SOME NOTES ON

WRI TI NG for the GUI TAR

JonathanLeathwood
iv
Topics
Introduction vi
Rudiments :
^otation :
Tuning :
Range :
Tessitura
Slurs ,
Arpeggios o
Passagework
Covering the ngerboard
Campanellas :o
Slurs :o
Harmonics ::
^atural harmonics ::
Register of natural harmonics :
Intonation of natural harmonics :
Sustain of natural harmonics :
Articial harmonics :
Harmonics and tone colour :,
Multiphonic harmonics :,
Recommended repertoire for harmonics :o
ChordsI :,
ChordsII :
Te barre :
Stopped notes in high positions against open strings :
Extreme spans of register :o
Harmonics in combination with stopped notes ::
Te lef-hand thumb ::
Texture,CounterpointandVoicing :
Recommended repertoire for contrapuntal textures :o
v
Trills :,
Tremolando :8
Strums :
Glissando
Timbre ,
Vibrato,PitchBends,Microtones ,
Percussion 8
Scordatura o
ExtendedTechniques :
Recommended repertoire :
ListofWorksMentionedintheText
vi
Introduction
IfthefollowingstudyofguitarwritingislongerthanIrstintended,itisbecauseitseemedtome
essentialtoproceedasmuchaspossiblebyexample-tointroducetothecomposerafewofthe
landmarks of the guitars recent repertoire, alongside the occasional snapshot of its earlier tradi-
tions.Alloftheexamplesaresuccesses:ifthereisonearguableexception(apassagefromGeorge
Rochberg),Imeaninnowaytodisparageeitherthecomposerortherichlyexpressiveworkfrom
whichitistaken.
Ihavetriedthroughouttobedescriptiveratherthanprescriptive,tosetguidelinesratherthan
rules.ButinafewplacesIhavesuggestedthataparticulartextureortypeofsonoritymightbe
worth exploring more than it has been. Inevitably, I will have made aesthetic assumptions that
otherswillnotshare.Iwouldliketothinkthatacomposercouldproceedasmuchinopposition
totheserecommendations(andthemusicalexamplesthatpromptthem)asincompliance,ifthe
musicalvisionshoulddemandit.
NoneofthecomposersIhaveworkedwithhavehadtheuseofthesenotes.Byandlargethey
havemadeintelligentguessesaboutwhatisandisnotpossibleandwehavecollaboratedonsucces-
siveversions,makingdiscoveriesthathavesurprisedmeasmuchasthem.ButIhavealwaysgiven
composerssomeoftheworksmentionedtolookat.Quitepossiblyonecouldgleanalltheneces-
saryinformationbyignoringthetextandreadingthemusicalexamplesalone,pursuingthosethat
seem of most interest by looking up the entire composition. Much depends on how willing one
istoworkcloselywiththeguitaristandgothroughmultipledrafs:certainly,thesenotesarenot
intendedtosupplantacollaborativeprocessbuttoenhanceit.
WhenHectorBerliozcametotheguitarinhisGrand traite dinstrumentation et dorchestration
modernes,hisadvicewasnotencouraging:Itisalmostimpossibletowritefortheguitarunless
one is a player oneself. Yet most composers who use it are far from familiar with it and write
thingsofunnecessarydicultywithnosonorityoreect.Tatwasin:8,;overthepastcentury,
mostsignicantmodernguitarworkshavecomefromcomposerswhodonotthemselvesplaythe
instrument.Byreimaginingtheguitarssonoritiesandidioms,thesecomposershaveprofoundly
inuencedthedevelopmentofguitartechniqueandmusicianship.
IwouldliketothankJulianBreamforhisvaluablesuggestions.
JonathanLeathwood,August:o:o
Copyright:o:obyJonathanLeathwood
Rudiments
^otation
Guitarmusicisnotatedinthetrebleclef,soundinganoctavelowerthanwritten(theuseofthe
treble-8clefisamatteroftaste).Anextrastaoccasionallymakescomplextextureseasiertoread,
asinthePassacagliaofBrittens^octurnalorthefugalsectioninMawsMusic of Memory.
Tuning
Te guitar has six strings, generally tuned as follows (we will ofen refer to the strings with the
numbersshown):
&
y t r e w q
?
sounding pitch
y t r e w q

Tisisthestandardtuning.Alternativetuningsareperfectlypractical-indeed,theyareofenad-
visable,notonlytomodifytherangebutjustascrucially,totransformtheinstrumentsresonance,
dependentasitisontheopenstringsandtheirnaturalharmonics.Weshallsavedetaileddiscus-
sionofvarioustuningsforalatersection( Scordatura,p o),butinallthatfollows,theopenstrings
andharmonicswillprovetobeoffundamentalimportance.
Range
Eachstringcanbestoppedbythelefhandonthengerboardtoyieldahigherpitch.Tereare
nineteenfretsonatypicalngerboard,givingeachstringarangeofuptotwentysemitones(an
octaveandaperfectfh).Tehighestnotesoneachstring,however,areofasomewhatdegraded
tone quality: if they are called upon, there should be a compelling musical reason. In the chart
below,thelessusablenotesoneachstringareshowninparentheses,withblacknoteheads.Many
guitarslackthenineteenthfretonstrings
w
to
t
,butthehighestnoteoneachstringcanalways
beplayedasaharmonic.
& q
<
< >
& w
>
& e
< >
& r
<
>
& t
<
>
&
y
<
>

#
#

b n
#

b n
#
#

b O n

#

b n
#
#

b n
#

b n
O #
#

b n
#

b n
#
#

b n
#
O
#

#
#

b n
#

b n
#
#
O

b n
#

b n
#
#

b n
#

b O n

#
#

b n
#

b n
#
#

b O n
:
As with any string instrument, all but the highest and lowest pitches can be played on dierent
strings.Tehighernotesoneachstringpossessanextraintensityandagreaterrangeofvibrato,
oeringawealthofexpressiveandcolouristicchoices.
Teguitarsrangeisthreeoctavesandaperfectfh.Teupperlimitcanberaisedbyaround
ninesemitonesbytheuseofharmonics(referbelowtothesectionsonharmonicsandonchords);
thelowerlimitcanbeextendedbyloweringthesixthstringbyuptothree(morerarelyfour)semi-
tones.
,
Tessitura
Absolutepitch,asgivenbythepiano,maynotbethebeststandardbywhichtojudgetheguitars
tessitura.Onpaper,theguitarslowEisonlyamajorthirdhigherthanthelowestnoteofthecello,
yettotheear,itscoloursuggestsahigherregisteraltogether.Tisdiscrepancybetweenwrittenand
apparentregistersometimesleadscomposers(especiallycomposersworkingatthepiano)toadopt
atessiturathatistoohighfortheinstrument.Whatseemstoliecomfortablywithinthepianos
middletoupperregistercansoundlikemountaineeringontheguitar.Whentranscribingpiano
musictotheguitar,IndthatImayhavetotransposetheoriginaldownbyaroundfourtoseven
semitonestogetasenseofequivalentregisters.
Becausetheguitarsnaturalidiomsandtessituraaresodependentonthelowpositionsonthe
ngerboard (the rst few frets) and the open strings, it is more or less inevitable that the lowest
range will be used as a matter of course-so at least one observes in the repertoire. Unlike the
piano,theguitardoesnotpossessreservesoflowregisterthatcanbecalledonatanexceptional
moment.ItiscommonforaguitarpiecetostarteitherfromthelowEorachordthatincludesit,
justasBachbeginshiscycleforsoloviolinwithaGminorchordabovetheviolinslowestnote.
Tenagain,oneofthepleasuresoftheguitarrepertoireisthesensitivityonesoofenencounters
towardsthelowregister.InthisstudyforbeginnersbyFernandoSor,asthebassnotesdropinand
outofthetexture,theytakeonsomuchweightastosoundlowerthantheyreallyare:
Fernando Sor, Study in B minor, op. 35 no. 22 (1828), bars 1748

17
23
29
35

42
&
#
#
&
#
#
&
#
# n
&
#
#
#
&
#
#

#



#


n

n

n

#
#

#
n

AtthebeginningofHenzesRoyal Vinter MusicSonata,thedierencebetweentheopeningFand
thelowEitleadstoisespeciallytellingontheguitar,becauseofthecontrastbetweenthevibrant
frettedFandtheplainbutresonantE.
Hans Werner Henze, Royal Winter Music: First Sonata (19756): i, Gloucester, bars14
fff
p
sf ff
Majestically
2
4 &
>
>

Finally,anexamplebyDodgsonwhichopenswiththelowE,butinsuchavoicingthatitcreatesa
distinctivestarkeect,beforetheentirerangeoftheinstrumentunfolds:
Stephen Dodgson, Partita no. 4 (1990): i, bars 16
p stark
Slow: moody and capricious (q = 50)
flaring up
p
4
4
4 &
#
#
#
3
3
3
3
&
#
#
3
3 3
3
3 3 3 3
3

#
#

b
b

b
b

#


b
#
n

,
Slurs
In modern guitar notation, composers should use the slur sign just as they would when writing
forpiano:todesignatelegatogroupsofnotesthatformasinglegesture.Ofen,though,theslur(or
sometimesadottedslur)canbeaninvitationtotheguitaristtouseoneofitsmostcharacteristic
idioms:thelef-handslur.
Tisstudybyguitarist-composerLeoBrouwerdemonstratesthetechnique:
Leo Brouwer, Estudio sencillo no. 8 (1960), bars 16
Lo ms rpido posible
ff
pp sub.
4
12
8
9
8 &
&
>

#

#

#

j

Tenotesintheslurredpairsareplayedonthesamestring.Terighthandplucksonlytherst
noteineachslurredgroup;thesecondnoteissoundedbythelefhandalone(hammeringontothe
stringforanascendingintervalorpluckingitforadescendinginterval).Teuseofrepeatednotes
inassociationwiththeslursisparticularlyidiomatic.Inpassagessuchasthis,orthefollowingpas-
sagefromBrittens^octurnal,lef-handslursprojectaverystrongarticulation.
Benjamin Britten, Nocturnal after John Dowland, op. 70 (1963): iv, Uneasy, bars 56
pp cresc.
accel.
5
fz dim.
a tempo
&
.
.
.
>
.
. .
. .
>
.
. .
. .
.
.
>
.
.
.
.
.
. >
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
&
>
.
.
.
.
>
. . .
>
. . .
>
>
.
.
.
> >
b
>
.
. . . . .
3 3

#

#

n

#




b

n





b
b

n
n


b
b
b

n

n
#

n
b
b
b

n





#



#
#
n
b n

#

n


b
b n

Britten,ofcourse,likelychosethisarticulationwithoutconsideringwhattechniquetheguitarist
woulduse.TefollowingpassagefromaVilla-Lobosstudyshowsamoreconsciouslyidiomaticuse
oflef-handslurs:onlytherstofeachfour-notegroupisplucked,whilethelefhandtakescareof
therest.Itisimportantthatthebigleapsattheendofsomegroupsfallontoopenstrings,sinceone
canonlyslurasfarasonecanstretch:betweenfrettednotesitisbesttokeepslurswithinamajor
thirdsdistance.
Heitor Villa-Lobos, tude no. 10 (1928 version): second episode
p
pp
f en dehors
p
Trs anim
4
4 &

0
0
> > >
>

o
Arpeggios
Tepracticeofcombiningthedierentstringsintopatterns-arpeggios-istheguitaristsbread
and butter. Te four plucking ngers, applied to some or all of the six strings, generate an inex-
haustible supply of harp-like gures, and naturally the traditional study repertoire abounds in
pureexamples.Belowareafewsamples:notethatanarpeggioorderedinazigzaggingpattern(as
in all but the Carcassi example) lies just as easily under the hand as a simple ascending and de-
scendingpattern-infact,suchanorderingcanmakepatternsinvolvingveorsixstringseasier,
especiallyiftheuppernotesofthearpeggiodonotlieonadjacentstrings.
Some patterns from studies: (a) Mauro Giuliani, Allegro, op. 50 no. 13; (b) Matteo Carcassi, Study in A
minor, op. 60 no.2; (c) Dionisio Aguado, Study in G major from Nuevo mtodo (1843); (d)Villa-Lobos,
Study no. 1 (1928); Leo Brouwer, Estudio sencillo no. 6 (1972)
Allegro
Moderato con espressivo [sic]
c c
12
8 &
(a) Giuliani (b) Carcassi (c) Aguado
#

mf
Anim
4
4
3
4 &
#
(d) Villa-Lobos

(e) Brouwer
n

#
#

#
#

R
Justasfrequentisthecombinationofanarpeggiopatternwithamelody:
Francisco Trrega, Estudio brillante (after Alard)
2
4 &
#
#
#
O

Heitor Villa-Lobos, tude no. 7 (1928 version)
Modr
13
4
4 &
#
#
#
>
>
>
>
>
- -
>
>
>
3

n
w

j

w
n

n


w
b

n

Telef-handcandecorateanarpeggiowithslurs:
Matteo Carcassi, tude op. 60 no. 8
p
cresc.

5
2
4 &
#
#
#
#
&
#
#
#
#
# #

j

,
Agustn Barrios Mangor, Estudio no. 4, Arabescos [with string
y
tuned to D]
6
8 &
b

#



















#





Moreambitiously,onecanattempttoalternatethetwohandsinpatternssuchasthis,wherethe
lowervoiceisplayedwiththelefhandalone.Notethattheothervoiceconsistsofopenstrings.
Chris Malloy, Millions of Mischiefs (2005): iii, Primitive Contraptions (for ten-string guitar)
&
0
0
e

#
#


#
#
Adoublestopwithinanarpeggiopatterncanhaveanexcitingeectbutcanbeveryawkward.I
recommendeither(:)usingthetoptwonotesinthepatternor(:)makingtheoneofthetwonotes
lowenoughtobetakenwiththethumb,althoughotherpatternsmaywellbepossible.
&

Finally, three modern examples from outside the pedagogical repertoire. Te rst, from Leo
BrouwersSonata,featuresalternationoffrettednoteswithopenstringsinbarsand,(thebowed
instrumentsbariolage).Tistechniquehaswideapplicationontheguitar,becauseseveralopen
stringscanbeinplaywithinasinglegure.
Leo Brouwer, Sonata (1990): iii, La Toccata de Pasquini, bars 16
f
Allegro vivace (q. = 8896)
4
6
8 &
#
#
#
# #
&
y
0
t
#
0
r
0
0 0
#
0 0
e
#
#
#
#
#

#

#

#
#


#

#
#


#

#

#

Elliott Carter, Changes (1983), bars 2224 (for an explanation of how these chords are ngered, see p 20)
sff
pp
mormorando
poco
f pp
22
&
.
>
.
>
3
6
6
6
3
6
6
5

#



#

#
#
#
n
n

#

n

[cont.]
8
[Elliott Carter, Changes, continued from previous page]
sf
sf
mf f
24
&
b
. . .
n
.
.
>
b
. . .
5
. .
>
5
5
5
5

#
n

r
b

n
Param Vir, Clear Light, Magic Body (1993): i, Shamvar I, bars 3940
p poco a poco cresc. (mp)
Meno mosso (q = 64)
39
(mf ) ( f ) ff sf
&
#
b
b
7 7
7 7 7 7
7 7
&
b
#
>

>
7 7
7 7
7
9

#


b

#
#
b

#
#

n
b
n

n
#
r
w
In the next section, on passagework, we will extend some of these ideas to see how an arpeggio
gurecanbeelaboratedtoincorporatejumpsfromthelowesttothehighestreachesofthenger-
board,andhowastepwiselinecanbengeredusingarpeggiotechnique.

Passagework
Foralltherichsonorityofitschords,theguitarisnotaninstrumentthatthrivesonathicktexture.
Tesubtleoverlapsofsoundthatemergeeasilyasonemovesfromstringtostring,aswellasthe
instruments sympathetic resonance, can make a simple monody very compelling, whether in a
lyricallineorinfastpassagework.
Richard Rodney Bennett, Sonata (1983): i, bars 112

f sonore, legato
Allegro (e. = 132)
5
( f sempre)
9
9
16
6
16
9
16
&

>
>

&

>
>

>
&

>

#
#

#
n
b

b

n

n

#
#
#

b
n
b
b
n



#
#

#

b
b
b

#

#

b
n
b
b
n




#




b
b
b
b

#

n

#
#

#

b

#
#
#




b
b

#
#

#

Covering the ngerboard
Fastourishesthatleapfromoneextremeofregistertoanotherbecomemucheasiertoperformif
thereisanopenstringsomewhereinthegure.Teopenstringgivesthelefhandtimetojump
between opposite ends of the ngerboard. Here is Villa-Lobos demonstrating the principle in a
concertstudy(theopenstringsaremarkedo):
Heitor Villa-Lobos, tude no. 2 (1928), bars 12

c
&
#
#
#
0 0 0
0

CarterexploitsthesameideainChanges:thetwoourishesshownbelowwouldbecomemoreor
lessimpracticalwithouttheinternalopen-stringBs.
Elliott Carter, Changes (1983), bars 90 and 105
mf
p
legg. sempre
mf ff ff
90 105
&
0
.
0
> 6
5 5
5
5
#
#


b

<b>

b
#
n

n
b

n
b
Campanellas
Byngeringallpossiblenotesinapatternasopenstringsornaturalharmonicsonecanachieve
aharp-likeeectfullofoverlappingresonances.TeBaroqueguitaristswhodevelopedthistech-
niquecalleditcampanellas(littlebells).Suchguresarenothardtodeviseinprinciplebutthe
:o
exactdetailsofngeringmayneedtobeentrustedtotheguitarist.Atanyrate,inasinglelinethere
isusuallyawayofgettingatleastafewnotestoringover.InthiscadentialourishbyOhana,only
thenotesAandA

areplayedonthesamestring;allothernotesresonatetogether.
Maurice Ohana, Tiento (1957), bar 53

ff violent
Cadenza
&
prs du chevalet (mtallique)
0 0 r t
#
n
>
>
n

#
#

n
n
#

n
n

n #

In a memorable passage in the Scherzo from his Sonata, Ginastera combines the open string
q

(theE)withnotesonstrings
w
and
e
.Inordertogiveanideaofhowpervasivetheoverlapping
resonancesare,allstringsarelabelledinthisexcerpt.
Alberto Ginastera, Sonata op. 47 (1976): ii, Scherzo, bars 6069
f
60
cresc.
65
6
8 &
e w q
0
w e q
0
w q
0
e
&
q
0
w q
0
e q
0
e w e w e w w e w q
0
e w e w q
0
w q w

b





b





b





b





#

#

#
#




#
#




b
#




#


n
b
#
Slurs
Wehavealreadydiscussedlef-handslurs,inwhichtherighthandplucksonlytherstofagroup
ofnoteslyingonasinglestring.Itisworthmentioningthemagainbecausetheymakeforsucha
distinctivetextureandcanbeperformedveryrapidly:
Chris Malloy, Duel for cello and guitar (2008), bars 4143 (guitar part only)
p
(q = 144)
41
4
4 &


j
#
#

#

b
n

#
#

#

b

b

b

#
Tereisacertainkinshipbetweenthesubtleoverlapsofcampanellasandtheseamlesslegatoof
lef-handslurs.TosomeextentthisisevidentinthemusicoftheBaroqueguitaristsandlutenists
(whospeciedhowtheirmusicwouldbeplayedbynotatingitintablature):stepwisemovementis
ofenrenderedascampanellas,andthreesuccessivenotesrarelylieonasinglestringwithoutaslur
beingapplied.Onthemodernguitar,too,thisisanaturalwaytoplay.
TeexampleoppositereproducestherstpageofBrouwersLa espiral eterna(:,:).Itpresents
aseriesoftransformationsofanopeningclusterinveryrapidcampanellasgures,addingslurs
whentwonotesmustbeplayedonasinglestring:aseventeenth-centuryprincipleinavant-garde
dress.
Ihavefocusedonslursandcampanellasbecausetheyaresuchvaluableresources.Butofcourse
thereisnoreasonwhypassageworkcannotbeplayedwithallnotesplucked,whatevertheinter-
valsinplay,ifthatisthedesiredarticulation.AndtheexampleabovefromBrittens^octurnalisa
reminderthatstaccatoisalwayspossibleexceptatvirtuosospeeds.
::
::
Harmonics
Noinstrumentisricherthantheguitarinitsharmonics,withtheirbell-likesonorityandsustain.
Harmonicsextendtherangeoftheguitarbyaboutninesemitones.
Manywaysofnotatingharmonicshavebeentried,buteitheradiamond-shapednoteheadora
notewithacirclearestandard.Ipreferdiamondsbecausetheyreducetheneedforextrasymbols
inguitarnotation,whichissopronetoclutter.Itisimportanttowritetheintendedpitchunam-
biguouslyinthedesiredoctave,asonewouldanyothernoteinthescore.
f
mp
f
mp
&
>

-
o
o >
o

#
n
#
-
o
-

#

O #

n
#
#

#

#

Harmonicsareoftwokinds:naturalandarticial.Tereisnoneedtodistinguishbetweenthem
innotation,sinceguitaristswillsometimespreferawayofrealisingtheharmonicthatisdierent
fromtheoneforeseen.
^atural harmonics
Anaturalharmonicisproducedbypluckingthestringwhilelightlyandmomentarilytouchingit
atasimplefractionofthestringslength:,(or),(or),etc(thesearecallednodal points).
Asaresult,someharmonicsareavailableatmorethanoneplaceontheguitar.Figure:liststhe
harmonicsavailableoneachstringwhilegure:liststheminascendingorder(assumingstandard
tuning).
Figure 1 Natural harmonics available on each string: roman numerals denote fret numbers
open xii vii v iv iii
xix ix
xvi
&
y
& t
&
r
& e

& w

& q

O
O
O
O #
O

O
O
O
O #
O

O
O
O
O #
O

O
O
O
O
O

O
O #
O
O #
#

O
O
O
#

:,
Figure 2 Natural harmonics in ascending order. Duplicates are indicated by string numbers
&
y t y r t
y
e y r
t
w
y
t e
r
q
t
w
r
e r q
w
e
e w q w q

O
O
O
O
O
O O #
O
O
O #
O
O
O #
O
O
O
O O #
O
#
#
Register of natural harmonics
Tehighertheharmoniconagivenstring,themoretheinitialpluckingsoundobtrudesandthe
lesstheharmonicsustains.Harmonicsonfretsand,arestrongenoughonstrings
r
to
y
,but
becomeincreasinglyindistinctonthehigherstrings.Ihaveaccordinglyputthehighharmonicsin
parenthesesforstrings
w
and
q
,andomittedaltogetherthenalharmoniconstring
q
.
InoneofthemainclimaxesofChanges,Cartertakesasubstantialriskforthesakeofthemusi-
caldesign:heasksforthehighestpracticableharmonicatfullvolume,confrontedwiththeguitars
lowestnote.Asthenextepisodeofthepiecebegins,thehighharmonicisgentlyechoedandthe
guitariststaskbecomesmucheasier.
Elliott Carter, Changes (1983), bars 7377
p
pp
f sff
f possible
73
f
f
mf p
(mf)
76
&
>
>
. .

>
o
5
5
6
3
3
3

&

< >
o
> tasto
o
o
.
.

o o o
o
5
5
5
b #
R

#


#




#


#

n

#
#

b
j

n
n
#

#
n

#
Intonation of natural harmonics
Harmonicsofthefhpartial(soundingtwooctavesandamajorthirdabovetheopenstringand
found on frets , and :o) are perceptibly atter than their equal-tempered counterparts. Teir
discrepant pitch can be disturbing in combination with ordinary notes at the unison or octave,
butitcanalsobeexploited.BrouweropenshisSonatawithfh-partialharmonicsontheopenE
andAstrings.Astheseharmonicsminglewithordinarynotesinthesameregister,theirstrange
intonationmakesforanintriguinglysourresonance.
Leo Brouwer, Sonata (1990): i, Fandangos y Boleros, bars 13 (harmonics renotated to clarify sounding
pitches)
f
meno sonoro (l.v.)
f
pi sonoro
riten.
Prembulo
Lento (q = 5660)
4
4
5
4
7
4 &
y
>

w
U

t

y
> >
5
~ #

#

b
n

#
#

#

b

n

:
Sustain of natural harmonics
Toplayanaturalharmonicontheguitar,thelef-handngerhastotouchthenodalpointatonly
theverymomentofattack.Telefhandisthenfreetojumptoanotherpartofthengerboard
whiletheharmoniccontinuestosustain.Intheexamplebelow,theharmonicshavetobeobtained
atwidelyseparatedfrets,butbecausetheyareallondierentstrings,theywillringtogether:

&
xii
t

q
v

e
xii
or ix

w
iv

#
Inthenextexample,achordofnaturalharmonicsonstrings
e

y
ringsagainstnormalnoteson
theuppertwostrings.Techordisplayedintheareaofthengerboardspanningfrets,::,while
thenormalnotesareplayedinthespanoffrets:.Tisisanidiomthatcomposershavenotex-
ploredasmuchasonemightexpect(butseetheexampleabovefromBrouwersSonata).

sf
pp
&
xii
vii
xii
ix
y
e
t
r
>

q w q
~
~
~
~
b

b
b





Anotherusefulfeatureofnaturalharmonicsisthatthereismorethanonetechniqueofproducing
them.Insteadofusingthelefhandtotouchthenodalpoint,theguitaristcanuseasparenger
oftherighthand,sothatthetaskofplayingtheharmonicistakenbytherighthandalone.Tis
means that the composer should not have to worry about impossible stretches when combining
harmonics into chords: one has only to make sure that the dierent harmonics lie on dierent
strings.
Articial harmonics
Tetechniquejustdescribedforplayinganaturalharmonicwiththerighthandaloneisessentially
thesameforarticialharmonics:onefretsanotewiththelefhand,touchesthestringwiththe
indexngeroftherighthandanoctaveaway(orrarely,atanothernodalpoint),andplucksthe
string with another right-hand digit. Articial harmonics extend the range of pitches available,
startinganoctaveabovetheopensixthstringandspanninguptothreeoctaves:

&

Asarule,articialharmonicssoundfairlystrongandclear,noteasilydistinguishedfromnatural
harmonics;butitisdiculttoplaythemveryloudly,andaswithnaturalharmonics,thehigher
theyare,theweakerthesound.Tusitissensibletoavoidarticialharmonicsataclimax,except
perhapsinthelowestpossibleregister.
Tetechniqueofproducingarticialharmonicsissolaboriousthatwhentheyrstcameinto
practiceinthenineteenthcentury,asresourcefulaguitaristasFernandoSorbelievedthemtobe
quite useless. Modern players would laugh at that suggestion, but it remains true that articial
harmonicsarenotthemostexibleoftechniques.Itishardtoplaythematallfastexceptinshort
bursts,hardtoplaythemstaccato,andhardtoincorporatethemintoabusytexture.Teyarevery
eective,however,inalightlyaccompaniedtexture,andhavebeenusedtraditionallyforcontrast
:,
inpresentingmelodies,asinthisexamplefromatranscriptionofaGranadosdancemadeearlyin
thetwentiethcentury:
Enrique Granados, Danza Espaola v, Andaluza, op. 37/v (1890), trans. Miguel Llobet
(loco)
81
&
#
#
#
#

Articial harmonics can be played in other voices than the highest. Indeed, the counterpoint of
articialharmonicsinthelowestregisterandanothervoicemakesforastrikingcolour-albeit
onenotyetfoundintherepertoire.Inthisexample,thelower-voiceharmonicsareallplayedon
string
y
,thelowest:
p oscuro
4
2 &
-
n
-
b
b
n
b

O #

O

O
b

O
Harmonics and tone colour
Togetaclearnaturalharmonic-inparticular,theonesbasedonthehighpartials-onegenerally
hastopluckclosetothebridge.Itmaybecounterproductive,therefore,toasktheguitaristtovary
the timbre by plucking closer to the ngerboard (as Carter does with his indication tasto in the
excerptabove).Asforarticialharmonics,sincetherighthandisxedinitspositionitisimpos-
sibletovarytheirtimbre.
For these reasons, do not ask for harmonics with dierent tone colours, except in the case of
naturalharmonicsattheoctave,whicharehardlyaectedbydierentpluckingpositions.
Multiphonic harmonics
Fascinatingsoundsemergewhenoneattemptstoplayanaturalharmonicsomewhereotherthana
simplefractionofthestringslength,soundsthatcombinemorethanonepitchwithahealthydose
ofpercussivenoise.StrikingthelowEstringatthesixthfret,forexample,producesablendofthe
,rdand,thpartialsalongwiththeattackofthenailonthestring(theexamplebelowrepresents
thepercussivenoiseandthetwomostprominentpartials,allproducedontheEstring):

&

B
Ofcourse,onecanobtainchordsofharmonicsinthenormalway;theonlyreasontoresorttoa
multiphonicharmonicisforitsimpureandnoisytimbre.Likemultiphonicsonwindinstruments,
thesesoundsstandquiteapartfromtheconventionalrangeoftimbres,morecomplexanddicult
fortheeartoanalysethanasimpledoublestop.Still,theircomponentpitchesbecomeeasilyappar-
enttotheearwhenplayedalongsidenormalsoundsandharmonics.Myownexperimentssuggest
thatmultiphonicharmonicsworkbestonthewoundbassstrings(strings
r

y
),ataloudenough
dynamictoexcitethepartials.Asyet,composershavehardlytakenthemup.
:o
Recommended repertoire for harmonics
BenjaminBritten(::,:,o)
NocturnalaferJohnDowland,op.,o(:o,):Dreaming
LeoBrouwer(b.:,)
Sonata(:o)
HansWernerHenze(b.::o)
RoyalWinterMusic:FirstSonataonShakespeareanCharactersforGuitar(:,,o)
RoyalWinterMusic:SecondSonataonShakespeareanCharactersforGuitar(:,)
EvisSammoutis(b.:,)
Raindrops(:oo)
TruTakemitsu(:,oo)
Folios(:,)
AllinTwilight(:8,)
Equinox(:,)
IntheWoods(:,)
MichaelTippett(:o,88)
TeBlueGuitar(:8:,)
HeitorVilla-Lobos(:88,:,)'
Preludeno.
ParamVir(b.:,:)
ClearLight,MagicBody(:,)
Villa-Lobos uses an idiosyncratic notation of harmonics, in which the diamond-headed pitch shows the
locationoftheharmoniconthestringratherthanthesoundingpitch.
:,
Chords I
Forallitsintricacies,theguitaroersahugearrayofngeringpossibilities.Aseeminglyimpos-
siblecombinationofpitchesmayoeranunexpectedsolution,oratleastpromptimaginativeideas
forrevoicingfromaresourcefulguitarist.Asaresult,somecomposersprefernottobecomeem-
broiled in the details of devising playable chords, making sensible guesses in the rst draf and
trustinginsubsequentdialoguewithaguitarist.Tissectionisforthem,oeringasitdoesafew
rulesofthumb.Tenextsectionprovidesmuchmoredetail,pointingtoafewimportanttypesof
sonorityalongtheway.Butrstthebasicinformation.
Telefhandhasastretchofvetosevenfrets,dependingonthepositiononthengerboard.Te
followingexampleshowswhatcanbestretchedbytheaverageplayerfromagivenlownoteonthe
sixthstring.Anychordwhosefrettednotesexceedsthesespansislikelyunplayable-toincrease
thespanonemustmakeeitherthelowestnoteanopenstringorthetopnoteaharmonic.Wewill
examinethosepossibilitiesinthenextsection.
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII
&
position:
string q
string y

#
#

b
b

n
n

b
b
n

n
Bearinmindthelowestnoteavailableoneachstring.Intheexamplebelow,thevechordsare
impossibletoplaybecauseineachcasetherearenotenoughstringsavailabletoplayallthenotes:it
wouldbenecessarytoplaytwonotesonthesamestring.Forexample,thenalchordhassixnotes,
butnoneofthemishighenoughtobeplayedontheguitarshighEstring,leavingonlyvestrings
capableofplayingthesixnotes:thereforeatleastoneofthenoteswillhavetoberemovedfromthe
chord.

&
open strings impossible chords

#
b
b

b
b

#
#
b
n
Tesameargumentappliestohighnotes.Wenotedattheoutset(seep :)thateachstringhasa
literallimit(aperfect::thabovetheopenstringpitch)andapracticallimit,beyondwhichtone
qualitysuers-somewherearoundthefollowing:
Practical limit of each string: very approximate!
&
y t r e w q

Itisobviouslyimpossibletobuildupchordswhoseindividualnotesexceedtheliterallimitofthe
individualstrings.Butthepracticallimitsshouldbeapproachedorsurpassedinchordsonlywhen
thereisnoalternative.Itisclearataglancethatthefollowingsequence(takenfromauteand
guitarworkbyGeorgeRochberg)representsutterlyidealisticwritingfortheguitar.Evenifsomeof
:8
thechordsdidnotconsistofsevennotes,thehighnotesinparticularcannotbesustainedagainst
oneanother.Itisinterestingthatthepassagewaspublishedinthisform,tacitlygivingguitarists
licensetomaketheirownversions.Tereisnodoubtacertainintegritytothisaestheticofimpos-
sibility:butsinceinperformanceitleadstocompromise,wheneverIplaythispieceIndmyself
wishingthatcomposeranddedicateehadsearchedforchordsthatcanbesustained,andbasedthe
gurationonthose.
George Rochberg, Muse of Fire (1990) for ute and guitar: guitar part, bars 5157, showing a succession
of impossible chords

f
accelerando gradulamente
pi f
2
4
2
4 &
5
3
6
3
5
51
&
6
5 6
54

b

b

b
#

#

#
#
#

#
#

#


#

b

b

Achordconsistingofnotesthatapproachtheselimits,evenifitisphysicallyplayable,hasashort
sustainandishardtokeepintune.Ontheotherhand,itmaybepossibletorealiseitwiththehelp
ofharmonics(seepartii),withmagicalresults.
Teguitarlacksasustainingpedal,soitishardtorealiseachainofchordsshifingacrossthen-
gerboardinalegatomanner.Ifthetempoisrelativelyslow,thenonecancreateaconvincinglegato,
butwhenplayedfastthechordswillnecessarilysoundclipped.Indthatcomposerssometimes
writechordsthathaveavibrantsonoritybutdonothavetheimpacttheywouldinapieceforpiano
or ensemble because they lack time to ring. Solutions to this problem include: (a) incorporating
plentyofopenstringsornaturalharmonicsinthechordsand(b) restrictingthenumberofnotes
insuccessivechords-itismucheasiertoconnecttwo-orthree-notechordssmoothlythanchords
offourormorenotes.
:
Chords II
Tissectionexaminesthemechanicsofchordsinmuchgreaterdepth.Togiveaprecisepictureof
howachordwillbengeredwiththelefhand,weshallusechorddiagrams.Teycanbereadas
follows:
Verticallinesrepresentthestrings,withstring
y
(thelowest)onthelef.
Tehorizontallinesrepresentfrets,withfret:thesecondfromthetop,unlesslabelledotherwise
witharomannumeral(asinlastthreechordsintheexamplebelow).
Blackcirclesshowwherethengersaretobeplaced,rightupagainsttheactivefret.Tenumber
insidethecircleshowswhichngerstopsthenote(:=index,:=middle).
Ifastringistobeplayedopen,azeroinablackcircleappearsaboveitatthetopofthediagram(see
therstchordintheexamplebelow,whichconsistsofalltheopenstrings).
Whitecirclesshowthatthengerislightlytouchingthestringtoproduceaharmonic(seethelast
twochordsintheexamplebelow).
Ofcourse,suchdiagramsareforexplanationonly,andneedneverbeusedbycomposers.Hereare
somesimpleillustrations:

xi

xi

xii xii

vi vi

&

#
b
n
b
#

#
Te barre
Guitaristsroutinelystretchouttheindexngerofthelefhandinordertostopseveralnotesto-
gether:the barre(showninthediagramsbyahorizontalbarconnectingthedots).

iii

iii

&

b
b
b

n
b
b
b

b
#

n
b
b
#
Stopped notes in high positions against open strings
Many-otherwiseimpracticable-chordscanberealisedbycombiningopenstringswithstopped
notesinhighposition.ElliottCartersChangescontainsanumberofcarefullyworkedoutcombi-
nationsofthiskind.Tefollowingthreeexamplesareall-trichordhexachords:
:o
Elliott Carter, Changes (1983)
&
t
q
e
y
r
w
a

b
b

b
b

ix

ix
&
e
q
t
y
r
w
b

#
#
#

#
#
#

ix

ix

&
y
r
w
t
e
q
c

#
#

#
#

xi

xi

Tissortofcombinationisofennecessaryifthechordistocontainclose-spacedintervals.
Extreme spans of register
Wehavealreadyseenthatextremespansfrombottomtotop,soimportantinmuchmodernmusic,
canpresentimpossibilities,becausethesespanscannotbestretchedbythelefhand.Teeasiest
waytoavoidthesediculties,ofcourse,istomakethebassnoteanopenstring:
Tru Takemitsu, To the Edge of the Dream for guitar and orchestra (1983)

(60)
sub. f
poco accel. poco rall.
sub.
poco f
mf
freely
poco rall.
(q = 60)
&
-
>
U
#
#


n
#

b
b

#

#

n

b
b

n

b
b

#


b

#

Butifthelowbassnoteisstopped,theonlywaytogetahighnoteistouseaharmonic.Tereis
nearlyalwaysawayofgettingthedesiredpitch,sincesomanytechniquesareavailable.Butany
chordofmorethanfournotesmayhavetobearpeggiated,anditisnoteasytogeneratealotof
volumeontheharmonic.TefollowingexamplebyParamVirusesfour-notechordsatagentle
dynamicwithjustenoughspacearoundthemtogivetheplayertimetosetuptheharmonics(al-
thougheverythingsoundsmoreresonantandlegatoifthemetronomemarkisreducedsomewhat).
open + stopped
open + stopped
open + stopped
::
Param Vir, Clear Light, Magic Body (1992): ii, Clear Light, bars 16

mp
(cool)
con passione
(tasto, with esh
of thumb)
mf
mp p
(cool)
(loco)
Calm and still / expressive and wild q = 46c.
mf
f
mp sub.
3
4
3
2
4
4
3
4 &
-
-
gl.
tamb.

gl.
>
gl.
(sim.)
.
-
3
-
b
n
n
b
b
#
b
b
b
b
n
b
b

-
3
5
5
&
#
3
#
#

5
3
3

b
b

b
n
J

b
b

b

O

#

#

#
#

n
b
b

n
J

#
j

n
n

#

#
n

Ifasolutionwithharmonicsdoesnotprovidethedesiredcolour,orisnotsucientlypowerfulor
resonant,thenthechordwillhavetoberevoiced.
Itisastrengthofnaturalharmonicsthatassoonastheyhavebeensetintovibration,thelef
handnolongerhastotouchthestring.Tusitisfreetomoveelsewherewhiletheharmonicscon-
tinuetoring,justasifasustainingpedalweredepressed.Asaresult,wide-spacedvoicingscanbe
achievedbyoverlappingharmonicswithstoppednotes.Intheexamplebelow,bar:,threeharmon-
icsaresetringingatfretxii;astheyring,thelefhandshifstoalowpositiontosoundtheFand
A.Inthesecondbar,Ihavechangedthemiddlenoteofthethree-notechordtoaB

,whichcannot
beplayedasaharmonicandthereforedoesnotliterallysustainovertwobeats:becausetheouter
notes sustain, however, a very acceptable compromise results, typical of guitar writing (we shall
noteothersuchcompromiseswhenwecometodiscusscounterpoint,pp:,:o).

&
fret xii
r
w
q

frets i, ii
y
e

fret iv
t

r
w
q

y
e

O
O
O

O
b

#
Harmonics in combination with stopped notes
One kind of sonority that has perhaps not been explored in the guitar repertoire as much as it
mightbefeaturesnaturalharmonicsinthemiddleofachordtoachieveaclosespacingandasubtle
blendofsounds.

vi


vi

iv iv

&
y
#
#
#
w
q
r
e
t
y
r
t
#
e
w
q

::
Particularlyinthehighregisters,sonoritiessuchasthesetakeonawonderfulsheen,suggesting
orchestralsonoritiestintedwithmalletpercussion.
Param Vir, Clear Light, Magic Body (1992): i, Shamvar I, bars 6264
f
gl.
sf
sf
mp sub. sf
q = 76c.
62
ff
gl.
64
5
4
3
4
5
4
&
[1]
b
>

>

>
[2]

>
5
11
&

>
[3]
b
b
b
b
[4]
>
,
11
5

b
b

#
#

n
b
n

<b>
b

n
b

b
b
b
n

b
b
#






n

#
n
#

[:] [:] [,] []

vii vii

xii xii

ix

ix

iv iv

Te lef-hand thumb
Itispossibletobringthethumbfrombehindthenecktostopanote:thistechniqueisalmostun-
knownbutmaybecomemorecommonasguitartechniqueevolves.Itisbesttobringthethumb
intoplayonlyifthereisalittletimetopositionit;itmightpossiblybeusedtoholdapedaltoneor
tocreateachordwithveryclosespacing.Butifsuchachordisgoingtobesocentraltothemusic
thatitcannotberevoicedlaterthenitwouldbewisetoconsultaguitaristrst!
Takemitsu, Folios (1974): i (t = thumb)

&

n
b
b

v
T
:,
Texture, Counterpoint and Voicing
Teguitarexcelsatmonody.Sinceallbutthelowestandhighestpitchesareavailableinmorethan
oneplaceonthengerboard,theguitaristcanexplorethepossibilitiesofplayingviolinistically
ononestring,drawingonportamentoandtheexpressivityofthehighpositions-orpianistically,
playingacrossseveralstringstocreatesubtleoverlappingsofsound.Inthemiddleandhighreg-
isters,thesympatheticresonanceofthebassstringscompensatesfortheguitarsfastdecay,giving
thesoundasubtleaura.
Michael Tippett, The Blue Guitar (19823): ii, Dreaming, bars 918
f
sf pp echo
poco f
p
9
ten.
f
sf pp echo
poco f
12
p echo f
pp
15
2
4
4
4
&
rhetorical recitative
>
3
&
3
&
#



-
#
3 3

b


#
j

n
#


b

J #

b

#
#

n
b
b n

#


b





b

#

b


b
j

n
#

b






n

#
j
#

b


n
n
b
n
#
n
#



b



b
b
b
b

b
n
j

Atthesametime,theguitarhasarichcontrapuntaltradition,stemmingintherstplacefromthe
Renaissanceluteandvihuela,whoserepertoirelendsitselfreadilytotheguitaronaccountofthe
verysimilartuningsofthethreeinstruments.`Terecouldbenobetterintroductiontotheguitars
contrapuntal possibilities than Luys de Narvaezs vihuela music-his fourteen fantasias (at least
oneforeachmode)orhissixvariationsonO gloriosa Domina,aseriesofcounterpointsoveracan-
tusrmus.InthisextractfromthepenultimatevariationofO gloriosa Domina(notatedoriginally
intablature)Ihavelabelledthecantusrmuswithanadditionalstatohelpclarifyitsentrance,as
itmakesanextraordinarystrettooverlapwiththefalseentryinbar:,.
Luys de Narvez, Seis diferencias sobre O gloriosa Domina (1538): variation 5, bars 133
10
C
&
#

&
#
#
w
w
w #
w

w




w






w #

w
w





w #

w

w

w

w



w

w

w

w


w

[cont.]
Toplayvihuelamusicontheguitar,onehasonlytoretunestring
e
toF

andplayfromtheoriginaltabla-
ture:theresultisaminorthirdlowerthanonthevihuela(beforetakingintoaccountdierencesinpitch
standardsofourtwoeras).
:
[Narvez, O gloriosa Domina, continued from previous page]
O glo ri - - o - sa - - - Do -
mi - - na -
27
cantus rmus
&
#

&
#
&
#
w
w w
w #
w w
w
w
w

w
w
w


w
w
w


w
w
w


w

w
w #

#


w

w
n

w
w
w

w
w
w
#

w
w
w

#

n

w
w
#
w

Intheexampleabove,asofeninthisrepertoire,noteverythingcanberealisedliterally:onehasto
letgoofsomeofthelongnotessoonerthannotated,eitherbecauseanothernotehastobeplayed
on the same string or because the nger fretting the note is needed elsewhere. Lutenists and vi-
huelistsreliedontheinstrumentsshortsustaintocreateanartofsuggestion.
ItisthisartthatBenjaminBrittendrawsonattheendof^octurnal,whenhequotesDowlands
songCome, Heavy Sleep,compressingontotheguitarthevocallineandmostoftheluteaccompa-
niment-aconclusiontotheworkthatisallthemoreeectivegiven^octurnalsstrikingmonodic
opening.Intheexcerptbelow,noneoftheboxednotescanbeheldaslongasnotated(depending
onthengeringused,alternativenotesmightbecutshort);yetsincetheyhaveverynearlydied
beforetheyhavetobereleased,orbecauseothervoicesareactiveandmaintainingthesonority,the
guitaristcanmaintainasuspensionofdisbelief.
Benjamin Britten, Nocturnal after John Dowland, op. 70 (1963): nal section of Passacaglia
pp marked
Slow and quiet (Molto tranquillo)
&
#
#
#
# n
&
#
#
#
#
&
#
#
#
#
#
&
#
#
#
#

#

J

J

















j

j
#

Multi-voicedtexturesbecomemuchhardertonegotiateiftwovoicesaremovingquicklytogether.
Tekindoftwo-partwritingfoundinBachskeyboardinventions,forinstance,isalreadytoobusy
to work on the guitar, because Bach so ofen asks the two hands to play the smallest rhythmic
valuessimultaneously.YetthefuguesinBachslutesuitesandinhissonatasforsoloviolin(now
astandardpartoftheguitarsrepertoire)showthattheguitarcanhandlecounterpointofsome
intricacyaslongasthedierentvoicescomplementoneanotherrhythmically,combininglongand
shortrhythmicvalues.
Te following example (now thought to be intended originally for keyboard rather than lute)
representsalimitofcomplexity-again,noteverynotecanbesustainedaswritten.Tedenserthe
counterpoint,themoreimportantitbecomesthatsomeofthenotesfallonopenstrings.
:,
Johann Sebastian Bach, Suite bwv 997: ii, Fuga, bars 5967
59
63
&
n
#
& # n

#

#

#
#

n

#


J

#


#

#


J

#

n

n
b

#

#


#

j
#

Bachs lute works, alongside the contrapuntal masterworks of Dowland and his contemporaries,
may well have encouraged the intense contrapuntal build-ups of Daviess Hill Runes and Maws
Music of Memory. Yet it is worth remembering that Bachs solo violin sonatas and partitas are
frequentlyplayedontheguitarwithonlythemerestthickeningofthetexture,ifany-eventhe
single-linemovementssuchasthedoublesoftheSecondPartita.Bachsowntranscriptionforthe
luteofhisFifhCelloSuite,nwv:o::(astheSuitenwv,)isstillrelativelymodestinitselabora-
tions,butsoundsveryactiveandsonorousontheguitar.Tefollowingextractcomparesthecello
andluteversions,addingaguitarrealisation:
Johann Sebastian Bach, Gigue from Suites bwv 1011 (Cello) and bwv 995 (Lute), bars 124
Gigue

13
3
8
3
8
3
8
3
8
?
b
b
b
Cello Suite in C minor, bwv 1011
B
b
b
Lute Suite in G minor, bwv 995

?
b
b

&
Lute Suite bwv 995, as conventionally played on the guitar in A minor

#
?
b
b
b
B
b
b
?
b
b
&

j


j

j



j



j

J


J











j

When writing in a less strictly polyphonic context, it is worth remembering that the guitarists
ofBeethovensgeneration(whenthesix-stringguitarbecamestandard)establishedtwotothree
voices as a comfortable norm, with the texture ofen thinning out in moments of high activity
:o
(thusenablingquickernotevalues),andthickeningoutwhereverneeded,especiallycadences.Sors
music,therichestofitstimeinitsvoicing,adoptsthisexibleprinciple.Inthefollowingexample,
aswithhisBminorStudyquotedabove,itisworthnotingSorstellinguseofthelowestregister.
Fernando Sor, Variations on a Theme of Mozart, op. 9 (1821): Variation 3

12
2
4 &
#
#
#
#

6
&
#
#

#
#
#
&
#
#
#
#
n
#

#
j

r


j

#


#
r

j

r

Recommended repertoire for contrapuntal textures
JohannSebastianBach(:o8,:,,o)
LuteWorks,nwv,:ooo,:oooa
BenjaminBritten(::,:,o)
NocturnalaferJohnDowland,op.,o(:o,)
PeterMaxwellDavies(b.:,)
HillRunes,op.o(:8:)
Sonata,op.::,(:8)
HansWernerHenze(b.::o)
RoyalWinterMusic:FirstSonataonShakespeareanCharacters(:,,o):ii,RomeoandJuliet
RicardoIznaola(b.:)
Daedalus:SonataforGuitar(:oo,):ii,Icarus
NicholasMaw
MusicofMemory(:8)
LuysdeNarvaez(.:,:o)
FronLos seys libros del delphin(:,,8):
Fantasiasixiv(Los seys libros,books::)
SeisdiferenciassobreO gloriosa Domina(Los seys libros,book)
BayanNorthcott(b.:o)
Fantasia,op.,(:8::)
FernandoSor(:,,8:8,)
Fantaisie,op.,
VariationsonaTemeofMozart,op.(:8::)
MichaelTippett(:o,88)
TeBlueGuitar(:8:,)
:,
Trills
Passagesinvolvingvariouskindsoftrillsortremolandoareidiomatictotheguitar,buttendtobe
highincost-meaningthattremolandoguresarehardtouseincontrapuntalcontextsandmay
requirealittletimetoprepareandgetawayfrom.
Toperformatrillinthetraditionalway,onepluckstherstnoteandslurstherestofthepattern
withthelefhand(seethesectiononslurs,p,).Tisisaparticularlyexiblewayofachievingatrill,
sinceitrequiresnotimetoprepareorrelease.
Heitor Villa-Lobos, tude no. 7 (1928), bars 4856
sfz sfz
48
sfz sffz
sffz sffz sffz
allarg.
52
p
allarg.
56
&
#
#
#
#
n
b
n
n
b
>
n
> >

~~~~~~~~
n
b
n
>
>
n
b
>
n
> >

~~~~~~~~
n
b
n
>
gliss.
n
b
>
n
> >

~~~~~~~~
n
b
n
>
>
n
b
>
n
> >

~~~~~~~~
>
&
#
#
#
#
n
b
n
n
b
>
n
> >

~~~~~~~~~~
n
>
>

~~~~~~~~~~
n
n
>
>

~~~~~~~~~~
#
#
>
>

~~~~~~~~~~
#
#
>
>

~~~~~~~~~~
#
> >
&
#
#
#
#
U
6 6 6

b
n
j

b
n
j

b
n
j

b
n
n
j

b
j

n
j

n
j

Tedisadvantageofthisslurringtechniqueisthatthesounddiestoorapidlyforanykindofpro-
longedtrill(inthelateeighteenthcentury,guitaristshadtroubleachievingthelongcadentialtrills
typicaloftheconcertantestyle).Inrecenttimesguitaristshavebeenexploringtheadditionalpos-
sibilityofplayinglongtrillsontwostrings,pluckingeverynote.Tistechniqueallowstrills(and
other oscillations of two notes) of sustained intensity. But it is also limited in its usefulness, oc-
cupyingasitdoesallfourpluckingdigitsoftherighthand:therstnoteofthetrillcanbecom-
binedwithachord,butoncethetrillisunderway,soundingothernoteswillentailinterruptingit
momentarily.
Myadviceistouseloud,sustainedtrillswithcaution:onecanwriteanykindofgurationat
thestartofthepatternbutoneshouldavoidcomplexcounterpointasthetrillcontinues(except
perhapsgurationstobeplayedwiththelefhandalone,asintheviolinslef-handpizzicato).
:8
Tremolando
InthefollowingexcerptfromBrittens^octurnal,rapidlyrepeatednotesareproducedbyalternat-
ingthengersoftherighthand:lightaccompanimentispossible,generallywithsinglenotes,as
here.
Benjamin Britten, Nocturnal after John Dowland, op. 70 (1963): vii, Gently rocking, bars 14
pp murmuring; quasi tremolando simile
(cullante)
pp
6
8
6
8
&
b
b
b
b
b / 0
VII Gently rocking
&
/
n
n
n
n
n
0 / 0

A particularly idiomatic tremolando technique entails interrupting the repeated notes with the
accompaniment,creatingtheillusionofacontinuoustremolando.HereisthetraditionalSpanish
pattern:
Francisco Trrega, Recuerdos de la Alhambra (c. 1899)
Andante
3
4 &

Brittendrawsonthesamepatterninhisfolk-songsettingTe Shooting of his Dear,todramatisethe
appearanceofPollysghostinthenalverse.Teuseofdoublestopsandchordsintheaccompani-
mentisatrickybutstillpracticalelaborationofthetremoloprinciple.
Benjamin Britten, The Shooting of his Dear (folk song from Norfolk, from Folk Song Arrangements, vol.6,
19568, publ. 1961), bars 6080
So
f
the tri al - came on and pret ty - Pol ly - did ap-
rall.
60
ff
p
pear,
pp
Say ing, - Un cle, - dear
Slower
65
pp
(murmuring)
4
4
4
4
4
4
3
4
4
4
3
4
&
#
#
#

&
#
#
#
> > >
sim.
> > > > > > > > >
. .
&
#
#
#
&
#
#
#









#

[cont.]
:
[Britten, The Shooting of his Dear, continued from previous page]
un cle, - - let Jim
always pp
my - - go
67
clear, For my a pron - was bound
69
round
(pp)
me and he
71
took me for a swan, And his
slower and slower
72
poor heart lay bleed ing - - for
74
Pol ly - - his own.
76
dying away
very slow
ppp
78
4
4
4
4
4
4
3
4
5
4
4
4
3
4
5
4
5
4
3
4
5
4
3
4
3
4
5
4
3
4
3
4
5
4
3
4
3
4
3
4
&
#
#
#
&
#
#
#

>

>
&
#
#
#
&
#
#
#
n
>
&
#
#
#
&
#
#
#

>
&
#
#
#
3
&
#
#
#
<#>

>
&
#
#
#
&
#
#
#

>
&
#
#
#
&
#
#
#

>
&
#
#
#

>

u
U
3 3

#

#

<#>

#
#
#

,o
DaviessimplementationoftremoloinHill Runesisstillrecognisablythetraditionalpatternwith
itsinterruptions,butwithirregulardurations:
Peter Maxwell Davies, Hill Runes, op. 96 (1981), bars 3338
sfz
p
pp
33
pp molto
poco rit.
36
6
16
3
8
6
32
6
32
&
#
#
#
.
>
.
>
#
n
n
2
8
+
6
32
&
#
n
#
#
#
2
8
+
6
32
2
8
+
5
16

n

n
#
#
n





#

n
#
#

n

n










b

Aquitedierentwayofachievingtremolandoistouseasinglengeroftherighthandasakind
ofplectrum,pluckingthestringinbothdirectionsinrapidalternation.Tistechniqueisalmost
alwaysencounteredonisolatednotesorchords,asitisdiculttodoanythingelsewhilestrum-
minginthisway.
Goredo Petrassi, Nunc (1971): opening
mp
vibr.
non vibr.
p
mf gliss. lento
molto vibr.
ppp
(lungo)
tempo libero, lento ma flessibile
&

gliss.
U

pont.
U
,

b
#



#
b
b

Tis plectrum technique is the only way one can perform a chord tremolando. A wonderfully
shimmering eect can be achieved with dyads and two-part lines, when of course one must re-
memberthatasinglengercanonlysweepacrossadjacentstrings.Whenappliedtochordsoffour
notesormore,thetechniquebecomesincreasinglyarduousandgivesincreasinglynoisyresults,so
itisbesttoavoiditinhusheddynamics.
All the same, there are so many ways of achieving tremolando that some adaptation may be
possible.Telastexampleisatremolandopassagefromaduoforcelloandguitar,rstasthecom-
poserwroteit,andbelowonadoublesta,howIrealiseditasacombinationofplectrum-style
tremolando and slurred two-note trills-an uneven but arguably more interesting texture than
tremolandochords.
Chris Malloy, Duel for cello and guitar (2008): guitar part only, bars 11928
pp
119
pp
4
4
3
4
4
4
4
4
3
4
4
4
4
4
3
4
4
4
&
nat.
(non trem.)
n b b
#
&
suggested realisation:
1
i
1
1 1
lh alone

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
&
lh alone
0
3
4
p
0
3
4
p
i
#

w
w
w
b

w
w
w
w

w
w
w
w

w b

w b
w
b

w
w

w
w
w

w
w
[cont.]
,:
[Malloy, Duel, continued from previous page]
124
3
4
4
4
3
4
4
4
3
4
4
4
3
4
4
4
3
4
4
4
3
4
4
4
&
#
n
#
b b
(all trem.)
&
4
m
lh alone
rasg.
&
p
n
i
p i lh alone
p
p
i

w
w
w
w
w

w
w
w
w

w
w
w
w
w b
w
w

w
w
w
b

b

w
w
w
w
w b
w
w
w #

#

w
w

,:
Strums
Asarule,guitaristsplaychordsbypluckingwiththengerstogether:althoughoneplucksgener-
allyonlywiththumbandthreengers(excludingthelittlenger),itiseasyenoughtoplayve-
andsix-notechordswithoutarpeggiating,bydiscreetlysweepingacrosstwoadjacentstringswith
asinglenger.
Butstrummingacrossthestringswiththengersoersawholesetofresourcesthattouchon
everygradationofviolenceanddelicacy.Onecaneitherstrumupanddownwithasinglenger
orstrumwithsuccessivengers(rasgueado).Teseresourcesrangefromtheintensicationofa
singlechordwithagracenotepatternsimilartothatofasnaredrum-
Maurice Ohana, Tiento (1957), bars 110
f
bref
Andante (q = 72)
3
4 &
>
> >
-

>
rasg. nat.
>
-
> >
rasg.
>
nat.
-

b
n

n
b

b
n

b
n

#
n

n
j

n
b

n
-torhythmicpatterns,whichmustinevitablybestrummedoncethechordsarerepeatedquickly
enough-
Joaqun Rodrigo, Concierto de Aranjuez (1939): i, bars 16 (guitar part only)
pp cresc.
Allegro con spirito (q. = 84)
6
8 &
#
#
rasgueado sigue
> >

-toanoisytremolando:
Nicholas Maw, Music of Memory (1989): Tempo giusto
[ ff ]
[Tempo giusto (q = 80/84)]
ffz mf molto
ff maestoso
Tempo del tema
2
4
2
4
&
rasg.
#
#
n
.
>
.
>
#
#
.
>
.
>
#
#
.
>
.
> 6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
&
n
#
#
#
#
#
<
<
n
n
>
>
#
n
#
#
>
>
u
U
>
>
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
&
>
>
>
>
>
>
#
>
>
. . . .
3 3

#
#

<n>

b
n
b
R

<n>
r

#
n
n
,,
Rests can be introduced into strummed patterns by bringing the side of the hand to damp the
strings.Ifthestisused,asinLatinAmericanfolkstyles,theresultisapercussiveslap,memorably
usedbyGinasteraintheFinaleofhisSonata:
Alberto Ginastera, Sonata op. 47 (1976): iv, Finale, bars 111.`
pp cresc.
p
mp cresc.
Presto e fogoso q = 160 (e = 320), sempre e = e
mf f cresc.
7
7
8
6
8
5
8
3
4
7
8
6
8
5
8
3
4
7
8
&
rasgueado
> > >
&
> > >

b
n
b

b
b
b

n
n

#
#
#

#
#
#

b
b

n
n
b
n

b
#

Tobesure,alloftheseexamplespossessacertainHispanictint(exceptperhapsintheexampleby
Maw,whoinanycasewasaimingatmaximumrichnessofallusion),butthisneednotbeinevita-
ble.Strummingpatterns,aferall,wereanintegralpartoftheFrenchBaroqueguitarstyle,with
all its elegance and renement. And continuous rasgueado, amenco style, is central to Tristan
Murails Tellur and Berios Sequenza xi. In Berios piece the allusion to the amenco guitar, per-
hapsunavoidable,issoovertlytheatricalthatitrecedesintothebackgroundalmostimmediately;
meanwhile,thefocusswitchestothedistinctiveharmoniesarticulatedbythestrummingand(as
inMurail)bythewayinwhichitcontributestoasenseofprocess.
Finally,twoprinciplestobearinmindwhenwritingstrummedpassages:
It is only possible to strum on a set of adjacent strings. For strummed passages, then, it may be
worthwhiletochecktheexactngeringofthechord;otherwise,thecomposershouldbeprepared
to discuss revoicings with the guitarist. It is sometimes possible to mute an unwanted internal
stringwithalef-handngeronanindividualchord,butalwaysatthecostofresonanceandtech-
nicalfreedom.
Onecanstrumwithmostabandonchordsusingallsixstrings:theclimaxenvisionedbyMawin
theexampleabovewouldbehardertoachieveifthechordshadfewernotes.Butonecancertainly
strumeectivelyonanysubsetofthesixstrings,solongasthestringsareadjacent.
Inthisexcerpt,Ihaveusedx-shapednoteheadstoshowtheslaponthestringswiththest.Ginasteraused
ordinarynoteheadswithaspecialsymbolundereachslap.Teuseofprecisepitchesinthenotationofthe
slapsismisleading:theyareusedbecausetheguitaristwillcontinuetoholddownthestrummedchordwith
thelefhand;infactnopitcheswillbeaudibleontheslappedchords.
,
Glissando
Aswithanystringinstrument,expressiveslidesalongthestringareamongtheguitarsmostpre-
cious resources. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries it was routine for guitarists to
sneakextrapitchesintothelineinordertoslidefromthemtothemostexpressivepitchesalonga
singlestring.JustlookatthefollowingtwoexcerptsfromManueldeFallas::oHomenaje,rst
asFallawrotethemdown,andbeneath,astheywereplayed(andprinted)bythededicateeMiguel
Llobet.Teextrapitchesrepresent,ineect,ahighlyidiomatictypeofornamentthathasnever
beencodiedandhaslongfallenoutoffavour.Perhapstherearewaysofexploringitafresh:
Manuel de Falla, Homenaje: le tombeau de Claude Debussy (1920); the second line is from Miguel
Llobets 1926 edition
poco affr.
f
11 41
poco affr.
f
& Falla
a)

.
. .
z
. . .
z >
b)
.
3
3
3
&
Llobet
2 4 1 1 3
4
e
2

3
4
z
2
z
1
4
r
4
>
2
.
0 0
2
3
3
r
t
0 0
4
0 0
2
0
3
3
3

#
b

#








#

#
b

Inglissandossuchastheseonlytherstnoteispluckedwiththerighthand.Largeintervalsand
multipleslidesarefeasible,butitisimportanttorememberhowshorttheguitarssustainis.Te
veryactofslidingalongthestringmakesthesounddieonlythemorequickly,soiftheintervalis
large,theglissandoslowordelayed,oriftheglissandochangesdirection,thechancesofthenal
note being heard diminish greatly-and the guitarist may have to pluck that note. Te sliding
gruppettiintheMarch-likesectionofBrittens^octurnalareperfectlyjudged:
Benjamin Britten, Nocturnal after John Dowland, op.70 (1963): v, March-like, bars 58
5
&

>

>

>

>

-

b
b

b
b

n
j

w
w
#
#

<n>

b
b

#
#

b
b

#
#

#
#

<n>
j
Buttosustainamelodiclinethatispremisedonglissando,itmaybebesttocontinuallyenhance
thesonority-inparticularthenalnote-withunisonsornearunisonsonopenstringsorhar-
monics-anothertechniquethathasnotyetbeenmuchexploredintherepertoire.
Param Vir, Clear Light, Magic Body (1992): ii, Clear Light, bars 3234
mp, quasi tranquillo
(pp)
3
8
3
4 &
-
0
b
0
b
b

b
3
5

#
#

b
b

b
b

#
#

b
b

#
n

#
,,
Timbre
Guitaristsvarythetimbreinanumberofways.First,thereisthechoiceofaparticularstringor
stringsonwhichtoplayapassage.Tenthereisthepointofattackalongthestring:playingnextto
thebridge(sul ponticello)givesametallicsound,whileplayingoverthengerboard(sul tasto)gives
adark,veiledsound.Tevariationsinbetweenamounttoaboutfourprimarycolours:
pont. pont. ord. tasto
Someusagesofthesecoloursaremoreidiomaticthanothers:
Guitariststendtoplayhalf-ponticelloinfastpassagework,becausethestringsbecometenserand
easiertocontrolclosetothebridge.Bewareofaskingfortastoinvirtuosopassagesexceptinshort
bursts.Forsimilarreasons,itcanbeproblematictoplaytasto andforcefully:thestringsaremore
liabletobuzzwhenplayedstronglyclosetotheirmidpoint.
A good player varies the tone in subtle, detailed and ofenhighlypersonalwaysalmostcontinu-
ously.Itcanbemoreofahindrancethanahelptospecifythepointofattackonthestringunless
itisintegraltothestructure-andeventhen,itmaybejustaseectivetousedescriptivewords
(chiaro, brillante,metallico;oscuro,dolce,sonoro,etc)toprompttheplayertolookforanappropri-
atecolour.
, Avoidaskingfordistinctionsincolourofharmonics,exceptmaybeforalocaleectononeortwo
naturalharmonics.
Asoundratherliketheclarinetschalumeauregistercanbeobtainedbyplayingonthebassstrings
atexactlytheirmidpoint:sinceeverynotehastobepluckedinitsownplace,thiseectcanbeused
onlyinslowsinglelines.Tospecifythiseect,write::andincludeanexplanatorynote.
Modernguitaristsusetheirnailstopluckthestrings(incombinationwiththeeshofthenger-
tip),butitispossibletoanglethethumbtopluckwiththeeshalone(polpastrella)togiveadark
sound with considerable body, both on single notes and strummed chords. Again, some players
willusethissoundaspartoftheirpaletteevenifitisnotmarked.
Te snap pizzicato (or Bartok pizzicato) strikingly complements the guitars sustain. It is pro-
ducedbylifingthestringawayfromthesoundboardandreleasingitsothatitclattersagainstthe
ngerboardatthestartofthenote.Itisalittleawkwardtoproduce,soitiswisetogivetheplayer
aninstanttolifupthestring.
InanearlyepisodeinChanges,Carterdrawsonalmosteveryoneoftheseresourcestomakea
Klangfarbenmelodieoftwopitches:theAthatbeginsbar,andtheBattheendofbaro.Asthe
notesarerepeatedatvaryingspeeds,Carterconstantlyvariesthechoiceofstring,pointofattack
andplayingtechnique,includingunisons,harmonicsandsnappizzicato().
Elliott Carter, Changes (1983), bars 3951
ff
f
mf p
p
l.v.
f
espr.
39
&

t
r
>
o
>

q
o
tasto
vibr.
w
pont.
q
ord.
r
o

r
o o
5

o
5
5

j

j

w

#

b
[cont.]
,o
[Carter, Changes, continued from previous page]
mf
p
f mf p f mf
44
f
mf
leggero
p
pp
p
mp
47
ff
f mf
mp
f
sf
50
&
-
>
-
>
r t
5
5 5
5
3
5
3
3
&
y w r w y
o o

>
5
.
.
.
.
5
3
5
5
&

>

- -
>
>
5
3
5 3
n

#
R

#
#

#
#
#

n

#


R
#


#
j



#
#



n

r

#
n
#

#
n
n
#

#
n
#

#
n

#
n
n
#

n
#

#
#
#
#
n
n

#
#
n
#
n

#
n
#

#
#
n

Tocompletethisgamutofcolourswemustmentionthepizzicato.Teveryterm(plucked)is
ofcourseamisnomer:itisusedbecausethesoundimitatesthebowedinstrumentspizzicato
(ortheharpsichordslutestop).Teguitaristmuesthestringswiththepalmoftherighthand
againstthebridge,andplucksthestringswiththethumbandperhapsoneortwootherngers.
Tetechniqueisespeciallyeectiveforsinglebassnotesorchordsoftwoorthreenotes,butcan
beusedinanyregister.
Tru Takemitsu, All in Twilight (1987): iv, bars 2232
poco
sfz
p
poco
mfz
p p
pp
22
f
a tempo
meno
f
f
accel.
27
&
Art.
Harm.

Art.
Harm.

pizz.
&
#
>
#

b
b
b O b

b
b

b
b
O b
b
b

b
b
b
b
b


b
b
b
b
b
#
#
n
n
b
n
n
n
n
#
#
n
#
#
n
n
b
n

n
n
n
#
#
n
O

,,
Vibrato, Pitch Bends, Microtones
Degreesofvibrato-fromnoneatalltoheavilyexaggerated-canbeexploitedontheguitarinall
registers,justasonotherstringinstruments.
It is possible to bend any pitch upwards by pulling the string to the side: this eect is best ex-
ploitedwithminimalaccompaniment,sincetheactofpullingthestringasidecancauseittointer-
ferewiththevibrationoftheadjacentstrings.(Note-bendingismuchmorelimitedontheclassical
guitarthanonelectricorsteel-stringguitarswiththeirlowertensionstrings.)TakemitsusFolios
endsstrikinglywiththiseect(sincethissoundcomesattheendofthepiece,onecouldevenuse
thetuningpegtochangethepitch,particularlyifitwasanopenstringandparticularlyifthepitch
was to be lowered instead of raised). Pulling the string aside in this way will shorten its sustain
slightly,especiallyontheupperstrings.
Tru Takemitsu, Folios (1974): iii, ending
mfp
a tempo
p
mf
p
f
pp
x = 112
rall.
mp
sf p
&
b
-
b
>
& r
t

U
gliss.
n
b n
n
b

n

n
n
#

n
n

n
#
#

n
n
n

b
b

n

Bybendingthestringonecanproduceaprecisequarter-tone.Inthefollowingchromaticallysatu-
ratedpassagebyOhana,(alreadycitedforitsuseofcampanellas)thequarter-tonesinthethirdbar
areproducedbyngeringC

andpullingthestringsharpbyjusttherightamount.Tisisnoteasy
todocleanlyandwouldnotbefeasibleinrapidguration:indeed,inperformance,oneofenhears
theC

bendingintothequarter-toneratherthanacleanlystruckmicrotone.
Maurice Ohana, Tiento (1957), bars 5356
ff (violent)
p
Cadenza
Lento (q = 44)
53
2
4 &
prs du chevalet (mtallique)
0 0 r t
#
n
> >
n
#
3
3
3

#
#

n
n
#

n
n

n #

#

n

B
j

#

#
n B
#

InhislaterguitarworksOhanaasksforthirdsoftones,whichalthoughpossiblerequirethestring
tobepulledalmostimpracticallysharp.Itisreasonabletosaythatifmicrotonesaregoingtobeused
morethanoccasionally,somesortofmicrotonalscordaturashouldbeused,asinFerneyhoughs
Kurze Schatten ii.
Ohanasoriginalscorenotatesthetwoquartertonesintwodierentways,includinganexplanatorynote.I
havesimpliedthenotationforthesakeofthisshortexcerpt.
,8
Percussion
Oneoftheguitarsmostintriguingresourcesisthetambora:theguitaristusesthethumboran
outstretchedngerasabeateronthestringstocreateapercussivesoundthatispitched.
Nicholas Maw, Music of Memory (1989): Senza rigore; non troppo lento
p
poco sf
molto rit.
pp
p
Pi lento Tempo 1
sfz
molto rit.
pp
3
4 &
b
b
n
n
- - - -
u
-
U
>
tambora
b
. . . . . . -
U
. . . . . . . -
u
[nat.]
3
&
u
tambora
. . . . . . -
U
>
. . . . . . . -
u
#
r

#

n

#
#
n
n
#

R
Intherightplace,tamboracanbeextraordinarilytelling,butsomecareandexperimentationmay
becalledfor:
As with strums, one should aim to write chords that can be ngered on adjacent strings. Ofen,
though,onecanndawayofmutinganunwantedinternalstring.
Teclarityofthetamborasoundissomewhatunpredictable.Eveninshowpieces,whichmightfea-
tureanentirepassageoftambora,theharmoniesaregenerallyquitestatic.Tissoundisbestused
foritsatmosphere:neshadingsofvoice-leadingtendtogetobscured.
, Tamboradoesnotriseabovemf:asingleblowtothestringscanstillenhanceaclimax,butany
extendeduseoftamboraisnotableaboveallforitsquietness.
Tistechniqueopensupthepossibilityofusing,insteadoftheeshandboneoftheplayershand,
percussionistsbeaters:inSi le jour parait(writtenin:o,fortherarelyplayedten-stringguitar)
Ohanadeploysattimesbothametalbeaterandafelt-coveredbeaterwithcompellingresults.Te
useofhardwoodenormetalbeatersmakespossibleatamboraofmuchgreaterloudnessandclar-
ity.Butapartfromthetimerequiredtopickupthebeaterandputitdown,thepriceofusingoneis
thatofanyexotictechnique:theeectstandswelloutsidetheguitarsnaturalcontinuumofsounds,
asthoughallofasuddenonewereplayingaquitedierentinstrument.
Initsrelativequietnessandlackofclarity,then,tamboramightbecomparedwiththestringplay-
erscol legno(exceptthatthereisnolossofsustainwithtambora).Mawsuseofitintheexample
abovetakesnorisks:thereisalmostnoharmonicchangewhenthetamborastarts,soclarityof
pitchisnotcrucial;thedynamicishushed;thedrummingsoundistheretocreatemysteryrather
thanviolence.
Whatthenofnon-pitchedpercussion:tappingvariouspartsoftheguitarssoundboardorsides:
It is true that examples abound in modern guitar works, but I would warn against focusing on
thesesoundsinisolation.Frankly,theytendtolackthedepthandinterestofrealpercussionin-
struments and are as likely to amuse as fascinate an audience. On the other hand, when heard
alongsidepitchedsoundstheycanbecomesomethingquitedierent.Tereisnobetterexampleof
,
thisthanHenzesprecariousandthrillingmedleyofpluckedsounds,tamboraandpercussionon
variouspartsoftheguitartocloseGloucester,therstmovementofhisrstRoyal Vinter Music
Sonata. Here is the beginning of the passage: the x-shaped noteheads are to be played tambora,
whilethelowerstaasksforpercussioninthreedierentlocationsonthesoundboard,allslightly
dierentintimbrefromoneanother.Noticeagaintherestraineduseoftambora:asthedynamic
rises,ordinarynotestakeover.
Hans Werner Henze, Royal Winter Music: First Sonata (19756): i, Gloucester, bars99109
mf
pp mf p
mf
99
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fff
103
ff f
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106
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a a b a
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a a c
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snap

rsf

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c
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Scordatura
Asfarasmereplayabilityisconcerned,itishardtoimproveonthestandardguitartuning,withits
perfectfourthsandonemajorthird.Retuningoneormorestringsusuallyincreasestheinterval
betweentwoadjacentstringstomorethanaperfectfourth,withtheresultthatclose-spacedhar-
moniesinvolvingthosestringsbecomehardertoachieve.
Still,agooddealoftheguitarstonalrepertoireexploitssomekindofscordatura.Traditionally,
playerswouldretunetheguitartosetanopen-stringtotonicordominant,makingthetonickeylie
andresonatebetter.Everyguitaristisfamiliarwiththefollowingpossibilities(theretunedstrings
areshownasblacknoteheads;numbersincirclesrefertostrings):
y
= d
y
= d,
t
= g
y
= f

&

Such tunings may be just as eective in less tonal contexts, lending a special resonance to refer-
ential sonorities and pedal tones. Northcott uses [
y
= D] in his Fantasia, op. ,; Takemitsu uses
[
y
= D,
t
=G]inbothToward the Sea(:8:,foraltouteandguitar)andAll in Twilight(:8,);the
secondmovementofBrouwersSonatahas[
y
=F].TuningthesixthstringtoD,ofcourse,extends
therangeoftheguitar;occasionallyitisloweredasfarasC,althoughthesonorityandintonation
offrettednotescansuerwhenthestringisslackenedsomuch,forcingthecomposertousethe
stringwithdiscretion.
Giventhetonalbiasofallthestandardtunings,itisnotsurprisingthatfromtimetotimecom-
posers devise tunings that set the open strings to something other than a collection of diatonic
pitches,makingtheinstrumentlesstonalratherthanmore.Animmediatebenetisthegreater
varietyofnaturalharmonicsthatarise(aswehaveseen,thestandardtuningyieldssomeduplica-
tionofpitches).Attheextremearethequarter-tonescordatureofFerneyhoughsKurze Schatten
ii (:8). Within the chromatic system I have seen tunings such as the following used to great
purpose:
y
= e

y
= e

,
t
= a

y
= e

,
w
= b

y
= f,
r
= e

Bennett, no. 3 from Keeley, no. 3 from Takemitsu, Equinox Murail, Tellur (1977)
Five Impromptus Bagatelas das Ondas (1993)
for ute and guitar Brouwer, Hika (1996)
&

b
b

b
b

b
AdjustingthesixthstringtoE

makeslittledierencetoplayability,buttransformsthesonorityof
theguitarsostrikinglythatitsurprisesmeithasnotbeenusedmoreofen.Interestingpossibili-
tiesalsoarisewhenthehighEstringisloweredtoE

,althoughasfarasIknowtherearenopieces
writtenforthistuning.
Whendevisingascordatura,Irecommendthateachopenstringbekeptwithinthefollowing
upperandlowerlimits:
&
y t r e w q

b
#

b
#
#
b n

b n

:
Teselimitscouldperhapsbestretchedbyasemitoneeitherwaybutatsomecosttotoneandin-
tonation.
While it is common enough to retune between movements, giving the guitar a little time to
settle,itisverydiculttoretunesilentlywithinamovementorduringanattacca.Suchretuning
isoccasionallyaskedforintherepertoire,butIwouldstronglyadviseagainstitunlessthesound
of the string being retuned-the sliding pitch-is incorporated into the music. In his concerto
Troubadours,Coriglianomorethanonceasksthesoloisttoswitchstring
y
quicklyandsilentlybe-
tweenDandE

:ariskyundertaking.Towardstheendofthecadenza,though,thestringisretuned
toDoutloud,echoingthechromaticglissandithatareheardfromtheoutsetoftheconcerto-a
muchmoregratefultaskfortheguitarist.
:
Extended Techniques
Almosteverypartoftheguitarpresentsasitefornon-standardsounds.Someofthesesoundshave
denitepitchesthancanbecounterpointedwithconventionallyproducednotes.Onecanpluck
thestringbetweenthefrettingngerandthenut,insteadofbetweenthefrettingngerandthe
bridge to produce a weak, high-pitched, tinny sound (but nonetheless eective in Alexandre de
FariasPreludeEyes of a Recollection).Oronecanmutethestringwhileattackingitwiththenailto
makeapparentthevestigialpitchalwaysproducedwhenthenailmeetsthestring(asinthetabula
rasaopeningofMurailsTellur).
Othersoundsconsistofhighindeterminatepitches,aswhenoneplucksthestringsbehindthe
nut,orstopsthestringsabovethehighestfret.Ginasterahumorouslyexploresbothsoundsinthe
ScherzoofhisSonata.
Stillotherwaysofplayingproduceunpitchednoise.Oneofthemostimportantinvolvescross-
ing two strings (usually bass strings) over one another and pressing them down over a fret to
produce a sound that guitarists aptly call snare drum (Corigliano uses this sound to begin the
cadenzainhisconcertoTroubadours).Othertechniquesentailscrapingthestringswiththenails
(therstmovementofGinasterasSonata)ortappingonthesoundboard(Petrassis^unc,thelast
movement of Tippetts Blue Guitar, Scelsis Ko-Ta). What happens when one slides a lef-hand
ngerlightlyoverthestringtopassovernodalpointshasbeenexploredtofascinatingeectby
Murail and Sammoutis. Certain lef-hand techniques in Murail and Berio may well have been
borrowed from the electric guitar. And of course, besides being prepared like Cages piano, the
guitarhasbeenplayedwithallmannerofimplementsfrombows(HenzesEl Cimarron)tobeaters
(OhanasSi le jour parait).
Inthelastresort,though,allsucheectsshouldsurelybeexploredonarealinstrument,rather
thaninanessaysuchasthis.JohnSchneiderhaswrittenausefulguidetoextendedtechniquesin
hisbookTe Contemporary Guitar (Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,:8,),andthefollow-
inglistofworks,allofwhichIbelieveoerapersuasivemusicalexperience,mayhelptointroduce
someofthesounds.
Recommended repertoire
LucianoBerio(::,:oo,)
Sequenzaxi(:8,8)
AlbertoGinastera(::o:8,)
Sonata,op.,(:,o)
AlexandredeFaria(b.:,:)
PreludeforGuitar:EyesofaRecollection
HansWernerHenze(b.::o)
MemoriasdeElCimarron(adaptedbyLeoBrouwer::,,)
RoyalWinterMusic:FirstSonataonShakespeareanCharactersforGuitar(:,,o):Gloucester
TristanMurail(b.:,)
Tellur(:,,)
MauriceOhana(::,:)
Silejourparait(:o,)forten-stringguitar
,
GoredoPetrassi(:o:oo,)
Nunc(:,:)
EvisSammoutis(b.:,)
Raindrops(:oo)
GiacintoScelsi(:o,88)
Ko-Ta:TreeDancesofShiva(:o,)
MichaelTippett(:o,88)
TeBlueGuitar(:8:,)
ParamVir(b.:,:)
ClearLight,MagicBody(:,)

List of Works Mentioned in the Text

DionisioAguado(:,8:8)
Miscellaneousstudiesfrom^uevo metodo (:8,)
JohannSebastianBach(:o8,:,,o)
LuteWorks,nwv,:ooo,:oooa
AgustnBarriosMangor(:88,:)
Estudiono.,Arabescos
RichardRodneyBennett(b.:,o)
FiveImpromptus(:o8)
Sonata(:8,)
LucianoBerio(::,:oo,)
Sequenzaxi(:8,8)
BenjaminBritten(::,:,o)
NocturnalaferJohnDowland,op.,o(:o,)
FolkSongArrangements,volumeo(:,o8,publ.:o:)
LeoBrouwer(b.:,)
Estudiossencillos(:oo,:8:)
Sonata(:o)
Hika(:o)
MatteoCarcassi(c.:,,:8,,)
:,Etudesmlodiquesetprogressives,op.oo(c.:8,o)
JohnCorigliano(b.:,8)
Troubadours:VariationsforGuitarandChamberOrchestra(:,)
PeterMaxwellDavies(b.:,)
HillRunes,op.o(:8:)
Sonata,op.::,(:8)
StephenDodgson(b.::)
Partitano.(:o)
ManueldeFalla(:8,o:o)
Homenaje:pourletombeaudeClaudeDebussy(::o)
AlexandredeFaria(b.:,:)
PreludeforGuitar:EyesofaRecollection(:8o)
BrianFerneyhough(b.:,)
KurzeSchattenii(:8)
AlbertoGinastera(::o:8,)
Sonata,op.,(:,o)
MauroGiuliani(:,8::8:)
Miscellaneousstudies
,
EnriqueGranados(:8o,::o),arr.MiguelLlobet(:8,8:,8)
Danzaespaolav(Andaluza),op.,,/v(:8o)
HansWernerHenze(b.::o)
MemoriasdeElCimarron(adaptedbyLeoBrouwer::,,)
RoyalWinterMusic:FirstSonataonShakespeareanCharactersforGuitar(:,,o)
RoyalWinterMusic:SecondSonataonShakespeareanCharactersforGuitar(:,)
RicardoIznaola(b.:)
Daedalus:SonataforGuitar(:oo,)
RobertKeeley(b.:oo)
Bagatelasdasondasforuteandguitar(:oo,)
ChrisMalloy(b.:o,)
Duelforcelloandguitar(:oo8)
MillionsofMischiefs(:oo,)forten-stringguitar
NicholasMaw(:,,:oo)
MusicofMemory(:8)
TristanMurail(b.:,)
Tellur(:,,)
LuysdeNarvaez(.:,:o)
fromLos seys libros del delphin (:,,8):
Fantasiasixiv(Los seys libros,books::)
SeisdiferenciassobreO gloriosa Domina(Los seys libros,book)
BayanNorthcott(b.:o)
Fantasia,op.,(:8::)
MauriceOhana(::,:)
Silejourparait(:o,)forten-stringguitar
Tiento(:,,)
GoredoPetrassi(:o:oo,)
Nunc(:,:)
JoaqunRodrigo(:o:)
ConciertodeAranjuez(:,)
EvisSammoutis(b.:,)
Raindrops(:oo)
FernandoSor(:,,8:8,)
Fantaisie,op.,
VariationsonaTemeofMozart,op.(:8::)
Miscellaneousstudies
TruTakemitsu(:,oo)
Folios(:,)
TotheEdgeofDreamforguitarandorchestra(:8,)
AllinTwilight(:8,)
Equinox(:,)
IntheWoods(:,)
o
FranciscoTarrega(:8,::o)
RecuerdosdelaAlhambra(c.:8)
Estudiobrillante(aferAlard)
MichaelTippett(:o,88)
TeBlueGuitar(:8:,)
HeitorVilla-Lobos(:88,:,)
::Etudes(::8,rev.::)
,Preludes(:o)
ParamVir(b.:,:)
ClearLight,MagicBody(:,)