3/27/08

Groundwater and Geology

This week
Sediments Unconsolidated clastic sediments Semi- consolidated sediments Lithified sediments Sandstones Carbonates Igneous & Metamorphic Rocks Extrusives Intrusives Metamorphic Fractures
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(Schwartz & Zhang, 2003)

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http://nationalatlas.gov/natlas/Natlasstart.asp Click here http://capp.water.usgs.gov/gwa/ Click here

Unconsolidated Clastic Sediments

Permeable lenses of sand and gravel within glacial till show awide variation in bed thickness, grain size, and sorting of grains. North Dakota.
(USGS)

(Ritzi,WSU) 4

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Blanket Sand and Gravel Aquifers

Fluvial Deposits: Riverine Alluvial Aquifers:
Meandering River: Braided River:
(Schwartz & Zhang, 2003)

NASA: Indus River, July 2003

NASA: Madagascar

Braided-stream Deposits

Coarse, braided-stream deposits showing disconnected sand lenses (S) and a variety of cobble-dominated facies ranging from poorly-sorted massive units (Gm), to moderately-sorted horizontally-bedded units (Gh) and trough crossbedded units (Gt). Heavy lines identify bounding surfaces between depositional sequences. Prime Earth quarry northwest of Boise, Idaho. For scale, quarry face is approximately 12 m high.
Boise State Center for Geophysical Investigation of the Shallow Subsurface http://kihei.boisestate.edu/hydrogeophysical_research_site.htm
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Alluvial River Valleys

(~50% of total groundwater pumpage)
A
Natural levees Backswamp Point bar deposits

River A Silt, Clay Sand/ Silt Gravel (sand)

B Sand

Fluvial systems - Meandering rivers

Allen & Allen (1990)

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Alluvial River Valleys

Deposition builds up the river and eventually it breaks through the natural levee and changes coursechannel avulsions

Usually a wide variety of sediments are found in any boreholecomplex layering of high and low K deposits Buried channel gravels will provide best well yields
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Alluvial River Valleys

(Fitts, 2002)

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Alluvial River Valleys in the Midwestern US

Often in the Midwest:

Holocene alluvium mixed deposits Pleistocene Coarse Sand and Gravel (glacial outwash)

Mix of materials is goodsand, gravel give good T,Sy, clay, silt give good S, so drawdowns are low.
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Alluvial River Valleys in the Midwestern US

Example: Lower Mississippi River Valley

Overbank clays

River

Meandering channel deposits Loess

silts Filled braided channels

Outwash sands and gravels

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Evolution of Mississippi River fill through the late Quaternary

13 Allen & Allen (1990)

Alluvial River Valleys

Water quality
usually good Si and K can be high
SiO2 15 - 30 mg/L K 5 10 mg/L

If buried swamp deposits, reduced conditions cause high Fe2+, Mn, H2S May have high TDS in arid regions with evaporite minerals

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Alluvial River Valleys

Water Development Considerations
Advantages of wells in alluvial valleys
Ease of drilling Shallow water tables Highly productive wells Induced infiltration from rivers and wetlands
(esp. Midwest and Southeast)

Shallow wells near rivers provide free treatment of water. Good water quality

Disadvantages
Ease of pollution Induced infiltration (water rights issues in the West) Doctrine of conjunctive use
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Fluvial Deposits: Alluvial Fans

(Schwartz & Zhang, 2003)

www.windows.ucar.edu/.../sed_alluvial.html 16

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High Plains (Alluvial Fan) Aquifer

http://ktwu.washburn.edu/journeys/

http://ktwu.washburn.edu/journeys/

(Schwartz & Zhang, 2003)

Statement from US Senator Jeff Bingaman: Currently, the Ogallala Aquifer is being mined at a much higher rate than it is being recharged, and is showing alarming declines in many areas. In just the last two decades, large portions of the aquifer show drops - between 10 to 40 feet - in the water table. That kind of drop reduces the productivity of wells and greatly increases pumping costs. It also poses a serious threat to the long-term viability of the agricultural economy served by the aquifer. http://www.saveourwatersupply.org/ogallala/index.html
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Basin-fill Aquifers (Western US)

(Fitts, 2002)
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Closed Basin-fill Aquifers

(Schwartz & Zhang, 2003)

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Closed Basin-fill Aquifers

Alluvial fan deposits coarse at basin margins; toward the basin center, fan deposits grow finer Faults can act as ground water barriers Water quality generally good, but can have poor quality due to evaporation Buried stream channels form best water sources toward center of basin; playa deposits in basin centers have low K
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Open (riverine) Basin-fill Aquifers

http://capp.water.usgs.gov/gwa/ch_i/I-reg_aq_systems6.html Northern Rocky Mountains Intermontane Basins aquifer system

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Rio-Grande both open and closed basins

http://capp.water.usgs.gov/gwa/ch_c/C-text4.html

NASA USGS 22

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Glacial-Deposit Aquifers

(Schwartz & Zhang, 2003)

(Schwartz & Zhang, 2003)

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Glacial-Deposit Aquifers

(Fitts, 2002)

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Mahonet Sand: Buried Alluvial Aquifer

(Ritzi,WSU)

(Ritzi,WSU)

(Schwartz & Zhang, 2003)

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Semiconsolidated Clastic Sediments

http://capp.water.usgs.gov/gwa/ch_l/L-northatl.html

NASA: Mid-Atlantic Coastal Plain 26

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Texas Coastal Aquifer System

(Schwartz & Zhang, 2003)

http://capp.water.usgs.gov/gwa/ch_e/E-text6.html http://capp.water.usgs.gov/gwa/ch_e/E-text7.html

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Consolidated Sediments: Sedimentary Rocks

http://capp.water.usgs.gov/aquiferBasics/sandstone.html http://capp.water.usgs.gov/aquiferBasics/sandcarb.html

Large sedimentary basins

Typical rocks: -Sandstone -Siltstone -Shale -Limestone

Lithologic units, individually, are typically quite uniform and are extensive. Locating good water bearing units is not difficult, nor is identifying confining units . Oil well geophysical data is quite useful.
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Sandstone Aquifers: the Dakota SS

Black Hills

(Schwartz & Zhang, 2003)

Madison Limestone Cretaceous Seaway

Dakota Sandstone

J.E. Williamson, USGS

KGS

D. Mayer
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Sedimentary Rocks
One major control on permeability is the degree of cementation and consolidation. Medium-grained sand will have a K of 1 to 30 cm/s, while typical corresponding sandstone will be 0.001 to 0.5 cm/s, a reduction of 3 orders of magnitude!
Permian Sandstone Capping the Sandia Mountains, NM

(J. Wilson, NMT)

Well-log descriptions such as well-indurated or friable can be very important.

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Sedimentary Basins
Water Quality (Distance down flow line !) :
Typical anion sequence (Chebotarev Sequence)
HCO3- ! SO42- ! Cl-

Low TDS ! High TDS (higher than seawater)

Contributing factors
Relative solubilities of CO32-, SO42-, and Clminerals Common ion effect Ion exchange sh Ion filtration: ale Ion filtration
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Negative ions retained

HCO3SO42The water quality of old groundwater is another issue to take into account. Generally speaking, the longer the residence time, the higher the concentration of dissolved ions ingroundwater. Groundwater tends to evolve chemically toward the composition of sea water during the course of flow. It was observed by Chebotarev in the Great Artesian Basin of Australia.

Chebotarev Sequence
(see Freeze & Cherry, 1979)

Cl-

Rapid flow Much flushing Soluble minerals are dissolved Soil CO2 gives low pH dissolution of CaCO3 CO2 + H2O + CaCO3 ! Ca2+ + 2HCO3CH2O + !H2O ! !CH4 + !HCO3 + !H+ CH4 is due to bacterial fermentation of organic matter

Slow flow Moderately soluble minerals present CaSO4 ! Ca2+ + SO42Common ion effect reduces HCO3 HCO3- + CaSO4 ! Ca2+ + SO42- + HCO3- ! SO42+ + H+ + CaCO3

Very slow flow Very soluble minerals may be present NaCl ! Na+ + ClLeakage of ions from shale layers assumes more importance
Cl-

Reduction of sulfate 2CH2O + SO42- + H+ ! HS- + 2CO2 + 2H2O

organic matter

Cl-

SO42-

FeS
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Sedimentary Basins
Water supply considerations:
Advantages:
Hydrogeology (depth to aquifer, T distribution) frequently simple and predictable. Wells frequently flow (at least when first drilled) Absence of pollution

Disadvantages:
Depth to aquifer is frequently great and the rocks are relatively hard (large drilling cost) K is usually fairly small (a long well screen is needed) T and S are usually both fairly small (rapid drawdown and high pumping costs) The water quality at considerable depths is usually poor (high TDS, Na+, F+, H2S, or Fe3+)
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Carbonate Rocks & Aquifer Systems

(Schwartz & Zhang, 2003)

http://college.hmco.com

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Fractured Carbonate Rocks

Limey shale overlaid by limestone. Cumberland Plateau, Tennessee

Limestone in the Sandia Mtns, NM

(J. Wilson)

(Schwartz & Zhang, 2003)

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Carbonate Aquifers

(Schwartz & Zhang, 2003)

Develop wells in upper 7.5m of carbonate, where solution weathering (pavement karst) has enhanced K. K diminishes with depth; below 15-30m the aquifer dies out.
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Carbonate Aquifer Systems

http://capp.water.usgs.gov/aquiferBasics/carbrock.html

Karst Systems including Carbonates

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Floridan Aquifer

TDS (mg/L)
http://capp.water.usgs.gov/aquiferBasics/floridan.html
(Schwartz & Zhang, 2003)

http://sofia.usgs.gov/publications/papers/pp1403a/index.html 38

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Edwards-Trinity Aquifer System

(Schwartz & Zhang, 2003)

http://capp.water.usgs.gov/gwa/ch_e/E-edwards_trin2.html http://www.ci.austin.tx.us/watershed/bs_aquifer.htm

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Carbonate & Karst

http://geoscape.nrcan.gc.ca

(Schwartz & Zhang, 2003)

Dye tracer experiment, Croft Spring, Tennessee

Spring Mill Lake Drainage Basin, Indiana

http://www.dyetracing.com/dyetracing/dy05005.html

http://igs.indiana.edu/survey/projects/springmill/

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Carbonates
Primary porosity can vary greatly
Occasionally will have large, interconnected pores or vugs (coquina, limestone breccia) these are excellent aquifers:

Frequently will have high porosity, but very low K (chalk)these are poor aquifers unless secondary porosity (eg, fractures) is present:
www.see.leeds.ac.uk

Mud limestone is very dense and well cemented, low n and K these are poor aquifers but good dimensional stone:
(K. Zehnder, ETHZ)

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Carbonates
Secondary porosity very important
Due to a combination of fracturing and solution Extreme case is karstic terrain The largest springs in the world all issue from karstic limestone: Syria, 35 to 40 m3/s Secondary porosity can make carbonate rocks good aquifers without full karstic development. Degree of fracturing and solution tends to decrease away from outcrop areas

Simulated flow in an open fracture chalk system with porous and permeable matrix. Red-yellow high flow (fractures), green-blue - low flow (matrix). 42 www.see.leeds.ac.uk

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Carbonates
Water development considerations
Well success is highly variable
Wells close to each other may be either dry or excellent producers. Traces or faults and fracture zones are good clues to well success, especially intersections of fracture zones.
Fractures Structural effects Compression

Compressi on

Fractures
http://www.truenorthenv.com

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Carbonates
More water development considerations
Water quality is usually good
Low TDS

Although water is very hard

(mCa/mMg > 1 in LS, " 1 in dolomitic rock)

Hard water is water that contains cations with a charge of +2, especially Ca2+ and Mg2+.

And it can have severe pathogenic pollution problems due to flow in fractures and conduits, and a lack of filtering
(sinkhole landfill problems)
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Volcanic Rocks

Composite Volcano Smithsonian

Dense Basalt K (m/s) n 10-11 10-8 0.001 0.01

Interbeds 10-8 - 10-5 0.20

Typically the best aquifers are provided by interflow breccias.

Red Point Breccia, Grand Manan Island, New Brunswick J. McHone, Auburn U. 45

With time, weathering reduces K of interbeds.

Volcanic Rocks, NM
Andesite, Magdelina Mtns., NM
Porto Santo Is., Madeira

(H. Guan, NMT)

www.tropix.co.uk / M.Helena Afonso

Columnar and other vertical jointing can also provide directional conductivity

Tuff, Jemez Mtns., NM

Fractured Tuff, LANL., NM

(J. Wilson, NMT)

(J. Wilson, NMT) 46

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Dike Impounded GW
Most of the water resources on the Hawaiian Island of Oahu are a result of the interaction between Oahu's high mountains and the high rainfall of the tropics
This is the bulkhead in the dike. Behind here is ground water. The door is rarely opened. (McCoy, UoH)

(Schwartz & Zhang, 2003)

http://www.hawaii.gov/dbedt/czm/wec/html/mountain/water/index.htm http://capp.water.usgs.gov/gwa/ch_n/N-HItext3.html

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Volcanics
Water Quality
Generally very good
Usually has high SiO2 due to solution of amorphous silica (~50 mg/L) Frequently high F and K Occasionally high As in hydrothermal areas

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Fractured Crystaline Rocks

Fractured Granite, Colorado Fractured Metamorphic Rock, NM

(C. Cleveland, INSTAAR, CU)

(J. Wilson, NMT) 49

Crystalline Rocks
Primary Porosity
Primary porosity is very small (< 1%) Primary K is very small (<10-10 m/s)

Secondary Porosity
Most porosity is due to expansion joints and weathering near the surface. Most fractures and joints close within 100 ft of the surface (if a well is a failure, drilling deeper generally will not help) Faults can provide deep fracturing.

Storage is usually small even if K is high Yields are usually small (10 25 gpm), even for good wells
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Crystalline Rocks
Water Quality
Generally excellent
Usually Ca, Na, HCO3- water HCO3- is from soil CO2 Ca and Na is from incongruent dissolution of aluminosilicates SiO2 is moderate

May have pollution problems due to shallow water table, fracture flow

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Crystalline Rocks
ridge crest 4 slope 2 valley 1 flat upland 3

Likelihood of well success: 1 > 3 > 2 > 4

52

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Fractured Consolidated Sedimentary, Igneous, and Metamorphic Rocks

(Schwartz & Zhang, 2003)

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Fracture Flow
Cubic Law in a single fracture
(Schwartz & Zhang, 2003)

Fracture Network & Connectivity REV??

Q = b*(b2/12)*!gJ/ " b3

Mirror Lake, NH

(Shapiro and Hsieh, 1994) Mirror Lake, NH

(Pollard and Aydin, 1988).

National Research Council, Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications (1996) http://fermat.nap.edu/books/0309049962/html/R1.html 54

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Fractured Rock

(Schwartz & Zhang, 2003)

Dual Continua:

(Storage in matrix and in fractures)

Double Porosity (Flow in the fracture only) Double Permeability Models (Flow in the fracture and the matrix)
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Trends of (Fractured) Rock Properties with Depth

Fracture Apertures Close with Depth

Note clustering Effect of weathering and exfoliation (stress relief) decrease with depth

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Conductivity depends on fracture frequency (& connectivity) and aperture.

(Schwartz & Zhang, 2003)

56

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Trends of Well Yield with Depth

(Schwartz & Zhang, 2003)

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