'o ce. 2u in, thi% o&e ation, the obot %hould be at %lo* %&eed, and the o&e ato *ould ha+e the obot in the teach mode and be 'ull( in cont ol o' all o&e ation%. Othe %a'e,ua din, e=ui ement% a e %u,,e%ted in the A1SILRIA R1A.0I!1EE8 %tanda d, Section I.4. MAINTENANCE AND RE'AIR 'ERSONNEL. Sa'e,ua din, maintenance and e&ai &e %onnel i% +e ( di''icult becau%e thei -ob 'unction% a e %o +a ied. T ouble%hootin, 'ault% o & oblem% *ith the obot, cont olle , toolin,, o othe a%%ociated e=ui&ment i% -u%t &a t o' thei -ob. P o, am touchu& i% anothe o' thei -ob% a% i% %cheduled maintenance, and ad-u%tment% o' toolin,, ,a,e%, ecalib ation, and man( othe t(&e% o' 'unction%. 6hile maintenance and e&ai i% bein, &e 'o med, the obot %hould be &laced in the manual o teach mode, and the maintenance &e %onnel &e 'o m thei *o ) *ithin the %a'e,ua ded a ea and *ithin the obot% e%t icted en+elo&e. Additional ha>a d% a e & e%ent du in, thi% mode o' o&e ation becau%e the obot %(%tem %a'e,ua d% a e not o&e ati+e. To & otect maintenance and e&ai &e %onnel, %a'e,ua din, techni=ue% and & ocedu e% a% %tated in the A1SILRIA R1A.0I!1EE8 %tanda d, Section I.8, a e ecommended. MAINTENANCE. Maintenance %hould occu du in, the e,ula and &e iodic in%&ection & o, am 'o a obot o obot %(%tem. An in%&ection & o, am %hould include, but not be limited to, the ecommendation% o' the obot manu'actu e and manu'actu e o' othe a%%ociated obot %(%tem e=ui&ment %uch a% con+e(o mechani%m%, &a t% 'eede %, toolin,, ,a,e%, %en%o %, and the li)e. The%e ecommended in%&ection and maintenance & o, am% a e e%%ential 'o minimi>in, the ha>a d% ' om com&onent mal'unction, b ea)a,e, and un& edicted mo+ement% o action% b( the obot o othe %(%tem e=ui&ment. To en%u e & o&e maintenance, it i% ecommended that &e iodic maintenance and in%&ection% be documented alon, *ith the identit( o' &e %onnel &e 'o min, the%e ta%)%. SAFET* TRAININA. Pe %onnel *ho & o, am, o&e ate, maintain, o e&ai obot% o obot %(%tem% %hould ecei+e ade=uate %a'et( t ainin,, and the( %hould be able to demon%t ate thei com&etence to &e 'o m thei -ob% %a'el(. Em&lo(e % can e'e to OS9AM% &ublication 88A? (Re+i%ed", RT ainin, Re=ui ement% in OS9A Standa d% and T ainin, :uideline%.R

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AENERAL RE<UIREMENTS. To en%u e minimum %a'e o&e atin, & actice% and %a'e,ua d% 'o obot% and obot %(%tem% co+e ed b( thi% in%t uction, the 'ollo*in, %ection% o' the A1SILRIA R1A.0I!1EE8 mu%t al%o be con%ide edF

ECONOMIC ANAL*SIS FOR ROBOTICS In addition to the technolo,ical con%ide ation% in+ol+ed in a&&lication% en,inee in, 'o a obotic% & o-ect, the e i% al%o the economic i%%ue. 6ill the obot -u%ti'( it%el' economicall(N The economic anal(%i% 'o an( & o&o%ed en,inee in, & o-ect i% o' con%ide able im&o tance in mo%t com&anie% becau%e mana,ement u%uall( decide% *hethe to in%tall the & o-ect on the ba%i% o' thi% anal(%i%. In the & e%ent cha&te , *e con%ide the economic anal(%i% o' a obot & o-ect. 6e di%cu%% the +a iou% co%t% and &otential bene'it% a%%ociated *ith the obot in%tallation, and *e de%c ibe %e+e al method% 'o anal(>in, the%e 'acto % to dete mine the economic me it% o' the & o-ect.

ECONOMIC ANAL*SIS5 BASIC DATA RE<UIRED To &e 'o m the economic anal(%i% o' a & o&o%ed obot & o-ect, ce tain ba%ic in'o mation i% needed about the & o-ect. Thi% in'o mation include% the t(&e o' & o-ect bein, con%ide ed, the co%t o' the obot in%tallation, the & oduction c(cle time, and the %a+in,% and bene'it% e%ultin, ' om the & o-ect. Ty%e of Robot In ta$$ation The e a e t*o ba%ic cate,o ie% o' obot in%tallation% that a e commonl( encounte ed. The 'i %t in+ol+e% a ne* a&&lication. Thi% i% *he e the e i% no e<i%tin, 'acilit(. In%tead, the e i% a need 'o a ne* 'acilit(, and a obot in%tallation e& e%ent% one o' the &o%%ible a&& oache% that mi,ht be u%ed to %ati%'( that need. In thi% ca%e, the +a iou% alte nati+e% a e com&a ed and the be%t alte nati+e i% %elected, a%%umin, it meet% the com&an(K% in+e%tment c ite ia. The %econd %ituation i% the obot in%tallation to e&lace a cu ent method o' o&e ation. The & e%ent method t(&icall( in+ol+e% a & oduction o&e ation that i% &e 'o med manuall(, and the obot *ould be u%ed %omeho* to %ub%titute 'o the human labo . In thi% %ituation, the economic -u%ti'ication o' the obot in%tallation o'ten de&end% on ho* ine''icient and co%tl( the manual method i%, athe than the ab%olute me it% o' the obot method. In eithe o' the%e %ituation%, ce tain ba%ic co%t in'o mation i% needed in o de to &e 'o m the economic anal(%i%. The 'ollo*in, %ub%ection di%cu%%e% the )ind% o' co%t and o&e atin, data that a e u%ed to anal(>e the alte nati+e in+e%tment & o-ect%. The method% b( *hich the anal(%i% i% accom&li%hed a e e<&lained late in the cha&te 13I

Co%t 2ata Re=ui ed 'o the Anal(%i% The co%t data e=ui ed to &e 'o m the economic anal(%i% o' a obot & o-ect di+ide into t*o t(&e%F in+e%tment co%t% and o&e atin, co%t%. The in+e%tment Table 18!1 2i ect co%t% a%%ociated *ith obot & o-ect A. In#e tment &ott 1. Robot &u cha%e co%tTThe ba%ic & ice o' the obot e=ui&&ed ' om the manu'actu e *ith the & o&e o&tion% (e<cludin, end e''ecto " to &e 'o m the a&&lication. 8. En,inee in, co%t%T The co%t% o' &lannin, and de%i,n b( the u%e com&an(K% en,inee in, %ta'' to in%tall the obot. 3. In%tallation co%t%T Thi% include% the labo and mate ial% needed to & e&a e the in%tallation %ite (& o+i%ion 'o utilitie%, 'loo & e&a ation, etc.". ?. S&ecial toolin,T Thi% include% the co%t o' the end e'lecto , &a t% &o%ition and othe 'i<tu e% and tool% e=ui ed to o&e ate the *o ) cell, A. Mi%cellaneou% co%t%TThi% co+e % the additional in+e%tment co%t% not included b( an( o' the abo+e cate,o ie% (e.,., othe e=ui&ment needed 'o the cell". B. O&e atin, co%t% and %a+in,% I. 2i ect labo co%tTThe di ect labo co%t a%%ociated *ith the o&e ation o' the obot cell. / in,e bene'it% a e u%uall( included in the calculation o' di ect labo ate, but othe o+e head co%t% a e e<cluded. 4. Indi ect labo co%tTThe indi ect labo co%t% that can be di ectl( allocated to thc o&e ation o' the obot cell. The%e co%t% include %u&e +i%ion, %etu&, & o, ammin,, and othe &e %onnel co%t% not included in cate,o ( I abo+e. 8. MaintenanceTThi% co+e % the antici&ated co%t% o' maintenance and e&ai 'o the obot cell. The%e co%t% a e included unde thi% %e&a ate headin, athe than in cate,o ( 4 becau%e the maintenance co%t% in+ol+e not onl( indi ect labo (the maintenance c e*" but al%o mate ial% ( e&lacement &a t%" and %e +ice call% b( the obot manu'actu e . A ea%onable Y ule o' thumbD in the ab%ence o' bette data i% that the annual maintenance co%t 'o %he obot *ill be a&& o<imatel( 10 &e cent o' the &u cha%e & ice (cate,o ( I". E. 0tilitie%Tthi% include% the co%t o' utilitie% to o&e ate the obot cell (e.,., elect icit(, ai & e%%u e, ,a%". The%e a e u%uall( mino co%t% com&a ed to the abo+e item%. 10. T ainin,TT ainin, mi,ht be con%ide ed to be an in+e%tment co%t becau%e much o' the t ainin, e=ui ed 'o the in%tallation *ill occu a% a 'i %t co%t o' the in%tallation. 9o*e+e , t ainin, %hould he a continuin, acti+it(, and %o it i% included a% an o&e atin, co%t. Co%t% include the &u cha%e co%t o' the obot and the en,inee in, co%t% a%%ociated *ith it% in%tallation in the *o ) cell. In man( obot a&&lication & o-ect%. the en,inee in, co%t% can e=ual o e<ceed the &u cha%e co%t o' 134

the obot. Table 18TI & e%ent% a li%t o' the in+e%tment co%t% t(&icall( encounte ed in obot & o-ect%. The o&e atin, co%t% include the co%t o' an( labo needed to o&e ate the cell, maintenance co%t%, and othe e<&en%e% a%%ociated *ith the obot cell o&e ation. lhe table li%t% mo%t o' the ma-o o&e atin, co%t% 'o a obot a&&lication & o-ect. In the ca%e o' the o&e atin, co%t%, it i% o'ten con+enient to identi'( the co%t %a+in,% that *ill e%ult ' om the u%e o' a obot a% com&a ed to an e<i%tin, method, athe than to %e&a atel( identit( the o&e atin, co%t% o' the alte nati+e method%. Mate ial %a+in,%, %c a& eduction%. and ad+anta,e% e%ultin, ' om mo e con%i%tent =ualit( a c e<am&le% o' the%e %a+in,%. Item% I th ou,h loin Table 18!I %hould he inte & eted to allo* 'o thi% &o%%ible method o' decla in, co%t %a+in,% bet*een the alte nati+e%. The manne in *hich the%e in+e%tment co%t% and o&e atin, co%t% &la( out o+e the li'e o' the obot in%tallation can he conce&tuali>ed a% illu%t ated in /i,. 18!1. At the be,innin, o' the & o-ect, the in+e%tment co%t% a e bein, &aid into the & o-ect *ith no immediate etu n. 6hen the in%tallation i% com&leted and the & o-ect be,in% o&e ation, the o&e atin, co%t% be,in. I le+ele , the e i% al%o a com&en%atin, ca%h 11 e& e%entin, e+enue% to the com&an( *hich %hould e<ceed the amount o' the o&e atin, co%t. The di''e ence bet*een the e+enue% and the o&e atin, co%t% i% the net ca%h 'lo*. At the be,innin, o' o&e ation%, the e a e u%uall( %ta tu& & oblem% to be %ol+ed and Chu,%D to he *o )ed out o' the %(%tem. The%e di''icultie% o'ten & e+ent the net ca%h 'lo* ' om immediatel( eachin, the %tead(!%tate +alue antici&ated 'o the & o-ect. I' the obot & o-ect i% a ,ood in+e%tment, the net ca%h 'lo* *ill allo* the com&an( to eco+e it% in+e% co%t% in the & o-ect in a elati+el( %ho t &e iod o' time. The &oint at *hich the in+e%tment i% eco+e ed i% di%&la(ed in /i,. 18!1 a% the &a(hac) &e iod, and thi% &a+hac) &e iod e& e%ent% one o' %e+e al method% 'o e+aluatin, in+e%tment alte nati+e% The &a &e iod method, a% *ell a% %e+e al othe method% 'o anal(>in, the economic% o' ohot & o-ect% a e di%cu%%ed in the 'ollo*in, %ection. MET>ODS OF ECONOMIC ANAL*SIS 6e %hall de%c ihe th ee method% 'o anal(>in, in+e%tment% and com&a in, in+e%tment alte nati+e% that a e in common u%e in indu%t (. The th ee method% a eF 1. Pa(bac)(o &a(bac) &e iod" method

8. E=ui+alent uni'o m annual co%t (/0AC" method 3. Retu n on in+e%tment (ROl" method

138

Each o' the method% accom&li%he% the anal(%i% u%in, a %li,htl( di''e ent t*i%t. Ideall(, the %ame deci%ion %hould be eached no matte *hich method i% u%ed; ho*e+e , thi% i% not al*a(% the ca%e. 6e a%%ume that the eade ha% %ome 'amilia it( *ith the & inci&le% o' en,inee in, econom(.

'ayba&" Met(od
The &a(bac) method u%e% the conce&t o' the &a(bac) &e iod a% %ho*n in /i,. 18 The &a(bac) &e iod i% the len,th o' time e=ui ed 'o the net ac! cumulated ca%h 'lo* to e=ual the initial in+e%tment in the & o-ect. 0nde the a%%um&tion that the net annual ca%h 'lo*% a e e=ual ' om (ea to (ea . Thi% notion can be educed to the 'ollo*in, %im&le 'o mula

*he e

n Z the &a(hac) &e iod

IC Z the in+e%tment co%t 1AC/ Z the net annual ca%h 'lo* In mo%t in+e%tment & o-ect% it *ould be unli)el( that the ca%h 'lo*% *ould be e<actl( e=ual each (ea . 6hen the e a e (ea !to!(ea di''e ence% in the ca%h 'lo*%, E=. (18!t" mu%t he alte ed %li,htl( to account 'o the di''e ence%. The %ub%c i&t i i% u%ed to identi'( the (ea in the 'ollo*in,.

In thi% e=uation, the +alue o' n i% dete mined %o that the %um o' the annual ca%h 'lo*% i% e=ual to the initial in+e%tment co%t. In the %&ecial ca%e *hen the net annual ca%h 'lo*% a e e=ual, E=. (18!8" can he eca%t a% Thi% i% e=ui+alent to E=. (18!1". The eade %hould note that *e ha+e ado&ted the lo,ical con+ention that co%t% a e t eated a% ne,ati+e +alue% and e+enue% o Sa+in,% (a% *ell a% & o'it%" a e t eated a% &o%iti+e +alue% in the%e e=uation%. The 1AC/ i% a%%umed to be a &o%iti+e ca%h 'lo* %ince e+enue% de i+ed ' om the obot & o-ect *ould he , eate than the o&e atin, co%t% (*e ho&e". 6e ha+e al%o a%%umed that all ca%h 'lo*% occu eithe at the be,innin, o' the (ea o at the end o' the (ea . An( in+e%tment% a e a%%umed to be t an%action% that occu at the be,innin, o' the (ea , *hile the net annual ca%h 'lo*% ate a%%umed to be end!o'!(ea t an%action%. 13E

Mo%t com&anie% toda( e=ui e &a(bac)% o' no mo e than t*o o th ee (ea %. An in+e%tment *ho%e ca%h 'lo* &a(% bac) the in+e%tment in le%% than one (ea i% con%ide ed e<cellent. 3et u% illu%t ate the &a(bac) method b( mean% o' the 'ollo*in, e<am&le. E<am&le 18!1 Su&&o%e that the total in+e%tment co%t i% e%timated to he `100,000 'o a &a ticula obot & o-ect The total o&e atin, co%t% (labo , maintenance, and othe annual e<&en%e%" a e e<&ected to be `80,000 &e (ea , and the antici&ated e+enue% ' om the obot in%tallation a e `IA,000 annuall(. It i% e<&ected that the obot & o-ect *ill ha+e a %e +ice li'e o' A (ea %. 2ete mine the &a(hac) &e iod that i% e<&ected o' the in+e%tment. The net annual ca%h 'lo* 'o the obot & o-ect i% `IA,000T `80,000 Z `?A,000. 0%in, E=.

One o' the di%ad+anta,e% o' the &a(bac) &e iod method i% that it i,no e% the time +alue o' mone(. It doe% not con%ide the ob-ecti+e o' the com&an( to de i+e a ce tain minimum ate o' etu n ' om it% in+e%tment%. The othe t*o method% to be di%cu%%ed do include thi% con%ide ation.

E=-i#a$ent Uniform Ann-a$ Co t Met(od

The e=ui+alent uni'o m annual co%t (E0AC" method con+e t% all o' the & e%ent and 'utu e in+e%tment% and ca%h 'lo*% into thei e=ui+alent uni'o m ca%h 'lo*% o+e the antici&ated li'e o' the & o-ect. It doe% thi% b( ma)in, u%e o' the +a iou% inte e%t 'acto % a%%ociated *ith en,inee in, econom( calculation%. 6e & e%ent a tabulation o' the%e inte e%t 'acto % in an a&&endi< to thi% cha&te , and *e %a+e a con%ide able amount o' e<&lanation b( a%%umin, that the eade i% 'amilia *ith thei u%e. To be,in *ith, the com&an( mu%t %elect a minimum att acti+e ate!o'! etu n (MARR" *hich i% u%ed a% a c ite ion to decide *hethe a &otential in+e%tment & o-ect %hould be 'unded. Toda(, MARR +alue% o' 80 to A0 &e cent a e not unu%ual 'o obot & o-ect%. 0%in, the inte e%t 'acto % 'o the MARR to ma)e the con+e %ion%, the uni'o m annual co%t method then %um% u& the E0AC +alue% 'o each o' the +a iou% in+e%tment% and ca%h 'lo*% a%%ociated *ith the & o-ect. I' the %um o' the 3 i% , eate than >e o, thi% i% inte & eted to mean that the actual ate o' etu n a%%ociated *ith the in+e%tment i% , eate than the MARR u%ed b( the com&an( a% the c ite ion. I' the /0AC %um i% le%% than >e o, then the & o-ect i% con%ide ed unatt acti+e

1?0

E<am&le 18!8 6e *ill illu%t ate the E0AC method u%in, the %ame data ' om E<am&le 18!1. The com&an( u%e% a 30 &e cent MARR a% a c ite ion 'o %electin, it% in+e%tment & o-ect%. A% mentioned in E<am&le 18!1, the obot & o-ect i% e<&ected to ha+e a A!(ea %e +ice li'e, and that i% *hat *e %hall u%e in dete minin, the +alue% 'o an( inte e%t 'acto % e=ui ed in ou calculation%. The annual o&e atin, co%t (`80,000" and the annual e+enue% (`IA,000" a e al ead( e<& e%%ed a% uni'o m annual ca%h 'lo*%. The initial in+e%tment co%t (`100,000" mu%t he con+e ted to it% e=ui+alent uni'o m annual ca%h +alue u%in, the ca&ital eco+e ( 'acto ' om the a&&endi<. The %um o' the annual ca%h 'lo*% *ould he 'i,u ed a% 'ollo*%.

Since the e%ultin, uni'o m annual co%t +alue i% &o%iti+e, thi% obot & o-ect *ould be a ,ood in+e%tment.

Ret-rn on In#e tment Met(od

The etu n on in+e%tment (ROl" method dete mine% the ate o' etu n 'o the & o&o%ed & o-ect ba%ed on the e%timated co%t% and e+enue%. Thi% ate o' etu n i% then com&a ed *ith the com&an(K% minimum att acti+e ate o' etu n to decide *hethe the in+e%tment i% -u%ti'ied. The dete mination o' the ate o' etu n in+ol+e% %ettin, u& an e=ui+alent uni'o m annual co%t e=uation %imila to the one u%ed in E<am&le 18!8. The di''e ence i% that the E0AC %um on the le't!hand %ide o' the e=uation i% made e=ual to >e o. Then the +alue% o' the inte e%t 'acto % (and co e%&ondin,l(, the inte e%t ate%" a e 'ound that ma)e the i,ht!hand %ide o' the e=uation %um to >e o. The 'ollo*in, e<am&le *ill illu%t ate thi% & ocedu e. E<am&le 18!3 A,ain the %ame data a e u%ed ' om ou & e+iou% t*o e<am&le%. The com&an(K% MARR i% 30 &e cent a% be'o e. The E0AC e=uation *ould be %et u& a% 'ollo*%.

3oo)in, th ou,h the inte e%t 'acto table% 'o a match o' the ALP 'acto 'o n Z A (ea %, *e 'ind the 'ollo*in, +alue%F

B( inte &olation, the ate o' etu n 'o ou & oblem tu n% out to he Z 3?.E? &e cent. It can he %een that ou calculated +alue o' (ALP. i,A" Z 0.1A i% +e ( clo%e to (ALP. 3AWLo. A" Z (1.?A0?I, %o it %tand% to ea%on that the ate o' etu n 'o ou & oblem %hould he clo%e to 3A &e cent. 1?1

In E<am&le 18!3, the dete mination 'o *a d com&utation. 9o*e+e , man( calculation & ocedu e% becau%e the e i% mu%t be u%ed in the /0AC e=uation. 6e *ill demon%t ate thi% & ocedu e In E<am&le 18!?. Indeed, the e a e %e+e al com&lication% that a e encounte ed in the economic anal(%i% o' obot a&&lication% & oblem%. The%e com&lication% a e not nece%%a il( uni=ue to obotic% & oblem%. But *e *ill di%cu%% them in the conte<t o' obotic%.

1?8