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A1 Components of the Human Diet | BioNinja

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A1 Components of the Human Diet

A.1.1 Define nutrient A nutrient is a chemical substance found in foods that is used in the human body

A.1.2 List the type of nutrients that are essential in the human diet, including amino acids, fatty acids, minerals, vitamins and water Essential nutrients are those that cannot be synthesised by the body and must be ingested in the diet Carbohydrates are not considered essential nutrients because in certain human diets energy is obtained from other sources without ill effect Essential nutrients include: Amino acids (e.g. lysine and methionine) Fatty acids (omega 3 and omega 6) Minerals (iron, sodium, potassium, calcium, phosphorus and iodine) Vitamins (vitamins A, C, D and folate) Water

A.1.3 State that non-essential amino acids can be synthesised in the body from other nutrients Eleven out of the twenty amino acids are non-essential and can be synthesised in the body from other nutrients The body will only expend the energy required for their biosynthesis if they cannot be derived from the diet

A.1.4 Outline the consequences of protein deficiency malnutrition Protein deficiency malnutrition is caused by an inadequate supply of one or more essential amino acids As a result there are a lack of plasma proteins in the blood, leading to the retention of fluid in the tissues which causes abdominal bloating This is coupled with a wasting of muscles, flaky appearance of the skin and sparse hair with a lack of pigmentation In children especially, it results in a retardation of physical and mental development Individuals suffering from protein deficiency malnutrition will often present as lethargic, with little interest in their surrounding Protein deficiency malnutrition is a key factor in the development of kwashiorkor

Symptoms of Kwashiorkor

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A.1.5 Explain the causes and consequences of phenylketonuria (PKU) and how early diagnosis and a special diet can reduce the consequences Causes and Consequences of Phenylketonuria: A genetic mutation changes the gene coding for tyrosine hydroxylase, which is responsible for metabolising phenylalanine into tyrosine Phenylalanine is instead converted into phenylpyruvic acid, resulting in a high level of ketones in the blood and urine Over time, this may result in brain damage and mental retardation

Diagnosis and Treatment of Phenylketonuria: Diagnosis can be made by a simple blood test for the levels of phenylalanine this test is conducted shortly after birth As PKU results in the build up of phenylalanine in the bloodstream, it is treated by following a special diet that is low in protein Diet should include fruits, grains, vegetables and special formula milk and must be undertaken from early in life or else symptoms will appear Symptoms may include tremors, seizures, eczema, skin rashes and eventually brain damage (mental retardation)

A.1.6 Outline the variation in the molecular structure of fatty acids, including saturated fatty acids, cis and trans unsaturated fatty acids, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids Fatty acids all have the same general structure, but there may be variation in the bonding between the carbon atoms Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between carbon atoms Monounsaturated fatty acids have a single double bond between two carbon atoms Polyunsaturated fatty acids have multiple double bonds between carbon atoms In cis isomers, hydrogen atoms attached to the double-bonded carbon atoms are on the same side In trans isomers, hydrogen atoms attached to the double-bonded carbon atoms are on different sides

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A.1.7 Evaluate the health consequences of diets rich in the different types of fatty acid Saturated fats and (trans) polyunsaturated fatty acids raise levels of LDL cholesterol, leading to a higher risk of atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease (CHD) Monounsaturated and (cis) polyunsaturated fatty acids raise levels of HDL cholesterol and inhibit LDL cholesterol, lowering the risk of atherosclerosis and CHD Unsaturated fats are essential nutrients (cannot be synthesised by the body), saturated fats are not All types of fatty acid consumed as part of the dietary intake will cause weight gain and increase risks of heart disease if taken in excessive amounts

Comparison of the Different Types of Fatty Acids

A.1.8 Distinguish between minerals and vitamins in terms of their chemical nature Minerals are usually inorganic elements in ionic form examples include sodium (Na+), potassium (K+) and iodine (I) Vitamins are organic compounds made by plants or animals examples include retinol (vitamin A) and calciferol (vitamin D)

A.1.9 Outline two methods that have been used to determine the recommended daily intake of vitamin C Retrospective Research: An older method used was to identify sufferers of vitamin C diseases (e.g. scurvy) and determine their levels of vitamin C This was an inexact method for determining dietary requirements as it was based on preventing disease, not promoting cellular functions

Clinical Trials:

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More recent attempts at determining the recommended daily intake of vitamin have involved undertaking experimental studies This has included testing cell cultures, guinea pigs and finally humans (during WWII, some objectors volunteered to participate in trials) The purpose of these tests are to identify cellular function and disease onset at different daily dosages of vitamin C

A.1.10 Discuss the amount of vitamin C that an adult should consume per day, including the level needed to prevent scurvy, claims that higher intake gives protection against upper respiratory tract infections, and the danger of rebound malnutrition Common sources of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) include citrus fruits, orange juice and vitamin C tablets The recommended daily allowance (RDA) of vitamin C will vary between individuals according to age and gender The recommended daily intake (RDI) of vitamin C has been set at 65 90 mg (this is based on the highest RDA and thus covers all individuals) This intake has been determined based on the levels required to ensure no person is at risk of a deficiency disease (i.e. scurvy) However, there is significant debate as to whether the daily intake should be higher (> 1000 mg), in order to achieve beneficial effects Vitamin C is a potent antioxidant that is also involved in detoxification and some claim that higher doses may boost the immune system, speed recovery from injury and protect against upper respiratory tract infections Others suggest that taking larger doses would promote rebound malnutrition, whereby the body adjusts to a larger intake and responds poorly whenever dosages drop back to normal levels Excess vit c in the body is excreted in urea (later through urine) Neither claims are currently well supported by large-scale, controlled trials and so the evidence for these claims must be considered weak

A.1.11 List the sources of vitamin D in human diets Vitamin D can be produced by the skin in response to sunlight, but can also be sourced in a diet containing any of the following: Cereal (fortified) Oily fish (e.g. tuna) Milk (fortified) Egg (specifically yolk) Liver Yogurt A.1.12 Discuss how the risk of vitamin D deficiency from insufficient exposure to sunlight can be balanced against the risk of contracting malignant melanoma UV light causes the skin to synthesise vitamin D, where it is stored in the liver for when UV levels are low (i.e. during the winter seasons) Insufficient sun exposure may lead to skeletal deformities (i.e. rickets) due to insufficient vitamin D levels However high levels of UV light can damage skin cells and cause skin cancers (malignant melanomas), so exposure must be limited Using sun block and covering skin with clothing will prevent UV radiation reaching the skin, inhibiting vitamin D production Certain diets (e.g. vegans, vegetarians) are more likely to result in a lack of vitamin D, so that such people need more exposure to sunlight Individuals with darker skin pigmentation produce vitamin D more slowly, but are better protected against skin cancers Certain ethnicities may be at a greater risk of vitamin D deficiency due to cultural or religious practices (e.g. Muslims wearing a burqa) Including vitamin D supplements in the diet can reduce the risk of vitamin D deficiency without requiring sun exposure

Vitamin D Deficiency Causing Rickets

A.1.13 Explain the benefits of artificial dietary supplementation as a means of preventing malnutrition, using iodine as an example
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Artificial supplementation ensures a population has sufficient access to essential nutrients, even when the natural dietary supply may be limited Iodine is necessary for thyroxine production and an iodine deficiency will lead to goitre (enlarged thyroid) and mental retardation Dietary supplementation is usually achieved via the production of iodised salt, as few foods are rich in iodine (mainly found in marine food) The cost to supplement these products is minimal compared to the cost of treating and caring for iodine deficient individuals

A.1.14 Outline the importance of fibre as a component of a balanced diet Dietary fibre includes the components of foods which cannot be digested by the human body (predominantly cellulose) Dietary fibre is an important part of a balanced diet as it plays an important role in human health: Provides bulk in food, ensuring the continuous passage of materials through the digestive tract Stimulates peristaltic contractions to enable the digestive system to pass food Helps regulate blood sugar and reduces blood cholesterol Lowers risk of appendicitis and intestinal cancer Helps prevent constipation

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A2 Energy in Human Diets | BioNinja

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A2 Energy in Human Diets

A.2.1 Compare the energy content per 100 g of carbohydrate, fat and protein Fats contain more than twice as much energy per 100 grams than carbohydrates and proteins Carbohydrates: 1,760 kJ per 100 g Proteins: 1,720 kJ per 100 g Fats: 4,000 kJ per 100 g

A.2.2 Compare the main dietary sources of energy in different ethnic groups Dietary energy can come from a range of sources (carbohydrates, proteins or fats), but for the bulk of the population, the primary source is crops Most populations will supplement this with meat (primarily cattle in Western nations, chicken and fish in Eastern cultures) Independent island nations may rely on fish as their main dietary source of energy

Dietary Energy Sources (Carbohydrates) Across the Globe

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A.2.3 Explain the possible health consequences of diets rich in carbohydrates, fats and proteins Excess energy from carbohydrates, proteins or fats will all be converted and stored as fat, leading to obesity and an increased risk of heart failure A balanced diet is required in order to achieve sufficient intake of essential nutrients without the risk of unnecessary weight gain

Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are broken down into monosaccharide subunits for transport in the blood (blood sugar levels) A sustained high intake of carbohydrates may lead to the development of diabetes, as the liver becomes less sensitive to insulin Individuals with diabetes may experience more frequent urination (polyuria), increased thirst and dizziness

Proteins There are no major adverse health effects to a diet rich in protein, however excessive intake over a long period of time may cause kidney problems Deaminating proteins creates urea, and the kidneys will need to work overtime to flush out excess toxins, leading to damage over time

Fats Excessive fat intake is strongly correlated to an increase in blood pressure, atherosclerosis and the incidence of coronary heart disease (CHD) Atheromas (fatty deposits) develop in the arteries and significantly reduce the diameter of the lumen of the artery wall needed for pulse flow This may lead to the formation of clots in the artery, and if this occurs in the coronary arteries it may lead to a heart attack

A.2.4 Outline the function of the appetite control centre of the brain Appetite is controlled by hormones (leptin, insulin, CCK) produced in the pancreas, small intestine and adipose tissue These send messages to the appetite control centre of the brain (hypothalamus), causing a person to feel that they have eaten enough (satiety) The release of hormones can be triggered in a number of ways: Stretch receptors in the stomach lining may become activated when the stomach is full Adipose tissue may release hormones (leptin) in response to fat storage
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A.2.5 Calculate body mass index (BMI) from the body mass and height of a person

A.2.6 Distinguish, using the body mass index, between being underweight, normal weight, overweight and obese Underweight below 18.5 Normal weight 18.5 to 24.9 Overweight 25 to 29.9 Obese above 30.0

Body Mass Index (Adult Male)

A.2.7 Outline the reasons for increasing rates of clinical obesity in some countries, including availability of cheap high- energy foods, large portion sizes, increasing use of vehicles for transport, and a change from active to sedentary occupations Clinical obesity describes a significant excess of body fat and is typically caused by a combination of two factors: 1. Increasing energy intake (more fats produced) The affordability of sugar-rich, high-energy food can cause people to spurn more nutritional alternatives People in developed countries are frequently being served larger portion sizes ('super-sizing')

2. Decreased energy expenditure (less fats consumed) There is an increased reliance on vehicular transport in developed countries, reducing frequency of exercise Advancements in technology (computers, robotics) have reduced the level of physical activity in a number of occupations

A.2.8 Outline the consequences of anorexia nervosa Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder in which individuals severely limit the amount of food they intake It is most common in females with body image anxiety and is associated with the following health implications: Malnutrition deficiency in essential nutrients due to inadequate eating patterns Hormonal imbalance including changes in menstrual cycle and impairment of normal growth and development Bone and muscle problems there is muscle and bone deterioration, resulting in reduced muscle mass and more fragile bones
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Mental health issues development of mood swings, phobias and reduced mental focus Anaemia can cause circulatory problems, including heart failure Skin problems including discoloration and excess hair production Immune disorders increased susceptibility to infections, diminished capacity for healing and repair Death if left untreated for a prolonged period, death may finally result

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A3 Special Issues in Human Nutrition | BioNinja

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A3 Special Issues in Human Nutrition

A.3.1 Distinguish between the composition of human milk and artificial milk used for bottle-feeding babies

A.3.2 Discuss the benefits of breastfeeding Breastfeeding may have many benefits over bottle-feeding in helping a baby grow to be a big man, including:

Bonding may aid in mother-infant bonding and communication, reduces post-partum depression Immunity colostrum and breast milk contain high levels of antibodies, protecting infant from infection Gut motility breast milk is easier to digest than formula milk and stimulates digestive tract function and defecation Maternal health improves weight loss, reduces risk of breast cancer and diabetes Affordability breast milk is free and readily available (provided mother remains healthy) Nutritional value more complete than formula milk, contains human proteins and more suitable fatty acids that are less
likely to cause allergies

A.3.3 Outline the causes and symptoms of type II diabetes Causes: Type II diabetes occurs when the body becomes less responsive to insulin due to a down-regulation of insulin receptors in the liver Consequently, the body becomes inefficient at lowering blood glucose levels after feeding Type II diabetes may be caused by a genetic predisposition, dietary factors (high sugar intake) or a lack of exercise (obesity)

Symptoms: Hyperglycemia (high glucose content in blood) Frequent urination (polyuria) and general thirst Tiredness and blurred vision Nerve damage and erectile dysfunction Kidney and back pain
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Incidence: Incidence of type II diabetes has been found to be higher in populations of Aboriginal Australians than those of non- native descent However it is currently unclear whether this is due to genetic factors or social factors (likely a combination of both)

Incidence of Type II Diabetes in the Australian Population

A.3.4 Explain the dietary advice that should be given to a patient who has developed type II diabetes A person with type II diabetes needs to regulate their diet (calorie intake) and exercise in order to ensure a balanced energy budget Maintain a low fat diet in order to avoid weight gain Consume complex carbohydrates to ensure gradual release of glucose into blood Eat regular, small meals to ensure a steady supply of glucose into the bloodstream Consume foods with a low glycemic index to avoid abrupt changes in blood glucose levels

A.3.5 Discuss the ethical issues concerning the eating of animal products, including honey, eggs, milk and meat Arguments For: Consuming animals or animal products may reduce problems of malnutrition or hunger Certain nutrients may only be found in animal products (e.g. vitamin B12 in meat) Many jobs may depend on cultivating and preparing animals, leading to an associated economic cost if stopped

Arguments Against: Using antibiotics to improve the health of livestock may result in antibiotic resistance Introducing growth hormones into the animal food supply can lead to side effects or allergies in humans Maintaining animals as a food source requires a significantly larger ecological footprint compared with a plant diet Agricultural practices can lead to the destruction of ecosystems and the loss of biodiversity There can be inhumane treatment associated with animals raised for food (e.g. battery hens) Killing animals for meat goes against some religious beliefs (particularly with regards to certain animal species) Selective breeding to improve animal yield (e.g bee populations) can threaten the viability of native species

A.3.6 Evaluate the benefits of reducing dietary cholesterol in lowering the risk of coronary heart disease Cholesterol is required for cell membrane structure and steroid synthesis, but very little (~20%) cholesterol comes from the diet High cholesterol diets can lead to atherosclerosis, as characterised by the deposition of fatty plaques and subsequent
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hardening of the arteries However the risks are increased when high levels of saturated fats are combined in the diet High levels of saturated fats also cause atherosclerosis, but also raise levels of LDL (low density lipoprotein) which retains cholesterol in the body Reducing dietary cholesterol levels will likely only be effective in lowering the risk of coronary heart disease if it is combined with lower levels of saturated fats as part of a balanced diet

A.3.7 Discuss the concept of food miles and the reasons for consumers choosing foods to minimise food miles Food miles are a measure of the distance food is transported from the site of production to the consumer High food miles cause pollution and greenhouse gas emissions as a result of the increased fuel consumption involved in transport High food miles do not support local communities (as food is externally generated) and may lead to increased traffic congestion Produce with high food miles are less likely to be as fresh as local produce and are more likely to contain added preservatives Food miles do not take into consideration other environmental costs involved in food production (impact of machinery, pesticides, etc.) During a famine, high food miles may be justified on humanitarian grounds

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