INTRODUCTION

1.1. INTRODUCTION
During the past two decades, there has been an unprecedented growth in the number of products and services, which utilise information gained by monitoring and measuring using different types of sensors. The development of sensors to meet the need is referred to as sensor technology and is applicable in a very broad domain including the environment, medicine, commerce and industry. Governments and policy makers throughout the world are realising the potential benefits of encouraging the growth in sensor technology not only as a result of new technological trends, and hence new products, but also in support of the implementation and enforcement of government legislation on environmental and safety issues. There are different types of sensors and among those bend sensor is a type of pressure sensor widely used in biomedical domain. It works on the piezoresistive principle. Ealuation of commercial bend sensors shows that most of the bend sensors are not appropriate for repeatable measurements. In this paper, the design and characterization of bend sensors is discussed by using different materials which can overcome the disadvantage of commercially available bend sensors with the advantage of being cost effective. Also using bend sensors, a wireless application is successfully implemented. A bend sensor is a type of resistor composed of tiny patches of carbon that change resistance values when bent from convex to concave shapes. It consists of a coated substrate, such as plastic, that changes in electrical conductivity as it is bent. This provides non-mechanical reliability in electronic sensing and actuator technology. The bend sensor is used in conjunction with a voltage divider to provide changing voltages. This allows for incremental or gradual change measurements. Bend sensors can also be used to capture the joint motion of humans and robots and the hinged motion of toys and other objects.

A bend sensor is a very simple sensor which detects how much it is being bent. Its simplicity makes it versatile; it can be used to detect vibration, humidity, motion, impact, and air flow. For example, if it is sewed into the arm of a stuffed animal, it will respond when a child moves the arm, or place it inside the tube of a medical device to monitor the velocity of air through the tube (the faster the air, the more the sensor will bend). The sensor consists of a plastic film printed with a special carbon ink. The film is nothing unusual; the real innovation is the ink. The resistance of this ink decreases the more it is bent. The ink can be printed on virtually any custom shape and size film. It is designed primarily for detecting relative change. Because the plastic is hydrophilic (it absorbs moisture), the flexibility of the film changes with humidity. The investigation of the new possibilities offered by new technologies in the field of strain and bend sensors can lead to improve sensibility and accuracy, the fundamental topics to understand, as in deep as possible, the human locomotion control and the motion-neuronal activity. In particular, attention must be paid for increase the sensor numbers, applied to body-sample, which give parallel information on the locomotion activity. So more detailed maps can be obtained, in definition and crosscorrelation, among the several elements of the sensor/detector matrix, with the further possibility to capture information from the sensors adopting wireless technology. So wire ties can be removed between sensors and the central processor unit. Wireless technology can allow the increasing of sensor number (otherwise impossible to obtain), and the removing of wire ties in normal human motion. Wireless feasibility study must be investigated, with the adoption of circuital solutions electromagnetic based rather than optics as in the past (the optic has the drawback of not guarantee the visibility under all circumstances). Investigation must be focused on which can be an ad-hoc functional wireless communication system (band, protocol, etc) between the sensors and a receiving base station.

SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal which can be read by an observer or by an instrument. A sensor is a device which receives and responds to a signal. A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much the sensor's output changes when the measured quantity changes. Transducer is a device which transforms energy from one type to another, even if both energy types are in the same domain. Typical energy domains are mechanical, electrical, chemical, magnetic, optical and thermal. Transducer can be further divided into Sensors, which monitors a system and Actuators, which impose an action on the system.

CATEGORISATION OF SENSORS
Classification based on physical phenomena Power supply The power supply designed for catering a fixed demand connected in this project. The basic requirement for designing a power supply is as follows, 1. The voltage levels required for operating the devices is +5volt. Here +5 Volt required for operating microcontroller. And as well as required for drivers and amplifiers and ir transmitters and receivers. Strain gage Piezoelectric force sensor Optical force sensors FSR (force sensing resistor)

2. The current requirement of each device or load must be added to estimate the final capacity of the power supply. 3. The power supply always specified with one or multiple voltage outputs along with a current capacity. As it is estimate the requirement of power is approximately as follows, Out Put Voltage = +5Volt, Capacity = 1000mA The power supply basically consists of three sections as follows, 1. 2. 3. Step down section Rectifier Section Regulator section

Figure 3.4 Circuit diagram of power supply circuit Design principle There are two methods for designing power supply, the average value method and peak value method. In case of small power supply peak value method is quit economical, for a particular value of DC output the in put AC requirement is appreciably less. In this

method the DC out put is approximately equal to Vm. A full wave bridge rectifier is designed using two diodes and the output of the rectifier is filtered with a low pass filter. The capacitor value is decided so that it will back up for the voltage and current during the discharging period of the DC output. In this case the out put with reference to the center tap of the transformer is taken in to consideration, though the rectifier designed is a full wave bridge rectifier but the voltage across the load is a half wave rectified out put. The Regulator section used here is configured with a series regulator LM78XX the XX represents the output voltage and 78 series indicates the positive voltage regulator 79 series indicates the negative regulator for power supply. The positive regulator works satisfactorily between the voltage XX+2 to 40 Volt DC. The output remains constant within this range of voltage. The output remains constant within this range of voltage.

Circuit connection In this we are using Transformer (12-0-12) v / 1mA, IC 7805 , diodes IN 4007,LED & resistors.Here 230V, 50 Hz ac signal is given as input to the primary of the transformer and the secondary of the transformer is given to the bridge rectification diode. The positive out put of the bridge rectifier is given as i/p to the IC regulator (7805) through capacitor (1000uf/25v).The o/p of the IC regulator is given to the LED through resistors to act as indicator.

Encoder

Figure 3.6 Encoder

Features
Operating voltage

2.4V~5V for the HT12A 2.4V~12V for the HT12E Low power and high noise immunity CMOS technology

Low standby current: 0.1A (typ.) at VDD=5V

HT12A with a 38kHz carrier for infrared transmission medium

Minimum transmission word Four words for the HT12E One word for the HT12A Built-in oscillator needs only 5% resistor Data code has positive polarity Minimal external components HT12A/E: 18-pin DIP/20-pin SOP package

General Description
The 212 encoders are a series of CMOS LSIs for remote control system applications. They are capable of encoding information which consists of N address bits and 12_N data bits. Each address/ data input can be set to one of the two logic states. The programmed addresses/data are transmitted together with the header bits via an RF or an infrared transmission medium upon receipt of a trigger signal.

Block Diagram

Figure 3.7 Block diagram of encoder

Functional Description
Operation The 2^12 series of encoders begin a 4-word transmission cycle upon receipt of a transmission enable (TE for the HT12E or D8~D11 for the HT12A, active low). This cycle will repeat itself as long as the transmission enable (TE or D8~D11) is held low. Once the transmission enable returns high the encoder output completes its final cycle and then stops. Address/data programming (preset) The status of each address/data pin can be individually pre-set to logic highor low. If a transmission- enable signal is applied, the encoder scans and transmits the status of the 12 bits of address/ data serially in the order A0 to AD11 for the HT12E encoder and A0 to D11 for the HT12A encoder. During information transmission these bits are transmitted with a preceding synchronization bit. If the trigger signal is not applied, the chip enters the standby mode and consumes a reduced current of less than 1_A for a supply voltage of 5V. Usual applications preset the address pins with individual security codes using DIP switches or PCB wiring, while the data is selected by push buttons or electronic switches.

Decoder used in the RF communication

Figure 3.8 Decoder

Features
Operating voltage: 2.4V~12V Low power and high noise immunity CMOS Technology Capable of decoding 12 bits of information Binary address setting Received codes are checked 3 times Address/Data number combination HT12D: 8 address bits and 4 data bits HT12F: 12 address bits only Built-in oscillator needs only 5% resistor

Valid transmission indicator Easy interface with an RF or an infrared transmission medium

Minimal external components

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 3.9 Circuit diagram of power supply circuit

General Description The 2^12 decoders are a series of CMOS LSIs for remote control system applications. They are paired with Holtek_s 2^12 series of encoders. For proper operation, a pair of encoder/decoder with the same number of addresses and data format should be chosen. The decoders receive serial addresses and data from a programmed 2^12 series of encoders that are transmitted by a carrier using an RF or an IR transmission medium. They compare the serial input data three times continuously

with their loca addresses. If no error or unmatched codes are found, the input data codes are decoded and then transferred to the output pins. The VT pin also goes high to indicate a valid transmission. The 2^12 series of decoders are capable of decoding informations that consist of N bits of address and 12_N bits of data. Of this series, the HT12D is arranged to provide 8 address bits and 4 data bits, and HT12F is used to decode 12 bits of address information.
Functional Description

Operation The 2^12 series of decoders provides various combinations of addresses and data pins in different packages so as to pair with the 2^12 series of encoders. The decoders receive data that are transmitted by an encoder and interpret the first N bits of code period as addresses and the last 12_N bits as data, where N is the address code number. A signal on the DIN pin activates the oscillator which in turn decodes the incoming address and data. The decoders will then check the received address three times continuously. If the received address codes all match the contents of the decoder local address, the 12_N bits of data are decoded to activate the output pins and the VT pin is set high to indicate a valid transmission. This will last unless the address code is incorrect or no signal is received. The output of the VT pin is high only when the transmission is valid. Otherwise it is always low.

Output type Of the 2^12 series of decoders, the HT12F has no data output pin but its VT pin can be used as a momentary data output. The HT12D, on the other hand, provides 4 latch type data pins whose data remain unchanged until new data are received.

RF Module Interfacing:
The TWS-434 and RWS-434 are extremely small, and are excellent for applications requiring shortrange RF remote controls. The transmitter module is only 1/3 the size of a standard postage stamp, and can easily be placed inside a small plastic enclosure. TWS-434: The transmitter output is up to 8mW at 433.92MHz with a range of approximately 400 foot (open area) outdoors. Indoors, the range is approximately 200 foot, and will go through most walls.. The TWS-434 transmitter accepts both linear and digital inputs, can operate from 1.5 to 12 Volts-DC, and makes building a miniature hand-held RF transmitter very easy. The TWS-434 is approximately the size of a standard postage stamp.

TWS-434 Pin Diagram

Sample Transmitter Application Circuit RWS-434: The receiver also operates at 433.92MHz, and has a sensitivity of 3uV. The RWS-434 receiver operates from 4.5 to 5.5 volts-DC, and has both linear and digital outputs.

RWS-434 Pin Diagram Note: For maximum range, the recommended antenna should be approximately 35cm long. To convert from centimeters to inches multiply by 0.3937. For 35cm, the length in inches will be approximately 35cm x 0.3937 = 13.7795 inches long. We tested these modules using a 14, solid, 24 gauge hobby type wire, and reached a range of over 400 foot. Your results may vary depending on your surroundings.

Sample Receiver Application Circuit The example above shows the receiver section using the HT-12D decoder IC for a 4-bit RF remote control system. The transmitter and receiver can also use the Holtek 8-bit HT-640/HT-648L remote control encoder/decoder combination for an 8-bit RF remote control system. Here are the schematics for an 8-bit RF remote control system: Click Link to download the RWS & TWS datasheet in Adobe PDF format. Driving Relays: Using the outputs of the HT-12D or HT-648L decoder ICs to drive relays is quite simple. Here are schematics showing how to drive relays directly from the data-output pins of the decoder.

NPN Relay Driver Circuit

PNP Relay Driver Circuit TIP: Another option for driving relays would be to use a high-voltage, high-current, Darlington array driver IC such as the ULN2803. The ULN2803 can directly interface to the data outputs of the decoder IC, and provides much higher drive-current. The ULN2803 also has internal diode protection that eliminates the need for the fly-back diode as shown in the above relay driver schematics.

Conclusion: