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I/L cards to leadership and reading a heg impact to AIDs might be a double-turn so be careful.

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T'e (nite$ States fe$eral go)ernment s'oul$ esta*lis' a *ilateral &artners'i& +it' t'e go)ernment of Me,ico against 'uman trafficking-

Human Trafficking Aff ./283

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1ac in'erenc"
Currentl"/ untol$ num*ers of Me,ican men/ +omen/ an$ c'il$ren are *eing unfairl" im&risone$ *" 'uman traffickers along t'e *or$er0a *ilateral &artners'i& is critical 1A23A 2011 (Rocio, Candidate for Juris Doctor, en!amin ". Cardo#o $chool of La%, &a' ()**+ A. . (()),.ar/ard 0ni/ersit', CARD121 J. 13 I"45L 6 C1&7. LA8, &arch, %%%.c!icl.com/uploads/(/9/,/9/(9,9:9*/c!icl;*9.(;gar#a;note.pdf1n an' gi/en da', a &e<ican %oman %ill be promised a good pa'ing !ob as a nann' or %aitress in the 0 nited $tates. A &e<ican man %ill be promised emplo'ment as a %aiter or construction %or=er . 4he' %ill be told that the' %ill earn enough mone' to send bac= to their families in &e<ico. >i/en that, for man' 'ears, undocumented immigrants ha/e
been %or=ing in the 0nited $tates and sending mone' to their families in &e<ico, this %ill be an enticing and belie/able !ob offer. .a/ing limited economic resources in their home countr' and perhaps a lac= of formal education, the' %ill ta=e the ris= and pa' a co'ote to transport them to the 0nited $tates. 4he' %ill lea/e behind their families and all that the' =no% for a chance at the elusi/e American Dream. 4heir immigration stories are all too common. &an' people %ill arri/e in the 0nited $tates to find !obs in the agriculture, restaurant, construction, and house=eeping industries, !oining countless other undocumented immigrants. 4he' %ill li/e in the shado%s across the 0nited $tates. 1thers, ho%e/er, %ill be less fortunate. 8hen

the' arri/e in the 0nited $tates, man' people %ill be told their transportation fees ha/e increased and %ill be hardpressed into forced labor or forced prostitution to repa' their debts . 4he' ma' e/en be coerced into signing ?labor contracts,@ stipulating %age deductions for food and shelter. 4he' %ill li=el' not =no% ho% much the' o%e and the mone'
the' earn %ill go directl' to their captors. 8hat begins as a smuggling operation can Auic=l' turn into the heinous crime of human traffic=ing. *

.uman traffic=ing is the e<ploitation of people primaril' for labor or se< using force, coercion or fraud. ( It dehumani#es /ictims b' treating them as commoditiesB and b' sub!ecting them to dreadful li/ing conditions .C 4raffic=ers ma' recruit, transport, or harbor /ictims using force, threat, or fraud for the purpose of se<ual e<ploitation, forced labor, or other similar practices ., &en, %omen, and children can all be /ictims of human traffic=ing. Described as ?a modern-da' form of sla/er',@D human traffic=ing manifests itself in a number of forms.: As of June ()*), the 0nited

"ations estimated that ?there are at least *(.B million adults and children in forced labor, bonded labor, and commercial se<ual ser/itude at an' gi/en time.@E .o%e/er, due to the clandestine nature of human traffic=ing,9 the e<act number of /ictims is un=no%n %ith estimates ranging from four million to t%ent'-se/en million.*) .uman traffic=ing is not a ne% phenomenon, ** but no one =no%s ho% long it has been in e<istence. In the last decade, since ())), go/ernments around the %orld began to ac=no%ledge the pre/alence of human traffic=ing, its destructi/e impact on /ictims, and the need to eradicate it.*( 7eople tend to disassociate themsel/es from human traffic=ing, thin=ing it does not happen %ithin their communities.*B .o%e/er, in actualit', traffic=ing touches almost all countries in one %a' or another.*C A combination of internal moti/ating factors and e<ternal factors ma=e the e<ploitation of people possible.*, $ome of the factors that moti/ate traffic=ers to e<ploit people and ma=e /ictims /ulnerable to e<ploitation include po/ert', lac= of economic opportunities, lac= of education, lac= of information about legal immigration, and social conflicts %ithin countries.*D Among others, e<ternal factors include gender discrimination, %ea= border controls, absence of legislation to address immigration and traffic=ing, go/ernment corruption, and demand for cheap labor and se<ual ser/ices in recei/ing countries of human traffic=ing /ictims. *: Fnacting anti-traffic=ing la%s is one of the first steps a countr' must ta=e to prosecute traffic=ers, protect /ictims, and pre/ent traffic=ing. *E 4o date, more than half of all countries ha/e enacted la%s prohibiting human traffic=ing in all its forms,*9 'et the problem persists. Although outla%ing human traffic=ing is a positi/e de/elopment, prosecution, protection, and pre/ention do not immediatel' follo%. >i/en the comple< factors under %hich human traffic=ing flourishes,() more than enacting anti-traffic=ing legislation is needed to curb these despicable acts.(* 4he 0nited $tates enacted federal legislation, the 4raffic=ing Gictims 7rotection Act of ())) (4G7A-, criminali#ing traffic=ing in persons. (( 4he 4G7A ma' be utili#ed to protect /ictims of ?se/ere forms of traffic=ing@ and to prosecute traffic=ers.(B A person sub!ected to forced labor or se<ual e<ploitation, as in the situations described abo/e of the /ictims %ho fall into the hands of traffic=ers, ma' be able to press charges against their traffic=ers and get legal protection.(C $imilarl', in ()):, &e<ico enacted the La% to 7re/ent and 7unish 4raffic=ing in 7ersons (&e<ican Anti-4raffic=ing La%-. .o%e/er, access to the 4G7A is contingent on the /ictim see=ing help or being rescued. >i/en that /ictims are usuall' undocumented, fear being deported, and are intimidated %ith /iolence, the chances that the 4G7A reaches intended /ictims is often slim. $imilarl', in ()):, &e<ico enacted the La% to 7re/ent and 7unish 4raffic=ing in 7ersons (&e<ican Anti-4raffic=ing La%-.(, Despite enacting anti-traffic=ing legislation, &e<ico is not 'et in compliance %ith the 0nited "ations 7rotocol to 7re/ent, $uppress and 7unish 4raffic=ing in 7ersons Fspeciall' 8omen and Children (0" 7rotocol-, (D %hich sets out the international legal frame%or= to eradicate human traffic=ing.(: 4he 0" 7rotocol is a supplement to the 0nited "ations Con/ention against 4ransnational 1rgani#ed Crime.(E Although the &e<ican Anti4raffic=ing La%(9 surpasses the minimum reAuirements for incarceration of traffic=ers outlined in the 0" 7rotocol, &e<ico has failed to adeAuatel' implement the la%.B) As of June ())9, there had been no con/ictions under this federal la%.B* In December ())9, ho%e/er, a &e<ican federal !udge achie/ed the first con/iction under the &e<ican Anti-4raffic=ing La% in a case in/ol/ing si< traffic=ing offenders.B( 8ith onl' one successful prosecution, &e<ico continues to be a transit, origin and destination countr' for human traffic=ing /ictims.BB 4he porous 0nited $tates-&e<ico

border continues to be a significant point of entr' for human traffic=ing /ictims BC that are be'ond the reach of the &e<ican Anti-4raffic=ing La% and unli=el' to benefit from the 4G7A. Along the appro<imatel' (,)))-mile di/ision, the challenges of eradicating human traffic=ing are manifold .B, 1ne of these challenges is determining %hose responsibilit' it is to remed' the human traffic=ing situation. $hould the 0nited $tates e<pend more resources sa/ing
/ictims and incarcerating traffic=ers %ithin its bordersH Is it &e<ico5s responsibilit' to %arn its citi#ens and =eep them safe from traffic=ersH $hould it matter that %hat ma=es /ictims /ulnerable to traffic=ers is their basic human instinct to do better for themsel/es and their progen' b' see=ing better economic opportunitiesH .uman traffic=ing transcends boundaries and so must its solution. 4he 0nited $tates and &e<ico are both deepl'

affected and ine<tricabl' lin=ed b' human traffic=ing due to their histor' and e<tensi/e shared geographic border. .ence, a solution for addressing human traffic=ing must ta=e into consideration both countries5 interests through a bilateral partnership. Me,ico is t'e ke"0t'e"4re a glo*al hotspot for se< traffic=ing

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 7/283 Department of $tate, *B (0.$. Department of $tate, ()*B, ?4raffic=ing in 7ersons Report ()*B@ httpI//%%%.state.go//!/tip/rls/tiprpt/()*B/inde<.htm-//F& &e<ico is a large source/ transit/ an$ $estination countr' for men, %omen, and children sub!ected to se< traffic=ing and forced labor. >roups considered most /ulnerable to human traffic=ing in &e<ico include %omen, children, indigenous persons, persons %ith
mental and ph'sical disabilities, as %ell as lesbian, ga', bise<ual, and transgender 'outh, and undocumented migrants. &e<ican %omen and children are e<ploited in se< traffic=ing %ithin &e<ico and the 0nited $tates, lured b' fraudulent emplo'ment opportunities, decepti/e offers of romantic relationships, or e<tortion, including through the retention of identification documents or threats to notif' immigration officials. &e<ican men, %omen, and children also are e<ploited in forced labor in agriculture, domestic ser/ice, manufacturing, construction, in the informal econom', and in forced street begging in both the 0nited $tates and &e<ico. $taff at some substance addiction

foreign /ictims in forced labor and from Central and $outh America, particularl' >uatemala, .onduras, and Fl $al/ador + man' of these /ictims are e<ploited along &e<ico5s southern border. 4raffic=ing /ictims from the Caribbean, eastern Furope, Asia, and Africa ha/e also been identified in &e<ico, some en route to the 0nited $tates. 1rgani#ed criminal groups coerced children and migrants into prostitution and
rehabilitation centers and %omen5s shelters ha/e sub!ected residents to forced labor and forced prostitution. 4he /ast ma!orit' of se<ual ser/itude in &e<ico are and =idnapping professionals, including architects and engineers, for forced labor. Child

%or= as hit men, loo=outs, and in the production, transportation, and sale of drugs. 4here %ere also reports during the 'ear of criminal groups using forced labor in coal mines

se< tourism persisted in &e<ico, especiall' in tourist areas such as Acapulco, 7uerto Gallarta, and Cancun and in northern border cities li=e 4i!uana and Ciudad Juare#. &an' child se< tourists are from the 0nited $tates,
Canada, and %estern Furope, though some are &e<ican citi#ens. In some parts of the countr', threats of /iolence from criminal organi#ations impede the abilit' of the go/ernment and ci/il societ' to combat traffic=ing effecti/el'. 4he >o/ernment of &e<ico does not full' compl' %ith the minimum standards for the elimination of traffic=ing+ ho%e/er, it is ma=ing significant efforts to do so. During the 'ear, authorities appro/ed a ne% national anti-traffic=ing la% and increased con/ictions of traffic=ing offenders at the state le/el. $ome states strengthened their anti-traffic=ing la% enforcement capacit', and the go/ernment maintained /aried training efforts at the national and local le/el. $peciali#ed /ictim ser/ices and shelters remained inadeAuate, ho%e/er, and /ictim identification and interagenc' coordination remained une/en. 4here %as no centrali#ed data on /ictim identification or la% enforcement efforts, efforts against forced labor continued to be relati/el' %ea=, and official complicit' continued to be a serious problem.

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(S 'uman trafficking &olicies are mo$ele$ glo*all" Srikantia' 7 Associate 7rofessor of La% and Director, Immigrants5 Rights Clinic, $tanford La% (Ja'ashri, ?7erfect Gictims and Real $ur/i/orsI
4he Iconic Gictim In Domestic .uman 4raffic=ing La%,@ oston 0ni/ersit' La% Re/ie% /. *E:, httpI//%%%.bu.edu/la%/central/!d/organi#ations/!ournals/bulr//olumeE:n*/documents/$RIJA"4IA./.(.pdf-//A&

As the 0nited $tates continues to grapple %ith human traffic=ing, other K countries are doing the same and, in man' cases, are using the 0.$. traffic=ing K legislation as a model. 1ur traffic=ing approach could ha/e global K conseAuences. 0nless %e allo% our approach to e/ol/e as our understanding K of traffic=ing e/ol/es, %e erroneousl' e<clude traffic=ing /ictims from K immigration relief. A *ilateral &artners'i& increases &re)ention initiati)es in a$$ition to num*er of &rosecutions 5 allo+s for information s'aring an$ e,&e$ite$ in)estigations 1ar6a 11 Candidate for Juris Doctor, en!amin ". Cardo#o $chool of La%, A from .ar/ard (Rocio, **/*/**, LAddressing .uman 4raffic=ing Along
the 0nited $tates-&e<ico orderI 4he "eed for a ilateral 7artnership,L httpI//%%%.c!icl.com/uploads/(/9/,/9/(9,9:9*/c!icl;*9.(;gar#a;note.pdf-//A& Gictims on both sides of the 0nited $tates-&e<ico border K %ould greatl' benefit from impro/ements to both countries5 la%s K and their implementation. Regardless, the 0nited $tates and K &e<ico can accomplish much more if the' !oin efforts and K collaborate in a formal

bilateral partnership that ta=es into K account the internal and e<ternal factors(CBK that ma=e human K traffic=ing possible. A bilateral partnership %ould ensure that K both countries5 interests are represented in an' solution to K eradicate human traffic=ing. It could be beneficial in prosecuting K traffic=ers, protecting /ictims, and putting pre/entati/e measures K in place.K *. 7rosecution of 4raffic=ersK A formal bilateral partnership could allo% the 0nited $tates K and &e<ico to share information about traffic=ers, %hich could K lead to more prosecutions. Currentl', if in the course of an K in/estigation, a 0.$.
prosecutor belie/es that a traffic=er returned K to &e<ico, the prosecutor ma' either petition for e<tradition or K submit a reAuest for the &e<ican go/ernment to prosecute the K accused in &e<ico.(CC >enerall', &e<ican 7resident Calderon K cooperates %ith the 0nited $tates in e<traditing criminals.(C,K $e/eral traffic=ers ha/e been e<tradited to the 0nited $tates K in connection to high profile cases, such as the Carreto-Galencia K brothers %ho %ere charged %ith human traffic=ing for running a K forced prostitution ring in "e% Mor=.(CD After se/eral famil' K members %ere charged in ())C, another participant %as e<tradited K in ()): and sentenced in ())E.(C: Another case in/ol/ed K defendants %ho illegall' transported &e<ican indi/iduals to K 3lorida and forced them to %or= in fruit har/esting fields b' K threatening them %ith /iolence.(CEK If the strategies used to K

prosecute these traffic=ers %ere maintained b' a bilateral K partnership, both the 0nited $tates and &e<ico could e<pedite K their in/estigator' processes instead of acting unilaterall' and onl' K responding to each other5s reAuests for e<tradition and K punishment. &ore efficient prosecutions %ould lea/e more K resources and time to address the needs of /ictims. K (. 7rotection of GictimsK A bilateral partnership could be formed bet%een 0.$. Customs and order 7rotection agents and &e<ican customs K officials in order to create better strategies to identif' human K traffic=ing /ictims at the shared border . Although most K
immigrants agree to be smuggled, others are abducted and ta=en K against their %ill.(C9 8hen these immigrants are intercepted at the K border, the' are often confused %ith smugglers and the people K the' are smuggling and not recogni#ed as /ictims.(,) .a/ing a K bilateral partnership could ensure that these issues come to light K and that proper training is pro/ided to 0.$. Customs and order K 7rotection agents in order to pre/ent them from simpl' deporting K /ictims or sending them bac= to their traffic=ers. F/en if K immigrants ha/e consented to being smuggled, 0.$. agents ma' be K able to identif' the signs of human traffic=ing if information is K shared across the border. $uspected /ictims of human traffic=ing K could be

turned o/er to &e<ican customs officials for further K in/estigation and possible legal aid and protection.K In a bilateral partnership %ith representati/es from both K countries, the 0nited $tates and &e<ico %ould be able to come up K %ith strategies that =eep traffic=ers and smugglers out of the K 0nited $tates %hile protecting the /ictims. 3or e<ample, if a K partnership %ere in place, the members of the partnership could K designate specific steps for 0.$. Customs and order 7rotection K agents to ta=e %hen the' suspect the people the' ha/e detained K are /ictims of human traffic=ing.
4hese steps could include, for K e<ample, sending /ictims directl' to predetermined and stateappro/ed &e<ican shelters eAuipped to handle their needs as /ictims of human traffic=ing. Another specific step that a K partnership ma' be able to put in place is that 0.$.

Customs and K order 7rotection agents could separate people the' intercept at K the border and as= them specific Auestions to determine if the' are K /ictims. $ome /ictims of human traffic=ing report that if the' had K not been near their
traffic=ers at the time the' %ere stopped at the K border and if the' had been as=ed more direct Auestions, the' K %ould ha/e re/ealed that the' %ere being ta=en against their %ill K and been rescued despite their fear of retaliation from traffic=ers. K B. 7re/ention of .uman 4raffic=ingK 7re/ention tends to be a goal that is cast aside in fa/or of K prosecution of traffic=ers and protection of /ictims because it is K intangible. 1ne can count the number of prosecutions and /ictims K helped but cannot ascertain ho% man' are sa/ed %ith pre/entati/e K measures. In the ())9 4I7 Report, $ecretar' of $tate .illar' K Clinton ac=no%ledged that much remains to be done in identif'ing K and tac=ling the root causes of human traffic=ing.(,B Clinton urged K all go/ernments to le/erage their resources and offered 0.$. K partnership to strengthen anti-traffic=ing efforts.(,C K 1ne of the %a's in %hich the

0nited $tates can le/erage its K resources is b' partnering %ith &e<ico in order to continue raising K a%areness about the dangers of human traffic=ing and ho% K smuggling can easil' lead to traffic=ing. In addition, a partnership K %ould send a message to both countries about the seriousness of K the crime and the urgent need to address it together. In a K partnership bet%een 0.$. and &e<ican representati/es, the' K %ould be able to strategi#e to de/elop /iable alternati/es to K pre/ent illegal immigration, gi/en that most /ictims are /ulnerable K due to a lac=

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 7/283 of economic alternati/es. 3urthermore, through a K partnership, the 0nited $tates and &e<ico could de/elop !oint and K more informed
a%areness campaigns to %arn their citi#ens about K the dangers and criminal conseAuences of engaging in human K traffic=ing.

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1ac no +ar
No +ar 8 economic inter$e&en$ence an$ nuclear $eterrence 9eu$ne" an$ :ken*err"/ 07 N &A and 7hD in 7olitical $cience, 7rofessor, 7olitical $cience, Johns .op=ins 0ni/ersit'+ 7hD, 7rofessor, International Affairs, 8oodro% 8ilson $chool of 7ublic and International Affairs, 7rinceton 0ni/ersit' (Daniel and >. John, Januar'/3ebruar' ())9, ?4he &'th of the Autocratic Re/i/alI 8h' Liberal Democrac' 8ill 7re/ail,@ 3oreign Affairs Golume EE, Issue *, 7roOuest, .ensel4his blea= outloo= is based on an e,aggeration of recent de/elopments and ignores &o+erful counter)ailing factors an$ forces. Indeed, contrar' to %hat the re/i/alists describe, the most stri=ing features of the contemporar' international landscape are the intensification of economic glo*ali6ation, t'ickening institutions, and shared problems of inter$e&en$ence. 4he o/erall structure of the international s'stem toda' is Auite unli=e that of the nineteenth centur'. Compared to older orders, the contemporar' liberal-centered international order pro/ides a set of constraints and opportunitiesNof pushes and pullsNthat reduce the li=elihood of se/ere conflict %hile creating strong imperati/es for cooperati/e problem sol/ing . 4hose in/o=ing the nineteenth centur' as a model for the t%ent'Nfirst also fail to ac=no%ledge the e<tent to %hich %ar as a path to conflict resolution and great-po%er e<pansion has become largel' o*solete. &ost important, nuclear %eapons ha/e transformed greatpo%er %ar from a routine feature of international politics into an e<ercise in national suicide. 8ith all of the great po%ers possessing nuclear %eapons and ample means to rapidl' e<pand their deterrent forces, %arfare among these states has trul' become an option of last resort. 4he prospect of such great losses has instilled in the great po%ers a le/el of caution an$ restraint that effecti/el' precludes ma!or re/isionist efforts. 3urthermore, the $iffusion of small arms and the near uni/ersalit' of nationalism ha/e se/erel' limited the abilit' of great po%ers to conAuer and occup' territor' inhabited b' resisting populations (as Algeria, Gietnam, Afghanistan, and no% IraA ha/e demonstrated-. 0nli=e during the da's of empire building in the nineteenth centur', states toda' cannot translate great as'mmetries of po%er into effecti/e territorial control+ at most, the' can hope for loose hegemonic relationships that reAuire them to gi/e something in return. Also unli=e in the nineteenth centur', toda' the densit' of trade, in/estment, and production net%or=s across international borders raises e/en more the costs of %ar . A Chinese in/asion of 4ai%an, to ta=e
one of the most plausible cases of a future interstate %ar, %ould pose for the Chinese communist regime daunting economic costs, both domestic and international. 4a=en together, these changes in the econom' of /iolence mean that the international s'stem is far more

primed for peace than the autocratic re/i/alists ac=no%ledge . ;)en if it $oes occur/ it +ill ne)er in)ol)e great &o+ers Te&&erman 7 Deput' Fditor of "e%s%ee=, &ember of the Council on 3oreign Relations, no% &anaging Fditor of 3oreign Affairs, holds a .A. in Fnglish Literature from Male 0ni/ersit', an &.A. in Jurisprudence from 1<ford 0ni/ersit', and an LL.&. in International La% from "e% Mor= 0ni/ersit' (Jonathan, L8h' 1bama $hould Learn to Lo/e the omb,L E/(E/)9, httpI//%%%.thedail'beast.com/ne%s%ee=/())9/)E/(E/%h'obama-should-learn-to-lo/e-the-bomb.html-//A& 4hese efforts are all grounded in the same propositionI that , as 1bama has said se/eral times, nuclear %eapons represent the Lgra/est threatL to 0.$. securit'. 4his argument has a lot going for it. ItPs strongl' intuiti/e, as an'one %hoPs e/er seen pictures of
.iroshima or "agasa=i =no%s. ItPs also popular+ 0.$. presidents ha/e been ma=ing similar noises since the Fisenho%er administration, and halting the spread of nu=es (if not eliminating them altogether- is one of the fe% things 1bama, Gladimir 7utin, .u Jintao, and en!amin "etan'ahu can all agree on. 4herePs !ust one problem %ith the reasoningI it ma' %ell be %rong. K A gro%ing and compelling bod' of research suggests that nuclear %eapons ma' not, in fact, ma=e the %orld more dangerous, as 1bama and most people assume. 4he

bomb ma' actuall' ma=e us safer. In this era of rogue states and transnational terrorists, that idea sounds so ob/iousl' %rongheaded that fe% politicians or polic'ma=ers are
%illing to entertain it. ut thatPs a mista=e. Jno%ing the truth about nu=es %ould ha/e a profound impact on go/ernment polic'. 1bamaPs idealistic campaign, so out of character for a pragmatic administration, ma' be unli=el' to get far (past presidents ha/e tried and failed-. ut itPs not e/en clear he should ma=e the effort. 4here are more important measures the 0.$. go/ernment can and should ta=e to ma=e the real %orld safer, and these mustnPt be ignored in the name of a dream' ideal (a nu=e-free planet- thatPs both unrealistic and possibl' undesirable. K 4he argument that nuclear

%eapons can be agents of peace as %ell as destruction rests on t%o decepti/el' simple obser/ations. 3irst, nuclear %eapons ha/e not been used since *9C,. $econd, therePs ne/er been a nuclear, or e/en a nonnuclear, %ar bet%een t%o states that possess them. Just stop for a second and thin= about thatI itPs hard to o/erstate ho% remar=able it is, especiall' gi/en the singular /iciousness of the ()th centur' . As Jenneth 8alt#, the leading Lnuclear optimistL and a professor emeritus of political science at 0C er=ele' puts it, L 8e no% ha/e DC 'ears of e<perience since .iroshima. ItPs stri=ing and against all historical precedent that for that substantial period, there has not been an' %ar among nuclear states.LK 4o understand %h'Nand %h' the ne<t DC 'ears are li=el' to pla' out the same %a'N'ou need to start b' recogni#ing that all states are rational on some basic le/el. 4heir leaders ma' be stupid, pett', /enal, e/en e/il, but the' tend to do things onl'

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 11/283 %hen the'Pre prett' sure the' can get a%a' %ith them. 4a=e %arI a countr' %ill start a fight onl' %hen itPs almost certain it can get %hat it %ants at an acceptable price. "ot e/en .itler or $addam %aged %ars the' didnPt thin= the' could %in. 4he problem historicall' has been that leaders often ma=e the %rong gamble and underestimate the other sideNand millions of innocents pa' the price.K "uclear %eapons change all that b' ma=ing the costs of %ar ob/ious, ine/itable, and unacceptable. $uddenl', %hen both sides ha/e the abilit' to turn the other to ashes %ith the push of a buttonNand e/er'bod' =no%s itNthe basic math shifts. F/en the cra#iest tin-pot dictator is forced to accept that %ar %ith a nuclear state is un%innable and thus not %orth the effort. As 8alt# puts it, L8h' fight if 'ou canPt %in and might lose e/er'thingHL K 8h' indeedH 4he iron logic of deterrence and mutuall' assured destruction is so compelling, itPs led to %hatPs =no%n as the nuclear peace I the /irtuall' unprecedented stretch since the end of 8orld 8ar II in %hich all the %orldPs ma!or po%ers ha/e a/oided coming to blo%s. 4he' did fight pro<' %ars, ranging from Jorea to Gietnam to Angola to Latin America. ut these ne/er matched the furious destruction of fullon, great-po%er %ar (8orld 8ar II alone %as responsible for some ,) million to :) million deaths-. And since the end of the Cold 8ar, such bloodshed has declined precipitousl'. &ean%hile, the nuclear po%ers ha/e scrupulousl' a/oided direct combat, and therePs /er' good reason to thin= the' al%a's %ill. 4here ha/e been some near misses, but a close loo= at
these cases is fundamentall' reassuringNbecause in each instance, /er' different leaders all came to the same safe conclusion.

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7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

1ac framing
<ailure to incor&orate met'o$s of $ealing +it' structural )iolence into our &olitics is t'e failure of &olitics all toget'er Winter an$ =eig'ton in 1777 (Deborah Du"ann 8inter and Dana C. Leighton. 8interI 7s'chologist that speciali#es in $ocial 7s'ch,
Counseling 7s'ch, .istorical and Contemporar' Issues, 7eace 7s'cholog'. LeightonI 7hD graduate student in the 7s'cholog' Department at the 0ni/ersit' of Ar=ansas. Jno%ledgable in the fields of social ps'cholog', peace ps'cholog', and ustice and intergroup responses to transgressions of !ustice- (7eace, conflict, and /iolenceI 7eace ps'cholog' in the (*st centur'. 7g C-,3inall', to recogni#e the operation of structural /iolence forces us to as= Auestions about ho% and %h' %e

tolerate it, Auestions %hich often ha/e painful ans%ers for the pri/ileged elite %ho unconsciousl' support it. A final Auestion of this section is ho% and %h' %e allo% oursel/es to be so obli/ious to structural /iolence. $usan 1poto% offers an intriguing set of ans%ers, in her article $ocial In!ustice. $he argues that our normal perceptual/cogniti/e processes di/ide people into in-groups and outgroups. 4hose outside our group lie outside our scope of !ustice. In!ustice that %ould be instantaneousl' confronted if it occurred to someone %e lo/e or =no% is barel' noticed if it occurs to strangers or those %ho are in/isible or irrele/ant. 8e do not seem to be able to open our minds and our hearts to e/er'one, so %e dra% conceptual lines bet%een those %ho are in and out of our moral circle. 4hose %ho fall outside are morall' e<cluded, and become either in/isible, or demeaned in some %a' so that %e do not ha/e to ac=no%ledge the in!ustice the' suffer. &oral e<clusion is a human failing, but 1poto% argues con/incingl' that it is an outcome of e/er'da' social cognition. 4o reduce its nefarious effects, %e must be /igilant in noticing and listening to oppressed, in/isible, outsiders. Inclusionar' thin=ing can be fostered b' relationships, communication, and appreciation of di/ersit'. Li=e 1poto%, all the authors in this section point out that structural /iolence is not ine/itable if %e become a%are of its operation, and build s'stematic %a's to mitigate its effects. Learning about structural /iolence ma' be discouraging, o/er%helming, or maddening, but these papers encourage us to step be'ond guilt and anger, and begin to thin= about ho% to reduce structural /iolence. All the authors in this section note that the same structures (such as global communication and normal social cognition- %hich feed structural /iolence, can also be used to empo%er citi#ens to reduce it. A crisis focuse$ et'ic is +rong 8 attention to isolate$ instances of +arfare ignores t'e $ail" 'orrors of structural )iolence- T'is is t'e &recon$ition for an" +ar to 'a&&en Cuomo 7. Q 7hD, 0ni/ersit' of 8isconsin-&adison, Department of 7hilosoph', 0ni/ersit' of Cincinnati (Chris, .'patia 3all *99D. Gol. **, Issue B, pg B)In L>ender and R7ostmodernP 8ar,L Robin $chott introduces some of the %a's in %hich %ar is currentl' best seen not as an e/ent but as a presence ($chott *99,-.
$chott argues that postmodern understandings of persons, states, and politics, as %ell as the high-tech nature of much contemporar' %arfare and the preponderance of ci/il and nationalist %ars, render an e/entbased conception of %ar inadeAuate, especiall' insofar as gender is ta=en into account. In this essa', I %ill e<pand upon her argument b' sho%ing that accounts of %ar that onl' focus on e/ents are impo/erished in a number of %a's, and therefore feminist consideration of the political, ethical, and ontological dimensions of %ar and the possibilities for resistance demand a much more complicated approach. I ta=e $chottPs characteri#ation of %ar as presence as a point of departure, though I am not committed to the idea that the constanc' of militarism, the fact of its omnipresence in human e<perience, and the paucit' of an e/ent-based account of %ar are e<clusi/e to contemporar' postmodern or postcolonial circumstances.(*-

4heor' that does not in/estigate or e/en notice the omni&resence of militarism cannot represent or address the depth and specificit' of the e/er'da' effects of militarism on %omen, on people li/ing in occupied territories, on members of militar' institutions, and on the en/ironment. 4hese effects are rele/ant to feminists in a number of %a's because militar' practices and institutions help construct gendered and national identit', and because the' !ustif' the destruction of natural nonhuman entities and communities $uring &eacetime- Lac= of attention to these aspects of the business of ma=ing or pre/enting militar' /iolence in an e<tremel' technologi#ed %orld results in t'eor" t'at cannot accommo$ate t'e connections among the constant presence of militarism, declared %ars, and other closel' related social phenomena, such as nationalistic glorifications of motherhood, media /iolence, and current ideological gra/itations to militar' solutions for social problems. Fthical approaches that do not attend to the %a's in %hich %arfare and militar' practices are %o/en into the /er' fabric of life in t%ent'-first centur' technological states lea$ to crisis5*ase$ &olitics an$ anal"ses . 3or an' feminism that aims to resist oppression and create alternati/e social and political options, crisis-based ethics and politics are problematic because the' $istract attention from the need for sustained resistance to the enmeshed, omnipresent s'stems of domination and oppression that so often function as gi/ens in most peoplePs li/es . "eglecting the omnipresence of militarism allo%s the false *elief that the a*sence of $eclare$ arme$ conflicts is &eace , the polar opposite of %ar. It is particularl' eas' for those %hose li/es are shaped b' the safet' of pri/ilege, and %ho do not regularl' encounter the realities of militarism, to maintain this false belief. 4he belief that militarism is an ethical, political concern onl' regarding armed conflict, creates forms of resistance to militarism that are merel' e,ercises in crisis control- Anti%ar resistance is then mobili#ed %hen the LrealL /iolence finall' occurs, or %hen the stabilit' of pri/ilege is directl' threatened, and at that point it is difficult not to respond in %a's that ma=e resisters drop all other political priorities. Crisis-dri/en attention to declarations of %ar might actuall'

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 13/283 kee& resisters com&lacent a*out an$ com&licitous in t'e general &resence of glo*al militarism . $eeing %ar as necessaril' embedded in constant militar' presence dra%s attention to the fact that horrific, state-sponsored /iolence is happening nearl' all o/er, all of the time, and that it is perpetrated b' militar' institutions and other militaristic agents of the state. Mo)ing a+a" from crisis5$ri)en &olitics an$ ontologies concerning %ar and militar' /iolence also ena*les consi$eration of relationships among seemingl' disparate phenomena, and therefore can shape more nuanced theoretical and practical forms of resistance. 3or e<ample, in/estigating the %a's in %hich %ar is part of a presence allo%s consideration of the relationships among the e/ents of %ar and the follo%ingI ho% militarism is a foundational trope in the social and political imagination+ ho% the per/asi/e presence and s'mbolism of soldiers/%arriors/patriots shape meanings of gender+ the %a's in %hich threats of state-sponsored /iolence are a sometimes in/isible/sometimes bold agent of racism, nationalism, and corporate interests+ the fact that /ast numbers of communities, cities, and nations are currentl' in the midst of e<cruciatingl' /iolent circumstances. It also pro/ides a lens for considering the relationships among the /arious =inds of /iolence that get labeled L%ar .L >i/en
current American obsessions %ith nationalism, guns, and militias, and gro%ing hunger for the death penalt', prisons, and a more po%erful police state, one cannot underestimate the need for philosophical and political attention to connections among phenomena li=e the L%ar on drugs,L the L%ar on crime,L and other state-funded militaristic campaigns. I propose that the constanc' of militarism and its effects on social realit' be reintroduced as a crucial locus of contemporar' feminist attentions, and that feminists emphasi#e ho% %ars are eruptions and manifestations of omnipresent militarism that is a product and tool of multipl' oppressi/e, corporate, technocratic states.((- 3eminists should be particularl' interested in ma=ing this shift because it better allo%s consideration of the effects of %ar and militarism on %omen, sub!ugated peoples, and en/ironments. 8hile gi/ing attention to the constanc' of militarism in contemporar' life %e need not neglect the importance of addressing the specific Aualities of direct, large-scale, declared militar' conflicts. ut

the dramatic nature of declared, large-scale conflicts should not obfuscate the %a's in %hich militar' /iolence per/ades most societies in increasingl' technologicall' sophisticated %a's and the significance of militar' institutions and e/er'da' &ractices in s'a&ing realit"7hilosophical discussions that focus onl' on the ethics of declaring and fighting %ars miss these connections, and also miss the %a's in %hich e/en declared militar' conflicts are often e<perienced as omnipresent horrors. 4hese approaches also lea/e unAuestioned tendencies to sus&en$ or $istort moral >u$gement in the face of %hat appears to be the ine/itabilit' of %ar and militarism.

?re$ictions of international relations fail Tetlock an$ 1ar$ner/ 11 professor of organi#ational beha/ior at the .aas usiness $chool at the 0ni/ersit' of California- er=ele' and columnist and senior %riter (Dan >ardner and 7hilip 4etloc=, :/**/**, ?1/ercoming 1ur A/ersion to Ac=no%ledging 1ur Ignorance@, httpI//%%%.cato-unbound.org/()**/):/**/dan-gardnerphilip-tetloc=/o/ercoming-our-a/ersion-ac=no%ledging-our-ignorance-//F&
4he editors ma' regret that short shelf-life some 'ears, but surel' not this one. F/en no%, onl' half%a' through the 'ear, 4he 8orld in ()** bears little resemblance to the %orld in ()**. 1f the political turmoil in the &iddle FastNthe re/olutionar' mo/ements in 4unisia, Fg'pt, Lib'a, Memen, ahrain, and $'riaN %e

find no hint in 4he Fconomist5s forecast. "or do %e find a %ord about the earthAua=e/tsunami and conseAuent disasters in Japan or the spillo/er effects on the /iabilit' of nuclear po%er around the %orld. 1r the =illing of 1sama bin Laden and the spillo/er effects for al Oaeda and 7a=istani and Afghan politics. $o each of the top three global e/ents of the first half of ()** %ere as unforeseen b' 4he Fconomist as the ne<t great asteroid stri=e. 4his is not to moc= 4he Fconomist, %hich has an unusuall' deep bench of %ell-connected obser/ers and anal'tical talent. A /ast arra' of other indi/iduals and organi#ations issued forecasts for ()** and none, to the best of our =no%ledge, correctl' predicted the top three global e/ents of the first half of the 'ear. "one predicted t%o of the e/ents. 1r e/en one. "o doubt, there are sporadic e<ceptions of %hich %e5re una%are. $o man' pundits ma=e so man' predictions that a fe% are bound to be bull5s e'es.
ut it is a fact that almost all the best and brightestNin go/ernments, uni/ersities, corporations, and intelligence agenciesN%ere ta=en b' surprise. Repeatedl'. 4hat is all too t'pical. Despite massi/e in/estments of mone', effort, and ingenuit', our abilit' to predict human affairs is impressi/e onl' in its mediocrit'. 8ith metronomic regularit', %hat is e<pected does not come to pass, %hile %hat isn5t, does. In the most comprehensi/e anal'sis of e<pert prediction e/er conducted, 7hilip 4etloc= assembled a group of some (E) anon'mous /olunteersNeconomists, political

scientists, intelligence anal'sts, !ournalistsN%hose %or= in/ol/ed forecasting to some degree or other. 4hese e<perts %ere then as=ed about a %ide arra' of sub!ects. 8ill inflation rise, fall, or sta' the sameH 8ill the presidential election be %on b' a Republican or DemocratH 8ill there be open %ar on the Jorean peninsulaH 4ime frames /aried. $o did the relati/e turbulence of the moment %hen the Auestions %ere as=ed, as the e<periment %ent on for 'ears. In all, the e<perts made some (E,))) predictions. 4ime passed, the /eracit' of the predictions %as determined, the data anal'#ed, and the a/erage e<pert5s forecasts %ere re/ealed to be onl' slightl' more accurate than random guessingNor, to put more harshl', onl' a bit better than the pro/erbial dart-thro%ing chimpan#ee.
And the a/erage e<pert performed slightl' %orse than a still more mindless competitionI simple e<trapolation algorithms that automaticall' predicted more of the same.

?ro*a*ilit" neglect &aral"6es an$ causes serial &olic" failure

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 1 /283 Sunstein/ 2 Distinguished $er/ice 7rofessor, 0ni/ersit' of Chicago, La% $chool and Department of 7olitical $cience (Cass R. $unstein, 9/(B/(, ?7robabilit' "eglectI Fmotions, 8orst Cases, and La%@, httpI//%%%.'alela%!ournal.org/pdf/**(-*/$unstein3I"AL.pdf-//F&
.o% should %e understand human beha/ior in cases of this sortH &' principal ans%er, the thesis of this Fssa', is that %hen intense emotions are engaged, people tend to focus on the ad/erse outcome, not on its li=elihood. 4hat is, the' are not closel' attuned to the probabilit' that harm %ill occur. At the indi/idual le/el, this phenomenon, %hich I shall call ?probabilit' neglect,@ produces serious difficulties of /arious sorts,

including e<cessi/e %orr' and un!ustified beha/ioral changes. 8hen people neglect probabilit', the' ma' also treat some ris=s as if the' %ere none<istent, e/en though the li=elihood of harm, o/er a lifetime, is far from tri/ial. 7robabilit' neglect can produce significant problems for la% and regulation. As %e shall see, regulator' agencies, no less than indi/iduals, ma'
neglect the issue of probabilit', in a %a' that can lead to either indifference to real ris=s or costl' e<penditures for little or no gain. If agencies are falling /ictim to probabilit' neglect, the' might %ell be /iolating rele/ant la%., Indeed, %e shall see that the idea of probabilit' neglect helps illuminate a number of !udicial decisions, %hich seem implicitl' attuned to that idea, and %hich re/eal an implicit beha/ioral rationalit' in important poc=ets of federal administrati/e la%. As %e shall also see, an understanding of probabilit' neglect helps sho% ho% go/ernment can heighten, or dampen, public concern about ha#ards. 7ublic-spirited political actors, no less than self-interested ones, can e<ploit probabilit' neglect so as to promote attention to problems that ma' or ma' not deser/e public concern. It %ill be helpful to begin, ho%e/er, %ith some general bac=ground on indi/idual and social !udgments about ris=s. A. Cognition 1n the con/entional /ie% of rationalit', probabilities matter a great deal to reactions to ris=s. ut emotions, as such, are not assessed independentl'+ the' are not ta=en to pla' a distincti/e role.D 1f course, people might be ris=-a/erse or ris=-inclined. 3or e<ample, it is possible that people %ill be %illing to pa' S*)) to eliminate a */*))) ris= of losing S9)). ut anal'sts usuall' belie/e that /ariations in probabilit' should matter, so that there %ould be a serious problem if people %ere %illing to pa' both S*)) to eliminate a */*))) ris= of losing S9)) and S*)) to eliminate a */*)),))) ris= of losing S9)). Anal'sts do not generall' as=, or care, %hether ris=-related dispositions are a product of emotions or something else. 1f course, it is no% generall' agreed that in thin=ing about ris=s, people rel' on certain heuristics and sho% identifiable biases.: 4hose %ho emphasi#e heuristics and biases are often seen as attac=ing the con/entional /ie% of rationalit'.E In a %a' the' are doing !ust that, but the heuristicsand- biases literature has a highl' cogniti/e focus, designed to establish ho% people proceed under conditions of uncertaint'. 4he central Auestion is thisI 8hen people do not =no% about the probabilit' associated %ith some ris=, ho% do the' thin=H It is clear that %hen people lac= statistical information, the' rel' on certain heuristics, or rules of thumb, %hich ser/e to simplif' their inAuir'.9 1f these rules of thumb, the ?a/ailabilit' heuristic@ is probabl' the most important for purposes of understanding ris=-related la%.*) 4hus, for e<ample, ?a class %hose instances are easil' retrie/ed %ill appear more numerous than a class of eAual freAuenc' %hose instances are less retrie/able.@** 4he point /er' much bears on pri/ate and public responses to ris=s, suggesting, for e<ample, that people %ill be especiall' responsi/e to the dangers of AID$, crime,

earthAua=es, and nuclear po%er plant accidents if e<amples of these ris=s are eas' to recall .*( 4his is a point about ho%
familiarit' can affect the a/ailabilit' of instances. ut salience is important as %ell. ?4he impact of seeing a house burning on the sub!ecti/e probabilit' of such accidents is probabl' greater than the impact of reading about a fire in the local paper.@*B $o, too, recent e/ents %ill ha/e a greater impact than earlier ones. 4he point helps e<plain much ris=-related beha/ior. 3or e<ample, %hether people %ill bu' insurance for natural disasters is greatl' affected b' recent e<periences.*C If floods ha/e not occurred in the immediate past, people %ho li/e on flood plains are far less li=el' to purchase insurance.*, In the aftermath of an earthAua=e, the proportion of people carr'ing earthAua=e insurance rises sharpl'Nbut it declines steadil' from that point, as /i/id memories recede.*D 3or purposes of la% and regulation, the problem is that the a/ailabilit' heuristic can lead to serious errors of fact, in terms of both e<cessi/e controls on small ris=s that are cogniti/el' a/ailable and insufficient controls on large ris=s that are not.*: 4he cogniti/e emphasis of the heuristics-and-biases literature can be found as %ell in prospect theor', a departure from e<pected utilit' theor' that e<plains decision under ris=.*E 3or present purposes, %hat is most important is that prospect theor' offers an e<planation for simultaneous gambling and insurance.*9 8hen gi/en the choice, most people %ill re!ect a certain gain of T in fa/or of a gamble %ith an e<pected /alue belo% T, if the gamble in/ol/es a small probabilit' of riches. At the same time, most people prefer a certain loss of T to a gamble %ith an e<pected /alue less than T, if the gamble in/ol/es a small probabilit' of catastrophe.() If e<pected utilit' theor' is ta=en as normati/e, then people depart from the normati/e theor' of rationalit' in gi/ing e<cessi/e %eight to lo%probabilit' outcomes %hen the sta=es are high. Indeed, %e might easil' see prospect theor' as emphasi#ing a form of probabilit' neglect. ut in ma=ing these descripti/e claims, prospect theor' does not specif' a special role for emotions. 4his is not a pu##ling o/ersight, if it counts as an o/ersight at all. 3or man' purposes, %hat matters is %hat people choose, and it is unimportant to =no% %hether their choices depend on cognition or emotion, %hate/er ma' be the difference bet%een these t%o terms. . Fmotion "o one doubts, ho%e/er, that in man' domains, people do not thin= much about /ariations in probabilit' and that emotions ha/e a large effect on !udgment and decisionma=ing.(* 8ould a group of randoml' selected people pa' more to reduce a */*)),))) ris= of getting a gruesome form of cancer than a similar group %ould pa' to reduce a */()),))) ris= of getting that form of cancerH 8ould the former group pa' t%ice as muchH 8ith some lo%-probabilit' e/ents, anticipated and actual emotions, triggered b' the best-case or %orst-case outcome, help to determine choice. 4hose %ho bu' lotter' tic=ets, for e<ample, often fantasi#e about the goods associated %ith a luc=' outcome.(( 8ith respect to ris=s of harm, man' of our ordinar' %a's of spea=ing suggest strong emotionsI panic, h'steria, terror. 7eople might

refuse to fl', for e<ample, not because the' are currentl' frightened, but because the' anticipate their o%n an<iet', and the' %ant to a/oid it. It has been suggested that people often decide as the' do because the' anticipate their o%n regret.(B 4he same is true for fear.
Jno%ing that the' %ill be afraid, people ma' refuse to tra/el to Israel or $outh Africa, e/en if the' %ould much en!o' seeing those nations and e/en if the' belie/e, on reflection, that their fear is not entirel' rational. Recent e/idence is Auite specific.(C It suggests that people greatl' neglect

significant differences in probabilit' %hen the outcome is ?affect rich@N%hen it in/ol/es not simpl' a serious loss, but one that produces strong emotions, including fear .(, 4o be sure, the distinction bet%een cognition and emotion is comple< and contested.(D In the domain of ris=s, and most other places, emotional reactions are usuall' based on thin=ing+ the' are hardl' cognition-free. 8hen a negati/e emotion is associated %ith a certain ris=Npesticides or nuclear po%er, for e<ampleN
cognition pla's a central role.(: 3or purposes of the anal'sis here, it is not necessar' to sa' an'thing especiall' contro/ersial about the nature of the emotion of fear. 4he onl' suggestion is that %hen emotions are intense, calculation is less li=el' to occur, or at least that form of calculation that in/ol/es assessment of ris=s in terms of not onl' the magnitude but also the probabilit' of the outcome. Dra%ing on and e<panding the rele/ant e/idence, I %ill emphasi#e a general phenomenon hereI In political and mar=et domains, people often focus on the desirabilit' of the outcome in

Auestion and pa' (too- little attention to the probabilit' that a good or bad outcome %ill, in fact, occur. It is in such cases
that people fall pre' to probabilit' neglect, %hich is properl' treated as a form of Auasi-rationalit'.(E 7robabilit' neglect is especiall' large %hen people focus on the %orst possible case or other%ise are sub!ect to strong emotions. 8hen such emotions are at %or=, people do not gi/e

sufficient consideration to the li=elihood that the %orst case %ill actuall' occur. 4his is Auasi-rational because, from the normati/e point of /ie%, it is not full' rational to treat a *U chance of T as eAui/alent, or nearl' eAui/alent, to a

Human Trafficking Aff 1%/283 99U chance of T, or e/en a *)U chance of T.

7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

ecause people suffer from probabilit' neglect, and because neglecting probabilit' is not full' rational, the phenomenon I identif' raises ne% Auestions about the %idespread idea that ordinar' people ha/e a =ind of ri/al rationalit' superior to that of e<perts.(9 &ost of the time, e<perts are concerned principall' %ith the number of li/es at sta=e,B) and for that reason the' %ill be closel' attuned, as ordinar' people are not, to the issue of probabilit'.

T'e o*session +it' calculations re$uces t'e +orl$ to mere num*ers an$ results in t'e +orst manifestation of gen$ere$ )iolence

N'anenge 7 (J'tte &asters V 0 $outh Africa, paper submitted in part fulfilment of the reAuirements for the degree of master of arts in the

sub!ect De/elopment $tudies, ?FC13F&I"$&I 418ARD$ I"4F>RA4I"> 4.F C1"CFR"$ 13 81&F", 711R 7F17LF A"D "A40RF I"41 DFGFL17&F"4&achines, calculations and measurements %ere increasingl' integrated into the industrial life of Furopean societ' . De/elopment of transportation, na/igation techniAues, roads and canals, mining technolog', refinement of metals, ad/ances in ballistic machiner' %here all compatible %ith the image of a mechanical cosmos. $ocio-economic ends could be reali#ed b' mining the earth, cutting the forests and constructing ships to transport the products. &echanism made the natural %orld rational, predictable and thereb' manipulable. 4he

image of nature as a machine remo/ed an' scruples associating %ith a li/ing organism. .o%e/er, it also had side effects.

Alread' in *DD*, an anal'sis of the ecological interrelationships bet%een air, %ater and the health of li/ing things %as made. Fspeciall' the air pollution %as critici#ed. 1ne half of the people %ho died in London %ere assumed to die from conseAuences of air pollution. (&erchant *9E)I ((D-((:, (C*-. .o%e/er, in spite of such minor side effects mechanical science %as established as being an ob!ecti/e, /alue-free,

conte<t-free and uni/ersal =no%ledge s'stem. In sum, this /ie% came about due to the creation of assumptions about realit' that ma=e human control of nature possible I 3irstl', matter is composed of parts, %hich are dead, passi/e and inert.
4he motion of the atoms forms ne% ob!ects b' e<ternal force. $econdl', the %orld is sub!ect to la%-li=e beha/iour. 4hirdl', b' obser/ing these la%s =no%ledge can be abstracted from the natural %orld. 3ourthl', onl' Auantities and conte<t- independent issues that can be submitted to mathematical modelling counts. 3inall', problems can be bro=en into parts and abstracted from the conte<t and be manipulated b' mathematics. Conclusi/el',

man has po%er o/er nature. 4hese assumptions are pre/ailing in the modern culture. ased on them data is gathered %hich guides decision ma=ing in go/ernments, in the econom', in industries and in application of technolog'. 4he information is arranged in such a %a' to assure manPs domination o/er the entire earth and the planets. (&erchant *9E)I ((E-((9, (B*-(BC-. 4he mechanical %orld-/ie% has been the philosophical ideolog' of modern culture during B)) 'ears. &echanism has been institutionali#ed as a form of life in the 8estern %orld. It determines education, modern philosoph', religious structures, manufacturing, consumption, go/ernment bureaucracies, the medical s'stem and the legal s'stem. It supports e<ploitation of natural resources , recommends industrialisation and alters the character and Aualit' of human life. Reductionism is ruled as being the onl' /alid scientific method and s'stem. It has conseAuentl' transformed comple< pluralistic traditions of =no%ledge into one monolith, gender-based, class-based thought. It %as promoted as being a superior and uni/ersal tradition, %hich therefore should be imposed on all classes, genders and cultures. $cience has been able to hide its ideologies behind false assumptions of neutralit', ob!ecti/ism and progress . It is inaccessible to criticism concealed
behind a claim to uni/ersalit'. (&erchant *9E)I (E:+ $hi/a *9E9I ()-(*-. &echanism replaced a natural point of /ie% %ith non-natural la%s.

$ubsistence econom' %as replaced b' open-ended e<change accumulation for profits. Li/ing nature died and mone' became ali/e. Increasingl' capital and the mar=et %ould assume the organic attributes of gro%th, strength, acti/it', pregnanc', %ea=ness, deca' and collapse. 4hese %ould obscure the underl'ing social relations of production and reproduction that ma=e economic gro%th and progress possible. "ature, %omen, blac=s and %age labour %as seen as natural and human resources for the modern %orld s'stem. 4he ultimate iron' of this transformation %as the name gi/en to itI rationalit'. (&erchant *9E)I (EE-. 4he
8estern realit' is conseAuentl' the %orld of classical ph'sics. 4his /ie% has completel' constructed human consciousness. F/en toda', people scarcel' Auestion its /alidit'. 4he o/erall belief is that the %orld is composed of inert parts that mo/e %ith uniform /elocit' unless forced b' another bod' to de/iate from their straight line. "ature, societ' and the human bod' are assumed composed of interchangeable parts that can be repaired or replaced from outside. 4here is a trust that technolog' can fi< e/er'thing. 4he mechanical /ie% taught in most 8estern

schools is accepted %ithout Auestion as our e/er'da' common sense realit'. 8e hardl' are reflecting on their origins and associated /alues. (&erchant *9E)I *9B, (:,-. 4his %as not so in the *:th centur'. 4he replacement of natural %a's of thin=ing b' ne% and unnatural forms of life did not occur %ithout resistance. &oreo/er, the organic perspecti/e ne/er reall' disappeared. It
has remained an underl'ing tension. It reappeared in the ()th centur' manifested in the theor' of holism b' Jan Christiaan $muts, the process philosoph' of Alfred "orth 8hitehead and the ecolog' mo/ements. 4heir underl'ing idea is that nature is acti/e and ali/e. 4he'

find it necessar' to reassess the /alues and constraints, %hich historicall' %ere associated %ith the organic %orld-/ie% to create a /iable future. (&erchant *9E)I (EE-(E9, (9B-.

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Critical A$)antages

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1ac $is&osa*ilit"

Trafficking o&erates t'roug' a $ominant conce&tion of @t'erness t'at sees )ictims as unim&ortant/ +'ic' &er&etuates e,&loitation- @nl" t'roug' re>ecting t'is un$erstan$ing can +e o&en u& s&ace for effecti)e &olitics t'at com*at t'is )iolence

To$res 407 (Jonathan, 7rofessor of La% at >eorgia $tate 0ni/ersit', ?La%, 1therness, and .uman 4raffic=ing@, Jul' ())9,
Accessed /ia 7ro!ect &0$F, W$>X-

4he recent surge in interest in ending human traffic=ing has led e/en .oll'%ood to ta=e up the cause. .oll'%ood5s fora' into this area e/idences the problem %ith the dominant discourse on human traffic=ing. In
()),, Lifetime 4ele/ision aired the first ma!or commercial film on the issue, .uman 4raffic=ing, starring &ira $or/ino and Donald $outherland. 4he film %as praised for bringing this horrific practice into star= da'light. 4he film5s portra'al of the issue, ho%e/er, recei/ed little e<amination+ in the film, all of the /ictims %ere %hite girls, e<cept one (a 3ilipina girl-, and all %ere abducted e<cept one %ho %as sold b' her famil'Nthe onl' non-%hite girl.

4his portra'al o/erloo=ed important realities of human traffic=ing, including the fact that globall' the ma!orit' of e<ploited girls and bo's are not %hite, %hile reinforcing stereot'pes that ?other@ cultures /alue children less and thus %ill sell their children %hile %hite 8estern families must be /ictims. I submit that these portra'als reflect much deeper held societal /ie%s that inform the pre/ailing understanding of and responses to the problem of human traffic=ing. $pecificall', I suggest that ?otherness@ is a root cause of both inaction and the selecti/e nature of responses to the abusi/e practice of human traffic=ing. 1therness %ith its attendant de/aluation of the 1ther, facilitates the abuse and e<ploitation of particular indi/iduals. 1therness operates across multiple dimensions to reinforce a conception of a /irtuous ?$elf@ and a lesser ?1ther.@ In turn, the $elf/1ther dichotom' shapes the phenomenon of human traffic=ing, dri/ing demand for traffic=ed persons, influencing perceptions of the problem, and constraining legal initiati/es to end the practice. 4hus, for e,am&le/ ot'erness lea$s men in Western/ in$ustriali6e$ countries to rationali6e t'eir e,&loitation of +omen an$ c'il$ren in &oorer countries . It also causes 8estern leaders to o/erloo= the e<tent to %hich human traffic=ing related abuses occur %ithin their o%n borders at the hands of their o%n citi#ens. $imilarl', ot'erness o&erates in $e)elo&ing countries to &ermit t'e e,&loitation of &articular &o&ulations- 0ltimatel', appreciating the true nature of the problem of human traffic=ing and its root causes %ill reAuire o/ercoming deep-seated beliefs of the lesser /alue of ?others@ and ac=no%ledging a truer picture of the $elf and the role that the $elf, or dominant group, pla's not onl' in helping others but also in the e<ploitation of particular populations. ;,&osing an$ un$erstan$ing $ominant conce&tions of t'e Aot'erB is a necessar" ste& in *ot' generating t'e &olitical +ill to eliminate 'uman trafficking and de/eloping effecti/e measures to combat the practice. 4o successfull' combat human traffic=ing, it is also essential to recogni#e and ac=no%ledge all facets of the $elf including its responsibilit' in fostering or tolerating the conditions under %hich the 1ther can be e<ploited. Cictims of trafficking e,&erience 'orrific forms of $e'umani6ation5 +e must re>ect t'is )iolence Crouse 407 (Janice, 7hD, $enior 3ello% at the e/erl' La.a'e Institute, the thin= tan= for Concerned 8omen for America, ?$e< 4raffic=ing GictimsI Disposable or .uman@, Jul' *(, ()):, httpI//%%%.c%fa.org/articledispla'.aspHidY*BC*E, W$>X8e ha/e all heard the catch' song l'rics about L%hat happens in &e<icoL sta'ing in &e<ico or the ad/ertisements about L%hat happens in GegasL sta'ing in Gegas. Ambassador Lagon addressed that fallac'. L8hat PhappensP in these places does not Psta'P in these places. It is a stain on humanit'. F/er' time a %oman, a girl, a foreign migrant is treated as less than human, t'e loss of $ignit" for one is a loss of $ignit" for us all-D It %as gratif'ing to hear the ambassador directl' address the problems of American popular culture in glamori#ing the LhoL and Lpimp.L .e said, LItPs high time %e treat pimps as e<ploiters rather than hip urban rebels. 8hen a pimp insists his name or s'mbol be tattooed on his PgirlsP he is branding them li=e cattle N dehumani#ing them, treating them li=e propert'.L 4here are those %ho %ould argue that human traffic=ing is the ine/itable outcome of po/ert' and that some po/ert'Nstric=en people choose %illingl' to be in/ol/ed. ut, as Ambassador Lagon pointed out, L4here is a gro%ing refusal to accept ensla/ement as an ine/itable product of po/ert' or human /iciousness. Corruption is t'picall' po/ert'Ps handmaiden in cases of human traffic=ing.L C8A is pleased to be among those that Ambassador Lagon called
an Lindomitable force.L 8e and other e/angelical Christians are at the forefront of this battle as modernNda' abolitionists %ho %or= for the human rights of %omen and for the dignit' of all of >odPs people. 8e agree %ith Ambassador Lagon that traffic=ing in persons

LshouldnPt be regulated or merel' mitigated+ it must be abolished.L T'e )ictims of t'is crime are among

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 18/283 t'e Dmost $egra$e$/ most e,&loite$/ an$ most $e'umani6e$ &eo&le in t'e +orl$-D 8e !oin the ambassador in declaring, LF<ploiters must be stigmati#ed, prosecuted, and sAuee#ed out of e<istence.L 4hose %ho treat people as commercial commodities N pimps, madams and !ohns N are sla/ers %ho bu' and sell human beings as disposable goods for their brothels, factories or fields. 8e must %or= for good la%s and good la% enforcement that %ill
treat human traffic=ing as a criminal offense that %ill be in/estigated and the perpetrators prosecuted, con/icted and punished to the fullest e<tent of the la%. 1ther%ise, such crimes undermine e/er'onePs libert' and freedom+ onl' corruptionNfree democratic

processes create a societ' %here peace and prosperit' are possible for all citi#ens. Human trafficking is a cultural e,&ression t'at sees *o$ies as e,&en$a*le- T'is is ne+ age sla)er" t'at not onl" attem&ts to &rofit off of t'e *o$"/ *ut also *reak it $o+n/ +'ic' is t'e +orst form of $e'umani6ation- T'is must *e re>ecte$ Truong 401 (4hahn-Dam, 7hD in International $tudios, Associate 7rofessor at the International Institute of $ocial $tudies, ?.0&A" 4RA33ICJI"> A"D 1R>A"I$FD CRI&F@, Jul' ())*, httpI//repub.eur.nl/res/pub/*9)EC/%pBB9.pdf, pgs. *B-*C, W$>XDomination through the ne% forms of cultural e<pression of desire, be it in se< or health reflects the cruel nature of human greed as %ell as the absurdit' of moral s'stems in late capitalist-patriarch'. Data on the se< trade
suggest that the ma!orit' of clients purchasing children5s se<ualit' in the 4hird 8orld are males from the 8est, Fast Asian countries, Australia and the &iddle Fast. 4hese countries ha/e produced different =inds of economic miracles, =no%n as the miracle of post-

%ar reconstruction, miracle of catching-up, oil-dri/en miracle. $inisterl', the' also produce ne% forms of cultural e<pression of desire that are being Zsociall' dumped5 on 'oung people that ma' or ma' not be their fello% citi#ens. 4he mismatch bet%een suppl' and demand of organs has e<isted for man' 'ears since transplanting technolog' and practices
became institutionalised in health s'stems in the 0.$.A. and 8estern Furope. 8hile Tenotransplant research has 'ielded some results, its de/elopment and application is not Auic= enough to deal %ith the pressure of shortage. 8ithin the health s'stem, norms of allocation of organs for transplant are fraught %ith ineAualit' %hereb' the ma!orit' of beneficiaries are middle-class adult men*). 3airness in organ allocation has become one of the most contentious public polic' issues in addition to fairness in procurement. 4he health miracle ma' benefit a fe% people %ho can financiall' afford them. It also carries hidden social prices to be borne b' others. In man' %a's, the intensification of /iolence in the trade in human

bodies and bod' parts ma' be considered as being %orse than sla/er'. 4he sla/e %as /alued for his/her labouring capacit', %hich implied that his/her bod' must be maintained. &utilation could occur, but onl' for the purpose of discipline and punishment. ' contrast, modern mar=eting of human bodies and bod' parts is more based on rapid cash earnings. Farnings through the manipulation of adult se<ual desire b' %a' of eroticising innocence can lead to the in!ection of hormones and drugs in the child5s bod' to transform appearance and beha/ior. 4hese practices can become regular as long as earnings pre/ail. Farnings through the manipulation of pit' and charit' can lead to the mutilation of the child5s bod' to enhance miser' for purposes of gains from donation. Assault on the bod' in these cases goes be'ond discipline and punishment. It has economic purposes and hence its logic can s'ift from maintenance to $is&osal/ as and %hen the commercial function of the human beings concerned no longer e<ists. 4o sum up this section, a similarit' ma' be noted bet%een the trade in human bodies and bod' parts and pre/ious forms of sla/er'. 4his lies in the connection %ith production s'stems, despite the changing ideological structures. 4he imaginar' of sla/er' has e<panded from labouring po%er to other utilit' roles of the human bod'. T'is e,&ansion is facilitate$ *" an ongoing cultural $ecom&osition of t'e 'uman *eing/ t'roug' a gra$ual remo)al of its s&irit/ &erson'oo$/ an$ )italit"/ $o+n to *are *o$" &arts. 4he implication of this decomposition is the emergence of a culture of $is&osal, i.e. as some human beings reach a Zmarginal5 le/el of social utilit' the' can be disposed of. $een through this angle, the issue of moral responsibilit' no longer rests e<clusi/el' on the negligent or greed' parents or guardians, the Zloose5 %oman %ho /oluntaril' opts for se< %or= as an alternati/e, or the unscrupulous criminal traders in human bodies and bod' parts. It also rests on those %ho socialise consumption in conspicuous %a's, be it in the sub!ecti/e field of se<ual desire, or health. 4he ongoing cultural transformation that codifies the bod' in a causal manner and facilitates a &roliferation of forms of $omination must *e recogni6e$- 4he moral contradiction in this transformation emerges from the practices of different professional
communities. 8hen it comes to human bodies, the medical communit' can no% ma=e an organ of an animal compatible to a human bod'. 8hen it comes to human social identit', the legal communit' must treat human migrants as alien entities. 8hile different biological organisms

can be made compatible, social organisms cannot, reflecting the lac= of uniformit' in the modes of cognition and re-cognition of %hat constitutes humanit' toda'. Human trafficking is t'e mo$ern5$a" sla)e tra$e/ an$ t'e (-S-5Me,ico *or$er is t'e ne+ mi$$le &assage- EWe $on4t affirm t'e gen$ere$ language in t'is car$F

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Hat'a+a" 412 (Dana, &asters in Interdisciplinar' $tudies at 7ortland $tate 0ni/ersit', ?.uman 4raffic=ing and $la/er'I
4o%ards a "e% 3rame%or= for 7re/ention and Responsibilit'@, ()*(, accessed /ia 7roOuest, W$>X-

4he process b' %hich some people become ensla/ed is understood as human traffic=ing, %hich can be understood as some%hat analogous to the historical transAtlantic sla/e trade ( ra/o ()):-. 4he trans-Atlantic sla/e trade
%as for the most part a highl' /isible and o/ert phenomenonI sla/e raids or trades in African /illages, large ships off the port being loaded and unloaded of their human cargo, and sla/e auctions ta=ing place in the middle of to%n sAuares. 4raffic=ing toda', b' contrast, is a comple<

process and can be rather subtle and difficult to identif'. 4he *9(D $la/er' Con/ention defines the sla/e trade asI WAXll acts in/ol/ed in the capture, acAuisition or disposal of a person %ith intent to reduce him to sla/er'+ all acts in/ol/ed in the acAuisition of a sla/e %ith a /ie% to selling or e<changing him+ all acts of disposal b' sale or e<change of a sla/e acAuired %ith a /ie% to being sold or e<changed, and, in general, e/er' act of trade or transport in sla/es ( ales ()),, CC-. .uman traffic=ing %as most recentl' defined in the ())) 0nited "ations 4raffic=ing 7rotocolI ?4raffic=ing in persons@ shall mean the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons, b' means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of po%er or of a position of /ulnerabilit' or of the gi/ing or recei/ing of pa'ments or benefits to achie/e the consent of a person ha/ing control o/er another person, for the purpose of e<ploitation.
F<ploitation shall include, at a minimum, the e<ploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of se<ual e<ploitation, forced labor or ser/ices, sla/er' or practices similar to sla/er', ser/itude or the remo/al of organs (0nited "ations ()))-. 4his protocol, %hich supplements the 0nited "ations Con/ention Against 4ransnational 1rgani#ed Crime (()))-, ?pro/ides the first clear definition of traffic=ing in international la%@ (0nited "ations ())(-. 4he first part of this definition addresses mo/ement, no matter the distanceI recruitment, transportation, transfer, receipt, and controlling the freemo/ement of people through harboring. 4he second part addresses ho% the first part is achie/edI through force, threat of

force, coercion, abduction, fraud, deception, abuse of po%er, and e/en includes the possibilit' that the /ictim gi/es consent. 4his second part is necessar' since the mo/ement of people, in general, cannot b' itself be illegal or morall' problematic. 4he second part of the definition (force, fraud, deception, etc., e<cept for abduction- is also b' itself not necessaril'
illegal (though ma' be unethical-. In e/er'da' life %e ma' encounter force, coercion, fraud, deception, and abuse of po%er at /ar'ing le/els of se/erit', some instances rising to the le/el of criminalit' and other instances hardl' noticeable. 8hat is crucial then to this definition of human traffic=ing is both the third part, ?for the purpose of e<ploitation,@ and the reAuirement that all three parts must ta=e place together.

Me,ican se, trafficking 'as consigne$ almost 70/000 minors to li)ing 'ell0t'e &ro*lem is s&rea$ing Alis an$ 2omo/ %/17 (Jrups=aia Alis and Rafael Romo, C"", ,/*:/*B, ?&e<ican se< traffic=ers mo/ing into 0.$.@, httpI//thecnnfreedompro!ect.blogs.cnn.com/()*B/),/*:/me<ican-se<-traffic=ers-mo/ing-into-us/-//F& Joanna mo/es her hands ner/ousl' as she spea=s. .er o/ersi#ed, golden earrings rattle as she sha=es her head to ma=e a point. Joanna is not her real name. $hePs spea=ing on the condition that C"" %ill protect her pri/ac' and not disclose her real name. S'eGs onl" 1. "ears ol$/ *ut 'as alrea$" e,&erience$ a lifetime of 'orror/ a*use an$ torture . $hePs a former se< sla/e. It all started %hen she met a charming man. LI %as in a normal relationship %ith him for three months ,L she sa's. At the time she %as onl' *C 'ears old. $he %as treated li=e ro'alt' and fell in lo/e. A fe% months later he as=ed her to elope and she agreed. L.e promised that %e %ould get a house and that %e %ould raise children. I %as na[/e and belie/ed e/er'thing he said. 8e started li/ing together in Jul' and b' $eptember he %as alread' forcing me to %or= as a prostitute ,L Joanna said. ' then it had become painfull' clear that JoannaPs bo'friend %as in realit' her captor, a pimp %ho pre'ed on 'oung, /ulnerable teenagers %hom he recruited in central &e<ico %ith the purpose of forcing them into prostitution. Joanna sa's she %as forced to ha/e se< %ith do#ens of men for as man' as *E hours a da' . 4here %ere da's, she sa's, she %ould onl' sleep a couple of hours before starting another long and painful shift , sleeping %ith strangers %ho paid onl' a fe% dollars to be %ith her *, minutes. 4he %orst part %as that if she failed to ma=e at least SD)) a da', she faced se/ere punishment. L.e hit me man' times %ith a phone cable. .e %ould hit me in the legs and hands. 1ne time he started beating me %ith a broomstic=. He *eat me so 'ar$ t'at : coul$nGt e)en get u& after+ar$s,L Joanna said. According to the &e<ico Cit' .uman Rights Commission, as man" as 70/000 minors in Me,ico are )ictims of 'uman trafficking. &ost of them are sub!ected to forced labor, but a significant number are forced into prostitution, as in the case of Joanna. 1/er the last decade, the problem has crossed the 0.$. border. 4he arrests of *B people in "e% Mor= state in
late April suggests pimps are also fond of getting cash, not onl' in &e<ican pesos, but also in 0.$. dollars. According to authorities, the suspects %or=ed a Lse< traffic=ing corridor,L transporting %omen from the small to%n of 4enancingo, in the central &e<ican state of 4la<cala, to the "e% Mor= area. 1/er a period of se/en 'ears, federal officials sa', do#ens of %omen %ere e<ploited+ some of them %ere illegall' transported from &e<ico. 1nce in the 0nited $tates, the' %ere forced to ha/e se< %ith as man' as B) customers per da', according to the federal complaint charging all *B suspects. Gictims %ere paid SB) to SB,, the complaint sa's. 4heir dri/er %ould =eep half. 4he other half %ent to the pimp, and the /ictims %ere left %ith nothing. &anhattan 0.$. Attorne' 7reet harara said the defendants blatantl' lied to their /ictims in order to recruit them. L 8ith promises of a better life, the

members of this alleged se< traffic=ing and prostitution ring lured their unsuspecting /ictims to the 0nited $tates and then consigne$ t'em to a li)ing 'ell - forcing them to become se< sla/es li/ing in abhorrent conditions, and using threats, /erbal abuse, and /iolence Q se<ual and other%ise Q %hen the' resisted and e/en

Human Trafficking Aff 20/283 sometimes %hen the' didnPt,L

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harara said. 4he complaint describes ho% one /ictim %as smuggled into the 0nited $tates %ith her 'oung

1n one occasion, %hen the %oman refused to %or= as a prostitute, she and her child %ere forced to sta' outside on a cold %inter night .
child. 1nce in "e% Mor=, she %as made to sleep on the floor %ith the child. ut that %as !ust the beginning of her ordeal. 3ederal agents conducted raids at si< locations, including four brothels in Mon=ers, 7ough=eepsie, "e%burgh, and Oueens. If con/icted, the suspects face an'%here from t%o 'ears in prison to life. .umberto 7adgett is a &e<ican !ournalist %ho %rote a boo= titled LIntimate 7ortrait of a 7imp.L ased on 'ears of research and inter/ie%s %ith /ictims and pimps, the boo= describes ho% &e<ican pimps operate and ho% the' e<ploit their /ictims. 7adgett sa's traffic=ing 'oung %omen in &e<ico has increased faster than drug traffic=ing in recent 'ears. LMou can onl' sell a =ilo of mari!uana once. ut 'ou can sell a %oman multiple times, e/en as man' as D) times per da'. In fi/e 'ears, a %oman can ma=e as much as a million dollars for her pimp,L 7adgett sa's. Last 'ear, &e<ico appro/ed a la% that ma=es human traffic=ing a federal crime punishable b' up to C) 'ears in prison. 4he la% targets not onl' those in/ol/ed in se< traffic=ing, but also other forms of modern sla/er', including forced labor and child pornograph'. 7adgett sa's pimps force %omen to sta' %ith them b' threatening to =ill famil' members if the' escape. &aria, another former se< sla/e %ho as=ed that her real name not be used, lost her father si< months after escaping her pimp. 4he no%-*:-'ear-old belie/es the prostitution ring that held her is responsible for his murder. L&ore than an'thing, I feel guilt' about m' fatherPs death. $ometimes I thin= that I shouldP/e sta'ed %ith the pimp so that he %ould =ill me and not m' father,L &aria sa's. $hePs bac= %ith her famil', but still suffers from depression and nightmares associated %ith the /erbal and ph'sical abuse to %hich she %as sub!ected. DT'ereGs no +a" :Gm e)er going to feel *etter/D s'e sa"s- DT'e" $estro"e$ m" life-D

T'is mo$ern form of sla)er" affects millions of o&&resse$ &ersons +orl$+i$e0+e nee$ to act *ot' )ia legislation an$ t'roug' our s&eec'5act S'a'inian/ /2./13 Q $pecial Rapporteur on Contemporar' 3orms of $la/er', 0nited "ations (>ulnara, April (D, ()*B, ?$la/er' must be recognised in all its guises,@ 4he >uardian, httpI//%%%.guardian.co.u=/global-de/elopment/po/ert'-matters/()*B/apr/(D/sla/er'-recognised-all-guises, .enselK 3i/e 'ears ago, I became the 0"Ps first special rapporteur on contemporar' forms of sla/er' . $ince then, I ha/e been as=ed time and again b' go/ernment officials, businesspeople and ">1s not to use the %ord Lsla/er'L at all . I ha/e been as=ed to change the name of m' mandate and not spea= out about %hat I ha/e seen. 4he' ha/e as=ed me to use other %ords instead Q ones that donPt carr' the same meanings or implications.K K Met %hat other %ord describes people %ho ha/e been beaten mercilessl', shut indoors, made to %or= %ithout pa', se<uall' abused, poorl' fed and threatened %ith more abuse against themsel/es and their famil' if the' attempt to lea/e H 4his is not !ust /iolence or e<ploitation. 8hat describes the situation in %hich a mother has no right o/er her child, or a father is forced to put do%n his o%n life Q and those of his famil' Q as collateral, %or=ing for nothing to tr' to repa' a debt that %ill ne/er go a%a'H 4hese are the forms of sla/er' that e<ist toda'.K K &illions of people li/e in some form of ensla/ement. 4he e<act numbers are impossible to calculate. &odern sla/er' is one of the most po%erful criminal industries (pdf-, and it is because of our collecti/e silence and refusal to ac=no%ledge its e<istence that it thri/es and transforms itself into ne% forms 'ear after 'ear . ' not spea=ing out, %e are helping to perpetuate an industr' that strips millions of their humanit' and rights.K K $la/er' did not end %hen it %as legall' abolished. Instead, it is flourishing, e<tending its tentacles into e/er' corner of the planet.K K 4his is something that touches all our li/es. It is almost impossible not to be complicit . .o% man' of us as= oursel/es %ho ma=es biofuels, !e%eller', /egetables, fruit, clothes, shoes and e/en carpetsH 8e all en!o' the cheap fruits of ensla/ement, %hile telling oursel/es that e<ploitation happens Lo/er thereL and is nothing to do %ith our o%n countr' or communit' .K K $e< traffic=ing is finall' starting to recei/e /isibilit' as the horrendous human rights abuse it is. Met more %idespread forms of sla/er' and traffic=ing continue to go unreported and ignored .K K I ha/e spent the past fi/e 'ears tal=ing to people in forced labour, domestic ser/itude, bonded labour, ser/ile marriages and child sla/er' . 4hese forms of sla/er' remain in/isible, since people are silenced b' discrimination, fear of retaliation and lac= of a%areness . 4hese modern forms of human sla/er' and criminal acts are often e<cused as tradition, culture, religion or po/ert', or dismissed as nothing more than bad labour practices.K K 4he sla/er' industr' relies on the in/isibilit' of those it pre's on. 4hose trapped are not /isibl' shac=led, but the' do li/e their li/es under the control of others .K K 3or the %orld to tac=le sla/er' effecti/el', %e need to recognise this industr' in people in all of its manifestations . .uman rights are eAual and inalienable. I ha/e met organisations %or=ing on ending forced marriage, or on the abuse and e<ploitation of
domestic %or=ers and children, %ho feel the' are unable to call these abuses sla/er' as the %ord is too loaded and the' %ould put their %or= at ris=. 4his must stop. $la/er' is sla/er', no matter %hat form it ta=es .K K 8e must face up to all forms of sla/er' or

inad/ertentl' ignore the plight of millions. 1ne t'pe of sla/er', such as se< traffic=ing, cannot be considered more %orth fighting for than another. 8e ha/e a collecti/e responsibilit' to end this pernicious and persistent problem.K K All countries must ensure that the' ha/e national legislation prohibiting and criminalising all forms of sla/er', and this legislation must be properl' enforced . 4he failure of !ustice s'stems to put anti-sla/er' la%s into action is one of the props the sla/er' industr' relies upon. 4his needs to change.K K 4o combat sla/er', %e need to spea= for people %ho ha/e been silenced b' this most brutal of trades . 8e must stop being complacent, and

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 21/283 find the courage to hold indi/iduals, companies and go/ernments accountable. Complacenc' is no longer an option. T'is is ma$e +orse *" t'e culture of silence surroun$ing trafficking in t'e status Huo Aguilera/ %/28 (Fli#abeth Aguilera, immigration e<pert for 4he $an Diego 0nion-4ribune, ,/(E/*B, ?$e< traffic=ing in 0.$. lin=ed to &e<ico@, httpI//%%%.utsandiego.com/ne%s/()*B/ma'/(E/se<-traffic=ing-me<icotla<cala-fugiti/e-atlanta/all/Hprint-//F& 4enancingo is at the center of the issue of human traffic=ing. &ost people in the to%n of appro<imatel' *),))) people %ill either $en" or ignore an" kno+le$ge of t'e seHuestering "oung girls from other to%ns in 4enancingoPs giant mansions. 4he ma'or %ill point out there are acti/ities such as bo<ing or =arate for the to%nPs 'outh. &ean%hile a tight net%or= of e'es and ears o/ersees the flo% of people and information in the narro% streets that ma=e up this hillside to%n.N 7egg' 7eattie T'is ren$ers *o$ies as $is&osa*le &iece of &ro&ert" Soo$alter/ 7 (inter/ie% %ith Ron $oodalter, D/*E/9, ?4he $la/e "e<t DoorI .uman 4raffic=ing and $la/er' in America 4oda'@, httpsI//%%%.carnegiecouncil.org/studio/multimedia/())9):)*b/)*:9.html/;res/idYsa;3ile*/ ales;$oodalt er.pdf-//F& 8e as Americans =no% that the $outh =ept sla/es and the "orth fought a righteous %ar of liberation. 8e =no% that the Fmancipation 7roclamation freed all the sla/es. 8e =no% that there %as no legal sla/e trade up until the Ci/il 8ar. 8e =no% that America has been sla/er'-free since *ED,. 4hese things %e =no%. None of it is true. 1n the other hand, most Americans do not =no% that sla/er' not onl' e<ists in the %orld toda', it flourishes. As De/in said !ust a fe% minutes ago, there are some (: million people
estimated to be in sla/er' in the %orld toda', %hich is t%ice the number that %ere ta=en in chains during the entire B,) 'ears of the Atlantic sla/e tradeN more than t%ice the number. $la/er' is a high-income criminal enterprise. ItPs right up there %ith drugs and %ith guns. ItPs responsible for billions and billions of dollars in re/enues %orld%ide e/er' 'ear. Mou %ill sa', L8ell, itPs all those emerging nations,L %hat %e used to call 4hird 8orld countries. Mou %ould be partiall' right. ut itPs also ci/ili#ed nations, such as Fngland, $cotland, Ireland, >reece, Ital', 3rance, $pain, Denmar=, "or%a', $%eden, Israel, Japan, China, and the 0nited $tates. &ost Americans do not =no% that sla/er' is ali/e and more than %ell, thri/ing right here, in the dar=, and practiced in forms and in places %e %ould least e<pect. 4he simple truth of it is, gu's, that Americans ha/e =ept sla/es, Furopeans ha/e =ept sla/es, humans ha/e =ept sla/es as long as %e %ere able. 8e as Americans see oursel/es as the %orldPs foremost messengers and practitioners of personal freedom, %hereas in point of fact there has ne/er been one single da' on this continent since its Furopean disco/er' %here sla/er' has not e<isted. 4hatPs from the da' in *C9B, %hen Columbus ensla/ed hundreds of 4aino Indians , right up to the present moment, there has been sla/er' on the American continent. $la/er' in America ma' ha/e hit its lo%est ebb in the *9D)s, due largel' to the ci/il rights mo/ement. ut starting in the *9E)s and then burgeoning in the *99)s, sla/er' e<ploded and came bac= %ith a /engeance. 4his %as largel' due to the fact that at the end of the Cold 8ar the global population more than tripled, from ( billion to o/er D billion people. As borders collapsed around the %orld and people found themsel/es disenfranchised and struggling for sur/i/al, the' became eas' targets for human traffic=ers. And once again, America became a prime destination.

&ost AmericansP concept of sla/er' comes right out of the pages of 0ncle 4omPs Cabin Nthe %hip in the o/erseerPs hand, the chains, the crac= of the auctioneerPs ga/el. 4hat %as one form of sla/er'. 4he forms of sla/er' that afflict America toda' ta=e different iterations. ut please be assured, it is sla/er', for sure. ItPs the real deal. 4here are differences. ac= in the *E))s sla/er' %as legal+ toda' it is not. In 4he $la/e "e<t DoorI .uman 4raffic=ing and $la/er' in

America 4oda' httpI//%%%.carnegiecouncil.org/resources/transcripts/)*:9.html ( of *D B/*C/()** *)I)9 A& the antebellum $outh, sla/e o%ners %ere proud of their propert', of their human propert', as a sign of status and prestige. 4oda' sla/es are hidden, %hich ma=es it all the harder to locate the /ictims and to punish the traffic=ers. At one point in our histor', sla/es %ere African or African- American. 4oda' sla/es come in all ethnicities, all races, all t'pes. 8e are, if an'thing, totall' democratic in the %a's in %hich %e ensla/e our fello% man. 4his is, for %ant of a better term, capitalism at its absolute %orst. efore the Ci/il 8ar, bu'ing a sla/e %as an e<pensi/e proposition. It could cost as much as S*,()), %hich in toda'Ps currenc' is some%here around SC),))) to S,),))). 8hen 'ou bu' propert' of such %orth, 'ou =eep it, for longe/it' and producti/it' purposes, as %ell and health' as 'ou can. 8ePre not tal=ing humanitarianism or =indness+ %ePre tal=ing simple, basic economics here. Mou %ould no more damage propert' of such %orth than 'ou %ould cripple a good plo% horse or neuter a seed bull. "o%ada's, 'ou can bu' a sla/e for as little as S*)) . 4his

ma=es the /ictim not onl' affordable, but also $is&osa*le. $hould a sla/e become ill or in!ured, itPs often cheaper and also less li=el' to arouse suspicion for the sla/e o%ner to simpl' !ettison his human propert' rather than pa' the mone' for ser/ices or health care. All forms of sla/er' are terrible . 4his, I thin=, nobod' %ill argue %ith. .o%e/er, toda'Ps sla/er' has ta=en forms that are so muc' more insi$ious t'an man" forms o)er t'e t'ousan$s of "ears in +'ic' man 'as *een ensla)ing 'is fello+s , especiall' %hen 'ou consider that modern-da'
sla/er' does not e<ist %ithout %hat %e call a bundle of other crimes, %hich include document fraud, assault, rape, torture, and sometimes homicide, to name !ust a handful. $o ho% man' sla/es are %e actuall' tal=ing aboutH As De/in said, the $tate Department estimates that some%here around *:,))) foreign nationals are traffic=ed into this countr', from at least B, other countries, e/er' 'ear and ensla/ed here.

Human trafficking is t'e +orst form of $e'umani6ation 1ar6a/ 11 (Rocio >ar#a, .ar/ard graduate, candidate for Juris Doctor, **/*/**, Addressing .uman 4raffic=ing Along the 0nited $tates-&e<ico orderI the "eed for a ilateral 7artnership,

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 22/283 httpI//%%%.c!icl.com/uploads/(/9/,/9/(9,9:9*/c!icl;*9.(;gar#a;note.pdf-//F& .uman traffic=ing is the e<ploitation of people primaril' for labor or se< using force, coercion or fraud. ( It dehumani#es /ictims b' treating them as commodities B and b' sub!ecting them to dreadful li/ing conditions . C 4raffic=ers ma' recruit, transport, or harbor /ictims using force, threat, or fraud for the purpose of se<ual e<ploitation, forced labor, or other similar practices. , &en, %omen, and children can all be /ictims of human traffic=ing. Described as Aa mo$ern $a" form of sla)er"/B D human traffic=ing manifests itself in a number of forms . : As of June ()*), the 0nited "ations estimated that
?there are at least *(.B million adults and children in forced labor, bonded labor, and comme r cial se<ual ser/itude at an' gi/en time.@ E .o%e/er, due to the clande s tine nature of human traffic=ing, 9 the e <act number of /ictims is u n =no%n %ith estimates ranging from four million to t%ent' se/en million.

9e'umani6ation makes e)er" im&act ine)ita*le0it is t'e eHui)alent of nuclear +ar/ en)ironmental colla&se/ an$ genoci$e #eru*e/ 77 (Da/id, professor of speech communication, "anotechnolog' &aga#ine, June/Jul' *99:, httpI//%%%.cla.sc.edu/F">L/facult'/berube/prolong.htmAssuming %e are able to predict %ho or %hat are optimi#ed humans, this entire resultant %orld/ie% smac=s of eugenics and "a#i racial science. 4his %ould in/ol/e /aluing people as means. &oreo/er, there %ould al%a's be a superhuman more super than the current ones, humans %ould ne/er be able to escape their treatment as means to an al%a's further and distant end. 4his means-ends dispute is at the core of &ontagu and &atsonPs treatise on the dehumani#ation of humanit'. 4he' %arnI Lits destructi/e toll is alread' greater than that of an' %ar, plague, famine, or natural calamit' on record -- and its potential danger

to the Aualit' of life and the fabric of ci/ili#ed societ' is be'ond

calculation. 3or that reason this sic=ness of the soul might %ell be called the 3ifth .orseman of the Apocal'pse....

ehind the genocide of the holocaust la' a dehumani#ed thought+ beneath the menticide of de/iants and dissidents... in the cuc=ooPs ne<t of America, lies a dehumani#ed image of man... (&ontagu 6 &atson, *9EB, p. <i-<ii-. 8hile it ma' ne/er be possible to Auantif' the impact dehumani#ing ethics ma' ha/e had on humanit', it is safe to conclude the foundations of humanness offer great opportunities %hich %ould be foregone . 8hen %e calculate the actual losses and the /irtual benefits, %e approach a nearl' inestimable /alue greater than an' tools %hich %e can currentl' use to measure it. 9e'umani6ation is nuclear +ar/ en)ironmental a&ocal"&se/ an$ international

genoci$e. 8hen people become things, the' become dispensable. 8hen people are dispensable , an' and e/er' atrocit' can be !ustified. 1nce !ustified, the' seem to be ine/itable for e/er' epoch has e/il and dehumani#ation is
e/ilPs most po%erful %eapon.

Structural )iolence out+eig's all of "our magnitu$e claims

Hint>ens 7 W.elen .int!ens is Lecturer in the Centre for De/elopment $tudies, 0ni/ersit' of 8ales, ?&D3 0nderstanding De/elopment

etter@X 3rom Johan >altung, famous "or%egian peace Zguru5, still ali/e and heads up 4RA"$CF"D 0ni/ersit' on-line, has been %or=ing since *9D)s on sho%ing that /iolence is not 1J. .is >handian approach is designed to con/ince those %ho ad/ocate /iolent means to

restore social !ustice to the poor, that he as a pacifist does not turn a blind e'e to social in!ustices and ineAualit'. .e e,ten$e$ t'erefore our un$erstan$ing of +'at is )iolent, coercion, force, to include the economic and social s'stem5s a)oi$a*le in>ustices, deaths, ineAualities. "egati/e peace is the absence of !ustice, e/en if there is no %ar. In!ustice causes structural )iolence to health, bodies, minds, damages people, and must t'erefore *e resiste$ Enon5)iolentl"-. 7ositi/e peace is different from negati/e (un!ust and hence /iolent- peace. 7ositi/e peace reAuires acti/el' combating (struggling peacefull' against- social in!ustices that underpin structural /iolence. Fconomic and social, political !ustice ha/e to be part of peacebuilding. 4his is the mantra of most ">1s and e/en some agencies (%e %ill loo= later at ">1 Action Aid and D3ID as e<amples-. Discrimination has to end, so does the blatant rule of mone', greater eAualit' is /ital %here/er possible. All of this is the opposite of neo-liberal recipes for success, %hich in .olland as in Indonesia, tolerate higher and higher le/els of social ineAualit' in the name of efficienc'. Structural )iolence kills far more &eo&le t'an +arfare Q for e<ample one estimate in DRC is that million &eo&le 'a)e *een kille$ in +ar since *99E, but ">1s estimate that an additional . million &eo&le 'a)e $ie$ in 92C since t'en/ from $isease/ $is&lacement an$ 'unger/ bringing the total to an unthin=able *) million of 9) million est. population. ?$ince there e<ists far more %ealth in the %orld than is necessar' to address the main economic causes of structural /iolence, t'e real &ro*lem is one of &riorities@\p. B): ?Structural )iolenceIis neit'er natural nor ine)ita*le @, p. B)* (7ront#os-.

T'e &olitics of $is&osa*ilit" lea)es entire &o&ulations o&en to era$ication5 t'is ignorance of 'uman $ignit" 'as *ecome &olitici6e$/ an$ +ill ultimatel" *e t'e $eat' of &olitics 1irou, 410 (.enr', 7rofessor of Fnglish and Cultural $tudies at &c&aster 0ni/ersit', pre/ious professors at 0, &iami 0, and
7enn $tate ?&emories of .ope in the Age of Disposabilit'@, published 9/(E/()*), httpI//archi/e.truthout.org/memories-hope-agedisposabilit'DBDB* W$>X4he ne% culture of cruelt' combines %ith the arrogance of the rich as morall' ban=rupt politicians such as &i=e .uc=abee tell his fello% Republican e<tremists that the pro/ision in 1bamaPs health care bill that reAuires insurance companies to co/er people %ith pre-e<isting conditions should be repealed because people %ho ha/e these conditions are li=e houses that ha/e alread' burned do%n. 4he metaphor is apt in a countr' that no longer has a language for compassion, !ustice and social responsibilit'. .uc=abee at least is honest about one thing. .e ma=es clear that the right-%ing fringe leading the Republican 7art' is on a death march and has no trouble endorsing policies in %hich millions of people - in this case those afflicted b' illness - can simpl' Ldig their o%n gra/es and lie do%n in them.L(:- 4he politics of disposabilit' ruthlessl' puts mone' and profits ahead of

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 23/283 human needs. 0nder the rubric of austerit', the ne% barbarians such as .uc=abee no% ad/ocate eugenicist policies in %hich people %ho are considered %ea=, sic=, disabled or suffering from debilitating health conditions are targeted to be %eeded out, remo/ed from the bod' politic and social safet' nets that an' decent societ' puts into place to ensure that e/er'one, but especiall' the most disad/antaged, can access decent health care and lead a life %ith dignit'. ConseAuentl', politics loses its democratic character along %ith an' sense of responsibilit' and becomes part of a machiner' of /iolence that mimics the fascistic policies of past authoritarian political parties that eagerl' attempted to purif' their societies b' getting rid of those human beings considered %ea= and inferior and %hom the' ultimatel' /ie%ed as human %aste. I donPt thin= it is an
e<aggeration to sa' that a lunatic fringe of a ma!or political part' is shamelessl' mimic=ing and nourishing the barbaric roots of one of the most e/il periods in human histor'. ' arguing that indi/iduals %ith pre-e<isting health conditions are li=e burned-do%n houses %ho do not deser/e health insurance, .uc=abee puts into place those forces and ideologies that allo% the countr' to mo/e closer to the end point of such logic b' suggesting that such disposable populations do not deser/e to li/e at all.K 8elcome to the ne% era of disposabilit' in %hich mar=et-dri/en

/alues peddle policies that promote massi/e amounts of human suffering and death for millions of human beings. 7rograms to help the elderl', middle aged and 'oung people o/ercome po/ert', get decent !obs, obtain access to health insurance and decent
health care and e<ercise their dignit' and rights as American citi#ens are denounced in the name of austerit' measures that onl' appl' to those %ho are not rich and po%erful.(E- At the same time, the ne+ $is&osa*ilit" $iscourse e,&unges an" sense of

res&onsi*ilit" from both the bod' politic and the e/er-e<panding armies of %ell-paid, anti-public intellectuals and politicians %ho fill the air %a/es %ith poisonous lies, stupidit' and ignorance, all in the name of so-called Lcommon senseL and a pathological notion of freedom stripped of an' concern for the li/es and misfortunes of others. In the age of disposabilit', the dream of getting ahead has been replaced %ith, for man' people, the struggle to simpl' sta' ali/e. 4he logic of disposabilit' and mean-spirited cruelt' that no% come out of the mouths of #ombie-li=e politicians are more fitting for the authoritarian regimes that emerged in Russia and >erman' in the *9B)s rather than for an' societ' that calls itself a democrac'. A politics of uncertaint', insecurit',
deregulation and fear no% circulates throughout the countr' as those marginali#ed b' class and color become bearers of un%anted memories, sub!ect to state-sanctioned acts of /iolence and rough !ustice. 7oor minorit' 'outh, immigrants and other disposable populations no% become the flash point that collapses moral and political ta<onomies in the face of a gro%ing punishing state. Instead of becoming the last option, /iolence and

punishment ha/e become the standard response to confronting the problems of the poor, disad/antaged and !obless. As Judith utler points out, t'ose consi$ere$ Dot'erD an$ $is&osa*le are )ie+e$ as Dneit'er ali)e nor $ea$/ *ut intermina*le s&ectral 'uman *eings no longer regar$e$ as 'uman .(9- 4hin=ing about
/isions of the good societ' is no% considered a %aste of time. As 2'gmunt auman points out, too man' 'oung people and adultsK are no% pushed and pulled to see= and find indi/idual solutions to sociall' created problems and implement those solutions indi/iduall' using indi/idual s=ills and resources. 4his ideolog' proclaims the futilit' (indeed, counterproducti/it'- of solidarit'I of !oining forces and subordinating indi/idual

actions to a Lcommon cause.L It derides the principle of communal responsibilit' for the %ell-being of its members, decr'ing it as a recipe for
a debilitating Lnann' stateL and %arning against care for the other leading to an abhorrent and detestable Ldependenc'.L(*)-K 4ea 7art' candidates e<press anger o/er go/ernment programs, but sa' nothing about a go/ernment that pro/ides ta< brea=s for the rich, allo%s politicians to be bought off b' po%erful lobb'ists, contracts out go/ernment functions to pri/ate industries and guts almost e/er' ma!or public sphere necessar' for sustaining an increasingl' faltering democrac'. 4ea 7art' members are outraged, but their anger is reall' directed at the "e% Deal, the social state and all those others %hom the' belie/e do not Aualif' as LrealL Americans.(**- At the same time the American public is a%ash in a cra/en and /acuous media machine that routinel' tells us that people are angr', but offers no anal'sis capable of treating such anger as s'mptomatic of an economic s'stem that creates massi/e ineAualities, re%ards the ultra rich and po%erful and punishes e/er'bod' else. ob .erbert has recentl' argued that the rich and po%erful are indifferent to poor people and, of course, he is right, but onl' partl' so.(*(- In actualit', it is much %orse. 4oda'Ps 'oung people and others caught in %ebs of po/ert' and despair face not onl' the indifference of the rich and po%erful, but also the scorn of the /er' people charged %ith preser/ing, protecting and defending their rights. 8e no% li/e in a countr' in %hich the go/ernment allo+s entire &o&ulations an$ grou&s

to *e &ercei)e$ an$ treate$ as $is&osa*le/ reduced to fodder for the neoliberal %aste management industries created b' a mar=et-dri/en societ' in %hich gross ineAualities and massi/e human suffering are its most ob/ious b'products.(*B- 4he anger among the American people is more than !ustified b' the suffering man' people are no% e<periencing,
but an understanding of such anger is stifled largel' b' right-%ing organi#ations and rich corporate #ombies %ho %ant to preser/e the nefarious conditions that produced such anger in the first place . 4he result is an egregious politics of disconnection, not to mention a fraudulent campaign of lies and innuendos funded b' shado%', ultra right billionaires such as the Joch brothers,(*C-the loss of historical memor' ampl' supported in dominant media such as 3o< "e%s and a massi/el' funded depolitici#ing cultural apparatus, all of %hich help to pa/e the %a' for the ne% barbarism and its increasing registers of cruelt', ineAualit', punishment and authoritarianism.K 4his is a politics that dare not spea= its

name - a politics %edded to ineAuit', e<clusion and disposabilit' and beholden to %hat Richard .ofstadter once called the Lparanoid st'le in American politics.L(*,- Dri/en largel' b' a handful of right-%ing billionaires such as Rupert
&urdoch, Da/id and Charles Joch and $al Russo, this is a stealth politics masAuerading as a grassroots mo/ement. Determined to maintain corporate po%er and the benefits it accrues for the fe% as a result of /ast net%or= of political, social and economic ineAualities it reproduces among the man', this is a politics %edded at the hip to an irrational mode of capitalism that undermines an' /estige of democrac'. At the heart of the ne% barbarian politics is the dri/e for unchec=ed amounts of po%er and profits in spite of the fact that this brand of ta=e-no-prisoners politics is largel' responsible for both the economic recession and producing a societ' that is increasing becoming politicall' d'sfunctional and ethicall' unhinged. It is a fringe politics %hose funding sources hide in the shado%s careful not to disclose the identities of the right-%ing billionaire fanatics eager to finance ultra-conser/ati/e groups such as the 4ea 7art' mo/ement. 8hile some Republicans seem embarrassed b' the fact that the li=es of >lenn ec=, Rush Limbaugh and $arah 7alin ha/e ta=en o/er their part', most of its members still seem %illing to embrace %holeheartedl' the politics of ineAualit', e<clusion and disposabilit' that lies at the heart of an organi#ed death-march aimed at destro'ing e/er' public sphere essential to a /ibrant democratic state.

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Affirmation of &olitical 'o&e is necessar" to rein)igorate $emocrac"- 9emocrac" is militari6e$ in t'e status Huo/ &arallel +it' $is&osa*ilit"- To e$ucate an$ a$)ocate for 'o&e is to e)oke t'e &olitical &o+er of resistance1irou, J10 (.enr', 7rofessor of Fnglish and Cultural $tudies at &c&aster 0ni/ersit', pre/ious professors at 0, &iami 0, and
7enn $tate ?&emories of .ope in the Age of Disposabilit'@, published 9/(E/()*), accessed online :/(, httpI//archi/e.truthout.org/memories-hope-age-disposabilit'DBDB*-// 2
4he %or=ing-class neighborhood of m' 'outh ne/er ga/e up on democrac' as an ideal in spite of ho% much it might ha/e failed us. As an ideal, it offered the promise of a better future+ it mobili#ed us to organi#e collecti/el' in order to fight against in!ustice+ and it cast an intense light on those %ho traded in corruption, unbridled po%er and greed. 7olitics %as laid bare in a communit' that e<pected more of itself and its citi#ens as it tapped into the promise of a democratic societ'. ut li=e man' indi/iduals and groups toda'/ $emocrac" is no+ also )ie+e$ as $is&osa*le/

considered redundant, a dangerous remnant of another age. And 'et, li=e the memories of m' 'outh, there is something to be found in those allegedl' outdated ideals that ma' pro/ide the onl' hope %e ha/e for recogni#ing the anti-democratic politics, po%er relations and reactionar' ideologies espoused b' the ne% barbarians. Democrac' as both an ideal and a realit' is no% under siege in a militari#ed culture of fear and forgetting - 4he importance of moral %itnessing has been replaced
b' a culture of instant gratification and unmediated anger, !ust as forgetting has become an acti/e rather than passi/e process, %hat the philosopher $la/o! 2i#e= calls a =ind of Lfetishist disa/o%alI PI =no%, but I donPt %ant to =no% that I =no%, so I donPt =no%.PL(*D- T'e lig'ts are going

out in America+ and the threat comes not from alleged irresponsible go/ernment spending, a gro%ing deficit or the specter of a rene%ed democratic social state. 1n the contrar', it comes from the dar= forces of an economic Dar%inism and its
ne%l' energi#ed armies of right-%ing financial shar=s, shout till-'ou-drop mobs, reactionar' ideologues, po%erful, right-%ing media conglomerates and corporate-sponsored politicians %ho sincerel' hope, if not 'et entirel' belie/e, that the age of democrati#ation has come to an end and

the time for a ne% and cruel politics of disposabilit' and human %aste management is at hand. 8e are li/ing through a period in American histor' in %hich &olitics 'as not onl" *een commo$ifie$ an$ $e&olitici6e$/ but the ci/ic courage of intellectuals, students, labor unions and %or=ing people has receded from the public realm. &a'be it is time to reclaim a histor' not too far remo/ed from m' o%n 'outhful memories of %hen democrac' as an ideal %as %orth struggling o/er, %hen public goods %ere more important than consumer durables, %hen the common good out%eighed pri/ate pri/ileges and %hen the critical notion that a societ' can ne/er be !ust enough %as the real measure of ci/ic identit' and political health. Ma"*e itPs time to reclaim the spirit of a di/erse and po%erful social mo/ement %illing to organi#e, spea= out, educate and fight for the promise of a democrac' that %ould do !ustice to the dreams of a generation of 'oung people %aiting for adults to pro/e the courage of their democratic con/ictions.

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1ac gen$er
Se, trafficking em*o$ies a &atriarc'al form of $omination t'at &er&etuates t'e *elief t'at +omen s'oul$ *e silent +'ile t'e" suffer

9itmore/ Maternick/ an$ 3a&ert 412 (&elissa, Anna, and Jatherine, all are research consultants to the $e< 8or=ers
7ro!ect of the 0rban Justice Center, ?4he Road "orthI 4he role of gender, po/ert' and /iolence in traffic=ing from &e<ico to the 0$@, August ()*(, pg. ((-(, httpI//%%%.ccasa.org/%p-content/uploads/()**/)C/4he-Road-"orth-4he-role-of-gender-po/ert'-and/iolence-in-traffic=ing-from-&e<ico-to-the-0$.pdf , W$>X-

Giolence against %omen and cultural beliefs and state s'stems that support it e<ist in greater or lesser degree all o/er the %orld. :n Me,ico/ &atriarc'al cultural )alues take t'e form of mac'ismo/ +'ic' )alues strong an$ $ominant men/ an$ >ustifies i$entif"ing +omen as &ro&ert" an$ )iolence against +omen in /arious forms ( ucardo ())C+ "e%dic= ()),+ 7ee=-Asa, >arcia, &cArthur 6 Castro ())(-. F/idence displa's /arious
cultural ideals that support machismo5s influence on &e<ican societ'. 3or e<ample, 'oung %omen are often mandated to %or= b' their families or must get permission, and intimate partner /iolence is not gi/en serious consideration as a public health issue (7ee=-Asa, >arcia, &cArthur 6 Castro ())(+ Gillareal ()):-. &achismo also manifests in per/asi/e discrimination against lesbian, ga', bise<ual and transgender (L> 4- people in &e<ico. $ome organi#ations estimate that there are as man' as *,))) murders of ga's, lesbians, transgender or transse<ual indi/iduals occurring e/er' 'ear ("orandi ()):-, or up to *, homophobic or transphobic murders each month, according to 4he Citi#ens Commission Against .omophobic .ate Crimes (3ortino 4orrentero ())9-. &urders, assaults and other /iolent crimes against L> 4 persons are hugel' under reported due to a general distrust of la% enforcement based on the /iolence, e<ploitation and indifference e<hibited b' la% enforcement to%ard L> 4 persons (Gillamil ()*)-. 4he presence of

machismo in &e<ican societ' creates a culture that tolerates the e<istence of an in/oluntar' se<ual labor force .
Latino culture has man' concepts that define beliefs about gender and famil' in addition to machismo, %hich are present in &e<ico ( ucardo ())C+ "e%dic= ()),+ 7ee=-Asa, >arcia, &cArthur 6 Castro ())(-. 3amilismo calls upon a strong obligation to one5s famil'.

In the traditional gender roles in Latino culture, marianismo, creates the e<pectation that %omen present as %holesome and must compl' %ith the needs of their famil', particularl' the male members ( ucardo ())C+ "e%dic= ()),+ 7ee=-Asa, >arcia, &cArthur 6 Castro ())(-. $impatia emphasi#es non-confrontational relationships. 4hese social and cultural beliefs not onl' create an atmosphere tolerant of abuse, but also one %here ac=no%ledgement of abuse is unli=el' ( ucardo ())C+ 7ee=-Asa, >arcia, &cArthur 6 Castro ())(-. 4hese cultural /alues can also act as deterrents to spea=ing out negati/el' against famil', friends, elders, and particularl' males. In addition, respetoNa fundamental /alue concerning respectNfurther complicates abuse because a %oman %ould li=el' fear the conseAuences of spea=ing out against an elder, relati/e, or man because it could be deemed disrespectful due to respeto ( ucardo

())C+ "e%dic= ()),+ 7ee=-Asa, >arcia, &cArthur 6 Castro ())(-. 7h'sical and social retribution ma' be the conseAuences of /iolating respeto. Re/ictimi#ation is a star= realit' because Latino culture dictates that %hen an unmarried %oman is no longer a /irgin, she is automaticall' considered promiscuous and/or a fair target of se<ual aggression b' male famil' and non-famil' members (Comas-Dia# *99,-. Although these cultural understandings are from a stud' of 7uerto Rican famil' d'namics, these characteristics are pre/alent in &e<ico. 4he specific cultural e<amples in the ne<t section clearl' displa' this. T'ese $ee&l" instille$

cultural *eliefs furt'er &er&etuate a culture +'ere +omen are often silent sufferers of )iolence$tate actions in &e<ico perpetuate structural /iolence against %omen through policies that are sociall' constraining, such as lac= of access to abortion and reproducti/e health rights, the abilit' to marr' as 'oung as *C %ith parental consent, and lac= of prosecutions against those %ho abuse or murder %omen (.ague Domestic Giolence 7ro!ect ()*(+ 0nited "ations 7opulation 3und ())9-. Lac= of attention to /iolence against %omen ma' be an unintended conseAuence of the state5s focus on tac=ling drug-related /iolence through a militar' response to the cartel-led drug traffic=ing industr' (&artine# ()*(-. .o%e/er, /iolence against %omen in Central America is not
isolated to &e<ico. 4he >uatemalan go/ernment recentl' launched a ?femicide@ unit to address the unprecedented le/els of /iolence against %omen, particularl' indigenous %omen, and the rising murder rate ( e/an ()*(-. Due to these cultural, societal and

economic conditions, the traffic=ing of persons into commercial se< has become a lucrati/e business in some southern &e<ican states. "ot onl' are 'oung %omen see=ing alternati/e emplo'ment opportunities, but man' in these regions

ha/e been left economicall' /ulnerable due to the forces of globali#ation, and most notabl' the "orth American 3ree 4rade Agreement5s ("A34A- impact on certain socio-economic sectors in these states ("e%dic= ()),-. .uman traffic=ing %ithin and originating in &e<ico is a di/erse and %idespread phenomena, affecting man' =inds of labor and industr' . .o%e/er, in regards to traffic=ing into commercial se< in &e<ico, historical and cultural factors ha/e led the cit' of 4enancingo in the state of 4la<cala to be a geographic nucleus (4orres ())9+ rumbac= 6 $te/enson ()*)+ .$4C ulletins ]9, ]** ()**-. .ere, adult men, often %ith the support of their multi-generational families, ha/e come to distort customar' marriage traditions of local indigenous populations in order to decepti/el' coerce 'oung %omen into prostitution (.$4C ulletin ]9 ()**+ 4orres ())9+ Castro $oto et al. ())C-. 4he lac= of economic opportunities for men in 4la<cala and the surrounding regions is one important factor contributing to the rise of traffic=ing. Anthropologist 1scar &ontiel 4orres carefull' trac=s ho% changes in the econom' in 4la<cala left fe% emplo'ment options for men of the region (4orres ())9-. 4orres cites the industriali#ation process, c'cles of factor' booms and busts in the earl' and late ()th centur', corresponding political changes, and labor polic' as the reasons %h' so man' men in and around 4enancingo,

Human Trafficking Aff 2./283

7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

once dependent on factor' %or=, no% turn to traffic=ing (4orres ())9I Ch. B-. 4%o of the most common recruitment methods used b' traffic=ers in 4la<cala, &e<ico are the ?as=ing of the hand@ and the ?theft of the bride.@ Long-standing cultural practices are the basis for both methods, %hich are still commonplace %hen see=ing a %ife (.$4C ulletin ]9 ()**+ Castro $oto et al. ())C-. 4he ?as=ing of the hand@ method entails adult menNthe traffic=ers, or as the' are =no%n locall', padrotesN%ooing and courting adolescent %omen for a culturall' acceptable amount of time before as=ing permission of the bride5s famil' for her hand in marriage. 4he traffic=er appears to follo% the traditional procedures. .o%e/er, the traffic=er sub/erts the traditional practice after li/ing together as a married couple, and e/entuall' coerces his 'oung bride into prostitution under the guise of their mutual financial interest (.$4C ulletin ]9 ()**+ Castro $oto et al. ())C-. 4he ?theft of the bride@ method is more comple<. Jidnapping the bride and rendering her ?unreturnable@ either through rape or consensual se< are the =e' components to this practice (&ontes and I^igue# ()*)+ Jaltman et al. ()**+ D5Aubeterre ())B-. 4hen the prospecti/e groom and bride, together %ith the groom5s famil', go to the bride5s famil' to as= forgi/eness for the =idnapping and to get their blessing for marriage. $ometimes the =idnapping is a ruse used b' a consenting couple to get married, and sometimes the =idnapping is more sinister %here a man %ould forcibl' =idnap and often rape a %oman %ho did not %ant to become his bride. In these regions of &e<ico the practice is often percei/ed as a=in to elopement as opposed to ta=ing 'oung %omen against their %ill (D5Aubeterre ())B+ Jaltman et al. ()**+ &ontes and I^igue# ()*)+ Castro $oto et al. ())C-. 4raffic=ers manipulate this ritual b' initiall' appearing to follo% traditional cultural procedures, and then using them as a %a' to trap %omen into a marriage or a relationship in order to later force her into prostitution. 4his method is far more stigmati#ing for both gender rolesI

'oung %omen are /ictimi#ed multiple times, %hile 'oung men ha/e se/eral opportunities to displa' superiorit' through force and ph'sical /iolence (.$4C ulletin ]9 ()**+ Jaltman et al. ()**+ Castro $oto et al. ())C-. >enerall', the

?as=ing of the hand@ method is more culturall' acceptable than the ?theft of the bride@ method, 'et both traditions ma=e it difficult for the 'oung %omen in/ol/ed to find a sociall' respectable %a' out of the relationship, e/en after the' reali#e that the' are in danger (.$4C ulletin ]9 ()**+ 4orres ())9-. &an' 'oung %omen in &e<ican societ' are sub!ect to chastisement if the' lea/e a relationship or ha/e se< %ith a man %ithout getting married. 4hese %omen often do not feel that the' can return home out of fear that the' %ill bring shame and dishonor to their families. 4hese cultural pressures sometimes result in %omen agreeing to a marriage or sta'ing in a relationship in order to appeal to social e<pectations (Jaltman et al. ()**+ Castro $oto et al. ())C-. ecause these techniAues do not al%a's lead to legal marriage, the traffic=er can use them o/er and o/er, securing multiple %omen. 4he traffic=ing situation

e<acerbates these cultural /ulnerabilities because traffic=ers often utili#e ph'sical /iolence and ps'chological manipulation in order to maintain a hold o/er the /ictim (Castro $oto et al. ())C-. :n)estigating t'e structural causes an$ foun$ations of trafficking is necessar" to o&en u& a ne+ frame+ork for com*ating se,ual )iolence

Hat'a+a" 412 (Dana, &asters in Interdisciplinar' $tudies at 7ortland $tate 0ni/ersit', ?.uman 4raffic=ing and $la/er'I
4o%ards a "e% 3rame%or= for 7re/ention and Responsibilit'@, ()*(, accessed /ia 7roOuest, W$>X-

4he focus on direct perpetrators, to the e<clusion of other structural causal factors, is in line %ith a common model of responsibilit' used in matters of criminal la%I the liabilit' model. A $ifferent conce&tion of res&onsi*ilit" is nee$e$ in or$er account for

t'ese ot'er factors- Indeed, a ne% model of responsibilit' is needed to create a ne% frame%or= that correctl' identifies %ho/%hat is responsible. 8e must assuredl' prosecute criminals %ithin a legal regime that ma=es it costl' to commit these crimes, and this %ill li=el' produce a positi/e deterrent effect and aid pre/ention efforts. "e/ertheless, it is also important to e<amine the bac=ground conditions of the crime. 4his is important for at least t%o reasons. 1ne, it is important in the tas= of assigning responsibilit' for the problem and this has moral implications, as responsibilit' suggests there are moral obligations of some =ind. 4%o, to the e<tent that a more comprehensi/e understanding of the problem impacts the success of anti-traffic=ing efforts, a broader conception of %ho/%hat is responsible ma' aid pre/ention efforts. 4his second reason focuses on the outcome or effects of anti-traffic=ing polic'. 8hile it might be reasonable to assume that an
anti-traffic=ing frame%or= that also calls attention to (and addresses- social-structural processes that contribute to the problem %ould aid pre/ention efforts, I do not e<tend m' argument to ma=e such assertions. 4hat is, I do not ma=e an' direct empirical claims that a ne% frame%or= %ould be more effecti/e than the current one, e/en though I thin= it is reasonable to e<pect that it %ould+ indeed, m' reason for engaging the sub!ect in the first place is to e<plore %a's to reduce the pre/alence of the problem. "e/ertheless, in this thesis I limit m' focus to the first reason, calling attention to socialstructural processes that contribute to the problem and for the purpose of assigning responsibilit' for the problem. 4his first part of this pro!ect is some%hat empirical. I use the 0nited $tates as a case stud' for the purpose of sho%ing ho% the migrant labor regime contributes to the /ulnerabilit' of the ?uns=illed@ migrant %or=er. I do not sho% this through data, but rather through an e<amination of the la%s and policies directl' impacting the labor conditions of these %or=ers, as %ell as social norms that pla' a role in their social, political, and economic marginali#ation. 4he second part of

the pro!ect, the tas= of assigning responsibilit', is more comple< as it implies moral obligations. 4he notion of
?responsibilit'@ has t%o senses in this discussion. 1ne, responsibilit' refers to %ho/%hat is responsible for the continuation of the phenomenonNits reproduction. 4%o, responsibilit' also refers to %ho/%hat is responsible in a moral sense for the problem. I belie/e the t%o are ine<orabl' lin=ed. All

t'e &eo&le +'o &artici&ate in t'e re&ro$uction of t'e social/ &olitical/ an$ economic structures t'at facilitate t'e &ro*lem of 'uman trafficking an$ sla)er" s'are a moral res&onsi*ilit" to atten$ to t'ese structures so that the' are less li=el' to result in in!ustice. 0nderstanding the process of human traffic=ing and sla/er' is essential to the tas= of assigning responsibilit' in the second sense. I argue that the current anti-traffic=ing frame%or= is inadeAuate because it fails to correctl' identif' (or pa' attention to- all of the macro-social processes that contribute to the problem (responsibilit' in the first sense-, and this has resulted in a
misconception of %ho/%hat is responsible (responsibilit' in the second sense-. 4he pre/ention frame%or= is m'opic, focusing hea/il' on direct perpetrators of the crime at the e<pense of recogni#ing other factors that contribute to the problemNfailing to ma=e responsible other actors that ha/e a

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role in these social-structural processes.

7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

In this thesis I attempt to build a ne% conceptual frame%or= that calls attention to social-structural processes and includes this understanding in assigning responsibilit' for the problem. Western un$erstan$ing of 'uman trafficking &osits t'e )iolence as a foreign &ro*lem an$ relies on a conce&tion of )ictims as Aunfortunate @t'ers-B T'is allo+s for )iolence to continue on an in$i)isi*le le)el

To$res 407 (Jonathan, 7rofessor of La% at >eorgia $tate 0ni/ersit', ?La%, 1therness, and .uman 4raffic=ing@, Jul' ())9,
Accessed /ia 7ro!ect &0$F, W$>X-

$imilarl', in 8estern efforts to combat traffic=ing, the %hite American man engaging in se< tourism is seen as a de/iant, %hile sale of children into traffic=ing net%or=s in de/eloping countries is %ritten off as ?common practice in their culture.@ And so the 8estern se< tourist relies on this narrati/e of the 1ther5s culture to !ustif' his abuse of 4hai or 3ilipina
girls (or bo's-+ he feels he is doing a good deed b' ?helping@ the 'oung 4hai or 3ilipina child, rescuing her, ho%e/er briefl', from a culture that purportedl' offers her no alternati/es. $ignificantl', otherness operates here not onl' at the le/el of the indi/idual (that is,

but it also permeates the societal mentalit' in the >lobal "orth. T'us/ e)en anti5trafficking a$)ocates freHuentl" rel" on t'e narrati)e of se,ual e,&loitation of +omen an$ c'il$ren *eing Amore acce&ta*le o)er t'ereB %hile cabining the actions of se< tourists as actions of a fe% ?sic=@ men %hose actions are seen as outside of 8estern culture, rather than a reflection of the se<ism in 8estern cultures. 4his dichotomous /ie% of %hat underlies certain beha/ior and %hether it is ?cultural@ is fed b', and in turn feeds, otherness. ut as post-colonial legal theorists ha/e detailed, ?culture is not merel' a negati/e or deplorable attribute of
the se< tourist and his conception of the 1ther-, the 1ther, but is an attribute of the 8est as much as the rest.@ In other %ords, the actions of se< tourists or se< tour operators from the 8est are no more or no less rooted in 8estern cultures as prostitution of certain indi/iduals is a function of another culture. Aspects of societ' enable, and

e/en encourage, each, and I submit otherness is a =e' component of the foundational societal structures that allo% such abuses to persist. As ot'erness acts to 'a)e Americans an$ ot'er Westerners )ie+ t'e &ro*lem of 'uman trafficking as Ao)er t'ere/B the 8estern conception of the /irtuous $elf freAuentl' leads to the conclusion, %ithout e<amination, that ?such things %ould ne/er happen here.@ In fact, human traffic=ing occurs in the 0nited $tates and other countries in the >lobal "orth, 'et the 8est5s ?e<cessi/e focus on minorit' and 4hird 8orld se<-subordinating cultural practices . . . di/erts one5s ga#e from the se<ism Wand other forms of discriminationX indigenous to 0nited $tates culture and politics@ that might lead to the e<ploitation of some. 4hus, the second important %a' in %hich otherness distorts /ie%s on human traffic=ing is to lead most Americans and other 8esterners to o/erloo= the e<tent of the problem in their o%n countr'. $e<ual e<ploitation of %omen and children ta=es place in the 0nited $tates and other >lobal "orth countries. 9omestic trafficking net+orks e,ist in t'e (nite$ States to fee$ t'e $eman$ of t'e commercial se, in$ustr" an$ e,&loitati)e la*or settings- .o%e/er, the narrati/e in the 0nited $tates on human traffic=ing suggests that the problem is ?o/er there.@ 3irst, 0.$. reports t'picall' report that D)),))) to E)),))) indi/idualsNmost of %hom are %omen and childrenNare traffic=ed across international borders annuall'. 8hen intra-countr' traffic=ing /ictims are accounted for, the number of /ictims increases to bet%een t%o and four million annuall'. 4he fact that the international number is often cited %ithout the intra-countr' number ignores the ma!orit' of the /ictims of these abuses. Aside from o/erloo=ing the large numbers of domestic traffic=ing /ictims around the globe, focusing on the international number ser/es to enable the 0.$. public to conclude that it does not happen ?o/er here.@ Cie+ing traffic )ictims t'oug' a lens of ot'erness creates a $i)i$e *et+een t'em an$ oursel)es/ +'ic' makes it easier to e,&loit t'em- 2e>ecting t'is *inar" is necessar" to *reaking $o+n com&licit" in )iolence

To$res 407 (Jonathan, 7rofessor of La% at >eorgia $tate 0ni/ersit', ?La%, 1therness, and .uman 4raffic=ing@, Jul' ())9,
Accessed /ia 7ro!ect &0$F, W$>X-

4raffic=ing and e<ploitation of indi/iduals %ithin the 0nited $tates and other countries in the >lobal "orth also occurs in /arious labor settings. 4he mar=et for domestic %or=ers is one such site. Large numbers of middle- and upper-class indi/iduals in 8estern countries emplo' domestic help, man' of %hom are from de/eloping countries. In this setting, %e obser/e familiar narrati/es that portra' the $elf as /irtuous %hile neglecting the 1ther5s e<perience. Fmplo'ers describe ho% the' belie/e the' are ?helping@ their domestic %or=ers (some of %hom ma' ha/e been traffic=ed-, based on an assessment that their %or=ers are better off than the' had been in their countries of origin. 4his anal'sis emplo's an othered conception of life ?o/er there@ and focuses on the comparati/e economic standing of the emplo'ee, %hile ignoring the role of the $elf.
Representati/e of the disconnect is that significant numbers of emplo'ers, %hile see=ing to help their domestic %or=ers, oppose basic rights for them such as the right to a minimum %age. 4hus, %hile the magnanimous $elf belie/es he/she is ?rescuing@ the 1ther, the

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 28/283 actual $elf ma' be benefiting from the further e<ploitation of the 1ther. In other %ords, e/en %hen e<ploitation is close to
home, the narrati/e of otherness operates, consciousl' or subconsciousl', to obstruct our /ie% of the e<ploitation that occurs locall', including %hen %e parta=e in it. 4hus, domestic %or=ers for families in "e% Mor= Cit' or Los Angeles, for e<ample, ma' be percei/ed

as ha/ing been e<ploited %hile in their home countr', but the fact that their e<ploitation might be continuing in the 0nited $tates goes unseen. And the fact that domestic traffic=ing rings are run b' Americans and e<ploit Americans does not fit %ith our conception of the $elf, and thus mention of their e<istence is met %ith disbelief. 4his manifestation of otherness ma=es it easier for traffic=ers to e<ploit significant numbers of indi/iduals in the 0nited $tates and other 8estern countries and for the rest of us to neglect their plight.

@nl" t'e affirmati)e4s re>ection of &atriarc'" can o&en u& s&ace for a +orl$ *e"on$ gen$ere$ )iolence

N'anenge 7 (J'tte &asters V 0 $outh Africa, paper submitted in part fulfilment of the reAuirements for the degree of master of arts in the

sub!ect De/elopment $tudies, ?FC13F&I"$&I 418ARD$ I"4F>RA4I"> 4.F C1"CFR"$ 13 81&F", 711R 7F17LF A"D "A40RF I"41 DFGFL17&F"48hen one e<amines the interconnected effects of the crises it becomes clear, due to the persistent domination of %omen, 1thers and nature, that there

are three fundamental and interconnected challenges, %hich reAuires transformation in the modern culture I (Capra *9E(I *)- 4he first is the slo% but ine/itable decline of patriarch'. According to Adrienne Rich, L7atriarch' is the po%er of the

fathers. It is a familial-social, ideological, political s'stem in %hich men - b' force, direct pressure, or through ritual, tradition, la%, language, customs, etiAuette, education, and the di/ision of labour - determine %hat part %omen shall or shall not pla', and in %hich the female is e/er'%here subsumed under the maleL. 7atriarch' has had a time span of appro<imatel' B,))) 'ears in 8estern ci/ilisation. Its full po%er is e<tremel' difficult to grasp because it is all per/asi/e. It has influenced the basic ideas about human nature and peoplePs relations to the uni/erse.

It is a s'stem %hich, until recentl', has ne/er been openl' challenged and %hose doctrines ha/e been uni/ersall' accepted and presented as la%s of nature. .o%e/er, a societ' %here men dominate %omen is an unbalanced societ'. It is a societ',

%hich is much less than %hat it other%ise might ha/e been. 4he complementar' contrast, %hich men and %omen gi/e to societ' creates the necessar' social balance. $ince e<tremes al%a's lead to disaster, patriarch' has pla'ed an essential part in &romoting t'e

glo*al crises- 4oda' the $isintegration of &atriarc'" is in sig't- 4he feminist mo/ement is one of the strongest cultural current in present time and it %ill ha/e a profound effect on the further cultural e/olution . A perceptions, /alues and practices, needs to be changed . 4he present paradigm has dominated modern culture for se/eral hundred

more in-dept discussion about the patriarch' and its domination %ill ta=e place in chapter C. (Capra *9E(I *)-**+ Capra *9E9I (C)+ Ro%e *99:I (BC-. 4he second transition is a paradigm shift. 4he modern /ision of realit', including its common concepts, thoughts, 'ears. It has shaped 8estern societies and has had a strong influence in the rest of the %orld. It comprises some entrenched, patriarchal ideas and /alues related to the Fnlightenment, the $cientific Re/olution and the Industrial Re/olution. It includes the assumptions that the scientific

method is the onl' /alid approach to =no%ledge+ that the uni/erse is a mechanical s'stem composed of material elements+ that nature is dead+ that the human bod' is a machine+ that life in societ' is an indi/idual, competiti/e struggle for e<istence+ that man can ha/e unlimited material progress through economic gro%th and technological de/elopment+ and that females are subsumed under the male as a basic la% of nature. 4hese assumptions ha/e pro/en to be inadeAuate. 4he /alues the' promote ha/e contri*ute$ fun$amentall" to t'e &resent crises of &o)ert"/ en)ironmental $estruction/ 'uman re&ression an$ a )iolent +orl$ - 4he modern /ision and its /alues are no% challenged+ the' are in need of ma!or re/ision. 4his relates to the fall of the patriarch'. 8hen modern science is historicall' e<amined from a feministic point of /ie%, it becomes clear that the scientific epistemolog' is an ideological and aggressi/e patriarchal %a' of percei/ing the %orld founded on po%er and control . An anal'sis of science has therefore been helpful to understand
the current patriarchal domination of %omen, 1thers and nature. A critiAue of the modern meaning structure and suggestion for an alternati/e perception of realit', is the main sub!ect in chapters C, , and D. (Capra *9E(I *(+ "orgaard *99CI D(-DD+ Capra *99:I ,-D+ Des Jardins ())*I (,,-. 4he third transition is the human perception of nature .

4he current paradigm and its institutions see en/ironmental destruction as an unforeseen and unintended side effect of de/elopment and progress. 4hus, the remedies ad/ocated are based on impro/ing the tools b' introducing better science, appropriate technologies, impro/ed resource management and en/ironmental accounting etc. It is a =ind of enlightened ste%ardship of nature b' human beings. .o%e/er, reforms alone are not enoug'/ instea$ t'e root causes must *e a$$resse$. 4his has led to de/elopment of other /ie%s li=e those of Deep Fcolog', social ecolog' and ecofeminism. 4hese alternati/e perspecti/es challenge the dominant mode of progress as being inherentl' %rong . 4he' point to the cultural roots of the crisis and call for a
re-conceptuali#ation of de/elopment based on eAuitable relationships bet%een humans and humans, men and %omen, and humans and nature. 4hese /isions conseAuentl' ha/e ethical and epistemological positions that are alternati/es to those of the old scientific e<perts. 4he latter ha/e continuousl' claimed a superior epistemological position, due to their ob!ecti/it', but this is part of the problem rather than a solution to natural destruction. $ustainable de/elopment %ill hardl' be possible %ithout the contributions of these alternati/e perspecti/es. 4ogether the' ma=e up a broad mo/ement to%ards pro-en/ironmental change, %hich %ill reAuire fundamental transformation in the modern economic and political s'stems. It %ill include decentralisation of po%er and o%nership of natural resources together %ith establishment of ecologicall' harmonious life-st'les. It %ill promote formation of ne% coalitions and ne% forms of politics. 7art of the change is the decline of the fossil-fuel age. 3ossil fuels include coal, oil and natural gas. 4hese ha/e been humanit'Ps principal sources of energ'. .o%e/er, since the' run out in (B)) the era %ill come to an end. 4he effects of the decline are alread' felt in scarcit' of energ' leading to high prices, debts, unstable economies, tense competition for resources and /iolence. $ince the use of fossil fuels has pla'ed a ma!or role in perpetuating the global crises, health' alternati/es are needed. 4he cultural transformation %ould therefore include a

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shift from the petroleum age to the solar age, %here acti/ities %ill be po%ered b' rene%able sun energ'.

7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

4his third transition is an integral part of a paradigm change and the fall of patriarch'. 4he present paradigm, %hich %as generated and is maintained b' patriarch' is b' feminists seen as promoting ineAualities, unsustainable progress and /iolence. 4hus, peace, eAualit' and sustainable de/elopment ha/e become interlin=ed issues in %omenPs mo/ements. ?eace is not onl" t'e a*sence of +ar *ut also a com&assionate +a" of life . It is the creation of a certain mindset of sharing, reciprocit', lo/e, happiness and care as the central issues in societies, in relationship %ith nature and in de/elopment. 3e% people tal= about happiness and lo/e as a moti/ating force, but these are ethical /alues, %hich can change the %orld and its institutions and the' are promoted b' %omen. 3rom this, it follo%s that the cultural transformation %ill be promoted b' ecological mo/ements, %omenPs mo/ements and peace mo/ements. An ecological feminist en/ironmental ethics, %hich is an alternati/e to the current perception of nature, %ill be discussed in chapter C, %hile chapter : %ill present some basic elements in its alternati/e epistemolog'. (Capra *9E(I **+ Capra *9E9I (,B+ raidotti et al *99CI *(D, *B*-.

T'is femici$al )iolence is a $irect e,&ression of a large &ro>ect of structural )iolence t'at goes unc'ecke$ in mo$ern &olitics @li)era 40. (&eredes, Journalist for $age 7ublications, ?Giolencia 3emicidaI Giolence against 8omen and &e<icoPs $tructural
Crisis@, Latin American 7erspecti/es, Gol. BB, "o. (, Accessed /ia J$41RF, W$>X-

Giolence against %omen, an e<pression of male po%er, is present in /arious forms and degrees throughout their li/es. As a naturali#ed part of the culture, s'mbols, institutional functioning, and cultural prescriptions, it shapes identities and internali#es sub!ecti/ities. In all societies the cultural models for being a %oman assign positions to %omen that subordinate them to the personal and institutionali#ed po%er of men, creating real and s'mbolic ineAualities. 4hese ineAualities are e<pressed in direct or hidden messages, discriminator' actions and e<cluding omissions, lac= of resources, limits on freedom and coercion, ob!ectification, e<ploitation, self-depreciation, feelings of guilt and shame, deception, and false !ustifications. In all these situations /iolence against %omen progressi/el' de/elops from insinuations, offensi/e comparisons, harassment, threats, /erbal intimidation, abuse, irresponsibilit', betra'als, and abandonment to beatings, forced se<, rape, and persecution. It e/en appears in other realms such as counterinsurgenc' and %ar. 3rom this perspecti/e, femici$e an$ femici$al )iolence can *e i$entifie$ as s&ecific forms of gen$er )iolence, %hich is defined b' the 0nited "ations as a mechanism of domination, control, oppression, and po%er o/er %omen (0", *9:9-. Although gender /iolence does not al%a's result in murder, it does increase the possibilit' of it. >ender /iolence is a constant /iolation of the human rights of %omen and girls. Its presence in the home, on the street, in the communit', in the
%or=place, in go/ernment, church, and organi#ations and %ithin couples allo%s tension and hatred to build up and reaffirms and reproduces gender relations of domination/subordination. In this article, I anal'#e briefl' some of t'e structural causes of recent

)iolence against +omen in Me,ico. 4a=en together, the' demonstrate the failure of the neoliberal s'stem to pro/ide either de/elopment or a model of democrac' in our countr'. .a/ing defined femicide and femici$al )iolence as a $irect e,&ression of t'e structural )iolence of the neoliberal social s'stem, %e could pursue its causes in the political realm or in the %a's in %hich indi/iduals ha/e been di/ided and battered b' the /iolent d'namics of social transformation. 7utting the neoliberal mandates into practice through institutionali#ed patriarchal po%er, &e<icoPs so-called political

class and its business and financial sectors ha/e undermined and /iolated both societ'Ps and indi/idualsP rights, interests, and needs. In the case of %omen, one outcome of the processes on both le/els has been murder. At the same time as %e consider the increase in /iolence against %omen, %e must also ta=e into account the increase of /iolence %ithin families and personal /iolence in general. 4hese are the other side of the s'stemic /iolence of the neoliberal social structure, %hich creates a social ecolog' in %hich men are dri/en to h'permasculinit', e<aggerating the /iolent, authoritarian, aggressi/e aspects of male identit' in an attempt to preser/e that identit'. 4he counterpart of these attitudes is found in the

subordinate positions of %omen in relation both to men and to institutionali#ed masculine po%er. In the face of neoliberalismPs increasing demands, the d'sfunction and obsolescence of these stereot'pes is e/er more e/ident. 4he disturbances the' ha/e al%a's produced in personal relations are inflamed b' the current social /iolence. Conflicts %ithin couples and families as masculine domination is brought into Auestion and delegitimi#ed steadil' increase the le/els of /iolence and, of course, the ris= of murder. 4hese conflicts are multiplied under the pressure produced b' unemplo'ment, po/ert', social
polari#ation, alcoholism, and insecurit', among the man' other problems that fill dail' life %ith tension.

?atriarc'" causes e,tinction Warren K Ca$" 7 W7rofessors of 7hilosoph' at &acalester College 6 .amline 0ni/ersit' Jaren and Duane, ?.'patia@,
$pring, *99C. 7roAuestX
4he notion of patriarch' as a sociall' d'sfunctional s'stem enables feminist philosophers to sho% %h' conceptual connections are so important and ho% conceptual connections are lin=ed to the /ariet' of other sorts of %oman-nature-peace connections. In addition, the claim that patriarch' is a d'sfunctional social s'stem locates %hat ecofeminists see as /arious Ld'sfunctionalitiesL of patriarch'-the empirical in/isibilit' of %hat %omen do, se<ist-%arist-naturist language, /iolence to%ard %omen, other cultures, and nature-in a historical, socioeconomic, cultural, and political conte<t.(*) -

4o sa' that patriarch' is a d'sfunctional s'stem is to sa' that the fundamental beliefs, /alues, attitudes and assumptions

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(conceptual frame%or=- of

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patriarch' gi/e rise to impaired thin=ing, beha/iors, and institutions %hich are unhealth' for humans, especiall' %omen, and the planet. 4he follo%ing diagram represents the features of patriarch' as a d'sfunctional social s'stemI 7atriarch', as an 0p-Do%n s'stem of po%er-o/er relationships of domination of %omen b' men, is conceptuall' grounded in a fault' patriarchal belief and /alue s'stem, (a-, according to %hich (some- men are rational and %omen are not rational, or at least not rational in the more highl' /alued %a' (some- men are rational+ reason and mind are more important than emotion and bod'+ that humans are !ustified in using female nature simpl' to satisf' human consumpti/e needs. 4he discussion abo/e of patriarchal conceptual frame%or=s describes the characteristics of this fault' belief s'stem. 7atriarchal conceptual frame%or=s sanction, maintain, and perpetuate impaired thin=ing , (b-I 3or e<ample, that men can control %omenPs inner li/es, that it is menPs role to determine %omenPs choices, that human superiorit' o/er nature !ustifies human e<ploitation of nature, that %omen are closer to nature than men because the' are less rational, more emotional, and respond in more instinctual %a's than (dominant- men. 4he discussions abo/e at (C- and (,-, are e<amples of the linguistic and ps'chological forms such impaired thin=ing can ta=e. 1perationali#ed, the e/idence of patriarch' as a d'sfunctional s'stem is found in the beha/iors to %hich it gi/es rise, (c-, and the unmanageabilit', (d-, %hich results. 3or e<ample, in the 0nited $tates, current estimates are that one out of e/er' three or four %omen %ill be raped b' someone she =no%s+ globall', rape, se<ual harassment, spouse-beating, and sado-masochistic pornograph' are e<amples of beha/iors practiced, sanctioned, or tolerated %ithin patriarch' . In the realm of en/ironmentall' destructi/e beha/iors, strip-mining, factor' farming, and pollution of the air, %ater, and soil are instances of beha/iors maintained and sanctioned %ithin patriarch'. 4he', too, rest on the fault' beliefs that it is o=a' to Lrape the earth ,L
that it is LmanPs >od-gi/en rightL to ha/e dominion (that is, domination- o/er the earth, that nature has onl' instrumental /alue, that en/ironmental destruction is the acceptable price %e pa' for Lprogress.L And the %a' to impose dominion on a people or nation, goes hand in hand %ith patriarch' and leads to d'sfunctional beha/iors of nations and ultimatel' to international unmanageabilit'. &uch of the current Lunmanageabilit'L of contemporar' life in patriarchal societies, (d-, is then /ie%ed as a conseAuence of a patriarchal preoccupation %ith acti/ities, e/ents, and e<periences that reflect historicall' male-gender-identified beliefs, /alues, attitudes, and assumptions. Included among these real-life conseAuences

presumption of %arism, that %ar is a natural, righteous, and ordinar'

are precisel' those concerns %ith nuclear proliferation, %ar, en/ironmental destruction, and /iolence to%ard %omen, %hich man' feminists see as the logical outgro%th of patriarchal thin=ing. In fact, it is often onl' through obser/ing these d'sfunctional beha/iors--the s'mptoms of d'sfunctionalit'--that one can trul' see that and ho% patriarch' ser/es to maintain and perpetuate them. 8hen patriarch' is understood as a
d'sfunctional s'stem, this Lunmanageabilit'L can be seen for %hat it is--as a predictable and thus logical conseAuence of patriarch'.(**- 4he theme that global en/ironmental crises, %ar, and /iolence generall' are predictable and logical conseAuences of se<ism and patriarchal culture is per/asi/e in ecofeminist literature (see Russell *9E9, (-. Fcofeminist Charlene $pretna=, for instance, argues that La militarism and %arfare are continual features of a patriarchal societ' because the' reflect and instill patriarchal /alues and fulfill needs of such a s'stem.

Ac=no%ledging the conte<t of patriarchal conceptuali#ations that feed militarism is a first step to%ard reducing their impact and preser/ing life on FarthL ($pretna= *9E9, ,C-. $tated in terms of the foregoing model of patriarch' as a d'sfunctional social s'stem, the claims b' $pretna= and other feminists ta=e on a clearer meaningI 7atriarchal conceptual frame%or=s legitimate impaired thin=ing (about %omen, national and regional conflict, the en/ironment- %hich is manifested in beha/iors %hich, if continued, %ill ma=e life on earth difficult, if not impossible. It is a star= message, but it is plausible. Its plausibilit' lies in
understanding the conceptual roots of /arious %oman-nature-peace connections in regional, national, and global contexts.

Tr" or $ie0all )iolence/ all conflict/ an$ all +ar is roote$ in gen$ere$ &oliticsHu$son et al- 8 WGalerie &. .udson, 7rofessor of 7olitical $cience at righam Moung 0ni/ersit', &ar' Caprioli is 7rofessor of 7olitical
$cience at the 0ni/ersit' of &innesotaQDuluth. onnie allif-$pan/ill is 7rofessor of 7s'cholog' and Director of the 8om'n5s Research Institute at righam Moung 0ni/ersit'. Rose &cDermott is 7rofessor of 7olitical $cience at ro%n 0ni/ersit'. Chad 3. Fmmett is 7rofessor of >eograph' at righam Moung 0ni/ersit', ?4he .eart of the &atterI 4he $ecurit' of 8om'n and the $ecurit' of $tates,@ International $ecurit' Golume BB, "umber B, 8inter ())E/)E, &use.X

4heories of political sociolog' underscore the /ie% of e/olutionar' theorists that the legac' of /iolent patriarch' comes to permeate all le/els of social intercourse. 4he primal character of /iolent patriarch' ensures that it becomes a template for broad classes of social beha/iorNspecificall', those that concern social difference.

ecause human males, generall' spea=ing, code the primal

difference bet%een male and female as a hierarch' in %hich the naturall' selected goal is control and domination of the subordinate female, all those coded as ?different@ %ill be treated in accordance %ith that template of control and dominationI out-group males, out-group females, and e/en in certain circumstances in-group males. 4hus, the ultimate causes posited b' e/olutionar' theor' are

supplemented b' more pro<imate causal mechanisms in the diffusion of these templates of domination and control.K 4heories of social diffusion are not alien to

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securit' studies. $cholars in the field ha/e in/estigated the relationship bet%een the spread of ne% forms of social relations, such as democrac', and resulting obser/able differences in state securit' and beha/ior.35 Interestingl', se/eral theorists belie/e that the rise of democrac' is rooted in the amelioration of /iolent patriarch'. 3or e<ample, some ha/e posited that the social imposition of monogam' and later marriage for %om'n
(leading to a lessening of gender ineAualit'- %ere necessar', though not sufficient, conditions for the rise of democrac' and capitalism in the 8est. 36 rea=ing =e' elements of male dominance hierarchiesNpol'gam', WFnd 7age *EX patrilocalit', earl' to mid-teen marriage for femalesNma' ha/e been the first, critical steps to e/entuall' brea=ing the political po%er of such hierarchies. Although in the initial stages the rise of democrac' did not facilitate %om'n5s political po%er, %ithout an ad!ustment in the fundamental

And as norms of democrac' arose, the stage %as set for %om'n to achie/e political po%er. If these theorists are correct, then le/els of /iolence against %om'n should be more predicti/e of state securit' and peacefulness than le/els of procedural democrac'. In other %ords, in states %here democrac' arose from %ithin through the amelioration of gender ineAualit', %e should find greater state securit'+ but %here democrac' %as imposed or /eneered o/er s'stems %here male-female relations did not undergo fundamental transformation, %e should not find as significant differences in state securit' and peacefulness.K Just as a procli/it' to%ard international peace in democratic societies is based, in part, ?on tolerance and a respect for the rights of opponents,@ 37
character of male-female relations, these scholars assert that democrac' ma' ne/er ha/e been a historical possibilit' for humans. so scholars might also contemplate that norms of gender-based /iolence ha/e an inflammator' impact on domestic and international beha/ior. 3or e<ample, studies ha/e sho%n that

if domestic /iolence is normal in famil' conflict K resolution in a societ', then that societ' is more li=el' to rel' on /iolent conflict resolution and to be in/ol/ed in militarism and %ar than are societies %ith lo%er le/els of famil' /iolence. 38 A /icious circle ma' result, %here such state /iolence ma' in turn lead to higher le/els of gender /iolence.39 Indeed, lo%er WFnd 7age *9X le/els of gender ineAualit' hinder the abilit' of societies to mobili#e for aggression through demorali#ing %om'n. 40K Johan
>altung, a political scientist speciali#ing in political sociolog', offers t%o concepts that help e<plain ho% a generali#ed ideological !ustification for /iolence is formed and diffuses throughout societ'I structural /iolence and cultural /iolence. 41 >altung5s conceptuali#ation of structural /iolence paints a picture of per/asi/e and s'stematic e<ploitation that ma=es open /iolence in the public sphere unnecessar'N?4he amateur %ho %ants to dominate uses guns, the professional uses social structure.@ 42 According to >altung,

structural /iolence has at least four manifestationsI e<ploitation based on a di/ision of labor %herein benefits are as'mmetricall' distributed+ control b' the e<ploiters o/er the consciousness of the e<ploited, resulting in the acAuiescence of the oppressed+ fragmentation, meaning that the e<ploited are separated from each other+ and marginali#ation, %ith the e<ploiters as a pri/ileged class %ith their o%n rules and form of interaction.43K 4he concordance bet%een this list and the means b' %hich gender ineAualit' is t'picall' maintained in human societies is clear. >ender roles lead to highl' differential possibilities for personal securit', de/elopment, and prosperit', e/en in toda'5s %orld. An e<ample of this =ind of e<ploitation occurs %hen %om'n ?naturall'@ recei/e less pa' than men for eAual %or=, or %hen domestic /iolence is considered ?normal.@ 4he second , marginali#ation ser/es to clearl' distinguish men and %om'n, %ith no doubt as to the relati/e status of each se<.K >altung posits that structural /iolence arises from cultural /iolence, that is, WFnd 7age ()X the da'-to-da' use of o/ert or implicit force to obtain one5s ends in social relations. 4hus, %hile structural /iolence ma' ob/iate the need for open /iolence in the public sphere, it is based on open or implicit /iolence in the pri/ate sphere of the home . "orms of cultural /iolence diffuse %ithin religion, ideolog', language, and art, among other aspects of culture. ? Cultural /iolence ma=es direct and structural /iolence loo=, e/en feel, rightNor at least not %rong,@ %rites >altung.44 Giolent patriarch' is the primar' basis of cultural /iolence in human collecti/es I although %om'n ha/e become
could other%ise be used to build net%or=s %ith other %om'n. And finall' acti/e agents %ith notable success in the struggle for eAualit' in man' states, /iolence remains an enduring component of relations bet%een men and %om'n in the pri/ate

component, manipulation of consciousness to ensure acAuiescence, is maintained through sociali#ation, gender stereot'ping, and a constant threat of domestic /iolenceNall of %hich insidiousl' identif' %om'n as inferior. 4he perpetrators of female infanticide, for e<ample, are /irtuall' all female. 4he third component, fragmentation, is easil' effected from %om'n5s circumstances of patrilocalit' and greater famil' responsibilities (and in some cases, the practice of ph'sical purdah-, thus minimi#ing social access that

>endered hierarchies also help e<plain the /iolence associated %ith nationalism, for the hierarchi#ed difference bet%een men and %om'n that is at the root of structural ineAualit' and /iolence diffuses to become an integral aspect of nationalism. F/olutionar' theor' tells us that clan or national identit' is almost e<clusi/el' male-defined, for in the
sphere the %orld o/er, pro/iding a natural %ellspring for social diffusion. 45K

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?>ender relations are a crucial, not peripheral, dimension of the d'namics of group identities and intergroup conflicts,@ %rites $pi=e 7eterson,46 thus helping to e<plain the inherent nationalist antipath' to%ard feminist goals. >i/en this lin=age bet%een /iolent patriarch' and nationalism, an' reforms of the
e/olutionar' landscape, it %as males %ho defined %ho %as a member of the in-group, and %ho belonged to out-groups, based on male reproducti/e concerns. cultural distribution of po%er bet%een men and %om'n %ill be /ie%ed as a threat to nationalist efforts to protect or unif' the communit'. 47 Legitimi#ed b' gendered structural

neither WFnd 7age (*X a meaningful decrease in societal /iolence nor a sustainable peace among nations is possible in human societ' %ithout a decrease in gender ineAualit'.48 ut is that
and cultural /iolence, patriarchal nationalism pro/ides !ustification for ad/ancing state interests through the use of force. In that light, %e %ould e<pect that possibleH

?atriarc'" 'as infiltrate$ mo$ern &olitics5 onl" a re>ection of &atriarc'" can o&en u& s&ace *e"on$ 'egemonic masculinit"
7erspecti/es on Achie/ing >lobal $ecurit', Fngendered Insecurities@, Columbia 0ni/ersit' 7ress *99(, httpI//%%%.ciaonet.org/boo=/tic=ner/tic=ner*(.html W$>X-

Tickner 472 (J. Ann, 7rofessor of International $tudies at American 0ni/ersit', ?>ender in International RelationsI 3eminist
the marginali#ation of %omen in the arena of foreign polic'-ma=ing through the =ind of gender stereot'ping that I ha/e described suggests that international politics has al%a's been a gendered acti/it' in the modern state s'stem. $ince foreign
8hile the purpose of this boo= is to introduce gender as a categor' of anal'sis into the discipline of international relations, and militar' polic'-ma=ing has been largel' conducted b' men, the discipline that anal'#es these acti/ities is bound to be primaril' about men and masculinit'. 8e seldom reali#e %e thin= in these terms, ho%e/er+ in most fields of =no%ledge %e ha/e become

accustomed to eAuating %hat is human %ith %hat is masculine. "o%here is this more true than in international relations, a
discipline that, %hile it has for the most part resisted the introduction of gender into its discourse, bases its assumptions and e<planations almost entirel' on the acti/ities and e<periences of men. An' attempt to introduce a more e<plicitl' gendered anal'sis into the field

must therefore begin %ith a discussion of masculinit'. Masculinit" an$ &olitics 'a)e a long an$ close association. Characteristics associated %ith Lmanliness,L such as toughness, courage, po%er, independence, and e/en ph'sical strength, ha/e,
throughout histor', been those most /alued in the conduct of politics, particularl' international politics. 3reAuentl', manliness has also been associated %ith /iolence and the use of force, a t'pe of beha/ior that, %hen conducted in the international arena, has been /alori#ed and applauded in the name of defending onePs countr'. 4his celebration of male po%er, particularl' the glorification of the male %arrior, produces

more of a gender dichotom' than e<ists in realit' for, as R. 8. Connell points out, this stereot'pical image of masculinit' does not fit most men. Connell suggests that %hat he calls Lhegemonic masculinit',L a t'pe of culturall' dominant masculinit'
that he distinguishes from other subordinated masculinities, is a sociall' constructed cultural ideal that, %hile it does not correspond to the actual personalit' of the ma!orit' of men, sustains patriarchal authorit' and legitimi#es a patriarchal political and social order. Hegemonic

masculinit" is sustaine$ t'roug' its o&&osition to )arious su*or$inate$ an$ $e)alue$ masculinities, such as homose<ualit', and, more important, through its relation to /arious de/alued femininities. $ociall' constructed gender differences are based on sociall' sanctioned, uneAual relationships bet%een men and %omen that reinforce compliance %ith menPs stated superiorit'. "o%here in the public realm are these
stereot'pical gender images more apparent than in the realm of international politics, %here the characteristics associated %ith hegemonic masculinit' are pro!ected onto the beha/ior of states %hose success as international actors is measured in terms of their po%er capabilities and capacit' for self-help and autonom'.

2ealit" is sociall" constructe$/ )oting affirmati)e t'roug' a lens of critical constructi)ism is necessar" to $isru&t t'e cultural norms t'at &er&etuate )iolent gen$er relations
Constructing the 7roblems of Z.uman 4raffic=ing5@, June ()*(, httpI//conser/anc'.umn.edu/bitstream/*B*E((/*/Lobas#;umn;)*B)F;*(:,D.pdf, pgs. :D-E), W$>X-

=o*as6 412 (Jennifer, 7rofessor of International Relations at the 0ni/ersit' of &innesota, ?Gictims, Gillains, and the Girtuous
Contrar' to J'le and Joslo%s=i5s finding that ?both go/ernments and acti/ists sociall' construct Zthe problem5 in different %a's depending on %hat or for %hom the' are ad/ocating action,@ t'e aforementione$ sc'olars 'a)e largel" faile$ to a&&reciate t'e significance of t'e social construction of 'uman trafficking. 8ithin the discipline of international relations, norms- and net%or=-based anal'ses of human traffic=ing ma=e the same error despite being situated %ithin the constructi/ist tradition. In this section I la' out the
details of m' proposed remed'I a critical constructi/ist perspecti/e. I present the methodolog' and research design for this dissertation, and sho% ho%

genealogical met'o$s suc' as $iscourse anal"sis re)eal t'e &ro$ucti)e &o+er ine,trica*l" +o)en into t'e )er" fa*ric of anti5trafficking an$ t'e conce&tual in$eterminac" of A'uman traffickingB as an o*>ect of kno+le$ge an$ go)ernance- As an approach to %orld politics, Ann 4o%ns describes critical constructi/ism as consisting of ?post-structuralisms.@ Jutta 8eldes identifies three anal'tical commitments

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 33/283 that undergird this perspecti/eI (*- W'at +e un$erstan$ as Arealit"B is sociall" constructe$ and hence contestable, ((- constructions of realit' both enact and reif' relations of po%er, and (B- an e<pressl' critical constructi/ism reAuires that dominant constructions be denaturali#ed. As one might e<pect, the position that realit' is sociall' constructed is shared b' constructi/ists of all stripes. At the same time, although liberal constructi/ist traffic=ing scholars do refer to human traffic=ing as sociall' constructed, their anal'ses freAuentl' neglect to address the multiple %a's in %hich po%er operates in and through the production of sociopolitical ?problems.@ 7o%er, rather than resting in one particular location or acting as a tangible good that one can possess, inheres in all social relations. Anal'ses of producti/e po%erN ?the constitution of all social sub!ects %ith /arious social po%ers through s'stems of =no%ledge and
discursi/e practices of broad and general social scope@ Ndepart from traditional conceptuali#ations of po%er in political science and international relations. 8hile producti/e po%er is t'picall' contrasted to compulsor' po%er (e.g. ?po%er o/er@- or to material po%er (e.g., militar' and economic strength-, one can also distinguish bet%een anal'ses of transnational ad/ocac' net%or=s and social mo/ements as enmeshed %ithin relations of po%er and those that represent such mo/ements as separable from po%er, or ?spea=ing to truth to po%er.@ Liberal constructi/ists, for e<ample,

too often portra' the state as the sphere of po%er and transnational ci/il societ' as the sphere of /alues, presenting, as &ichel 3oucault put it, ?opposition bet%een a po%er-%ielding state that e<ercises its supremac' o/er a ci/il societ' depri/ed of such processes of po%er.@ Critical constructi/ists and others %or=ing in a 3oucauldian /ein suggest an alternati/e %a' to understand ho% po%er functions in these circumstances. A critical constructi/ist approach concei/es of po%er as much more per/asi/e. $pecificall', it highlights the fact that
polic'ma=ing is alread' imbued %ith po%er relations long before agendas are set or o/ert conflicts of interest erupt because all representational practices alread' entailNthat is, enact and reif'Npo%er relations. 9iscourses *ring +it' t'em t'e &o+er to constitute +orl$s-

In anal'#ing the constitution of %orlds, this approach treats neither the state, nor transnational ci/il societ', nor human traffic=ing as pre-gi/en, natural or e<trapolitical =inds, but focuses instead on ho% each is produced through discursi/e practices. 7olitical problems, if the' are seen as ob!ecti/e and measurable, can be managed through bureaucratic e<pertise
%ithout being mediated b' politicsNthis is the ?instrumental rationalit'@ of 8eber, the ?technical reason@ of &arcuse, and the ?means-end rationalit'@ of .abermas. Met as Joel Ouir= puts it, ?human traffic=ing is not so much a singular issue, as a po%erful lodestone for a

%ide range of interests, orientations, and agendas.@ T'is is not a criticism of antitrafficking efforts0 from a critical constructi)ist &ers&ecti)e/ t'e situation coul$ 'ar$l" *e ot'er+ise . Indeed, one could
hardl' dismiss the potential strategic benefits of claiming the ?moral high ground,@ representing the anti-traffic=ing cause as a uni/ersal concern, and pursuing solutions in the technocratic realms of go/ernmental bureaucracies and international la%. 4o accept the utilit' of such strategies,

ho%e/er, is not to sa' the' must be ta=en at face /alue. 8hen self-described principled or moral actors depict themsel/es as be'ond
or untainted b' po%er, the' effecti/el' place themsel/es be'ond critiAue and contestation, i.e. be'ond politics .

:nterrogating t'e gen$ere$ assum&tions surroun$ing current &olic" making e,&oses an$rocentric assum&tion t'at allo+ formulation of *etter actions ?eterson an$ 2un"an J77 (G. $pi=e and Anne professor of political science at the 0ni/ersit' of Ari#ona and professor of
%omen5s studies at 8right $tate 0ni/ersit', ?>lobal >ender Issues@, ( nd edition, p. *C-*,, accessed /ia J$41RF, W$>X-

>ender issues surface no% because ne% Auestions ha/e been raised that cannot be addressed %ithin traditional frame%or=s. 4he amassing of global data re/eals the e<tent and pattern of gender ineAualit'I 8omen e/er'%here ha/e less access to political po%er
and economic resources and less control o/er processes that reproduce this s'stemic ineAualit'. &oreo/er, our =no%ledge of the %orld of men and the politics the' create is biased and incomplete in the absence of =no%ledge about ho% menPs acti/ities, including their politics, are related to, e/en dependent upon, %hat %omen are doing--and %h'. Additionall', recogni6ing t'e &o+er of gen$er as a lens forces us to

ree)aluate tra$itional e,&lanations/ to as= ho% the' are biased and hence render inadeAuate accounts . As in other disciplines, the stud' of %orld politics is enriched b' ac=no%ledging and s'stematicall' e<amining ho% gender shapes categories and frame%or=s that %e ta=e for granted . 4his is necessar' for ans%ering the ne% Auestions raised and for generating fresh insights--about the %orld as %e currentl' L=no%L it and ho% it might be other%ise. 3inall', gender-sensiti/e studies impro/e our understanding of global crises, their interactions, and the &ossi*ilities of mo)ing *e"on$ t'em- 4hese include crises of political legitimac' and securit' as states are increasingl' unable to protect their citi#ens against economic/ e&i$emic/ nuclear/ or ecological t'reatsL crises of malde/elopment as the d'namics of our
global economic s'stem enrich a fe% and impo/erish most+ and crises of en/ironmental degradation as the e<ploitation of natural resources continues in unsustainable fashion. 4hese global crises cannot be understood or addressed %ithout ac=no%ledging the structural

ineAualities of the current %orld s'stem, ineAualities that e<tend %ell be'ond gender issuesI 4he' are embodied in interacting hierarchies
of race, class, ethnicit', nationalit', se<ual orientation, ph'sical abilit', age, and religious identification. In this te<t, %e focus on ho% the structural ineAualities of gender %or= in the %orldI ho% the hierarchical dichotom' of masculinit'-femininit' is institutionali#ed, legitimated, and re- produced, and ho% these processes differentiall' affect menPs and %omenPs li/es. 8e also begin to see ho% gender hierarch' interacts %ith other structural ineAualities. 4he dichotom' of masculinit' and femininit' is not separate from racism, classism, ageism, nationalism, and so on. Rather, gender both structures and is structured b' these hierarchies to render comple< social identities, locations, responsibilities, and social practices. >ender shapes, and is shaped b', all of us. 8e dail' reproduce its d'namics--and suffer its costs--in multiple %a's. ' learning ho% gender %or=s, %e learn a

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 3 /283 great deal about intersecting structures of ineAualit' and ho% the' are intentionall' and unintentionall' reproduced. 8e can then use this =no%ledge in our struggles to transform global gender ineAualit' b' also transforming other oppressi/e hierarchies at %or= in the %orld .

Cote affirmati)e to en$orse a feminist stan$&oint e&istemolog"

?an$e" . (Anupam, thesis submitted to facult' of graduate studies and research in partial fulfillment of the reAuirements for the
degree of doctorate of philosoph' department of political science Carleton uni/ersit', forgin bonds with womyn, nature and the third world: an ecofeminist critique of international relations , proAuestX _*C)-*CB`-

4he most significant contribution of ecofeminism lies in its abilit' to plumb to the /er' depths the entire process of Zothering5 and e<plore the reasons for its /er' origins. $econdl', it sho%s the interconnections bet%een all =inds of oppressions. Fcofeminism focuses on the lin=s and patterns among the treatment of oppressed, e<ploited, or under/alued beings and entities (Cuomo, *99EI :-. It clarifies e<actl' %ho is ?othered@ b' the multiple e<clusions of reason+ this %ould include not !ust nature but all races, colonies and %omen %ho ha/e been reduced to
mere bac=ground in the selthood of the elite %hite male. 4hus, the point being made is that instrumentali#ation is not !ust sub!ect to nature but to all subordinated groups that are regarded as nature (&ellor+ 7lum%ood *99B+ $hi/a *9E9, *99B+ 8arren *99), *99B+ Cuomo *99E-.

As opposed to a uni/ersalistic, abstract and deontological ethics, that is characteristic of IR, ecofeminism proposes an ethics that is conte<tual and relational. A fundamental argument that I ha/e sought to ma=e through this research (as shall be borne out through the case-stud'- is that it is highl' unrealistic to ha/e uni/ersalistic codes of ethics that are not Auite determined b' those %ho are supposed to be the ethical agentsa actors. 3or the Zuni/ersal5 to be feasible and reali#able, it has to be constituted b', and deri/ed from the Zparticular5. In continuation %ith the feminist ethics of care perspecti/e, ecofeminism also suggests the need to deri/e ethics from ties, bonds, attachments and relationships that gro% out of the moral agent5s relationships to others around herself+ it is an ethic born out of deep moral attachments , connections and commitments to human and nonhuman others. An ecofeminist ethics bases itself in the recognition of the fact that human beings are both social and natural beings and therefore, situates human beings %ithin a specific conte<t of relationships %ithin societ' and nature. 8hile the' do not determine our ethics, our dependencies on, and relationships %ith nature, and our ph'sical needs and predispositions, shape and limit %hat ethics can be, or %hat ethics can mean, in an' gi/en conte<t (Cuomo, *99,I CD-. A critiAue of the masculine notion of an atomistic, liberal, egoistic, autonomous indi/idual %ho denies dependenc' and relationships is abundant in feminist, ecofeminist and ecological accounts (Robinson *999, >illigan *9E(+ Chodoro% *9E,+ "anc' .artsoc= *9E,+ 7lum%ood
*9E), *99B+ 8arren *99)-. Fcofeminist ethics are based on practices, real li/es, mores of people and not abstract principles. 4he principles themsel/es are deri/ed from the specific conte<ts and needs of the people. Cuomo suggests the need to de/elop a dialogue bet%een theor' and practice as e/idenced in the %or= of De%e'5s Ouest for Certaint' (*9(9-. $he Auotes De%e' to sa' that ?theor' separated from concrete doing and ma=ing is empt' and futile@ (Cuomo, *99EI *C,-. Fthical theor' enables us to li/e better li/es onl' %hen it informs and is informed b' the decisions real people ma=e in their li/es. Fcofeminist ethics is born out of the difficult' of sol/ing real, comple<, ethical problems, as %ell as the frustration %ith the inadeAuacies of traditional ethical theories... (Cuomo, *99EI *CD-. Fcofeminism is characteri#ed b' an ethics of di/ersit' as e/idenced in the %or= of $hi/a %ho argues for the preser/ation of a di/ersit' of li/elihoods, social roles and species and eAualit' in di/ersit' (*9E9, *99B-. 4he origins of the need to preser/e di/ersit' can be seen clearl' in the clear recognition of the interconnections of the comple< biotic %eb and interdependencies amongst all species. Fcofeminism is based on an anal'sis of ho% nature is s'stematicall' bac=grounded and reduced to an instrument in the liberal discourse especiall' %ith respect to the mar=et econom' %here it is ta=en for granted bac=drop to mar=et acti/ities, as absorber of %astes and pro/ider of limitless resources, noticed onl' %hen it threatens to fail to perform as reAuired (7lum%ood, *99BI *,B-.

Fcofeminist ethics condemns such an instrumental attitude to%ards nature and all that Aualifies as nature. 8hat is /isible is a Jantian principle at %or= here %hich in/ol/es /aluing beings for their intrinsic %orth but a closer e<amination re/eals that an ecofeminist ethics esche%s the h'per separated rationalit' or moti/ation of obligation that propels the agent to do his Zdut'5 and in that process distance himself from the Zob!ect5 of our attention+ instead this is a recognition of common interests and bonds that are alread' in place - the' onl' need to be gi/en due cogni#ance. 4he distanciation bet%een the sub!ect and the Zob!ect5 of care is an artificial
di/ide based on a negation of bonds of emotional and ph'sical dependence that are /er' real. In fulfilling our moral responsibilit' to%ards the caree, %e are onl' recogni#ing all that ma=es us human i.e. our relationships %ith others %ithin a comple< %eb of societ' and ecolog', that ma=e us %hat %e are. It is through these bonds that %e formulate principles of ethics in the first place. In reali#ing our ethical responsibilities to%ards the interests of human and Znon-human5 others, %e are securing our o%n material and emotional needs. 1nce again, it needs to be stressed that this coincidence of interests does not spell an instrumental attitude but ta=es the caree as an agent in its o%n right %ho is entirel' deser/ing of care but at the same time, in/ol/es a recognition of the bonds bet%een the carer and the caree. Fcofeminist ethics are regarded as situated at the crossroads of communitarianism, ecologism and feminism (Cuomo, *99EI 9E-. Met, there is a need to a/oid the pitfalls associated %ith an' of these approaches. 4hus,

ecofeminism highlights the need to ta=e on a critical perspecti/e to%ards oppressi/e practices and
*99E, Robinson *999-.

structures %ithin communities that cause harm to the moral agent b' den'ing her agenc' and reduce her caring role to subser/ience and ser/ilit' (3riedman *99B, Cuomo

Fcofeminist ethics, in this regard, is a critical and radical ethics that Auestions all structures of e<ploitation and oppression. $imultaneousl', it sho%s the error in >reen critiAues of the e<ploitation of nature, b' stressing
that it is not anthropocentric practices but practices stemming from certain humans that are the cause of en/ironmental degradation. Chris Cuomo names corporate greed, militarism, nationalism, ethnocentrism to be some such Auestionable practices. Issues of social !ustice cannot be separated from ecological issues. 4he Auestion is to identif' %ho are these humans %ho ha/e the po%er and moti/e to

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cause large-scale en/ironmental degradation and force others to such grinding po/ert' that ma' be compelled to become un%illing and un%itting partners in crime, eroding the /er' basis of their o%n sur/i/al .

Human Trafficking Aff 3./283

7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

1ac sol)enc"
As $e*aters/ +e 'a)e an o*ligation to &lace trafficking at t'e center of our $iscussions- T'is is ke" to un$erstan$ing t'e $e)elo&ment of &olic" necessar" to sol)e

9ragie+ic6 408 (&oll', 7rofessor of 3eminist $tudies at the 0ni/ersit' of Illinois, ?4eaching about 4raffic=ingI 1pportunities
and Challenges for Critical Fngagement@, 0ni/ersit' of Illinois 7ress, Feminist Teach /ol. *E no. B, pgs. (-B, accessed /ia J$41RF, W$>X-

4eachers and students must consider the complicated and interrelated factors that contribute to the problem in order to understand it. Trafficking makes )isi*le t'e intersectional nature of structural an$ i$eological contri*utions to e,&loitation/ o&&ression/ an$ )iolence . It also confounds traditional liberal/conser/ati/e political di/isions. 3eminist scholars ha/e a responsibilit' to teach about this issue because of %hat %e can contribute to understanding the phenomenon of traffic=ing, the nature of interest in the problem, and the implications of polic' de/elopment for %omen. In short, feminismPs anal'ses of po%er in general and the social construction of se<ualit', se<, and gender in particular ha/e something special and essential to contribute to the con/ersation. Li=e an' other social issue, the research and %riting on traffic=ing originates from implicit or e<plicit theories about the nature, causes, and implications of the problem. "aturall' these lead to different ideas about the best %a' to address it. $ince traffic=ing touches on so man' s'mbolicall' loaded issues, it is not surprising that these debates are especiall' contentious. 4raffic=ing includes man' forms of %or= such as farm %or=, construction, cleaning, and apparel production in addition to se< %or=. .o%e/er, $e*ates a*out +'at it means to sell se,uali6e$ ser)ices for mone" are central to t'e 'istor" of &ol5 ic" $e)elo&ment aroun$ trafficking- 8ithout going into e<plicit detail about the long histor' of internecine feminist and anti- feminist debates about %hat is /ariousl' termed se< %or=, prostitution, or commercial se<ual e<ploitation, recognition and understanding of this debate are essential to decoding the literature on traffic=ing. 3or those %ho are ne% to this area of inAuir', I %ill pro/ide a /er' simplified o/er/ie% of the ma!or di/ides as I see them. @nl" engaging trafficking t'roug' a $iscursi)e lens can effecti)el" transform t'e social con$itions t'at create t'e &ossi*ilit" for )iolence
Constructing the 7roblems of Z.uman 4raffic=ing5@, June ()*(, httpI//conser/anc'.umn.edu/bitstream/*B*E((/*/Lobas#;umn;)*B)F;*(:,D.pdf, pgs. E)-E(, W$>X-

=o*as6 412 (Jennifer, 7rofessor of International Relations at the 0ni/ersit' of &innesota, ?Gictims, Gillains, and the Girtuous
In this dissertation, I carr' out a genealogical discourse anal'sis. >enealog' in the tradition of &ichel 3oucault and 3riedrich understandings and so to ma=e their constructedness apparent.@ A genealogical a&&roac' transforms 'o+ social scientific Huestions are aske$- In contrast to scholars %ho start from the assumption that human traffic=ing is a rapidl' gro%ing problem, for e<ample, I as= ho% anti-traffic=ing discourses in the 0nited $tates ?set the term s of intelligibilit' of thought, speech, and action,@ establishing the conditions of possibilit' for %hat can be meaningfull' said or done in an' gi/en set of circumstances. >enealog' lies in contrast to

"iet#sche calls into Auestion ?read'-made s'ntheses@ of the supposedl' real, concrete, or self-e/ident, re/ealing that %hich is ta=en as to be contingent and contentious. In short, genealog' ?see=s to defamiliari#eNto literall' ma=e strangeNcommonsense

positi/ist approaches to polic' anal'sis that, according to D/ora Mano%, share the presumption that the nature of the problem is real and concreteI that problems e<ist in the %orld as unambiguous facts, and that the purpose of polic' and implementation anal'sis is to mirror that realit' as closel' as possible. In this /ie%, %e can ta=e action to correct the problem %hen %e are able to capture its definition

appropriatel' and correctl'\If %e cannot narro% the Zgap5 bet%een polic' intentions and outcomes, %e simpl' ha/e not grasped Zthe nature5 of the problem, seen it in the right light, or hit on the correct solution to it. A genealogical a&&roac' to trafficking/ for e,am&le/ mo)es *e"on$ critiHues of &olic" im&lementation and re!ects the position that a ?traffic=ing /ictim@ is a natural =ind that in/estigators must simpl' ?loo= harder@ to find, or ?do more@ to help. Instead, a ?traffic=ing /ictim@ is seen as a person %ho occupies a particular sub!ect

position in domestic and international moral and political orders, and in traffic=ing discourses is distinguished from prostitutes and undocumented migrants among others. Along these lines, I hold that the challenges associated %ith establishing definitional parameters for ?/ictims of traffic=ing@ are interesting not because there should be greater precision and consistenc', or because this is possible, but because actors5 difficulties in doing so pro/ides a clearer glimpse into the discursi/e %or= and particular constellations of po%er necessar' to produce the categor' in the first place. I use discourse

anal'sis as a tool of genealogical in/estigation that %or=s to highlight the producti/e po%er of anti-traffic=ing discourses. Discourse refers to far more than simpl' %hat is said or %ritten. In Laura $hepherd5s %ords, discourses are ?s'stems of meaning-production rather than simpl' statements or language, s'stems that Zfi<5 meaning, ho%e/er temporaril', and enable us to ma=e sense of the %orld.@ Social construction is a $iscursi)e &rocess t'roug' +'ic' &o+er relations are &ro$uce$/ re&ro$uce$/ an$ conteste$ . In short, ?discourses are

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 37/283 producti/e. 4he' produce sub!ects, ob!ects, and the relations among them.@ An effecti/e genealog' reAuires thorough empirical in/estigation as much, if not more so, as it reAuires theoretical probing. Anal'sis of a discursi/e field is necessaril' anal'sis of discourse in action, tracing its deplo'ment b' and production of specific actors in specific conte<ts. 3or 3oucaultI Discourse must not be referred to the distant presence of the origin, but treated as and %hen it occurs\ %e must grasp the statement in the e<act specificit' of its occurrence+ determine its conditions of e<istence, fi< at least its limits, establish its correlations %ith other statements that ma' be connected %ith it, and sho% %hat other forms of statements it e<cludes. &' primar' concern
in choosing te<ts %as to ensure co/erage of dominant discoursesNin this case, those associated %ith feminist and religious abolitionism. Immersion in abolitionist literature, ne%s media reports, speeches, congressional hearings, and %eb sites allo%ed me to identif' =e' te<tsNthose freAuentl' crossreferenced or cited, or gi/en particular emphasis b' the actors themsel/esNthat ser/e as the bac=bones of the follo%ing three chapters. &ultiple readings of these te<ts, seen in concert %ith one another, are reAuired to account for the principle of interte<tualit', or the notion that statements and actions are al%a's %ithin a broader te<t that gi/e them intersub!ecti/e meaning, and this single te<t itself is in meaning-gi/ing and meaning-ta=ing relationships %ith other te<ts. Determination of te<ts as =e' is an inducti/e, recursi/e, and refle<i/e process+ =e' te<ts %ere not

chosen before the stud' but disco/ered as part of it through a process of reading that is ongoing, repeated, and sub!ect to feedbac= and re/ision. I !udged co/erage to ha/e been reached once =e' te<ts and basic discourses began to reappear %ithout ma!or changes or additions. We oug't to use t'e $e*ate s&ace as a site to formulate counter5'egemonic strategies of kno+le$ge &ro$uction5 )iolence 'as manifeste$ itself in sc'olars'i&/ an$ com*atting t'at is a necessar" &recon$ition to *reaking it $o+n in realit"
W$>X-

Mones 577 (Richard, 7rofessor International 7olitics V Aber'st%'th 0ni/ersit', ?$ecurit', $trateg', and Critical 4heor', p. *,,-*D(,
4he central political tas= of the intellectuals is to aid in the construction of a counterhegemon' and thus undermine the pre/ailing patterns of discourse and interaction that ma=e up the currentl' dominant hegemon' 4his tas= is accomplished through educational acti/it' because, e/er' relationship of Zhegemon'5 is necessaril' a pedagogic relationship @ (>ramsci *9:*I B,)-. Discussing the relationship of the ?philosoph' of pra<is@ to
. , as >ramsci argues, ?

political practice, >ramsci claimsI It Wthe theor'X does not tend to lea/e the ?simple@ in their primiti/e philosoph' of common sense, but rather to lead them to a higher conception of life. If it affirms the need for contact bet%een intellectuals and ?simple@ it is not in order to restrict scientific acti/it' and preser/e unit' at the lo% le/el of the masses, but precisel' in order to construct an intellectual-moral bloc %hich can ma=e politicall' possible the intellectual progress of the mass and not onl' of small intellectual groups. (>ramsci *9:*I BB(-BBB-. According to >ramsci, this attempt to construct an alternati/e ?intellectual-moral bloc@ should ta=e place under the auspices of the Communist 7art' Q a bod' he described as the ?modern prince.@ Just as "iccolo &achia/elli hoped to see a prince unite Ital', rid the countr' of foreign barbarians, and create a /irtu-ous state, >ramsci belie/ed that the modern price could lead the %or=ing class on its !ourne' to%ard its re/olutionar' destin' of an emancipated societ' (>ramsci *9:*I *(,-(),-. >ramsci5s relati/e optimism about the possibilit' of progressi/e theorists pla'ing a constructi/e role in emancipator' political practice %as predicated on his belief in the e<istence of a uni/ersal class (a class %hose emancipation %ould ine/itabl' presage the emancipation of humanit' itself- %ith re/olutionar' potential. It %as a gradual loss of faith in this a<iom that led .or=heimer and Adorno to their e<tremel' pessimistic prognosis about the possibilities of progressi/e social change. ut does a loss of faith in the re/olutionar' /ocation of the proletariat necessaril' lead to the =ind of Auietism ultimatel' embraced b' the first generation of the 3ran=furt $choolH 4he conflict that erupted in the *9D)s bet%een them and their more radical students suggests not. Indeed, contemporar' critical theorists claim that the depri/ileging of the role of the proletariat in the struggle for emancipation is actuall' a positi/e mo/e. Class remains a /er' important a<is of domination in societ', but it is not the onl' such a<is (3raser *99,-. "or is it /alid to reduce all other forms of domination Q for e<ample, in the case of gender Q to class relations, as orthodo< &ar<ists tend to do. 4o recogni#e these points is not onl' a first step to%ard the de/elopment of an anal'sis of forms of e<ploitation and e<clusion %ithin societ' that is more attuned to social realit'+ it is also a reali#ation that there are other forms of emancipator' politics than those associated %ith class conflict.* 4his in turn suggests ne% possibilities and problems for emancipator' theor'. 3urthermore, the abandonment of faith in re/olutionar' parties is also a positi/e de/elopment. 4he histor' of the Furopean left during the t%entieth centur' pro/ides m'riad e<amples of the %a's in %hich the fetishi#ation of part' organi#ations has led to bureaucratic immobilit' and the confusion of means %ith ends (see, for e<ample, $al/adori *99)-. 4he failure of the olshe/i= e<periment illustrates ho% disciplined, /anguard parties are an ideal /ehicle for totalitarian domination ($erge *9EC-. 3aith in the ?infallible part'@ has ob/iousl' been the source of strength and comfort to man' in this period and, as the e<perience of the southern 8ales coalfield demonstrates, has inspired bra/e and progressi/e beha/ior (see, for e<ample, the account of support for the $panish Republic in 3rancis *9EC-. ut such parties ha/e so often been the enemies of emancipation that the' should be treated %ith the utmost caution. 7arties are necessar', but their fetishi#ation is potentiall' disastrous. .istor' furnishes e<amples of

progressi/e de/elopments that ha/e been positi/el' influenced b' organic intellectuals operating outside the bounds of a particular part' structure (>. 8illiams *9EC- $ome of these de/elopments ha/e occurred in the particularl' intractable realm of securit' 4hese e<amples ma' be considered as ?resources of hope@ for critical securit' studies (R. 8illiams *9E9-. 4he' illustrate ideas are important or, more correctl', that change is the product of the dialectical interaction of ideas and material realit' 1ne clear securit'-related e<ample of the role of critical thin=ing and critical thin=ers in aiding and abetting progressi/e social change is the e<perience of the peace mo/ement of the *9E)s At that time the ideas of dissident defense intellectuals the ?alternati/e defense@ school- encouraged and dre% strength from peace acti/ism 4ogether the' had an effect not onl' on short-term polic' but on the dominant discourses of strateg' and securit', a far more important result in the long run. 4he s'nerg' bet%een critical securit' intellectuals and critical social mo/ements and the potential influence of both %or=ing in tandem can be %itnessed particularl' clearl' in the fate of common securit' As 4homas Risse-Jappen points out, the term ?common securit'@ originated in the contribution of peace researchers to the >erman securit'
. . that . . ( . .

debate of the *9:)s (Risse-Jappen *99CI *EDff.-+ it %as subseAuentl' populari#ed b' the 7alme Commission report (Independent Commission on

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Disarmament and $ecurit' Issues *9E(-. Initiall',
.

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mainstream defense intellectuals dismissed the concept as hopelessl' idealistic+ it certainl' had no place in their allegedl' hardheaded and realist /ie% of the %orld .o%e/er, notions of common securit' %ere ta=en up b' a number of different intellectuals communities including the liberal arms control communit' in the 0nited $tates,
,

8estern Furopean peace researchers, securit' specialists in the center-left political parties of 8estern Furope, and $o/iet ?institutchi=s@ Q members of the influential polic' institutes in the $o/iet 0nion such as the 0nited $tates of America and Canada Institute (Landau *99DI ,(-,C+ Risse-Jappen *99CI *9D-())+ Jaldor *99,+ $pencer *99,-. 4hese communities %ere subseAuentl' able to ta=e ad/antage of public pressure e<erted

through social mo/ements in order to gain broader acceptance for common securit' . In >erman', for e<ample, ?in
response to social mo/ement pressure, >erman social organi#ations such as churches and trade unions Auic=l' supported the ideas promoted b' peace researchers and the $7D@ (Risse-Jappen *99CI ():-. $imilar pressures e/en had an effect on the Reagan administration . As Risse-Jappen notesI 8hen the Reagan administration brought hard-liners into po%er, the 0$ arms control communit' %as remo/ed from polic' influence. It %as the American peace mo/ement and %hat became =no%n as the ?free#e campaign@ that re/i/ed the

arms control process together %ith pressure from the Furopean allies. (Risse-Jappen *99CI (),+ also Cortright *99BI 9)-**)-. Although it %ould
be difficult to sustain a claim that the combination of critical mo/ements and intellectuals persuaded the Reagan go/ernment to adopt the rhetoric and substance of common securit' in its entiret', it is clear that it did at least ha/e a substantial impact on ameliorating 0.$. beha/ior .

4he most dramatic and certainl' the most une<pected impact of alternati/e defense ideas %as felt in the $o/iet 0nion 4hrough /arious Fast-8est lin=s, %hich included arms control institutions, 7ug%ash conferences, interpart' contacts, and e/en direct personal lin=s, a coterie of $o/iet polic' anal'sts and ad/isers %ere dra%n to%ard common securit' and such attendant notions as ?nonoffensi/e
.

defense@ (these lin=s are detailed in F/angelista *99,+ Jaldor *99,+ Chec=el *99B+ Risse-Jappen *99C+ Landau *99D and $pencer *99, concentrate on the role of the 7ug%ash conferences-. 4his group, including 7alme Commission member >eorgii Arbato/, 7ug%ash attendee Andrei Jo=oshin , and $ergei Jaragano/, a senior ad/iser %ho %as in regular contact %ith the 8estern peace researchers Anders oserup and Lut# 0nterseher (Risse-Jappen *99CI ()B-, then influenced $o/iet leader &i=hail >orbache/. >orbache/5s subseAuent championing of common securit' ma' be attributed to se/eral factors. It is clear, for e<ample, that ne%

$o/iet leadership had a strong interest in alle/iating tensions in Fast-8est relations in order to facilitate much-needed domestic reforms (?the interaction of ideas and material realit'@-. ut %hat is significant is that the $o/iets5 commitment to common securit' led to significant changes in force si#es and postures. 4hese in turn aided in the %inding do%n of the Cold 8ar, the end of $o/iet domination o/er Fastern Furope, and e/en the collapse of Russian control o/er much of the territor' of the former $o/iet 0nion . At the
present time, in mar=ed contrast to the situation in the earl' *9E)s, common securit' is part of the common sense of securit' discourse. As &cc>%ire points out, the "orth Atlantic 4reat' 1rgani#ation ("A41- (a common defense pact- is using the rhetoric of common securit' in order to !ustif' its e<pansion into Fastern Furope (&cc>%ire *99:-. 4his points to an interesting and potentiall' important aspect of the impact

of ideas on politics. As concepts such as common securit', and collecti/e securit' before it (Claude *9ECI ((B-(D)-, are adopted b' go/ernments and militar' ser/ices, the' ine/itabl' become some%hat debased. 4he hope is that enough of the residual meaning can sur/i/e to shift the parameters of the debate in a potentiall' progressi/e direction .
&oreo/er, the adoption of the concept of common securit' b' official circles pro/ides critics %ith a useful tool for (immanentl'- critiAuing aspects of securit' polic' (as &cc>%ire *99: demonsrates in relation to "A41 e<pansion-. 4he e<ample of common securit' is highl' instructi/e. 3irst, it indicates that critical intellectuals can be politicall' engaged and pla' a role Q a significant one at that Q in ma=ing the %orld a

better and safer place it points to potential future addressees for critical international theor' in general, and critical securit' studies in particular it also underlines the role of ideas in the e/olution in societ' CRI4ICAL
. $econd, . 4hird, .

$FC0RI4M $40DIF$ A"D 4.F 4.F1RM-7RAC4ICF "FT0$ Although most proponents of critical securit' studies re!ect aspects of >ramsci5s theor' of organic intellectuals, in particular his e<clusi/e concentration on class and his emphasis on the guiding role of the part', the desire for engagement and rele/ance must remain at the heart of their pro!ect. 4he e<ample of the peace mo/ement suggests that critical theorists can still pla' the role of organic intellectuals and that this organic relationship need not confine itself to a single class+ it can in/ol/e alignment %ith different coalitions of social mo/ements that campaign on an issue or a series of issues pertinent to the struggle for emancipation ($ha% *99Cb+ R. 8al=er *99C-. Fd%ard $aid

captures this broader orientation %hen he suggests that critical intellectuals ?are al%a's tied to and ought to remain an organic part of an ongoing e<perience in societ'I the poor, the disad/antaged, the /oiceless, the unrepresented, the po%erless@ ($aid *99CI EC-. In the specific case of critical securit' studies, this means placing the e<perience of those men and %omen and communities for %hom the present %orld order is a cause of insecurit' rather than securit' at the center of the agenda and ma=ing suffering humanit' rather than raison d5etat the prism through %hich problems are /ie%ed. .ere the pro!ect stands full-sAuare %ithin the critical theor' tradition . If ?all theor' is for someone and for some purpose,@ then critical securit' studies is for ?the /oiceless, the unrepresented, the po%erless,@ and its purpose is their emancipation theoretical implications of this orientation ha/e alread' been discussed in the pre/ious chapters. 4he' in/ol/e a fundamental reconceptuali#ation of securit' %ith a shift in referent ob!ect and a broadening of the range of issues considered as a legitimate part of the discourse. 4he' also in/ol/e a reconceptuali#ation of strateg' %ithin this e<panded notion of securit'. ut the Auestion remains at the conceptual le/el of ho% these alternati/e t'pes of theori#ing e/en if the' are
of . 4he Q

self-consciousl' aligned to the practices of critical or ne% social mo/ements, such as peace acti/ism, the struggle for human rights, and the sur/i/al of minorit' cultures Q can become ?a force for the direction of action.@ Again, >ramsci5s %or= is insightful. In the 7rison "oteboo=s, >ramsci ad/ances a sophisticated anal'sis of ho% dominant discourses pla' a /ital role in upholding particular political and economic orders, or, in >ramsci5s terminolog', ?historic blocs@ (>ramsci *9:*I B(B-B::-. >ramsci adopted &achia/elli5s /ie% of po%er as a centaur, ahlf man, half beastI a mi<ture of consent and coercion. Consent is produced and reproduced b' a ruling hegemon' that holds s%a' through ci/il societ' and ta=es on the status of common sense+ it becomes subconsciousl' accepted and e/en regarded as be'ond Auestion. 1b/iousl', for >ramsci, there is nothing immutable about the /alues that permeate societ'+ the' can and do change. In the social realm, ideas and institutions that %ere once seen as natural and be'ond Auestion (i.e., commonsensical- in the 8est, such as feudalism and sla/er', are no% seen as anachronistic, un!ust, and unacceptable. In &ar<5s %ell-%orn phrase,

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?All that is solid melts into the air.@ >ramsci5s intention is to harness this potential for change and ensure that it mo/es in the direction of emancipation. 4o do this he suggests a strateg' of a ?%ar of position@ (>ramsci *9:*I ((9-(B9-. >ramsci argues that in states %ith de/eloped ci/il societies, such as those in 8estern liberal democracies, an' successful attempt at progressi/e social change reAuires a slo%, incremental, e/en molecular,

struggle to brea= do%n the pre/ailing hegemon' and construct an alternati/e counterhegemon' to ta=e its place.
1rganic intellectuals ha/e a crucial role to pla' in this process b' helping to undermine the ?natural,@ ?commonsense,@ internali#ed nature of the status Auo. 4his in turn helps create political space %ithin %hich alternati/e conceptions of politics can be de/eloped and ne% historic blocs created. I contend that >ramsci5s strateg' of a %ar of position suggests an appropriate model for proponents of critical securit' studies to adopt in relating their theori#ing to political practice. 4.F 4A$J$ 13 CRI4ICAL $FC0RI4M $40DIF$ If the pro!ect of critical securit' studies is concei/ed in terms

of %ar of position, then the main tas= of those intellectuals %ho align themsel/es %ith the enterprise is to attempt to undermine the pre/ailing hegemonic securit' discourse. 4his ma' be accomplished b' utili#ing specialist information and e<pertise to engage in an immanent critiAue of the pre/ailing securit' regimes, comparing the !ustifications of those regimes %ith actual outcomes. 8hen this is attempted in the securit' field, the pre/ailing structures and regimes are found to fail grie/ousl' on their o%n terms. $uch an approach also in/ol/es challenging the pronouncements of those intellectuals , traditional or organic, %hose /ie%s ser/e to legitimate, and hence reproduce, the pre/ailing %orld order 4his challenge entails teasing out the often subconscious and certainl' une<amined assumptions that underlie their arguments %hile dra%ing attention to the normati/e /ie%points that are smuggled into mainstream thin=ing about securit' behind its positi/ist fabade. proponents of critical securit' studies appro<imate to 3oucault5s notion of ?specific intellectuals@ %ho use their e<pert =no%ledge to challenge the pre/ailing ?regime of truth@ (3oucault *9E)I *B(-. .o%e/er, critical
that is, . In this sense,

theorists might %ish to reformulate this sentiment along more familiar Oua=er lines of ?spea=ing truth to po%er@ (this sentiment is also central to $aid *99C- or e/en along the eisteddfod lines of spea=ing ?truth against the %orld.@ 1f course, traditional strategists can, and indeed do, sometimes claim a similar role. Colin $. >ra', for e<ample, states that ?strategists must be prepared to Zspea= truth to po%er5@ (>ra' *9E(aI *9B-. ut the difference bet%een >ra' and proponents of critical securit' studies is that, %hereas the former see=s to influence polic'ma=ers in particular directions %ithout Auestioning the basis of their po%er, the latter aim at a thoroughgoing critiAue of all that traditional securit' studies has ta=en for granted. 3urthermore, critical

theorists base their critiAue on the presupposition, elegantl' stated b' Adorno, that ?the need to lend suffering a /oice is the precondition of all truth@ cited in Jameson *99)I DD-. 4he aim of critical securit' studies in attempting to undermine the
(

pre/ailing orthodo<' is ultimatel' educational. As >ramsci notes, ?e/er' relationship of Zhegemon'5 is necessaril' a pedagogic relationship@ (>ramsci *9:*I B,)+ see also the discussion of critical pedagog' in "eufeld *99,I **D-*(*-. 4hus, b' critici#ing the hegemonic discourse and

ad/ancing alternati/e conceptions of securit' based on different understandings of human potentialities, the approach is simultaneousl' pla'ing apart in eroding the legitimac' of the ruling historic bloc and contributing to the de/elopment of a counterhegemonic position 4here are a number of a/enues of a/enues open to critical securit' specialists in pursuing this educational strateg'. As teachers, the' can tr' to foster and encourage s=epticism to%ard accepted %isdom and open minds to other possibilities. 4he' can also ta=e ad/antage of the seemingl' unAuenchable thirst of the media for instant pundistr' to for%ard alternati/e /ie%s onto a broader stage. "anc' 3raser arguesI ?As teachers, %e tr' to foster an emergent pedagogical counterculture As critical public intellectuals %e tr' to in!ect our perspecti/es into %hate/er cultural or political public spheres %e ha/e access to@ (3raser *9E9I **-. 7erhaps significantl', support for this t'pe of emancipator' strateg' can e/en be found in the %or= of the ultrapessimistic Adorno %ho arguesI In the histor' of ci/ili#ation there ha/e been not a fe% instances %hen delusions %ere healed not b' focused propaganda, but , in the final anal'sis, because scholars, %ith their unobtrusi/e 'et insistent %or= habits, studied %hat la' at the root of the delusion. (cited in Jellner *99(I /ii- $uch ?unobtrusi/e 'et insistent %or=@ does not in itself create the social change to %hich Adorno alludes 4he conceptual and the practical dangers of collapsing practice into theor' must be guarded against Rather, through their educational acti/ities, proponent of critical securit' studies should aim to pro/ide support for those social mo/ements that promote emancipator' social change ' pro/iding a critiAue of the pre/ailing order and legitimating alternati/e /ie%s, critical theorists can perform a /aluable role in supporting the struggles of social mo/ements. 4hat said, the role of theorists is not to direct and instruct those mo/ements %ith %hich the' are aligned+
. \. , . . .

instead, the relationship is reciprocal. 4he e<perience of the Furopean, "orth American, and Antipodean peace mo/ements of the *9E)s sho%s ho% influential social mo/ements can become %hen their efforts are harnessed to the intellectual and educational acti/it' of critical thin=ers. 3or e<ample, in his account of "e% 2ealand5s antinuclear stance in the *9E)s, &ichael C. 7ugh cites the importance of the /isits of critical

intellectuals such as Caldicott and Richard 3al= in changing the countr'5s political climate and encouraging the gro%th of the antinuclear mo/ement 7ugh *9E9I *)E+ see also Cortright *99BI ,-*B-. In the *9E)s peace mo/ements and critical
.elen (

intellectuals interested in issues of securit' and strateg' dre% strength and succor from each other5s efforts. If such critical social mo/ements do not e<ist, then this creates ob/ious difficulties for the critical theorist. ut e/en under these circumstances, the theorist need not abandon all hope of an e/entual orientation to%ard practice. 1nce again, the peace mo/ement of the *9E)s pro/ides e/idence of the possibilities. At that time, the mo/ement benefited from the intellectual %or= underta=en in the lean 'ears of the peace mo/ement in the late *9:)s. $ome of the theories and concepts de/eloped then, such as common securit' and nonoffensi/e defense, %ere e/entuall' ta=en up e/en in the Jremlin and pla'ed a significant role in defusing the second Cold 8ar. 4hose ideas de/eloped in the *9:)s can be seen in Adornian terms of the a ?message in a bottle,@ but in this case, contra Adorno5s e<pectations, the' %ere pic=ed up and used to support a program of emancipator' political practice. 1b/iousl', one %ould be na[/e to understate the difficulties facing those attempting to de/elop alternati/e critical approaches %ithin academia. $ome of these problems ha/e been alluded to alread' and in/ol/e the structural constraints of academic life itself. $aid argues that man' problems are caused b' %hat he describes as the gro%ing ?B9mphasi#edB9ngB9ation@ of academic life ($aid *99CI C9-D(-. Academics are no% so constrained b' the reAuirements of !ob

securit' and mar=etabilit' that the' are e<tremel' ris=-a/erse. It pa's Q in all senses Q to stic= %ith the cro%d and

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 0/283 a/oid the e<posed limb b' follo%ing the pre/alent disciplinar' preoccupations , publish in certain prescribed !ournals, and so on 4he result is the na/el ga#ing so pre/alent in the stud' of international relations and the seeming inabilit' of securit' specialists to deal %ith the changes brought about b' the end of the Cold 8ar Jristensen *99: highlights the search of 0.$. nuclear planners for ?ne% targets for old %eapons @-. And, of course, the pressures for conformism are heightened in the field of securit' studies %hen go/ernments ha/e a /er' real interest in marginali#ing dissent. "e/ertheless, opportunities for critical thin=ing do e<ist, and this thin=ing can connect %ith the practices of social mo/ements and become a ?force for the direction of action. 4he e<perience of the *9E)s, %hen, in
. ( @

the depths of the second Cold 8ar, critical thin=ers ris=ed demoni#ation and in some countries far %orse in order to challenge recei/ed %isdom, thus arguabl' pla'ing a crucial role in the /er' sur/i/al of the human race, should act as both an inspiration and a challenge to critical securit' studies.

(sing t'is s&ace as a &e$agogical site of resistance against $ominant forms of kno+le$ge &ro$uction is necessar" to *reak $o+n t'e +a" &atriarc'" 'as infiltrate$ t'e aca$em"

!umara)a$i)elu 477 (

., 7rofessor of Linguistics at $an Jose $tate 0ni/ersit', ?Critical Classroom Discourse Anal'sis@, 4F$1L Ouarterl' Gol. BB no. B, pgs. *,-*D, Accessed /ia J$41RF, W$>X

critical pedagogists %or= under the assumption that academic institutions are not simpl' instructional sites+ the' are, in fact, Lcultural arenas %here heterogeneous ideological, discursi/e, and social forms collide in an unremitting struggle for dominanceL (&cLaren, *99,, p. B)-. Classroom realit" is sociall" constructe$/ &oliticall" moti)ate$/ an$ 'istoricall" $etermine$- 4herefore, critical pedagog' has to em&o+er classroom &artici&ants Dto criticall" a&&ro&riate forms of kno+le$ge outsi$e of t'eir imme$iate e,&erience , to en/isage /ersions of a %orld %hich is Pnot 'etP in order to alter the grounds on %hich life is li/edL ($imon, *9EE, p. (-. $uch a
Combining 3oucaultPs sociological theories and ra#ilian educator 7aulo 3reirePs educational philosoph',

pedagog' %ould ta=e seriousl' the sociopolitical, historical conditions that create the cultural forms and interested =no%ledge that gi/e meaning to the li/es of teachers and learners. LIn one sense, this points to the need to de/elop theories, forms of =no%ledge, and social

practices that %or= %ith the e<periences that people bring to the pedagogical settingL (>irou<, *9EE, p. *BC-. Asserting along 3oucauldian lines that discourse empo%ers and disempo%ers, pri/ileges and marginali#es, critical pedagogists call for an Lempo%ering educationL that relates Lpersonal gro%th to public life b' de/eloping strong s=ills, academic =no%ledge, habits of inAuir', and critical curiosit' about societ', po%er, ineAualit', and changeL ($hor, *99(, p. *,- and helps students e<plore the sub!ect matter in its sociopolitical, historical conte<ts %ith critical

themes integrated into student language and e<perience. 4he' consider contemporar' language education Las some%hat bi#arre in that it legitimates and limits language issues as technical and de/elopmentalL and belie/e that language education must be L/ie%ed as a form of learning that not onl' instructs students into %a's of PnamingP the %orld but also introduces them to particular social relationsL (>irou< 6 $imon, *9EE, p. *B*-. $imilar thoughts are beginning to inform the debate about po%er and ineAualit' in F$L education as %ell (see 4ollefson, *99,-. Arguing that reading the %orld is

not confined to reading race and class but in/ol/es reading gender as %ell, feminist pedagogists such as Lather (*99*-, Lu=e (*99(-, and Flls%orth (*99(- attempt to L$econstruct t'e master narrati)es of &atriarc'" an$ t'ere*" mo)e gen$er onto t'e critical agen$a e/en if, in man' discourses, it remains institutionall' contained at the marginsL (Lu=e, *99(, p. C,-. 4he' agree %ith critical pedagogists that the classroom is one of the po%erful ideological sites %ithin %hich counterhegemonic discourses and practices can be organi#ed. 4he'

contend, ho%e/er, that discourse anal'sis should be concerned %ith the deconstruction of the political, social, ps'chological, and historical formations of gendered discourse because all discourse production is gendered.

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?olic" A$)antages

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1ac ai$s
T+o internal links0 <irst/ organ trafficking0 :t4s increasing in t'e status Huo0causes A:9S $amadi ()*( Q Gice Chairman of the Department of 0rolog' and Chief of Robotics and &inimall' In/asi/e $urger' at the &ount $inai $chool of &edicine (Da/id, &a' B), ()*(, ?ConseAuences of the rise in illegal organ traffic=ing,@ 3o< "e%s, httpI//%%%.fo<ne%s.com/health/()*(/),/B)/conseAuences-rise-in-illegal-organtraffic=ing/, .enselFarlier this %ee=, the 8orld .ealth 1rgani#ation (8.1- released a report demonstrating a rise in the number of human organs being sold on the blac= mar=et. According to the paper, in ()*) o/er *),))) organs %ere sold, translating to more than one organ sold e/er' hour. 1rgan transplantation is a necessar' treatment for man' indi/iduals %hose organs ha/e failed and
has been in practice in the 0nited $tates since the *9,)s. In the 0.$. organ donations are regulated b' an independent non-for-profit organi#ation, 0nited "et%or= for 1rgan $haring (0"1$-. 1rgans are gi/en to those %hose need is the greatest, regardless of %ealth or position. 0nfortunatel',

the need for organs greatl' out%eighs the current suppl'. As of &arch ()*( o/er **B,**, patients are currentl' %aiting for an organ to become a/ailable. An illegal mar=et has capitali#ed on these indi/iduals5 desperation , and the prospects of large profits are creating unfortunate incenti/es, %ith patients %illing to pa' up to S()),))) for a =idne' . According to
the 8.1 report, :D percent of organs sold %ere =idne's, reflecting the gro%ing demand secondar' to complications of high blood pressure and diabetes. 4here are man' ethical and health concerns surrounding the traffic=ing of human organs . In the ma!orit' of

situations, those selling their organs represent members of /ulnerable populations . In countries li=e 7a=istan, China or India, a person can sell a =idne' for S,,))), %hile those handling the transaction ma=e a substantial profit. 7rior reports ha/e also demonstrated that the recipients of illegal organs tend to fair %orse than those %ho ha/e recei/ed one legall'. A recent meta-anal'sis in/ol/ing B9 original publications re/ealed that those obtaining organs abroad are at a higher ris= of contracting transmissible diseases, such as hepatitis or .IG . 3urthermore the patient and organ sur/i/al rates abroad are significantl' lo%er. 4hese statistics might e/en underestimate the ris= as the data is /ulnerable to sur/i/or bias+ those %ho do not sur/i/e the procedure and return home are often not included in studies. Additionall', gi/en the duplicitous nature of illegal organ trade, there are man' scams . In ()*), a former
ps'chiatrist %as sentenced to more than *, 'ears in prison for offering false promises of organ transplants in the 7hilippines, %hile ta=ing o/er SC)),))) dollars from patients. 1/er fi/e patients actuall' tra/elled to the 7hilippines onl' to find out that there %as no organ a%aiting them. 1ne of these patients died in the 7hilippines. Regretfull', the number of indi/iduals needing organs continues to gro% %hile the number of

donors remains stable. In the 0.$., %e ha/e an opt-in polic' %here indi/iduals ha/e the option to become a donor but must ta=e steps in order to
do so. 3or those %ho are ambi/alent about donations, this could be enough of a deterrent. Additionall', man' do not =no% ho% to become a donor. 1ne stud', for instance, found that despite 9) percent of Americans supporting organ donation, onl' B) percent =ne% the essential steps to becoming a donor.

Secon$ is &rostitution0 Me,ican se, trafficking &ro)i$es t'e (-S- +it' &rostitutes Aguilera/ %/28 (Fli#abeth Aguilera, immigration e<pert for 4he $an Diego 0nion-4ribune, ,/(E/*B, ?$e< traffic=ing in 0.$. lin=ed to &e<ico@, httpI//%%%.utsandiego.com/ne%s/()*B/ma'/(E/se<-traffic=ing-me<icotla<cala-fugiti/e-atlanta/all/Hprint-//F& 4he men are all from the &e<ican state of 4la<cala, %hich is %ithin a couple hours dri/e of &e<ico Cit'. It is there, in a to%n called 4enancingo, that the ma!orit' of &e<ico5s se< traffic=ers originate . 4he' are =no%n as romeo traffic=ers, %ho lure 'oung %omen %ith promises of lo/e, marriage and a better life in the 0.$. and then force them into prostitution. Se, rings across t'e (-S., including in $an Diego Count', ha/e been lin=ed to these tin' to%ns in &e<icoPs interior. &an' that go on to trade %omen and girls in other cities across the countr' tra/eled b' car or foot across the south%est border or through ports of entr' in $an Diego. Se, trafficking is t'e &rimar" im&etus for t'e glo*al A:9S e&i$emic0it s&rea$s e,&onentiall" an$ mutates Jloer, *) 7rogram associate of the American ar Association5s AID$ Coordination 7ro!ect (Amanda Jloer, $pring ()*), ?$e< 4raffic=ing and .IG/AID$I A Deadl' Junction for 8omen@,

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 3/283 httpI//%%%.americanbar.org/publications/human;rights;maga#ine;home/human;rights;/olB:;()*)/sprin g()*)/se<;traffic=ing;and;hi/;aids;a;deadl';!unction;for;%omen;and;girls.html-//F& 4he ne,us of t'e glo*al e&i$emics of se, trafficking an$ H:C/A:9S primaril' manifests in the li/es of %omen and girls. 4his intersection e<ists in se< traffic=ing /ictims5 increased /ulnerabilit' to .IG infection, the proliferation of .IG infection through se< traffic=ing, and the percei/ed and actual clashes bet%een .IG and se< traffic=ing pre/ention efforts. .olisticall' addressing these intersecting issues entails framing the elimination of se< traffic=ing as a tool to reduce .IG transmission. 4his article e<plores this deadl' !unction for %omen and girls and proposes tools to address it. 4he direct and indi/idual impact of se< traffic=ing and .IG on girls and %omen is illustrated b' the e<perience of ?>ita@ (not her
real name-. >ita gre% up in India, and %as sold into se<ual sla/er' b' a famil' member %hen she %as t%el/e 'ears old. 8hen she arri/ed at the brothel in &umbai, she %as loc=ed in a room, raped, tortured, and abused until she %as deemed sufficientl' obedient. 8hen the brothel o%ners began selling >ita, she %as threatened %ith death if she refused to ha/e se< %ith a customer. &ost da's she %as forced to ha/e se< %ith ten to t%ent'

men. 4he brothel did not pro/ide condoms, and she %as not able to control %hich of her customers chose to practice safer se<. During her earl' teens, >ita contracted .IG from a customer. .o%e/er, she %as not allo%ed to see= testing or treatment and %as forced to continue ha/ing unprotected se< %ith se/eral men per da' for se/eral more 'ears. 3inall', >ita managed to escape to a local anti-traffic=ing organi#ation and is no% li/ing in a shelter and recei/ing .IG treatment and counseling. >ita contracted .IG as a direct result of her status as a /ictim of se< traffic=ing. $he also, un=no%ingl' and unintentionall', ma' ha/e spread .IG to customers %ho bought her after she became infected . If >ita %ere ne/er
traffic=ed, she ma' not ha/e e/er become infected %ith .IG and, in turn, transmitted it to the men %ho bought her and their future se< partners. 7re/enting this multiplier effect of .IG transmission catal'#ed b' se< traffic=ing in/ol/es fighting t%o global phenomenaNa deadl' disease and a highl' comple< and lucrati/e criminal industr', both of %hich disproportionatel' affect girls and %omen around the %orld. $e< 4raffic=ing Gictims5 Increased Gulnerabilit' According to 0.$. la%, se< traffic=ing is a form of modern-da' sla/er' in %hich a commercial se< act is induced b' force, fraud, or coercion, or in %hich the person induced to perform such an act is under eighteen 'ears of age. 7recise statistics for the number of %omen and girls traffic=ed in the commercial se< industr' are difficult to obtain. .o%e/er, the 0.$. Department of $tate estimates that up to 9)),))) people are traffic=ed across international borders each 'ear, the ma!orit' of %hom are %omen and girls forced into commercial se< industries. $ee 0.$. Department of $tate 4raffic=ing in 7ersons Report (June ())B-. International Labor 1rgani#ation data indicates that *.B9 million girls and %omen are /ictims of se< traffic=ing at an' gi/en time. $ee 0.$. Department of $tate 4raffic=ing in 7erson Report (June ())9-. $e< traffic=ing is a global epidemic, and cases of forced prostitution and se< traffic=ing ha/e been identified in almost e/er' countr' in the %orld. 4he 0nited "ations Children5s 3und estimates that in the past thirt' 'ears, more than B) million %omen and children in Asia ha/e been /ictimi#ed in the commercial se< industr'. $ee 0nited "ations Children5s 3und press release (())D-. In Latin America, the International 1rgani#ation for &igration estimates that the se< traffic=ing of %omen and girls is a S*D million-a-'ear business. $ee Association for 8omen5s Rights in De/elopment, ?$e< 4raffic=ing "o% a S*D illion usiness in Latin America@ (())E-. 4he scourge of se< traffic=ing also plagues Furope, Africa, and Australia. F/en in the 0nited $tates, the "ational Center for &issing and F<ploited Children estimates that up to *)),))) American children are at ris= for se< traffic=ing each 'ear, and EB percent of the *,()) human traffic=ing allegations made to the 0.$. Department of Justice in ()): %ere se< traffic=ing cases. $ee 4he .uman 4raffic=ing Data Collection and Reporting 7ro!ect (()*)-. It is important to note, ho%e/er, that %omen and girls also are traffic=ed into industries other than the commercial se< industr', including agricultural %or=, factor' %or=, domestic ser/itude, and the ser/ice industr'. 4he' ma' be at increased ris= of .IG transmission as %ell, because traffic=ed %omen in all industries become more /ulnerable to se<ual assault and rape and ma' not be able to access testing and treatment for .IG during their ensla/ement. $e< traffic=ing /ictims, ho%e/er, are at significantl' increased ris= for contracting .IG

for a number of reasons directl' related to the nature of their forced ser/itude . $e< traffic=ing /ictims are modern-da'
sla/es, and thus are unable to ma=e choices about or control some aspects of their li/es, including their se<ual acti/it'. 4he' are forced to sell se< acts on the street, in hotels, through escort agencies, at brothels, and man' other places %here the' don5t ha/e access to safer se< tools. F/en %hen

traffic=ing /ictims are held in brothels or other places %here condoms are made a/ailable, the' ma' not be able to enforce condom usage and other safer se< practices. 8omen and girls ensla/ed in commercial se< also are forced to endure se< %ith multiple partners, man' of %hom ma' also ha/e had unprotected se< %ith multiple partners , %hich increases /ictims5 ris= of contracting .IG. 4he' further must endure the ris=iest t'pes of unprotected se<, such as anal se<, in!urious
sadomasochism, and /iolentl' abusi/e se<, %hich increases their ris= of transmission. 1ften in!uries inflicted during /iolent se< are not allo%ed to heal properl', as traffic=ers force /ictims to continue to ser/e men %ithout see=ing medical attention. As a result, traffic=ed %omen ma' ha/e high-ris=, unprotected se< %ith multiple partners despite ha/ing open genital cuts and abrasions. It is difficult to determine ho% man' se<ual partners an ?a/erage@ traffic=ing /ictim might ha/e o/er the course of her capti/it'. Reports from nongo/ernmental organi#ations /ar' greatl', %ith some reporting onl' a handful of customers per da', others up to fort' or fift' per da'. .o%e/er, bet%een fi/e and ten customers per da' is often

considered a conser/ati/e figure. If a /ictim is forced to ha/e se< %ith onl' fi/e customers per da', si< da's per %ee= for one 'ear, she %ill ha/e had se<ual contact %ith *,,D) men that 'ear . 8ithout the abilit' to enforce safer se< practices or screen potential partners for $4Ds, this much se<ual contact clearl' puts the /ictim at a heightened ris= for contracting .IG. Another ris= factor for traffic=ed females is their age. According to the 0.$. Department of Justice, the a/erage age of entr' into prostitution is t%el/e to fourteen 'ears old, and e/er' child under eighteen in prostitution in the 0nited $tates and man' other countries is considered b' la% a se< traffic=ing /ictim. Children and 'oung teens sold into prostitution are at a greater ris= for contracting .IG because their smaller, still-de/eloping bodies are more susceptible to the genital tearing that often leads to .IG transmission during se<ual intercourse . ecause traffic=ed children in prostitution are e/en less li=el' to be in
control of choices than adults, the' ma' ha/e less opportunit' to insist on safer se< practices. 8orse still, some men see= e/er 'ounger children for se<, based on the %arped belief that there is less ris= of .IG transmission %ith a 'ounger partner. In turn, 'ounger children are being recruited into prostitution, %hich pro/ides a longer period during %hich the' can become .IG-infected. $e< 4raffic=ing as a 3acilitator of >lobal .IG 4ransmission 8hile traffic=ed %omen and girls are indi/iduall' at an increased ris= for contracting .IG, se< traffic=ing as an international

phenomenon is also a catal'st and facilitator of large-scale .IG transmission . According to AID$ pre/ention organi#ation

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AGFR4, in some parts of the %orld, such as 8est Africa, the

7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

AID$ epidemic appears to be dri/en in part b' the commercial se< industr', including the abuse of those traffic=ed into it. AGFR4 found that (:.* percent of people in the commercial se< industr' in Da=ar, $enegal,
%ere infected %ith .IG in ()),. $ee AGFR4, ?Aids and 7rostitution@ (()*)-. 1ther studies ha/e found commercial se< to be a significant factor in the AID$ epidemics in >hana, 4ogo, and ur=ina 3aso. Id. $imilarl', a ())E stud' out of the .ar/ard $chool of 7ublic .ealth found that BE percent of %omen traffic=ed from "epal to India for se< %ere returned to "epal .IG-positi/e. $ee .ar/ard 7ublic .eath Re/ie%, 4raffic=ed (()):-. In the 0nited $tates, there are both high rates of se<ual e<ploitation of African American teen girls %ithin the commercial se< industr' and b' famil' members and high rates of .IG infection among African American females. In addition to the se<ual ris= factors, high rates of in!ection drug use %ithin the commercial se< industr' also increase the ris= of infection and transmission on a global scale. .uman traffic=ing %ithin the commercial se<

industr', ho%e/er, greatl' e<acerbates the spread of .IG infections. 4raffic=ers freAuentl' transport /ictims bet%een cities or countries to both disorient the /ictims and pro/ide ?fresh faces@ for the men %ho bu' se<ual ser/ices
from them. 3or e<ample, ?Corina@ %as traffic=ed in her home countr' of &oldo/a, %here she li=el' contracted .IG. .er traffic=er then sold her in London, 7rague, "e% Mor=, and &iami for a month each to ha/e se< %ith ten to t%ent' men per night. As a traffic=ing /ictim, Corina %as unable to see= testing or treatment for her .IG, and ma' ha/e un=no%ingl' and un%illingl' spread the disease. Corina also began using drugs to mas= the pain of se<ual sla/er'. 8omen and girls traffic=ed for se< ma' turn to drugs and alcohol, including in!ection drugs, thus increasing their ris= of infection and %idespread transmission. Another e<ample of ho% se< traffic=ing can spread .IG is the cultural belief in some parts of the %orld

that se< %ith a /irgin can cure .IG or AID$. .IG-positi/e men %ho belie/e this m'th %ill see= out traffic=ers to procure a /irgin for
them, often a child. 4he' then ha/e unprotected se< %ith that /irgin, and in the process %ill sometimes transmit the disease. .o%e/er, the transmission factor of this encounter is multiplied e<ponentiall', because after this se<ual contact, the man, thin=ing himself cured, ma' ha/e unprotected se< %ith other partners. 4he child he used, no% possibl' infected, %ill often continue to be traffic=ed for se<. In these cases, .IG transmission is not merel' a b'product of se< %ith a traffic=ing /ictim, but is the impetus for the traffic=ing and the se<ual contact. It is also an action that can spread the disease e<ponentiall'. .uman traffic=ing has also been implicated as a possible catal'st for the mutation of .IG into multiple subt'pes. Dr. Chris e'er of

Johns .op=ins 0ni/ersit' has lin=ed se< traffic=ing to *ot' t'e s&rea$ an$ mutation of .IG, stating that the commercial se< industr' in general, and se< traffic=ing in particular, are facilitating t'e glo*al $is&ersion of )arious Ean$ &ossi*l" $rug5resistantF H:C su*t"&es . Another factor in the creation of mutations is inconsistent treatment
for people infected %ith .IG. F/en those fe% traffic=ing /ictims %ho are able to see= testing and treatment for their .IG ma' suffer repeated interruptions in care because of lac= of access, lac= of education, or re-traffic=ing. T'e role of se, trafficking in t'e mutation

of

H:C is e,tremel" $angerous an$ must *e recogni6e$ in t'e glo*al fig't against A:9SA:9S causes e,tinction S&ignesi "e% Mor= 4imes bestselling author and uni/ersit' professor %ho %rites about historical biograph', American and %orld histor' ($tephen, ?Catastrophea 4he *)) >reatest Disasters of All 4ime@, p. *(Regardless of the means of transmission of the .IG /irus or the societal groups most affected, the realit' is that AID$ is one of the %orst pandemics e/er to stri=e man=ind. If the /irus happens to mutate and become airborne contagious, AIDS could very easily wipe out life on earth. The need for a vaccine and a cure is paramount, since we cannot be sure that AIDS will burn itself out, as did the Black Death and influen#a. :t s&rea$s ra&i$l" an$ infects t'e glo*e ;'rlic' an$ ;'rlic' 70, 7rofessors of 7opulation studies at $tanford 0ni/ersit', (7aul and Anne, *99), ?4.F 7170LA4I1" FT7L1$I1"@,
p. *C:-E-

8hether or not AID$ can be contained %ill depend primaril' on ho% rapidl' the spread of .IG can be slo+e$
through public education and other measures, on %hen and if the medical communit' can find satisfactor' pre/entati/es or treatments, and to a large e<tent on luc=. 4he /irus has alread' sho%n itself to be highl' muta*le, and laborator' strains resistant to the one drug, A24, that

A /irus that infects man' millions of no/el hosts, in this case people, might e/ol/e ne% transmission characteristics. 4o do so, ho%e/er, %ould almost certainl' in/ol/e changes in its let'alit"- If, for instance, the /irus became more common in the blood (permitting insects to transmit it readil'-, the /er' process %ould almost certainl' ma=e it more lethal. 0nli=e the current /ersion of AID$, %hich can ta=e ten 'ears or more to =ill its /ictims, the ne% strain might cause death in $a"s or +eeks. Infected indi/iduals then %ould ha/e less time to spread
seems to slo% its lethal course ha/e alread' been reported.L the /irus to others, and there %ould be strong selection in fa/or of less lethal strains (as happened in the case of m'<opatomis-. 8hat this %ould mean epidemiologicall' is not clear, but it could temporaril' increase the transmission rate and reduce life e<pectanc' of infected persons until the s'stem once again eAuilibrated. If the abilit' of the AID$ /irus to gro% in the cells of the s=in or the membranes of the mouth, the

lungs, or the intestines %ere increased, the /irus might be spread b' casual contact or through eating contaminated food. ut it is li=el', as 4emin points out, that acAuiring those abilities %ould so change the /irus that it no longer efficientl'
infected the =inds of cells it no% does and so %ould no longer cause AID$. In effect it %ould produce an entirel' different disease. 8e hope 4emin is correct but another "obel laureate, Joshua Lederberg, is %orried that a relati/el' minor mutation could lead to the /irus infecting

a t'pe of %hite blood cell commonl' present in the lungs. If so, it might *e transmissi*le t'roug' coug'sH:C t'reatens to crus' t'e militar" an$ fracture CM2 ;l*e/ % Lecturer in International Relations in the Department of >o/ernment at the 0ni/ersit' of Fsse< ($tefan Flbe, ()), ?.IG/AID$I 4he International $ecurit' Dimensions@, stefanelbe.com/resources/ElkeBook.doc-//F&

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 %/283 B. .IG/AID$ and "ational $ecurit' In those countries currentl' e<periencing /er' high .IG pre/alence rates, .IG/AID$ is also beginning to ha/e ramifications that %ill be of interest to scholars and anal'sts %or=ing %ithin the more con/entional national securit' frame%or=. 8ithin a state-centric securit' perspecti/e the impact of .IG/AID$ on the armed forces and on the political stabilit' of the %orst affected countries are particular causes for concern . 4he armed forces, for one, are not a marginal group %ithin the global AID$ pandemic, but occup' a central position %ithin it. 7re/alence rates of se<uall' transmitted diseases among militar' populations in peacetime is %idel' belie/ed to e<ceed those of the comparati/e ci/ilian population. Although data currentl' remains inadeAuate and patch', intelligence assessments indicate that in man' African militaries this also holds true in the case of .IG. 4here are a /ariet' of factors that can e<pose militar' populations to higher le/els of .IG pre/alence, including that soldiers are of a se<uall' acti/e age, that the' are mobile and stationed a%a' from home for long periods of time , that the' often /alori#e /iolent and ris=' beha/ior, that the' ha/e opportunities for casual se<ual relations , that the' see= to relie/e themsel/es from the stress of combat, and because other se<uall' transmitted diseases increase the chance of .IG transmission during
unprotected se<ual intercourse. As a result of these factors se/eral defense ministries in sub-$aharan Africa are no% documenting .IG pre/alence rates among the armed forces bet%een ten and t%ent' percent. 4his is onl' the a/erage figure, ho%e/er, %ith some countries %here the AID$ /irus has been present for more than ten 'ears, reaching rates as high as fift' to si<t' percent. 4he 0.$. "ational Intelligence Council belie/es .IG pre/alence in selected militar' populations in sub-$aharan Africa to beI Angola C)-D) percent, Congo- ra##a/ille *)-(, percent, Ccte d5I/oire *)-() percent, Democratic Republic of Congo C)-D) percent, Fritrea *) percent, "igeria *)-() percent, and 4an#ania *,-B) percent. 4hese figures are compatible %ith a recent defense intelligence assessment carried out b' $outh Africa, %hich pro/ided the follo%ing figuresI Angola ,) percent, ots%ana BB percent, Democratic Republic of Congo ,) percent, Lesotho C) percent, &ala%i ,) percent, "amibia *D percent, $outh Africa *,-() percent, $%a#iland CE percent, 2ambia D) percent, and 2imbab%e ,, percent. "or is the impact of these pre/alence rates onl' of marginal rele/ance for the armed forces in Auestion. According to &a!. >en. &atsh%en'ego 3isher, chief of staff of the ots%ana defense force, ?AID$ in the militar' as %ell as in the national en/ironment, is no longer an academic issue+ it is a realit' that has to be tac=led %ith all the /igor and effort that is commensurate %ith its ramifications.@ Indeed, these pre/alence rates are ha/ing an impact in at least four areas that are important to the efficient operation of the armed forces. 3irst, the' are generating a

need for additional resources to train and recruit ne% soldiers to replace sic= ones, ones %ho ha/e died, or ones %ho are e<pected to die in the near future. &ore resources %ill also be needed for loo=ing after those members of the armed forces %ho are ill or in the process of d'ing. $econd, these high pre/alence rates are also affecting staffing issues in the armed forces. .igh .IG pre/alence rates e/entuall' lead to a decrease in the a/ailable ci/ilian conscription pool to dra% upon for ne% recruits , lead
to deaths among the more senior and e<perienced officers at higher le/els of the chain of command, and can lead to a loss of highl' speciali#ed and technicall' trained staff that can be replaced neither easil' nor Auic=l'. 4hird, although persons li/ing %ith .IG can usuall' carr' out normal duties, AID$ has implications for the abilit' of dail' militar' tas=s to be carried out efficientl' b' leading to an increased absenteeism and to lo%er le/els of morale as health' soldiers ha/e to deal %ith increased %or= loads until sic= ones are replaced, and ha/e to %atch fello% soldiers die a painful death. 3ears of attending to in!ured soldiers in light of the possibilit' of becoming infected %ith the lethal illness, and the Auestion of ho% to secure the blood suppl' during militar' operations, are similarl' becoming concerns for the efficient e<ecution of deplo'ments. 3inall', .IG/AID$ generates ne%

political and legal challenges for ci/il-militar' relations in terms of ho% to deal %ith the issue of .IG/AID$ in the ran=s and ho% to treat persons li/ing %ith .IG. 4he "amibian armed forces, for e<ample, recentl' lost a length' court case as to
%hether its decision to e<clude .IG-positi/e persons from !oining the armed forces is constitutional.

CM2 colla&se causes glo*al nuclear +ar Co'en/ 2k 0 7rofessor at the 7aul .. "it#e $chool of Ad/anced International $tudies and the director of the $trategic $tudies department at Johns .op=ins, %or=ed for the Department of Defense, taught at the 0.$. "a/al 8ar College (Fliot A., ?8h' the >ap &atters - >ap et%een &ilitar' and Ci/ilian 8orld@, "ational Interest, 3all ())), httpI//%%%.(Chourscholar.com/p/articles/mi;m(:,*/is;()));3all/ai;D,,:DE:*/pg;CH piYsclAt the same time, the militar' e<ercises control, to a remar=able degree, of force structure and %eapons acAuisition. 4o be sure, Congress adds or trims reAuests at the margin, and periodicall' the administration %ill cancel a large program, such as the na/'Ps pro!ected replacement of the A-D bomber. ut b' and large, the ser/ices ha/e successfull' protected programs that reflect %a's of doing business going bac= for decades. 1ne cannot e<plain other%ise current plans for large purchases of short-range fighter aircraft for the air force, supercarriers and traditional surface %arships for the na/', and hea/' artiller' pieces for the arm'. Ci/ilian control has meant, in practice, a general o/ersight of acAuisition and some degree of control b' /eto of purchases, but nothing on the scale of earlier decisions to, for e<ample, terminate the draft, re-deplo' fleets, or de/elop counterinsurgenc' forces. 4he result is a force that loo=s /er' much li=e a shrun=en /ersion of the Cold 8ar militar' of fifteen 'ears ago- -%hich, indeed, %as the initial post-Cold 8ar design =no%n as the Lbase force.L 4he strength of the militar' /oice and the %ea=ness of ci/ilian control, together %ith sheer

inertia, has meant that the 0nited $tates has failed to ree/aluate its strateg' and force structure after the Cold 8ar.
Despite a plethora of Lbottom-up re/ie%sL b' official and semiofficial commissions, the force structure remains that of the Cold 8ar, upgraded a bit and reduced in si#e b' C) percent. $o 8hatH 8.A4 8ILL be the long-term conseAuences of these trendsH 4o some e<tent, the' ha/e become /isible alread'I the gro%ing politici#ation of the officer corps+ a submerged but real recruitment and retention crisis+ a collapse of !unior officersP confidence in their o%n leaders+ W:X the odd antipath' bet%een militar' and ci/ilian cultures e/en as the t%o, in some respects, increasingl' o/erlap+ deadloc= in the conduct of acti/e militar' operations+ and stagnation in the de/elopment of militar' forces for a geopolitical era radicall' different from the past one. 4o be sure, such phenomena ha/e their precedents in American histor'. ut such d'sfunction occurred in a different conte<t--one in %hich the American militar' did not ha/e the tas= of maintaining global peace or a predominance of po%er across continents, and in %hich the armed forces consumed barel' noticeable fractions of economic resources and decisionma=ersP time. 4oda', the sta=es are infinitel' larger . 3or the moment, the 0nited $tates dominates the globe militaril', as it does economicall' and culturall'. It

is doubtful that such predominance %ill long go unchallenged+ %ere that to be the case it %ould reflect a change in the human condition that goes be'ond all human e<perience of international politics o/er the millennia. Alread', some of the signs of those challenges ha/e begun to appearI increased tension %ith the rising po%er of China, including threats of force from that countr' against the 0nited $tates and its allies+ the de/elopment of modes of %arfare--from

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7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

terrorism through the spread of %eapons of mass destruction--designed to pla' on American %ea=nesses+ the appearance of problems (peacema=ing, broadl' defined- that %ill resist con/entional solutions. "one of these poses a mortal threat to the Republic, or is li=el' to do so an'time soon. Met

cumulati/el', the conseAuences ha/e been unfortunate enough+ the inept conclusion to the >ulf 8ar, the $omalia fiasco, and dithering o/er American polic' in Mugosla/ia ma' all partiall' be attributed to the poor state of American ci/il-militar' relations. $o too ma' the subtle erosion of morale in the American militar' and the defense reform deadloc=, %hich has
preser/ed, to far too great a degree, outdated structures and mentalities. 3or no%, to be sure, the 0nited $tates is %ealth' and po%erful enough to afford such pratfalls and inefficiencies. ut the full conseAuences %ill not be felt for some 'ears, and not until a ma!or militar' crisis--a challenge as se/ere in its %a' as the Jorean or Gietnam 8ar-- arises. $uch an e/entualit'+ difficult as it ma' be to imagine toda', could occur in an' of a number of /enuesI in $outh America, or

a conflict %ith China o/er 4ai%an, in a desperate attempt to shore up collapsing states in Central or in a rene%ed outbrea= of /iolence--this time %ith %eapons of mass destruction thro%n into the

mi<-in $outh%est Asia. 4.F 7ARAD1T of increased social and institutional /ulnerabilit' on the one hand and increased militar' influence on narro%
sectors of polic'ma=ing on the other is the essence of the contemporar' ci/il-militar' problem. Its roots lie not in the machinations of po%er hungr' generals+ the' ha/e had influence thrust upon them. "or do the' lie in the fec=lessness of ci/ilian leaders determined to rema=e the militar' in the image of ci/il societ'+ all militaries must, in greater or lesser degree, share some of the mores and attitudes of the broader ci/ili#ation from %hich the' ha/e emerged. 4he problem reflects, rather, deeper and more enduring changes in politics, societ' and technolog'.

(S &rimac" &re)ents glo*al conflict 8 $iminis'ing &o+er creates a )acuum t'at causes transition +ars in multi&le &laces #rooks et al 13 W$tephen >. roo=s is Associate 7rofessor of >o/ernment at Dartmouth College.>. John I=enberr' is the Albert >. &ilban= 7rofessor of 7olitics and International Affairs at 7rinceton 0ni/ersit' in the Department of 7olitics and the 8oodro% 8ilson $chool of 7ublic and International Affairs. .e is also a >lobal Fminence $cholar at J'ung .ee 0ni/ersit'.8illiam C. 8ohlforth is the Daniel 8ebster 7rofessor in the Department of >o/ernment at Dartmouth College. ?DonPt Come .ome, AmericaI 4he Case against Retrenchment@, 8inter ()*B, Gol. B:, "o. B, 7ages :,*,httpI//%%%.mitpress!ournals.org/doi/abs/*).**D(/I$FC;a;))*):, >DI 3ileX A core premise of deep engagement is that it &re)ents the emergence of a far more $angerous global securit" en)ironment. 3or one thing, as noted abo/e, the 0nited $tates5 o/erseas presence gi/es it the le/erage to restrain partners from ta=ing pro/ocati/e action. 7erhaps more important, its core alliance commitments also deter states %ith aspirations to
regional hegemon' from contemplating e<pansion and ma=e its partners more secure, reducing their incenti/e to adopt solutions to their securit' problems that threaten others and thus sto=e securit' dilemmas. 4he contention that engaged 0.$. po%er dampens the baleful effects of anarch' is consistent %ith influential /ariants of realist theor'. Indeed, arguabl' the scariest portra'al of the %ar-prone %orld that %ould emerge absent the ?American 7acifier@ is pro/ided in the %or=s of John &earsheimer, %ho forecasts dangerous multipolar regions replete %ith securit' competition, arms races, nuclear proliferation and associated pre/enti/e %artemptations, regional ri/alries, and e/en runs at regional hegemon' and full-scale great po%er %ar. :( .o% do retrenchment ad/ocates, the bul= of %hom are realists, discount this benefitH 4heir arguments are complicated, but t%o capture most of the /ariationI (*- 0.$. securit' guarantees are not necessar' to pre/ent dangerous ri/alries and conflict in Furasia+ or ((- pre/ention of ri/alr' and conflict in Furasia is not a 0.$. interest. Fach response is connected to a different theor' or set of theories, %hich ma=es sense gi/en that the %hole debate hinges on a comple< future counterfactual (%hat %ould happen to Furasia5s securit' setting if the 0nited $tates trul' disengagedH-. Although a certain ans%er is impossible, each of these responses is nonetheless a %ea=er argument for retrenchment than ad/ocates ac=no%ledge. 4he first response flo%s from defensi/e realism as %ell as other international relations theories that discount the conflict-generating potential of anarch' under contemporar' conditions. :B Defensi/e realists maintain that the high e<pected costs of territorial conAuest, defense dominance, and an arra' of policies and practices that can be used credibl' to signal benign intent, mean that Furasia5s ma!or states could manage regional multipolarit' peacefull' %ithout theAmerican pacifier. Retrenchment %ould be a bet on this scholarship, particularl' in regions %here the =inds of stabili#ers that nonrealist theories point toNsuch as democratic go/ernance or dense institutional lin=agesNare either absent or %ea=l' present. 4here are three other ma!or bodies of scholarship, ho%e/er, that might gi/e decisionma=ers pause before ma=ing this bet. 3irst is regional e<pertise. "eedless to sa', there is no consensus on the net securit' effects of 0.$. %ithdra%al. Regarding each region, there are optimists and pessimists. 3e% e<perts e<pect a return of intense great po%er competition in a post-American Furope, but man' doubt Furopean go/ernments %ill pa' the political costs of increased F0 defense cooperation and the budgetar' costs of increasing militar' outla's. :C 4he result might be a ;uro&e that is inca&a*le of securing itself from

/arious threats that could be destabili#ing %ithin the region and be'ond (e.g., a regional conflict a=in to the *99)s

al=an %ars-, lac=s capacit' for global securit' missions in %hich 0.$. leaders might %ant Furopean participation, and is /ulnerable to the influence of outside rising po%ers. 8hat about the other parts of Furasia %here t'e (nited States has a su*stantial militar"

&resenceH 2egar$ing t'e Mi$$le ;ast, the balance begins tos%ing to%ard pessimists concerned that states currentl' bac=ed b' 8ashingtonN notabl' :srael/ ;g"&t/ an$ Sau$i Ara*iaNmig't ta=e actions upon 0.$. retrenchment that %ould intensif" securit" $ilemmas. And concerning ;ast Asia/ &essimismregarding the region5s prospects %ithout the American pacifier is &ronounce$. Arguabl' the principal concern e<pressed b' area e<perts is that Ja&an an$ Sout' !orea are likel" to o*tain a nuclear ca&acit" an$ increase their militar' commitments, %hich could stoke a $esta*ili6ing reaction from C'ina . It is notable that during the Cold 8ar, both $outh Jorea and 4ai%an mo/ed to
obtain a nuclear %eapons capacit' and %ere onl' constrained from doing so b' astill-engaged 0nited $tates. :, 4he second bod' of scholarship casting doubt on the bet on defensi/e realism5s sanguine portra'al is all of the research that undermines its conception of state preferences. Defensi/e realism5s optimism about %hat %ould happen if the 0nited $tates retrenched is /er' much dependent on itsparticularNand highl' restricti/eNassumption about state preferences+ once %e rela< this assumption, then much of its basis for optimism /anishes. $pecificall', the prediction of post-American tranAuilit' throughout Furasia rests on the assumption that securit' is the onl' rele/ant state preference, %ith securit' defined narro%l' in terms of protection from /iolent e<ternal attac=s on the homeland. 0nder that assumption, the securit' problem is largel' sol/ed as soon as offense and defense are clearl' distinguishable, and offense is e<tremel' e<pensi/e relati/e to defense. urgeoning researc' across the social and other sciences, ho%e/er,un$ermines

t'at core assum&tionI states 'a)e &references not onl' for securit' but also for &restige/

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 7/283 status, and other aims, and the'engage in tra$e5offs among the /arious ob!ecti/es. :D In addition, the' define securit' not !ust in terms of territorial protection but in /ie% of man' and /aried milieu goals . It follo%s that e/en states t'at are relati/el' secure ma' ne/ertheless engage in highl' com&etiti)e *e'a)ior. Fmpirical studies sho% that this is indeed sometimes the case. :: In sum, a bet on a benign postretrenchment Furasia is a bet that leaders of ma!or countries %ill ne/er allo% these nonsecurit' preferences to influence their strategic choices. 4o the degree that these bodies of scholarl' =no%ledge ha/e predicti/e le/erage, 0.$. retrenc'ment +oul$ result in a significant $eterioration in t'e securit" en)ironment in at least some of the %orld5s ke" regions. 8e ha/e alread' mentioned the third, e/en more alarming bod' of scholarship. 1ffensi/e realism predicts that the +it'$ra+al of the American pacifier +ill "iel$ either a competiti/e regional multipolarit' complete +it' associated insecurit', arms racing, crisis instabilit', nuclear proliferation/ and the li=e, or bids for regional hegemon', %hich ma' be *e"on$ t'e ca&acit" of local great &o+ers to contain (and %hich in an' case %ould generate intensel' competiti/e beha/ior, possibl' inclu$ing regional great po%er %ar-. An$/ A:9S s&rea$s glo*all" an$ causes faile$ states ;l*e/ % Lecturer in International Relations in the Department of >o/ernment at the 0ni/ersit' of Fsse< ($tefan Flbe, ()), ?.IG/AID$I 4he International $ecurit' Dimensions@, stefanelbe.com/resources/ElkeBook.doc-//F&

e'ond this direct impact on the armed forces of countries in %hich pre/alence rates are highest, the gro%ing AID$ pandemic also has securit' implications in terms of political stabilit' %ithin these states. 4his lin= is more difficult to assess, but there are alread' four countries in sub-$aharan Africa %here .IG pre/alence is estimated to e<ceed thirt' percentI ots%ana (BE.EU-, Lesotho (B*U-, $%a#iland (BB.CU- and 2imbab%e (BB.:U-, raising important Auestions about the longer term impact of such pre/alence rates on their political stabilit'. 8hen states become unstable or fail, it is often because the central monopol' on the use of armed force is disputed, and because the go/ernment5s popular legitimac' has been se/erel' eroded. $uch processes 2artmann has argued, be

of state collapse do not necessaril' occur instantaneousl' but can, as 8illiam li=ened to Za long-term degenerati/e disease5 --a bitterl' ironic designation %hen applied to the Auestion of .IG/AID$. &oreo/er, state collapse is normall' a multi-faceted phenomenon in/ol/ing at least three interrelated processesI the transformation
or destruction of the econom'+ the %ea=ening or dissolution of political institutions at local and national le/els+ and the damaging of a %ide arra' of social institutions such as the famil', the education s'stem, and the health care sector. Although .IG/AID$ is unli=el' to generate state collapse independentl' of other factors,

high rates of .IG/AID$ ne/ertheless contribute to all three of these processes, thus gi/ing rise to significant concern about the long-term impact of .IG/AID$ on the %orst affected states if life-sa/ing medicines are not made %idel' a/ailable.. .IG/AID$ contributes to the first tra!ector' in/ol/ed in processes of state collapse in that it e<acerbates the resource burden faced b' countries and can thus contribute to an intensification of resource competition bet%een different social groups .
4he armed forces, for e<ample, are li=el' to attempt to secure a greater share of public e<penditure in order to offset some of their emerging resource demands. In southern Africa, the "amibian Deput' &inister of Defense Gictor $imun!a has alread' e<pressed serious concern about the resource burden that .IG/AID$ poses for the "amibian militar', arguing that ZWnXot onl' is the readiness of soldiers for deplo'ment and acti/e dut' li=el' to be se/erel' impaired, but the cost of health and social care of the militar' personnel affected and infected %ith the .IG/AID$ related diseases is li=el' to increase significantl' in the coming 'ears.5 4he

ci/ilian sector %ill simultaneousl' be facing a similar increase in resource demands, thus fuelling resource competition bet%een these t%o groups .
According to one stud', in *99: more than t%o percent of >D7 %as alread' being used for public health spending to%ards .IG/AID$ in se/en of si<teen African countries sampled. 4hese are countries %here traditionall' total health spending accounts for around three to fi/e percent of >D7. In the mid *99)s it %as estimated that ZDD per cent of R%anda5s health budget and o/er a Auarter of the health budget of 2imbab%e %ere spent on treatment for people %ith .IG.5 In &ala%i, the public health s'stem is alread'

$uch competition o/er scarce resources bet%een the militar' and ci/ilian sector %ill be e<acerbated further still because e/en though the most se/ere impact is probabl' going to occur at the le/el of indi/idual households and particular industries, AID$ is predicted to ha/e a long-term macroeconomic impact in those states %orst affected b' the illness, although the e<tent of this impact is still a matter of considerable debate amongst economists. According to a report published b' the "ational Intelligence Council ("IC- the %orst affected countries %ill suffer from a reduction in economic gro%th of up to one percent of >D7 per annum due to AID$, and the latter could consume more than half of the health budgets of those countries . A report b' the $ecretar'->eneral of the 0nited "ations, in turn, finds that in the ne<t t%ent' 'ears the %orst affected countries could %ell lose u& to a Huarter of t'eir &ro>ecte$ economic gro+t'. In a sub-$aharan African countr' %ith a pre/alence rate of around t%ent' percent, the annual gro%th of >D7 %ould be (.D percent lo%er. A
inundated b' the pandemic %ith up to :) percent of hospital bed occupanc' ta=en up b' patients suffering from AID$-related illnesses. recent 8.1 report conser/ati/el' estimates that AID$ %ill account for *: percent of the lost earning potential of sub-$aharan Africa5s total *999 gross domestic product.

8hile these =inds of losses could be absorbed for a 'ear or t%o, the' pose larger problems %hen the' become cumulati/e, occurring 'ear after 'ear as the' are li=el' to do. >i/en that .IG/AID$ does affect the economicall' most producti/e demographic group, that .IG/AID$ undermines the belief in the long-term sustainabilit' of the econom' , that it could discourage pri/ate as %ell as foreign in/estment, and gi/en that AID$ affects the middle management of man' companies as %ell as their highl' trained %or=ers that are in smaller suppl', these figures could %ell be indicati/e of broad trends. In future, both militar' and ci/ilian sectors %ill thus ha/e to compete %ith each other in order to tr' to secure a higher proportion of public resources to meet their higher costs, and the' ma' %ell ha/e to do so at the same time that o/erall public re/enue is declining. .IG/AID$ also contributes to the second tra!ector' usuall' in/ol/ed in processes of state collapse b' generating at least four additional challenges to the political sphere in countries %here pre/alence rates are /er' high. 3irst, .IG/AID$ could further undermine the abilit' of state officials to go/ern effecti/el' in the long run. Crucial resources are alread' being reportedl' di/erted from running state ser/ices to treating people %ith .IG/AID$. asic go/ernment ser/ices %ill thus become more difficult to deli/er as mortalit' rates amongst those %or=ing for the state increase. In man' countries %ith high pre/alence rates the effecti/eness of the police forces, too, is coming

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under increasing pressure from the illness. 4he police forces of the fourteen $ADC countries are no% ta=ing .IG/AID$ /er' seriousl', and are tr'ing to find %a's to cope %ith the reduction in personnel as %ell as bracing themsel/es for things to become much %orse in the 'ears to come. In Jen'a, AID$ %as belie/ed to be the cause of :, percent of deaths in the police force bet%een *999-())), and the 2ambian police force is similarl' reported to ha/e felt the se/ere impact of .IG/AID$. 4he !udicial s'stem, too, is affected, %ith staff ser/ing in !ustice institutions, such as !udges, prosecutors, court cler=s and la%'ers facing similar le/els of mortalit' as other sectors of societ'. All other things held eAual, this means that in future it %ill become more difficult to fight crime and fe%er arrests %ill probabl' be made. It %ill also become more difficult to handle internal rebels or domestic challenges to po%er. $econdl',

.IG/AID$ could also facilitate political tensions o/er decisions about %ho %ill ha/e access to life-sa/ing medicines. Diseases ha/e ra/aged man' countries for decades %ithout necessaril' fuelling political instabilit'. Met,
unli=e other diseases that are strongl' lin=ed %ith po/ert', .IG/AID$ additionall' afflicts the educated and moderatel' %ealth' middle classes. >i/en the current a/ailabilit' of anti-retro/iral treatments for .IG/AID$, man' elites

%ith access to resources %ill be able to substantiall' relie/e their predicament b' purchasing e<pensi/e medicines. 4he plight of other social groups, ho%e/er, is less certain. If the elites are not seen to be %or=ing in their interests and securing the a/ailabilit' of medications for them as %ell, this could contribute to further social polari#ation. Rand' Chee= argues that the ZWuXne/en distribution of essential .IG treatment based on social, ethnic, or political criteria could %ell put unmanageable pressures on social and political structures, threatening the stabilit' of regimes throughout $outhern

Africa.5 Indeed, those li/ing %ith .IG might become increasingl' susceptible to populist leaders promising radical solutions, rather than rel'ing on more democratic ones. According to an opinion poll carried out b' the Institute for Democrac' in $outh Africa in 1ctober ())), one of the primar' reasons for &be=i5s decline in popularit' %as his stance on .IG, and has alread' pro/o=ing friction in the go/erning coalition in ())B. .IG/AID$ also contributes to the third tra!ector' freAuentl' in/ol/ed in processes of state collapse, namel' the undermining of a %ide arra' of social institutions such as the famil', the education s'stem, and the health care sector. 4hese dimensions %ere alread' outlined %hen considering the human securit' implications of .IG/AID$, and include not onl' the decrease in a/erage life e<pectanc', but also the potential generation of up to C) million orphans in the 'ears to come. &an' of these children %ill be e<posed to the stigma of the illness and %ill be more /ulnerable to malnutrition, illness, abuse and se<ual e<ploitation. 1ften children are also left to e<change se<ual ser/ices in return for other /ital goods, such as shelter, food, ph'sical protection and mone'. 4his de/elopment is not onl' of concern for human securit' theorists. &artin $chdnteich, of the Institute for $ecurit' $tudies in $outh Africa, lin=s this rise in the number of orphans due to .IG/AID$ %ith an e<ponentiall' increasing crime rate for the ne<t fi/e to t%ent' 'ears. .e argues that these orphans %ill be susceptible to e<ploitation and radicali#ation, and might %ell turn to%ards crime and militias in order to maintain their e<istence as the' recei/e inadeAuate support from their families and communities. Crime bands and militias, after all, not onl' ha/e the potential to address the material needs of 'ouths+ the' can also perform important ps'chological functions such as pro/iding them %ith surrogate father figures and role models. In these %a's, H:C/A:9S

can &otentiall" e,acer*ate a )ariet" of economic/ &olitical/ an$ social tensions +it'in t'e +orst affecte$ countries . In so doing .IG/AID$ also contributes to all three tra!ectories usuall' associated %ith processes of &olitical insta*ilit" an$ state colla&se and it is currentl' pushing de/elopments further in this direction. e'ond seriousl' affecting the armed forces, therefore, in If, moreo/er, high pre/alence rates also emerge in China, India, and Russia in the 'ears ahead, this could ha/e %ider securit' implications be'ond the African continent. All of these countries are still in the earl' phase of their epidemics , and are important
regions. 4he significance of this dimension is li=el' to gro% considerabl' in the 'ears to come as mortalit' rates increase further.

the %orst affected countries AID$ also generates longer term concerns about social stabilit', both for those countries directl' affected as %ell as for those %ith interests in these

international securit' actors %ho ha/e 'et to respond adeAuate to the challenge posed b' .IG/AID$. At the same time, there is also an important source of hope %ith regards to the Auestion of the long-term political stabilit' of the %orst affected states. >i/en the relati/el' long c'cle of the progression from .IG to AID$, there is still a %indo% of opportunit' for concerted efforts to ma=e medicines a/ailable to people li/ing %ith .IG/AID$. Indeed, there is an important difference bet%een pre/alence rates and moralit' rates. In the case of .IG/AID$, staggering pre/alence rates of B) percent or more of the adult population translate into a significantl' smaller annual mortalit' rate, gi/en the long c'cle of the illness. &ortalit' rates in an' gi/en 'ear %ill not amount to thirt' percent or more, but rather to a lo%er figure, especiall' %hen measured as percentage of the total population, rather than !ust the adult population. In $outh Africa, for e<ample, the combined number of pro!ected adult AID$ cases and deaths to occur each 'ear o/er the ne<t decade is bet%een *., percent and C percent of the adult population. 4hese figures are clearl' /er' serious and represent an immense humanitarian traged', especiall' because the' %ill occur 'ear after 'ear. Met the' also point to a crisis that is potentiall' still manageable %ith sufficient local, national, and international %ill. 4he most prudent strateg', therefore, in terms of addressing these emerging national securit' dimensions of the pandemic %ould be to act in the present before mortalit' rates increase e/en further. $uch efforts, moreo/er, %ould also help to address the international securit' dimensions of the global AID$ pandemic as %ell.

<aile$ states cause nuclear +ar African Stu$ies Centre/ et al/ 3 (4he African $tudies Centre, the 4ransnational Institute, the Center of $ocial $tudies at Coimbra 0ni/ersit', and the 7eace Research Center of &adrid, ?3AILFD A"D C1LLA7$FD $4A4F$ I" 4.F I"4FR"A4I1"AL $M$4F&@, December ())B, httpI//%%%.tni.org/archi/es/reports/failedstates.pdf, DeechIn the malign scenario of global de/elopments the number of collapsed states %ould gro% significantl'. 4his %ould mean that se/eral more countries in the %orld could not be held to account for respecting international agreements in /arious fields, be it commercial transactions, debt repa'ment, the possession and proliferation of %eapons of mass destruction and the use of the national territor' for criminal or terrorist acti/ities. 4he increase in failed states %ould immediatel' lead to an increase in international migration, %hich could ha/e a =noc=-on effect, first in neighbouring countries %hich, ha/ing similar politico-economic structures, could suffer increased destabili#ation and collapse as %ell. De/elopments in 8est Africa during the last decade ma' ser/e as an e<ample. Increased international migration %ould, secondl', ha/e serious implications for the 8estern %orld. In Furope it %ould put social relations bet%een the population and immigrant communities under further pressure, polari#ing politics. An increase in collapsed states %ould also endanger the securit' of 8estern states and societies. .ealth conditions could deteriorate as contagious diseases li=e Fbola or $ars %ould spread because of a lac= of measures ta=en in collapsed areas. Weapons of mass $estruction coul$ come into t'e 'an$s of /arious sorts of political entities, be the' terrorist grou&s, political factions in control of part of a collapsed
state or an aggressi/e political elite still in control of a national territor' and intent on e<pansion. "ot onl' "orth Jorea springs to mind+ one could /er' %ell imagine such states in ("orth- Africa. $ince the multilateral s'stem of control of such %eapons %ould ha/e ended in part because of the decision of the 0nited $tates to tr' and chec= their spread through unilateral action - a s'stem that %ould inherentl' be more unstable than a multilateral, negotiated regime - one coul$ *e face$ +it' an arms race that %ould sooner or later result in t'e actual use of

these %eapons. In the malign scenario, relations bet%een the 0$ and Furope %ould also further deteriorate, in Auestions
of a militar' nature as %ell as trade relations, thus undercutting an' possible consensus on stemming the gro%th of collapsed states and the introduction of stable multilateral regimes to%ards matters li=e terrorism, nuclear %eapons and international migration. Disagreement is alread' rife on a host of

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issues in these fields. At %orst, e/en the 8estern members of the 8estphalian s'stem - especiall' those bordering on countries in the former 4hird 8orld, i.e. the Furopean states - could be faced %ith direct attac=s on their national securit' .

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1ac lea$ers'i&
(-S- anti5trafficking frame+ork is unilateral in t'e status Huo/ *ut it +ill fail an$ colla&se international la+0re$irecting to *ilateralism t'roug' t'e &lan is critical C'uang/ . 7ractitioner-in-Residence, American 0ni/ersit' 8ashington College olP La%. J .D., .ar/ard La% $chool+ A., Male 0ni/ersit' (Janie A. Chuang, 8inter ())D , ?4he 0nited $tates as >lobal $heriffI 0sing 0nilateral $anctions to Combat .uman 4raffic=ing@, &ichigan Journal of International La%, Gol. (:, "o. (, httpI//papers.ssrn.com.pro<'.lib.umich.edu/solB/papers.cfmHabstract;idY99))9E6do%nloadY'es-//F& Just %ee=s before the 0" >eneral Assembl' adopted the 7alermo 7rotocol, ho%e/er, the 0nited $tates promulgated its o%n comprehensi/e domestic anti-traffic=ing legislation -the 4raffic=ing Gictims 7rotection Act of ())) (4G7A-.P 4he 4G7A is
one of the most comprehensi/e pieces of domestic anti-traffic=ing legislation in the %orld. Identif'ing traffic=ing as Lan e/il reAuiring concerted and /igorous action b' coun- tries of origin, transit, or destination,L the 4G7A reaches be'ond 0.$. borders to affect anti-traffic=ing

polic' abroad. $pecificall', it estab- lishes a sanctions regime authori#ing the 7resident to %ithdra% 0.$. (and certain multilateral- non-traderelated, non-humanitarian financial assistance from countries deemed not sufficientl' compliant %ith the 0.$. go/emmentPs Lminimum standards for the elimination of traflic=- ing.L, In assuming such e,traterritorial reac', the 0nited $tates has pro- claimed itself

global sheriff on traffic=ing. 4his raises gra)e concems both as a matter of international la% and as a matter of global anti- traffic=ing strateg'. A po%erful but blunt %eapon for influencing the be- ha/ior of other states, unilateral sanctions ha/e long been critici#ed as inconsistent %ith international la% and ineffecti/e in practice .
4he 4G7A sanctions regime in/ites more of the same criticism. ' in!ecting 0.$. norms into the international arena, the sanctions regime ris=s undermin- ing the fragile international cooperation frame%or= created b' the 7alermo 7rotocol. 4he sanctions threat arguabl' ele/ates 0.$. norms o/er international norms b' gi/ing the former the teeth the latter so often lac=. In doing so, the sanctions regime presents a read' opportunit' for the 0nited $tates to impose-b' the threat of sanctions-its o%n anti- traffic=ing paradigm on other states. In practice, the sanctions regime has inspired man' go/ernments to de/elop domestic la%s and policies to combat traffic=ing. ut %hether these actions contribute positi/el' to the global tight against traffic=ing should not be assumed. 4he Lminimum standardsL b' %hich the 0nited $tates e/aluates countr' performance are

poorl' articulated and inconsis- tentl' applied. &oreo/er, the legal norms the 0nited $tates encourages other go/ernments to adopt emplo' selecti/e (and sometimes misleading- references to the 7alermo 7rotocol norms, in/iting the oft-repeated criticism of 0.$. unilateralism for e<porting 0.$. domestic standards under the guise of uni/ersall' applicable intemational norms. 8ith man' con- tro/ersial issues still being acti/el' debated, and much 'et to be understood about this comple< problem, efforts to assess and guide global anti-traffic=ing practices through the single lens of 0.$. e<perience ris= misfire. T'ese unilateral trafficking &olicies risk t'e colla&se of American soft &o+er C'uang/ . 7ractitioner-in-Residence, American 0ni/ersit' 8ashington College olP La%. J .D., .ar/ard La% $chool+ A., Male 0ni/ersit' (Janie A. Chuang, 8inter ())D , ?4he 0nited $tates as >lobal $heriffI 0sing 0nilateral $anctions to Combat .uman 4raffic=ing@, &ichigan Journal of International La%, Gol. (:, "o. (, httpI//papers.ssrn.com.pro<'.lib.umich.edu/solB/papers.cfmHabstract;idY99))9E6do%nloadY'es-//F& 4he use of unilateral economic sanctions has become a common foreign polic' tool to alter state beha/ior , pro/iding
La middle road response bet%een diplomac' and militar' action.LefP ' far the most ac- ti/e sanctions proponent in the %orld,L the 0nited $tates has used unilateral sanctions to promote its foreign polic' ob!ecti/es, including combating nuclear proliferation, fighting traffic=ing in drugs and %eap- ons, promoting democrac' and human rights, and punishing territorial aggression.L 0.$. unilateral sanctions ha/e ta=en the form of statutes conditioning foreign assistance on a countr'Ps compliance %ith human rights and labor standards, targeting specific countries deemed to be rights abusers and, in the case of Cuba, punishing third parties that do business %ith the target state.L Commentators critici#e 0.$. economic unilateralism as

the h'po- critical, Lhegemonic actions of a Lgh'perpo%erf LefP especiall' %hen %ielded in the name of promoting intemational human rights standards. .uman rights ad/ocates critici#e 0.$. unilateralism for emplo'ing %hat 7eter Danchin terms a Lne% realistL approach to enforcing international norms-in/o=ing international human rights norms to !ustif' the use of sanctions against target states, but using entirel' domestic norms and predominantl' unilateral means to promote and protect those standards.efef Insofar as the 0nited $tates see=s to enforce international norms, critics argue, it
does so selecti/el', sub!ect to the changing priorities of 0.$. domestic politics rather than a genuine respect for those norms.L Resort to unilateral sanctions is also problematic because it under- mines multilateral definition and enforcement of intemational human rights la%.L As Danchin e<plains, persistent resort to unilateral sanctions instead of e<isting (though underde/eloped- multilateral enforcement mechanisms creates a self-perpetuating c'cle that ultimatel' undermines progressi/e de/elopment of multilateral alternati/esfL LA multilateral regime based on la% cannot function effecti/el' if one or more of its members choose to act outside of or e/en alongside that regime %hile at the same time refusing to submit to those same rules.LPefef 3inall', critics argue that unilateral sanctions are, in practice, inef- fecti/e.PefP As the Center for $trategic and Intemational $tudies concluded in

its stud' of 0.$. unilateralism, LWnXearl' all unilateral sanctions fail nearl" all of t'e time/D and their use b' the 0nited $tates has Lgenerall' +orke$ against (-S- foreign &olic" o*>ecti)es-D Pef( 8hen used to promote human rights and
democrati#ation ob!ecti/es, 0.$. sanctions ha/e re- sulted in the populations of the target countries, rather than their go/ernments, suffering the conseAuent economic pain.PefP Indeed, in some countries, sanctions ha/e diminished or eliminated pri/ate sector en- gagement in political and economic changePefLg as target go/emments use 0.$. sanctions to good propaganda effect, successfull' blaming the 0nited $tates for %hat, in effect, %ere actuall' intemal econon*ic polic' failures.

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(-S- trafficking cre$i*ilit" lo+ no+0lea$ing *" e,am&le t'roug' t'e aff increases soft &o+er an$ causes glo*al mo$eling 1erag't"/ 10 ($arah >eraght', 3rench foreign ministr' officer and member of the Furopean Institute, &a' ()*), ?.uman 4raffic=ingI 0.$. Applies >lobal 7ressure Alongside F05s 1%n Dri/e@, httpI//%%%.europeaninstitute.org/&a'-()*)/human-traffic=ing-us-applies-global-pressure-along-eus-dri/eto-curb-these-flo%s-in-europe.html-//F& 4hat no% seems to ha/e changed. ?.uman traffic=ing is not an issue in %hich %e can implement policies of American e<ceptionalism,@ sa's Cde aca, ?so this 'ear %e %ill ran= and anal'#e the 0nited $tates based on the same minimum standards that %e do other countries+ it %ill not onl' help us at home, but le)erage +'at +e feel is a ke" source of American &o+er 8 t'e &o+er to lea$ *" e,am&le-B According to Cde aca, there is a particular problem %ith guest-%or=er programs in the 0.$. because traffic=ing in these cases operates %ithin legal channels. 8hen migrants are coerced into ta=ing on debts, the' often become trapped in a %eb of debt bondage b' unscrupulous recruiters, labor bro=ers, and emplo'ers. 4he complicating aspect of this situation is that these debts are legal and often are dealt %ith b' 0.$. authorities as onl' administrati/e /iolations. Indeed, 0.$. la% enforcement has problems sometimes dealing %ith organi#ed traffic=ing because in America most policing is locali#ed. Soft &o+er creates coo&eration an$ c'ecks great &o+er conflict N"e/ 7. (Joseph, 8ashington Ouarterl', 8inter *99D, le<is8hile generall' less threatening to 0.$. interests than global or regional balance of po%er conflicts, communal conflicts are the most li=el' =ind of post-cold %ar conflict and ha/e thus far pro/ed the most freAuent . Less than *) percent of the *:) states in toda'Ps
%orld are ethnicall' homogenous. 1nl' half ha/e one ethnic group that accounts for as much as :, percent of their population. Africa, in particular, is a continent of a thousand ethnic and linguistic groups sAuee#ed into some ,)-odd states, man' of them %ith borders determined b' colonial po%ers in the last centur' %ith little regard to traditional ethnic boundaries. 4he former Mugosla/ia %as a countr' %ith fi/e nationalities, four languages, three religions, and t%o alphabets. As a result of such dis!unctions bet%een borders and peoples, there ha/e been some B) communal conflicts

since the end of the Cold 8ar, man' of them still ongoing . Communal conflicts, particularl' those in/ol/ing %ars of secession, are
/er' difficult to manage through the 0" and other institutions built to address interstate conflicts. 4he 0", regional organi#ations, alliances, and indi/idual states cannot pro/ide a uni/ersal ans%er to the dilemma of self-determination /ersus the in/iolabilit' of established borders, particularl' %hen so man' states face potential communal conflicts of their o%n. In a %orld of identit' crises on man' le/els of anal'sis, it is not clear %hich sel/es deser/e so/ereignt'I nationalities, ethnic groups, linguistic groups, or religious groups. $imilarl', uses of force for deterrence, compellence, and reassurance are much harder to carr' out %hen both those using force and those on the recei/ing end are disparate coalitions of international organi#ations, states, and subnational groups. &oreo/er, although fe% communal conflicts b' themsel/es threaten securit' be'ond their regions, some impose ris=s of Lhori#ontalL escalation, or the spread to other states %ithin their respecti/e regions. 4his can happen through the in/ol/ement of affiliated ethnic groups that spread across borders, the sudden flood of refugees into neighboring states, or the use of neighboring territories to ship %eapons to combatants. 4he use of ethnic propaganda also raises the ris= of L/erticalL escalation to more intense /iolence, more sophisticated and destructi/e %eapons, and harsher attac=s on ci/ilian populations as %ell as militar' personnel. 4here is also the danger that communal conflicts could become more numerous if the 0" and regional securit' organi#ations lose the credibilit', %illingness, and capabilities necessar' to deal %ith such conflicts. 7re/enting and Addressing ConflictsI 4he ?i)otal (-S. Role =ea$ers'i& b' the 0nited $tates, as the %orldPs leading econom', its most po%erful militar' force, and a leading democrac', is

a ke" factor in limiting t'e freHuenc" and destructi/eness of great &o+er, regional, and communal conflicts. 4he parado< of the post-cold %ar role of the 0nited $tates is that it is the most po%erful state in terms of both LhardL po%er resources (its econom' and militar' forces- and LsoftL ones (the appeal of its political s'stem and culture-, 'et it is not so po%erful that it can achie/e all its international goals b' acting alone. 4he 0nited $tates lac=s both the international
and domestic prereAuisites to resol/e e/er' conflict, and in each case its role must be proportionate to its interests at sta=e and the costs of pursuing them. Met the 0nited $tates can continue to enable and mobili#e international coalitions to pursue shared securit' interests, %hether or not the 0nited $tates itself supplies large militar' forces. 4he 0.$. role %ill thus not be that of a lone global policeman+ rather, the 0nited $tates can freAuentl' ser/e as the sheriff of the posse, leading shifting coalitions of friends and allies to address shared securit' concerns %ithin the legitimi#ing frame%or= of international organi#ations. 4his reAuires sustained attention to the infrastructure and institutional mechanisms that ma=e 0.$. leadership effecti/e and !oint action possibleI for%ard stationing and pre/enti/e deplo'ments of 0.$. and allied forces, prepositioning of 0.$. and allied eAuipment, ad/ance planning and !oint training to ensure interoperabilit' %ith allied forces, and stead' impro/ement in the conflict resolution abilities of an interloc=ing set of bilateral alliances, regional securit' organi#ations and alliances, and global institutions.

:nternational la+ sol)es e,tinction 9amrosc' an$ Mullerson/ 7% N 7rofessor of La%, Columbia, A"D, 7rofessor of International La%, Jing5s ( e'ond Confrontation, International La% for the 7ost Cold 8ar Fra, *99,, p. (-BI. 7ressures on International La%I Demands 7laced on It and 1bstacles to Its Fffecti/eness 4he contemporar' %orld has an e/er increasing need for an international legal s'stem that can respond to the demands of our time. 1f the man' reasons
for this fact, %e %ill sur/e' onl' a fe% of the most salient. 3irst and foremost is the increasing interdependence of all peoples. F/en as the %orld is ri/en %ith man' contradictions and conflicts, it is also becoming more integrated %ith a greater need for orderl', predictable conduct. F/ents, and especiall' natural and social disasters, e/en %hen the' occur %ithin a single countr', ha/e more noticeable effects on conditions in the %orld at large. 4he Chernob'l accident, the earthAua=e in Armenia, and e/en internal political processes under%a' in the territories of the former $o/iet 0nion and Fastern FuropeNthese and man' other e/ents occurring %ithin separate countries or regions ha/e a global significance affecting the destin' of all peoples. 4he

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intert%ining of the economic life of di/erse countries toda' is e/en greater than %as the interdependence of different regions %ithin the same state onl' half a centur' ago. 1rder and predictabilit' of the beha/ior of actors on the international scene can be achie/ed first of all %ith the aid of social norms, among %hich international la% occupies an important place. A second reason for the gro%th of the role of international la% is ine<tricabl' connected %ith the first. T'e t'reat of a t'ermonuclear catastro&'e/ uni)ersal ecological crisis/ an$ acute

economic &ro*lems in de/eloping countries are of global concern and en$anger t'e )er" e,istence of 'umanit". Resolution of these problems demands coordinated efforts of all states and peoples, %hich %ould be impossible to achie/e %ithout the aid of international norms, procedures, and institutions. A third reason is the breathta=ing political
transformations of recent 'ears. 4he changes that began in *9E, in the former $o/iet 0nion and %ere unleashed in Fastern Furope ha/e radicall' transformed the map of the %orld. Although it is impossible to gi/e a final e/aluation of the character and significance of these changes at the present time, it is possible to conclude that the fundamental global contradiction of the Cold 8ar eraNthe contradiction bet%een socialism and capitalism, %hich to a great e<tent determined not onl' the general climate in the %orld but also the role and significance of international la% in itNhas been o/ercome. In the Charter of 7aris for a "e% Furope, B( countries of Furope, together %ith the 0nited $tates and Canada, affirmed that ?the era of confrontation and di/ision in Furope has ended.@ 4he end has come not onl' for di/ision in Furope, but also in the %orld at large. ut this fact can hardl' lead automaticall' to a non-contradictor', stable, %orld order. 4he acuteness of conflicts that are not connected %ith the so-called ?fundamental contradiction of the epoch@ can e/en intensif',

as the unleashing of sa/age interethnic conflict in the former Mugosla/ia and the former $o/iet 0nion ampl' demonstrates. "onetheless, it is precisel' the cooperation bet%een former ideological and political ad/ersaries that can ser/e as the prereAuisite and condition for the resolution of man' of problems and conflicts. A /i/id e<ample ma' be found in the reaction of %orld societ' to the aggression of IraA against Ju%ait and the reining in of the
aggressor %ith the aid of 0.". mechanisms in accordance %ith the 0.". Charter and other norms of international la%.

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1ac organi6e$ crime


Human trafficking &ro&s u& t'e $rug cartels0often *rings t'e ma>orit" of t'eir re)enue #rice/ 8 (Arthur rice, C"", ())E, ?.uman traffic=ing second onl' to drugs in &e<ico@, httpI//%%%.thehrf.org/ne%s/documents/)E(:*);C"";.umanttraffic=ing.pdf-//F&
&ario $antos li=el' ne/er made it to the 0nited $tates. 4he *E-'ear-old set out *) 'ears ago from his nati/ e Fl $al/ador in search of opportunit' and a better %a' of life. ut he had to tra/el north through &e<ico first. A short %hile after lea/ing, he called his parents to tell them he had been beaten and robbed in &e<ic o, left penniless and %ithout shoes or clothes. It %as the last the' hear d from him. 8hile itPs not certain that $antos is dead, he prob abl' suffered the same fate as :( migrants from Cen tral and $outh America %hose bodies %ere found this %ee= in a ranch in nor thern &e<ico, !ust 9) miles from the 0.$. border. 1 fficials are in/estigating %hether the' %ere the /ictims of huma n traffic=ers or drug cartels that pre' on migrants . ItPs a fate that officials sa' befalls thousands of Central and $outh Americans e/er' 'ear. LItPs brutal,L sa's 7eter .a=im, president emeritus of the InterAmerican Dialogue, a non-partisan 8as hington polic' institute. L T'is is )er" *ig *usiness. ItPs /er' brutal.L It is indeed big

business. Human trafficking is one of t'e most lucrati)e forms of crime +orl$+i$e aft er drug and arms
traffic=ing, the 0nited "ations 1ffice on Drugs and Crime said in April. In &e<ico, it is a S*, billion- to S() billion-a-'e ar endea/or, second onl' to drug traffic=ing, said $amuel Logan, founding director of $outhern 7ulse, an online information n et%or= focused on Latin America. LAnd that ma' be a conser/ati/e estimate,L Logan sa id. 4hat mone', %hich used to go mostl' to smugglers, n o% also flo%s into the hands of drug cartel members . 4he

Center for $trategic and International $tudies, a bipartisan, nonprofit polic' institute based in 8ashington, noted in an August report that human smuggling and other illega l acti/ities are pla'ing an increasingl' important role as narcotraffic=ers di/ersif' their acti/ities. L4he drug cartels ha/e not confined themsel/es to selling narcotics ,L the report said. L4he' engage in =idnapping for ransom, e<tortion, human smuggling and other crimes to augment their incomes.L $ome cartels ha/e come to rel' more in recent 'ears on human smuggling. L3or the 2etas, itGs *een one of t'eir main re)enue streams for "ears/D Logan said about the /icious c artel, %hich operates mostl' in northeastern &e<ico. Cartel
in/ol/ement has increased the ris= for migra nts crossing through &e<ico to get to the 0nited $t ates, said &e<icoPs "ational Commission for .uman Rights. An in/estigat ion b' the commission sho%ed that 9,:,E migrants %e re abducted from $eptember ())E to 3ebruar' ())9, or about *,D)) per month. "o one =no%s e<actl' ho% man' people tr' to ma=e th e passage e/er' 'ear. 4he human rights organi#ation Amnest' International estimates it as tens of thousands. &ore than 9) pe rcent of them are Central Americans, mostl' from Fl $al/ador, >uatema la, .onduras and "icaragua, Amnest' International s aid in a report this 'ear. And the /ast ma!orit' of these migrants, the rights group said, are headed for the 0nited $tates.

Human trafficking 'as &ermeate$ organi6e$ crime 8 catal"st for ot'er criminal efforts !eefer . 0nited $tates Arm' Colonel ($andra L., L.uman 4raffic=ing and the Impact on "ational $ecurit' for the 0nited $tates,L
httpI//%%%.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/>et4RDocHLocationY0(6docY>et4RDoc.pdf6ADYADACCE,:B-

4here is no doubt that profits made from human traffic=ing are enormous. $la/e K traffic=ers around the %orld ha/e redisco/ered ho% profitable it is to bu' and sell people . 4heK 0nited "ations belie/es that the traffic=ing of human beings is no% the third largest source ofK mone' for organi#ed crime, after arms and drugs.9K It has become the %orld5s fastest gro%ingK criminal enterprise, an estimated S9., billion per 'ear. 4he commodities in/ol/ed in this illicit K trade are men, %omen, and children and the traffic=er5s goal is to ma<imi#e profits. 4he sale K and distribution of traffic=ed humans in the 0.$. is a global, regional, and national problem.*)K Attracted b' huge profits made at minimal ris=s to the traffic=er, criminal organi#ations atK all le/els are no% in/ol/ed %ith this heinous crime. 4he fall of communism, coupled %ithK deteriorating third %orld economies, has fueled the dramatic rise of this form of commerce.** K An ounce of cocaine %holesale is S*()) but 'ou can onl' sell it once, a %oman or child S,)-K S*))) but 'ou can sell them each da' o/er and o/er and o/er again (B) to C) customers aK da'-, and the mar=up is unbelie/able.*( Trafficking 'umans 8 es&eciall" c'il$renI ena*lesN t'ese international mo*sters to &la" in t'e +i$er fiel$Iof trafficking $rugs/ +ea&ons , arms,K chemicals, to<ic %aste, and e/en pirac' on the high seas. Research substantiates indisputableK lin=s bet%een human traffic=ing and organi#ed criminal s'ndicates the %orld o/er.*B S&ills o)er to *roa$er =atin American insta*ilit" ?ease/ 11 master of arts in international securit' and former intelligence anal'st ($hadd A. 7ease, June ()**, ?Instabilit' in the $outhI 4he Implications of &e<ican $tate 3ailure on 0.$. "ational $ecurit'@, 7roAuest-//F& A possible failed state in the countr' of &e<ico %ould accelerate instabilit' in the surrounding region. 4he countries that surround the state of &e<ico %ould be affected ,, b' a sharp decrease in stabilit' and securit' %ithin the &e<ican state. &e<ican citi#ens %ill begin to mo/e to other areas of their o%n countr', as %ell as, other states in order to escape /iolence and
disorder in their o%n to%ns and /illages. &e<ican internall' displaced persons alread' e<ist primaril' as the result of fighting in the state of Chiapas located in the e<treme south of the countr'+ ho%e/er, mo/ement resulting from land disputes, narcotics traffic=ing and religious intolerance has led to in/oluntar' mo/ement.EC According to the >ene/a-based Internal Displacement &onitoring Center (ID&C- an estimated ? **,, ))) people ha/e

been forcibl' displaced b' &e<icos drug /iolence\@E, Additional mo/ements %ill ine/itabl' cause instabilit' both economic and securit' related not onl' to the 0nited $tates, but to other Latin American states. 4his problem is ele/ated as the $outh American region is alread' ran=ed the ?third most unstable region in the %or ld in the post-%ar era.@ED T'at causes nuclear +ar an$ a laun$r" list of ot'er im&acts

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 % /283 Man+aring/ W&a<. Latin America F<pert V C$I$, 7hD in 7oli $ci from 0Chicago. $hado%s of the 7ast and Images of the 3uture ())C, 7g BD-EX State failure is an e)olutionar" &rocess , not an outcome. T'is state of affairs is often *roug't on *" &oor/ irres&onsi*le/ an$ insensiti)e go)ernance/ and leads to at least one other /er' fundamental reason %h' states fail.
4hat is, state failure can be a process that is e<acerbated b' nonstate (insurgent- groups that, for %hate/er reason, %ant to ta=e do%n or e<ercise illicit control o/er a gi/en go/ernment. In =atin America, Colombia is, 7eru has been, and both continue to be good e<amples of this. T'e narco5

insurgent/terrorist Ois aP t'reat to t'e aut'orit" of t'e central go)ernments-

4hrough murder, =idnapping, corruption, intimidation, destruction of infrastructure, and other means of coercion and persuasion, these /iolent, internal, nonstate actors compromise the e<ercise of state authorit'- T'e go)ernment an$ its institutions *ecome &rogressi)el" less an$ less

ca&a*le of &erforming t'e tasks of go)ernance , including e<ercising their fundamental personal securit' functions to protect citi#ens. As a result/ t'e narco5insurgents *ecome increasingl" +ealt'" an$ &o+erful , and affected countries
deteriorate further and further to%ard failed state status. 7eru5s $endero Luminoso calls /iolent and destructi/e acti/ities that facilitate the processes of state failure armed propaganda. Drug cartels operating in that countr' and throughout the Andean Ridge of $outh America and else%here call these acti/ities business incenti/es. 4hus, in a$$ition to 'el&ing to &ro)i$e +i$er latitu$e to furt'er t'eir s&ecific

o*>ecti)es, $endero5s and other )iolent nonstate actors4 arme$ &ro&agan$a an$ *usiness incenti)es are aime$ at lessening a regime4s cre$i*ilit" and capabilit' in terms of its abilit' and %illingness to go/ern and de/elop its national territor' and societ'. T'is debilitating and destabili#ing acti/it' generates the most dangerous long-term securit' challenge facing the global communit' toda'. &ore specificall', failing or failed states in Latin America, Africa, the &iddle-Fast, and Asia are breeding grounds for insta*ilit"/ insurgenc"/ an$ terrorism. A *reak$o+n in institutional go)ernance can *ree$ or e,acer*ate humanitarian disasters and ma!or refugee flo%s . $uch states can 'ost net%or=s of all =inds, including criminal business enterprises and/or some form of ideological, religious, or populist crusade. T'e" also spa+n a )ariet" of &ernicious an$ let'al acti)ities an$ outcomes/ inclu$ing torture and murder+ po/ert', star/ation, and disease+ the recruitment and use of child soldiers+ trafficking in +omen an$ 'uman organs for transplants+ trafficking an$ &roliferation of con/entional %eapons s'stems and %eapons of mass destruction+ genocide, ethnic cleansing, %arlordism+ and criminal anarch' and insurgenc'. At the same time, t'ese net%or=s and acti/ities normall' are unconfined and spill o/er into regional s"n$romes of destabili#ation and conflict. Additionall', failing and failed states simpl' do not go a%a'. Ample e/idence demonstrates that failing and failed states *ecome $"sfunctional states/ rogue states/ criminal states/ narco5states/ or ne+ &eo&le4s $emocracies- &oreo/er, failing an$ faile$ states ten$ not to (*- bu' 0.$. and other e<porting nations5 products, ((- *e intereste$ in $e)elo&ing $emocratic an$ free market institutions and human rights, or (B- coo&erate on s'are$ &ro*lems such as illegal drugs, illicit arms flo%s, debilitating refugee flo%s, and potentiall' dangerous en/ironmental problems. In short, the longer the' persist, the more the' and their associated problems endanger global securit', peace, and prosperit' . Allo+s :ran to gain le)erage in t'e region +'ic' &re)ents t'e success of nuclear talks ?ease/ 11 master of arts in international securit' and former intelligence anal'st ($hadd A. 7ease, June ()**, ?Instabilit' in the $outhI 4he Implications of &e<ican $tate 3ailure on 0.$. "ational $ecurit'@, 7roAuest-//F& 4he abilit' of foreign states to conduct operations inside the countr' of &e<ico ma' be a concern if the &e<ican go/ernment is no longer able to secure and promote stabilit' throughout the &e<ican state. 3oreign states such as Iran and China ha/e recentl' put more emphasis into the Latin American region. 4hese states, particularl' Iran, are unfriendl' to the
0nited $tates. ConseAuentl', Iran has begun to deepen its ties to countries in Latin America+ this deepening in relationship is to a certain e<tent based on shared aggression to%ards the 0nited $tates.E9 Although the go/ernment of Iran see=s to en!o' regional hegemon' in the &iddle Fast, there is the possibilit' of members of the Iranian go/ernment acti/el' see=ing influence in a &e<ican state that is unable to secure its borders or effecti/el' go/ern the entire countr'. 4his

t'pe of action b' Iran %ould ele/ate its authorit' in the Latin American region therefore pro/iding better le/erage bet%een itself and the 0nited $tatesI this deed %ould be particularl' important due to the ongoing nuclear tal=s that are e<tremel' contentious bet%een Iran and man' 8estern states. 4his
thesis %ill e<plore the possibilit' of foreign states such as Iran, China, and Russia acti/el' e<ploiting the situation in &e<ico in order to gain greater influence in the Latin American region in the subseAuent sections.

T'e terminal im&act is a nuclear e,c'ange ;$elman/ 11 N Distinguished 3ello% at the Center for $trategic and udgetar' Assessments, former 0.$. 0ndersecretar' of Defense for 7olic' (Fric, ?4he Dangers of a "uclear IranI 4he Limits of Containment@, 3oreign Affairs, ()**, proAuest3R1& I$LA&A AD 41 RIMAD. 4he reports of the Congressional Commission on the $trategic 7osture of the 0nited $tates and the Commission on the 7re/ention of8eapons of &ass Destruction 7roliferation and 4errorism, as %ell as other anal'ses, ha/e highlighted the ris= that a nuclear-armed

Iran could trigger additional nuclear proliferation in the &iddle Fast, e/en if Israel does not declare its o%n nuclear arsenal."otabl', Algeria, ahrain, Fg'pt, Jordan, $audi Arabia,4ur=e', and the 0nited Arab Fmirates- all signatories to the

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 %%/283 "uclear "onproliferation 4reat' (npt--ha/e recentl' announced or initiated nuclear energ' programs. Although some of these states
ha/e legitimate economic rationales for pursuing nuclear po%er and although the lo%-enriched fuel used for po%er reactors cannot be used in nuclear %eapons, these mo/es ha/e been %idel' interpreted as hedges against a nuclear-armed Iran . 4he npt does not bar states from
de/eloping the sensiti/e technolog' reAuired to produce nuclear fuel on their o%n, that is, the capabilit' to enrich natural uranium and separate plutonium from spent nuclear fuel.Met enrichment and reprocessing can also be used to accumulate %eapons-grade enriched uranium and plutonium-the /er' loophole that Iran has apparentl' e<ploited in pursuing a nuclear %eapons capabilit'. De/eloping nuclear %eapons remains a slo%, e<pensi/e, and difficult process, e/en for states %ith considerable economic resources, and especiall' if other nations tr' to constrain aspiring nuclear statesP access to critical materials and technolog'.8ithout e<ternal support, it is unli=el' that an' of these aspirants could de/elop a nuclear %eapons capabilit' %ithin a decade. 4here is, ho%e/er, at least one state that could recei/e significant outside supportI $audi Arabia. And if it did, proliferation could accelerate throughout the region. Iran and $audi Arabia ha/e long been geopolitical and ideological ri/als. Ri'adh %ould face tremendous pressure to respond in some form to a nuclear-armed Iran, not onl' to deter Iranian coercion and sub/ersion but also to preser/e its sense that $audi Arabia is the leading nation in the &uslim %orld. 4he $audi go/ernment is alread' pursuing a nuclear po%er capabilit', %hich could be the first step along a slo% road to nuclear %eapons de/elopment. And concerns persist that it might be able to accelerate its progress b' e<ploiting its close ties to 7a=istan. During the *9E)s, in response to the use of missiles during the Iran-IraA 8ar and their gro%ing proliferation throughout the region, $audi Arabia acAuired se/eral do#en css-( intermediate-range ballistic missiles from China. 4he 7a=istani go/ernment reportedl' bro=ered the deal, and it ma' ha/e also offered to sell $audi Arabia nuclear %arheads for the css-(s, %hich are not accurate enough to deli/er con/entional %arheads effecti/el'. 4here are still rumors that Ri'adh and Islamabad ha/e had discussions in/ol/ing nuclear

7a=istan could sell operational nuclear %eapons and deli/er' s'stems to $audi Arabia, or it could pro/ide the $audis %ith the infrastructure, material, and technical support the' need to produce nuclear
%eapons, nuclear technolog', or securit' guarantees. 4his LIslamabad optionL could de/elop in one of se/eral different %a's .

%eapons themsel/es %ithin a matter of 'ears, as opposed to a decade or longer."ot onl' has 7a=istan pro/ided such support in the past, but it is currentl' building t%o more hea/'-%ater reactors for plutonium production and a second chemical reprocessing facilit' to e<tract plutonium from spent nuclear fuel. In other %ords, it might accumulate more fissile material than it needs to maintain e/en a substantiall' e<panded arsenal of its o%n. Alternati/el', 7a=istan might offer an e<tended deterrent guarantee to $audi Arabia and deplo' nuclear %eapons, deli/er' s'stems, and troops on $audi territor', a practice that the 0nited $tates has emplo'ed for decades %ith its allies. 4his arrangement could be particularl' appealing to both $audi Arabia and 7a=istan. It %ould allo% the $audis to argue that the' are not /iolating the npt since the' %ould not be acAuiring their o%n nuclear %eapons. And an e<tended deterrent from 7a=istan might be preferable to one from the 0nited $tates because stationing foreign &uslim forces on $audi territor' %ould not trigger the =ind of popular opposition that %ould accompan' the deplo'ment of 0.$. troops. 7a=istan, for its part, %ould gain financial benefits and international clout b' deplo'ing nuclear %eapons in $audi Arabia, as %ell as strategic depth against its chief ri/al, India. 4he Islamabad option raises a host of difficult issues, perhaps the most %orrisome being ho% India %ould respond. 8ould it target 7a=istanPs %eapons in $audi Arabia %ith its o%n con/entional or nuclear %eaponsH .o% %ould this e<panded nuclear competition influence stabilit' during a crisis in either the &iddle Fast or $outh AsiaH Regardless of IndiaPs reaction, an' decision b' the $audi go/ernment to see= out nuclear %eapons, b' %hate/er means, %ould be highl' destabili#ing. It %ould increase the incenti/es of other nations in the &iddle Fast to pursue nuclear %eapons of their o%n. And it could increase their abilit' to do so b' eroding the remaining barriers to nuclear proliferationI each additional state that acAuires nuclear %eapons %ea=ens the nonproliferation regime, e/en if its particular method of acAuisition onl' circum/ents, rather than /iolates, the npt. "7LAMFR C1&7F4I4I1" 8ere $audi Arabia to acAuire nuclear %eapons, the &iddle Fast %ould count three nuclear-armed states, and perhaps more before long. It is unclear ho% such an n-pla'er competition %ould unfold because most anal'ses of nuclear deterrence are based on the 0.$.- $o/iet ri/alr' during the Cold 8ar. It seems li=el', ho%e/er, that

the interaction among three

or more nuclear-armed po%ers %ould be more prone to miscalculation and escalation than a bipolar competition. During the Cold 8ar, the 0nited $tates and the $o/iet 0nion onl' needed to concern themsel/es %ith an attac= from the other.&ultipolar s'stems are generall' considered to be less stable than bipolar s'stems because coalitions can shift Auic=l', upsetting the balance of po%er and creating incenti/es for an attac=. &ore important, emerging nuclear po%ers in the &iddle Fast might not ta=e the costl' steps necessar' to preser/e regional

stabilit' and a/oid a nuclear e<change. 3or nuclear-armed states, the bedroc= of deterrence is the =no%ledge that each side has a secure
second-stri=e capabilit', so that no state can launch an attac= %ith the e<pectation that it can %ipe out its opponentsP forces and a/oid a de/astating retaliation. .o%e/er, emerging nuclear po%ers might not in/est in e<pensi/e but sur/i/able capabilities such as hardened

missile silos or submarinebased nuclear forces. >i/en this li=el' /ulnerabilit', the close pro<imit' of states in the &iddle Fast, and the /er' short flight times of ballistic missiles in the region, an' ne% nuclear po%ers might be compelled to Llaunch on %arning L of an attac= or e/en, during a crisis, to use their nuclear forces preempti/el'. 4heir go/ernments might also delegate launch authorit' to lo%er-le/el commanders, heightening the possibilit' of miscalculation and escalation. &oreo/er, if earl' %arning s'stems %ere not integrated into robust command-and-control s'stems, the ris= of an unauthori#ed or accidental launch %ould increase further still. And %ithout sophisticated earl' %arning s'stems, a nuclear attac= might be unattributable or attributed incorrectl' . 4hat is,
assuming that the leadership of a targeted state sur/i/ed a first stri=e, it might not be able to accuratel' determine %hich nation %as responsible. And this uncertaint", %hen combined %ith the pressure to respond Auic=l', +oul$ create a significant risk t'at it +oul$

retaliate against the %rong part', potentiall' triggering a regional nuclear +ar. &ost e<isting nuclear po%ers ha/e ta=en steps to
protect their nuclear %eapons from unauthori#ed useI from closel' screening =e' personnel to de/eloping technical safet' measures, such as permissi/e action lin=s, %hich reAuire special codes before the %eapons can be armed. Met there is no guarantee that emerging nuclear po%ers %ould be %illing or able to implement these measures, creating a significant ris= that their go/ernments might lose control o/er the %eapons or nuclear material and that nonstate actors could gain access to these items. $ome states might see= to mitigate threats to their nuclear arsenals+ for instance, the' might hide their %eapons. In that case, ho%e/er, a single intelligence compromise could lea/e their %eapons /ulnerable to attac= or theft.

Human trafficking net+orks increase t'e risk of terrorism 8 ease of entr" to t'e (S !eefer . 0nited $tates Arm' Colonel ($andra L., L.uman 4raffic=ing and the Impact on "ational $ecurit' for the 0nited $tates,L
httpI//%%%.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/>et4RDocHLocationY0(6docY>et4RDoc.pdf6ADYADACCE,:B4he national and international enforcement en/ironment changed significantl' after the K $eptember **, ())* attac=s. 4oda'

the conditions could be right for terrorist and humanK smugglers to !oin forces. Fmphasis is no% being placed on targeting alien smugglingK organi#ations that present threats to our national securit'. 4his emphasis recogni#es that K terrorists and their associates are li=el' to align themsel/es %ith specific alien smugglingK net%or=s to obtain undetected entr' into the 0nited $tates. 4hree factors ha/e created anK en/ironment in %hich terrorists and smuggling enterprises ma' combine their criminal efforts toK pose a significant national and international threat. 4hese factors include the fact that theK criminal organi#ations in/ol/ed are gro%ing in /olume and sophistication + and those sameK organi#ations5 de/eloping the abilit' to e<ploit public corruption+ and la< immigration controls inK source and transit countries.*DK 4he thread of traffic=ing runs through Al Oaeda5s tapestr' of terror. $ince the start of theK %ar in Afghanistan, reports ha/e indicated that the 4aliban engaged in open abduction ofK %omen and girls, ta=ing them as %ar boot'. 4here are numerous accounts of forced marriages,K rapes, %omen and girls forced to act as
concubines, and numerous =illings. &an' of those girlsK %ho %ere not used as concubines %ere sold as se<ual sla/es to %ealth' Arabs through K contacts arranged b' the Al Oaeda terrorist net%or=. 7roceeds from these sales allegedl' K helped =eep the cash-strapped 4aliban

afloat.*: In the "ational $ecurit' $trateg' of the 0nitedK $tates of America, $eptember ())(, 7resident

ush %rote that ?the 0nited $tates %ill

continueK to %or= %ith our allies to disrupt the financing of terrorism. 8e %ill identif' and bloc= the K sources of funding for terrorism.K John

7. 4orres, deput' assistant director for smuggling and public safet' at the 0nited K $tates ureau of Immigration

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 %./283 and Customs Fnforcement (ICF-, told the .ouse Judiciar' K subcommittee on immigration, border securit' and claims that human smuggling and traffic=ingK into the 0nited $tates constituted a ?significant ris= to national securit' and public safet'.@*9 .eK further stated that %ell-established smuggling and traffic=ing pipelines ser/e as a %a' for illegalK aliens and criminals see=ing entr' into this countr' , man' of %hom easil' could ha/e beenK e<ploited b' terrorist and e<tremist organi#ations loo=ing to carr' out /iolent acts. 4he 0nitedK $tates is a primar' target destination for smugglers and traffic=ers, %hich means that literall'K tens of thousands of men, %omen and children are entering this nation illegall' each 'ear Q K undocumented, undetected and unprotected. 0ntraced profits feed organi#ed-crime acti/ities,K undermine go/ernment action and the rule of la%, %hile allo%ing criminal net%or=s to gro%K stronger, more resilient and more dangerous.() ;,tinction Corsi J% WJerome. 7hD in 7oli $ci from .ar/ard, F<pert in 7oliticall'-&oti/ated Giolence. Atomic Iran, 7g *:DE//JG1$$X T'e combination of horror and outrage that %ill surge upon the nation %ill demand that the president retaliate for the incomprehensible damage done b' the attac=. 4he problem %ill be that the president %ill not immediatel' =no% ho% to respond or against %hom. 4he perpetrators %ill ha/e been incinerated b' the e<plosion that destro'ed "e%
Mor= Cit'. 0nli=e 9-**, there %ill ha/e been no inter/al during the attac= %hen those hi!ac=ed could ma=e phone calls to lo/ed ones telling them before the' died that the hi!ac=ers %ere radical Islamic e<tremists. 4here %ill be no such phone calls %hen the attac= %ill not ha/e been anticipated until the instant the terrorists detonate their impro/ised nuclear de/ice inside the truc= par=ed on a curb at the Fmpire $tate uilding. Nor +ill t'ere *e

an" &ossi*ilit" of fin$ing an" clues/ +'ic' eit'er +ere )a&ori6e$ instantl" or are no+ l"ing &'"sicall" inaccessi*le un$er tons of ra$ioacti)e ru**le- $till, the president, members of Congress, t'e militar', and the public at large %ill suspect another attac= b' our =no%n enem' QIslamic terrorists. 4he first impulse %ill be to launch a nuclear stri=e on &ecca, to destro' the %hole religion of Islam. &edina could possibl' be added to the target list !ust to ma=e the point %ith cr'stal clarit'. Met %hat %ould %e gainH 4he moment &ecca and &edina %ere %iped off the map, t'e :slamic +orl$ Q more than * billion human beings in countless different nations Q +oul$ feel attacke$- "othing %ould emerge intact after a %ar bet%een the 0nited $tates and Islam. 4he apocal'pse %ould be upon us. WC1"4I"0F$h 1r the president
might decide simpl' to launch a limited nuclear stri=e on 4ehran itself. 4his might be the most rational option in the attempt to retaliate but still communicate restraint. 4he problem is that a stri=e on 4ehran %ould add more nuclear de/astation to the %orld calculation. Muslims aroun$

t'e +orl$ +oul$ still see t'e retaliation as an attack on :slam/ es&eciall" +'en t'e (nite$ States 'a$ no &ositi)e &roof t'at t'e $estruction of "e% Mor= Cit' 'a$ *een triggere$ *" ra$ical :slamic e,tremists +it' assistance from :ran. ut for the president not to retaliate might be unacceptable to the American people. $o
%ea=ened b' the loss of "e% Mor=, Americans %ould feel /ulnerable in e/er' cit' in the nation. L8ho is going to be ne<tHL %ould be the Auestion on e/er'onePs mind. 3or this there %ould be no effecti/e ans%er. T'at t'e &resi$ent mig't t'ink &oliticall" at t'is instant

seems almost &ett"/ "et e)er" &resi$ent is *" nature a &olitician- T'e &olitical &art" in &o+er at t'e time of t'e attack +oul$ *e $estro"e$ unless t'e &resi$ent retaliate$ +it' a nuclear strike against some*o$"- T'e American &eo&le +oul$ feel a &rice 'a$ to *e &ai$ +'ile t'e countr" +as still ca&a*le of e,acting re)enge-

9rug cartels strengt'en t'e 2ussian mafia0&ro)i$e a su*stantial &rofit Se&er/ 1 8ashington 4imes (Jerr' $eper, ,/(E/*, ?&e<icans, Russian mob ne% partners in crime@, httpI//%%%.latinamericanstudies.org/drugs/me<icans-russians.htm-//F& 4he recent sei#ure of () tons of cocaine from t%o Lfishing boatsL manned b' Russian and 0=rainian cre%men has raised concerns that &e<ican drug smugglers are doing business %ith the Russian mafia. 0.$. intelligence sources belie/e drug cartels in &e<ico, considered among the %orldis most ruthless, ha/e follo%ed the lead of Colombian cocaine smugglers to form alliances %ith the Russian mob and other Fastern Furopean crime organi#ations . Led b' the Arellano3eli< cartel in 4i!uana, the sources said those alliances ha/e been firml' established and in/ol/e the shipment of both cocaine and heroin. Colombian drug cartels disco/ered the Russian mafia as earl' as *99(. 4he Russians, %ho operated from "e% Mor=, 3lorida and 7uerto Rico, mo/ed Auic=l' to help the Colombians import drugs into Furope through Ital'. 4he Russian mobsters, man' of them former J> agents, controlled numerous

ban=s in &osco% and established others in 7anama and the Caribbean to launder hundreds of millions of $ollars in illicit $rug &rofits -- for themsel/es and the Colombians. 4he partnership ga/e the Colombians a ne% mar=et for their cocaine and heroin, nearl' all of %hich pre/iousl' had been destined for the 0nited $tates, and opened up for Russian organi#ed crime %hat one 0.$. intelligence official $escri*e$ as a Da *ank )ault-D 2ussian organi6e$ crime causes acci$ental launc' an$ loose nukes t'at en$ u& in t'e 'an$s of rogue states an$ terrorists

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 %7/283 9urc'/ 77 senior associate at the .enr' L. $timson Center in 8ashington, D.C., %here he co-directs the pro!ect on Reducing "uclear Dangers and uilding Co-operati/e $ecurit' (8illiam J. Durch, ?$earching for "ational $ecurit'I 4hreat and Response in the Age of Gulnerabilit'@, 4he .enr' L. $timson Institution, httpI//%%%.stimson.org/images/uploads/research-pdfs/$earchingfor"ational$ecurit'.pdf-//F& 3rustration, crime, and corruption all afflict Russia, %hich thus far en!o's neither the prosperit' of the 8est, nor its freedom from armed
transborder threats, nor its internal stabilit' or loo=-ahead optimism. Coming across Russian borders is Afghanistan5s re/enge, a rising tide of narcotics transported in part b' corrupt or criminal elements %ithin the Russian militar'. 4he Russian militar' has lost its ideological bearings, more than half of its end strength, its position in societ', and the %ar in Chechn'a. It has neither housing for its troops nor enough mone' to pa' them but does control billions of dollars %orth of %eaponr', ammunition, technolog', and information. If recent anal'ses are e/en roughl' accurate, then significant

elements of the Russian go/ernment and militar' are at steadil' cumulating ris= of coming under organi#ed criminal influence, %hich could directl' affect American securit' b' increasing the danger of nuclear, c'emical, or *iological %eapons-related materials or technologies reaching the international blac= mar=et+ and b' halting or constraining international cooperation needed to secure Russian nuclear forces and reinforce militar' command and control. 7ublic 1pinion and "ational $trateg'

In a democrac', public opinion shapes public polic' b' indicating ho% people ma' e/entuall' /ote, but on an' gi/en issue it ma' ta=e se/eral forms. 3or e<ample, %hile more than E) percent of the public agreed, %hen as=ed in *99E, that terrorism is a ?critical threat@ to the 0nited $tates, less than a third %orr' much about terrorist acts occurring in this countr', and onl' EQ*( percent /olunteer terrorism as one of the top three international problems facing the 0nited $tates. 7ublic opinion leaders are e/en less /ocal in /olunteering terrorism as an important problem. 4hese /olunteered /ie%s ha/e not changed (%ithin sampling error- for o/er a decade, e/en as public polic' has %heeled to face the percei/ed terrorist challenge at home. 1ther /ie%s, ho%e/er, ha/e changed substantiall'. 8hen the Chicago Council on 3oreign Relations polled the public in *9ED on the most important problem facing the 0nited $tates, B* percent /olunteered ?%ar@ or ?the arms race %ith the $o/iet 0nion.@ In response to the same Auestion in late *99E, (* percent (the largest bloc=- said ?don5t =no%.@ Common perceptions on the part of 0$ and Furopean publics and opinion leaders are important to crafting and sustaining collaborati/e threat management. 7olls suggests a future competiti/e-cooperati/e relationship, %ith each side tending to its economic interests but %ith grounds for !oint endea/ors against %eapons of mass destruction (8&D-, terrorism, drug traffic=ing, and organi#ed crime. (4he prospects for !oint 0$-Furopean efforts to secure energ' F<ecuti/e $ummar' i< supplies N an important priorit' for 0$ leaders and the public N are not measurable from Furopean 0nion polling.- 1fficial 0$ threat perceptions ha/e e/ol/ed in ten 'ears from a close focus on the $o/iet threat, nuclear deterrence, and $o/iet-inspired instabilities abroad, to an emphasis on threats from regional po%ers, proliferation of 8&D, and the ris= of terrorists acAuiring such %eapons. Deterrence has become a generic capacit' to dissuade, and nuclear forces ?ser/e as a hedge against an uncertain future.@ In other %ords, the 0nited $tates retains its most po%erful %eapons to confront the un=no%n. 7reparations for ma!or theater %ar (&48- %ith con/entionall'-armed forces continue to absorb the greatest share of securit'-related federal spending but spending is do%n b' one Auarter compared %ith ten 'ears ago. "uclear-related spending is do%n b' t%o thirds in the same period and no longer o/ershado%s other non-&48 securit' spending+ indeed, the fight against illicit drugs no% captures almost as man' federal resources as do nuclear programs. $pending on ?lesser militar' contingencies@ li=e peace=eeping in osnia and actions %ith other members of the "orth Atlantic 4reat' 1rgani#ation ("A41- against Mugosla/ia is li=el' to eAual or e<ceed the cost of the fight against drugs in fiscal *999, if all rele/ant support costs are allocated, reflecting the increased preoccupation of 0$ forces %ith operations of this t'pe. "A415s collecti/e action comports %ith the 0$ public5s in/ariabl' strong preference for multilateral o/er unilateral militar' action. 8hile one suspects that the public ma' simpl' %ant to pa' less for o/erseas engagement rather than do more of them, its preference points to%ard allied or coalition action as the %a' ahead for con/entional militar' engagements of large si#e or long duration. 4he /er' high fraction of securit' dollars de/oted to &48 ma' other%ise be misspent, as public support for sustained, unilateral engagement of those forces could be difficult to generate. 8hile the 0$ "ational $ecurit' $trateg' separates interests and /alues in the timehonored fashion of realpoliti=, the most /ital 0$ interest lies in maintaining the countr' not !ust as a chun= of populated land but as an entit' %ith a particular configuration of political po%er (representati/e democrac'-, economic relations (open mar=ets-, legal structures, and personal rights, that is, a particular configuration of /alues. 4hat the global ?spread of modernit'@ in politics, economics, and human rights supports America5s /ital interests is clear if one ta=es but a moment to appreciate that states %ith %ea=, corrupt go/ernments and destitute, repressed < $earching for "ational $ecurit'I 4hreat and Response in the Age of Gulnerabilit' populations become sources and transit points for, among other things, international narcotics. "ature ma' abhor a /acuum but the drug trade lo/es it. 3ear of the un=no%n or uncontrollable threat appears to be hard-%ired into our ps'ches. It abets %orst-case planning and helps to account for the s%elling emphasis on domestic counterterrorism and critical infrastructure protection, programs designed to cope %ith potentiall' highcost e/ents of un=no%n probabilit'. Just as uncertaint' about post-$o/iet interstate threats plagued defense planners in the earl' *99)s, uncertaint' about transnational threats seems to be ma=ing /ulnerabilit' the pacing factor of 0$ polic' as the decade closes. 4he %orr' behind the polic' is that Americans ha/e built for themsel/es an ultimatel' undefendable %a' of life. 4he ob!ect of ne% polic' is to reduce that %orr' but, %ithout a realistic measure of true threat, there is a ris= of creating a /ulnerabilit'-response cascade that ma' pose its o%n challenge to the open societ'.

Important dimensions of securit' threats include their damage potential, ho% much %arning %e ma' ha/e of their occurrence, and a sense of their o/erall probabilit' or ?strategic li=elihood,@ not the li=elihood of an' particular action but a measure of predisposition to act. 4o compare disparate threats N interstate, transnational, and ecological N ten-point scales %ere de/ised for %arning time and four separate dimensions of damage potential (depth, breadth, ripple effect, and reco/er' time-. A/eraged scores on
&easuring 4hreat and Response 4here is a %idel' recogni#ed need for better approaches to threat assessment in the ne% national securit' en/ironment. these fi/e scales produce simple inde< of threat. $ample indices for historical and h'pothetical e/ents appear in the table belo%. (Li=elihood estimates are not factored into these numbers but ma' be found in the main te<t.- 1f the sample threats e/aluated, political-militar'

deca' in Russian sufficient to %ea=en its nuclear command and control s'stem, increase the probabilit' of an accidental launch of some fraction of its remaining nuclear forces, or increase the probabilit' of 8&D falling into terrorist hands, could ha/e t'e most $e)astating conseHuences for the 0nited $tates. 8hile attac=s such as that b' the in Laden group against 0$ embassies in *99E %ere deadl', and
serious, their damage potential to the 0nited $tates is less than that posed b' economic collapse in &e<ico, or information attac=s that succeeded in disabling some significant element of 0$ infrastructure.

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7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

1ac relations
Coo&erating on 'uman trafficking sol)es (S5=atin American relations Car" 10 Council on .emispheric Affairs research associate+ C1.A is a nonprofit, ta<-e<empt independent research and information organi#ation
(Jelse', :/(:/*), LCombating .uman 4raffic=ing in the 8estern .emisphereI 4he "eed for Increased ">1 In/ol/ement,L httpI//%%%.coha.org/combating-human-traffic=ing-in-the-%estern-hemisphere-the-need-for-increased-ngo-in/ol/ement/-//A& .e %ent on to clarif' that ?the heart of human traffic=ing lies in e<ploitation+ it5s not al%a's about migration. 3ort' percent of traffic=ing /ictims in the 0.$. come from Latin America. It is e/er' bit as much for labor as for se<ual e<ploitation.@ A Congressional Research Report highlights the case of &e<ico because it accounted for t%ent'-three percent of recogni#ed human traffic=ing /ictims in the 0.$. in ())E

alone. 4hus, increased collaboration bet%een the 0.$. and &e<ico regarding immigration and traffic=ing legislation %ill onl' 'ield positi/e outcomes . ' e<amining the case of &e<ico it is e/ident that a deepening of relations bet%een the 0.$. and Latin American countries could be facilitated b' engaging in dialogue regarding human rights, especiall' traffic=ing. =atin American relations sol)e e,tinction 3e$illo/ et al 08 --- Commission Co-Chair for the roo=ings Institute Report on the 7artnership for the Americas and former 7resident of &e<ico WFrnesto 2edillo, 4homas R. 7ic=ering, etc, Rethin=ing 0.$.QLatin American Relations A .emispheric 7artnership for a 4urbulent 8orld. Report of the 7artnership for the Americas Commission, 4he roo=ings Institution, "o/ember ())E, httpI//%%%.broo=ings.edu/j/media/Research/3iles/Reports/())E/**/(CU()latinU()america U()partnership/**(C;latin;america;partnership.7D3, F"DI 3ileX 4he "eed for a .emispheric 7artnership Historicall"/ the 0nited $tates and Latin America ha/e rarel' de/eloped a genuine and sustained partnership to address regionalNlet alone globalNchallenges. Mutual distrust is partl' to blame. Also, the LAC countries %ere often not read' to ma=e stable commitments. T'e (nite$ States 'a$ ot'er &reoccu&ations an$ $i$ not make 'emis&'eric &artners'i& a &riorit"- 7roblems and solutions %ere seen from 8ashington as countr'-specific and %ere managed mostl' on a countr'-b'countr' basis through bilateral channels. &ean%hile, multilateral forumsNsuch as the 1rgani#ation of American $tates and the summits of hemispheric leadersN ran out of steam, became mired in confrontation, or remained underresourced. :f a 'emis&'eric &artners'i& remains elusi)e/ t'e costs to the 0nited $tates and its neighbors %ill be high, in terms of *ot' gro+ing risks an$ misse$ o&&ortunities- Wit'out a &artners'i&/ t'e risk t'at criminal net+orks &ose to t'e region4s &eo&le an$ institutions +ill continue to gro+ . ?eaceful nuclear tec'nolog" ma" *e a$o&te$ more +i$el"/ *ut +it'out &ro&er safeguar$s/ t'e risks of nuclear &roliferation +ill increase. A$a&tation to climate c'ange +ill take &lace t'roug' isolate$/ im&ro)ise$ measures b' indi/idual countries, rat'er t'an t'roug' more effecti)e efforts based on mutual learning and coordination. :llegal immigration to the 0nited $tates +ill continue una*ate$ an$ unregulate$, adding to an e/er-larger underclass that li/es and %or=s at the margins of the la%. 3inall', t'e countries aroun$ t'e 'emis&'ere/ including the 0nited $tates, +ill lose )alua*le o&&ortunities to ta& ne+ markets/ make ne+ in)estments/ an$ access )alua*le resources- It is important to note at the outset that the term ?partnership@ as used in this
report does not mean eAual responsibilit' for all. 4he as'mmetries bet%een the 0nited $tates and its neighbors are large and %ill remain so for the foreseeable future. ?artners'i& 'ere means a t"&e of international coo&eration +'ere*" a grou& of

countries i$entifies common interests/ o*>ecti)es/ an$ solutions/ and then each partner countr' underta=es responsibilities according to its o%n economic and political capacities to generate shared benefits. 4oda', four c'anges in the region ha/e ma$e a 'emis&'eric &artners'i& *ot' &ossi*le an$ necessar". <irst/ t'e ke" c'allenges face$ b' the 0nited $tates and the hemisphere5s other countriesN suc' as securing sustainable energ' supplies, com*ating and adapting to climate change, and combating organi#ed crime and drug traffic=ingNha/e become so comple< and deepl' transnational that the' cannot be managed or o/ercome b' an' single countr'. Was'ington nee$s &artners in the LAC region %ith a shared sense of responsibilit' and a common sta=e in the future. <or e,am&le/ $rug trafficking an$ its associate$ criminal net+orks 'a)e no+ s&rea$ so +i$el" across the hemisphere that t'e" can no longer *e regar$e$ as a A(-S- &ro*lem/B a ?Colombian problem,@ or a ?&e<ican problem.@ T'e t'reat posed b' these net%or=s can onl" *e countere$ t'roug' coor$inate$ efforts across &ro$ucing/ consuming/ an$ transs'i&ment countries, all of %hich ha/e a shared interest in controlling the flo% of arms, mone', /ehicles, and drugs. T'e &rocess of com*ating an$ a$a&ting to climate c'ange also e,em&lifies t'e nee$ for a 'emis&'eric &artners'i&- All car*on5emitting societies contri*ute to the problem to different degrees, an$ all +ill e,&erience its conseHuences- T'e solutionsNranging from $e)elo&ing alternati)e fuels to a$a&ting to ecological s'ocks0all reHuire sustaine$ coo&eration among t'e 'emis&'ere4s countries. T'e secon$ c'ange is t'at t'e =AC countries are $i)ersif"ing t'eir international economic relations- T'eir range of tra$ing an$ in)estment &artners is e,&an$ing/ %ith China in

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particular pla'ing a prominent role in the region. Chinese imports from the LAC countries increased t%ent'fold bet%een *99) and ()),, %hile Chinese e<ports to the region gre% e/en faster, from SD() million in *99) to SB: billion in ()),. Latin America is also attracting significant foreign in/estment from nontraditional sources. et%een !ust ())B and ()),, the stoc= of Chinese foreign direct in/estment in the LAC region increased b' C) percent. China has become a =e' bu'er of commodities, dri/ing up prices and re/ersing the long-term decline in the region5s terms of trade. &ean%hile, the Caribbean countries ha/e recentl' signed an Fconomic 7artnership Agreement %ith the Furopean 0nion, immediatel' opening all Furopean mar=ets and graduall' opening Caribbean ones. 8ith more /aluable e<ports and less e<pensi/e manufactured imports, li/ing standards in the LAC region ha/e impro/ed significantl'. At the same time, man' LAC countries ha/e mo/ed be'ond their traditional reliance on resources from the International &onetar' 3und, the 8orld an=, and the Inter-American De/elopment an=. Chile, &e<ico, 7eru, and ra#il no% en!o' in/estment-grade status from credit-rating agencies and in recent 'ears ha/e been able to raise capital readil' in international mar=ets. 4he same is true of se/eral other countries, including Colombia, Fl $al/ador, 7anama, and 0rugua', %hich until the recent financial crisis en!o'ed read' access to pri/ate international capital. Regionall' o%ned institutions, such as the Andean De/elopment Corporation and the Central American an= for Fconomic Integration, ha/e also reduced the region5s dependence on traditional sources of capital. Some =atin American countries are in)esting a*roa$

on an un&rece$ente$ scale. In ())D, for e<ample,

ra#il in/ested more abroad (S(E billion- than it recei/ed in foreign direct in/estment (S*9 billion-. In Chile, pri/ate pension funds and the go/ernment ha/e become acti/e international in/estors. $urpluses ha/e allo%ed Gene#uela to in!ect billions of dollars into other countries, particularl' through subsidi#ed oil e<ports. &an' Latin American multinationalsNsuch as ra#il5s Gale, >erdau, and 1debrecht+ and &e<ico5s CF&FT, America &o/il, and >rupo 3F&$ANha/e become global corporate giants. 4he current crisis ma' no doubt affect the relati/e magnitude of these in/estments, but economic relationships in the hemisphere %ill continue to di/ersif' as the %orld econom' reco/ers.

T'e t'ir$ c'ange is t'at t'e =AC countries are $i)ersif"ing t'eir &olitical an$ $i&lomatic relations. T'e most nota*le e,am&le is #ra6il/ +'ic' 'as o&ene$ t'irt"5t+o ne+ em*assies in t'e &ast fi)e "ears- 4ogether %ith Gene#uela, ra#il is pla'ing a more acti/e political role in the region through the 0nion of $outh American "ations, %hich is alread' acti/e at the presidential le/el and is e<pected to become a =e' forum for the discussion of defense issues. Me,ico an$ #ra6il are also &la"ing &rominent roles in international forums an$ organi6ations/ including the

finance ministers5 >roup of 4%ent' and the trade ministers5 >roup of 4%ent'. ra#il has announced its intention to !oin the 1rgani#ation of the 7etroleum-F<porting Countries and the 7aris Club. Chile and ra#il are e<pected to become members of the 1rgani#ation for Fconomic Cooperation and De/elopment (1FCD- in the not-too-distant future. &e<ico, 7eru, and Chile are acti/e members of the Asia-7acific Fconomic Cooperation forum. In sum, this di/ersification of political and economic relations reflects man' LAC countries5 ne% confidence in their capacit' to chart their o%n course in the %orld. T'eir en'ance$ confi$ence an$ autonom" +ill make man" =AC countries muc' less

res&onsi)e to (-S- &olicies t'at are &ercei)e$ as &atroni6ing/ intrusi)e/ or &rescri&ti)e/ an$ t'e" +ill *e more res&onsi)e to &olicies t'at engage t'em as &artners on issues of mutual concern . Also, the LAC countries5 di/ersification of economic and political relations means that Was'ington +ill 'a)e to com&ete +it' go)ernments *ot' outsi$e an$ +it'in t'e region for regional influence- In particular, rasklia and Caracas are
both /'ing for leadership in $outh America+ and though the' ma' ha/e different /isions for regional integration and different %a's to approach other go/ernments, the' agree that 8ashington should pla' a more limited role in their part of the %orld. 4he fourth change is that, to$a"/ t'e =AC

countries are *etter &ositione$ to act as relia*le &artners . Despite remaining go/ernance challenges, t'e /ast ma!orit' of these countries are stable democracies for %hich competiti/e elections and peaceful transitions of po%er are the norm, not the e<ception. 4hroughout these countries, ci/il societ' groups no% participate e<tensi/el' in the polic'ma=ing process, and there is much less tolerance of /iolence as a means of political e<pression. ;conomic &rogress 'as also ma$e t'e =AC countries more relia*le &artners. Leaders, including some on the left, are committed to fiscal responsibilit'. &ost central
ban=s are no% independent bodies focused on inflation control. F<change rates largel' reflect mar=et forces. As a result, man' LAC countries can no% loo= be'ond their borders and commit to sustained partnerships and responsibilities on regional and global issues. :n sum/ t'e countries

of t'e =AC region 'a)e ma$e significant stri$es in economic and social de/elopment an$ +ill continue to &ros&er e)en if (-S- lea$ers remain $isengage$ . Was'ington must $eci$e +'et'er it +ants to acti)el" reengage an$ *enefit from t'e region4s $"namism an$ resources or *e si$eline$ as ot'er economic an$ &olitical actors fill t'e )oi$ left *" its a*sence .

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Human Trafficking Aff .1/283

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:n'erenc"

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2ac generic trafficking increasing


Trafficking of all t"&es an$ of )arious &eo&les is increasing in t'e status Huo A#A/ 7 (American ar Association, &arch ())9, ?.0&A" 4RA33ICJI"> A $$F$$&F"4 411L RF71R4 31R &FTIC1@, httpI//apps.americanbar.org/rol/publications/me<ico;())9;htat;en.pdf-//F&
4he scope of human traffic=ing in &e<ico is difficu lt to ascertain. $ources of information include media reports, a limited number of academic studies and international estimates, e<periences of non-go/ernmental organi#ations Whereinafter ">1sX a nd international organi#ations that ha/e identified and assisted traffic=ing /ictims, and go /ernment agencies that ha/e in/estigated or prosecuted traffic=ing or related cases. Fstimates /ar' from

bet%een (),))) to ,)),))) /ictims in &e<ico at an' gi/en time , depending on ho% the i ssue of se<ual e<ploitation of adults is
percei/ed, but no official statistics are a/ailable . ">1s and international organi#ations inter/ie%ed fo r this report had assisted o/er B)) traffic=ing /ictims, including &e<ican and foreign %omen and children in prostitution+ Chinese %omen and men in forced

labor in a maAuila factor'+ ( >uatemalan men, %omen, and children in forced labor in the agricultural sector+ &e<ican and foreign men in forced labor in the construction sector+ and &e<ican and foreign %omen in domestic %or=. 4he "a tional &igration Institute Whereinafter "&IX, an agenc' of the &inistr' of the Interior Whereinaf ter &1IX, reports ha/ing
assisted (( traffic=ing /ictims %ith migration documentation bet%een Januar ' ())) and &arch ())E. 4he 1ffice on 1rgani#ed Crime of the 1ffice of the Attorne' >ener al Whereinafter 1A>X has prosecuted three traffic=ing-related cases, all of %hich in/ol/e %om en in commercial se<ual e<ploitation, and the ne%l' created $peciali#ed 7rosecutorial 0nit for 8o men Gictims of Giolence and 4raffic=ing in 7ersons Whereinafter 3FGI&4RAX has in/estigated (C cases. In 1ctober ())E, 3FGI&4RA issued its first formal indictment using the La% to 7re/en t and $anction 4raffic=ing in 7ersons ( adopted "o/. (:, ()):, 1fficial Journal of the 3ederation ( D.1.-- Whereinafter 3 FDFRAL A "4I -4 RA33ICJI"> L A8 X, in the case of forced labor in $onora. At the s tate le/el, /arious cases related to traffic=ing in persons are in the process of being in/estigated . .o%e/er, the assessment team recei/ed information on onl' one state-le/el case in %hich i ndictments under the specific charge of traffic=ing in persons %ere made. 4his case is bei ng prosecuted in &ichoacan.

Trafficking is increasing 8 $rug cartels #rice 10 C"" reporter (Arthur, L.uman traffic=ing second onl' to drugs in &e<ico, *)/*,/()*),
httpI//%%%.thehrf.org/ne%s/documents/)E(:*);C"";.umanttraffic=ing.pdf-//A& It is indeed big business. .uman traffic=ing, the

traffic=ing is one of the most lucrati/e forms of crime %orld%ide after drug and armsK 0nited "ations 1ffice on Drugs and Crime said in April.K In &e<ico, it is a S*, billion- to S() billiona-'ear endea/or, second onl' to drug traffic=ing, said $amuel Logan, founding K director of $outhern 7ulse, an online information net%or= focused on Latin America.K LAnd that ma' be a conser/ati/e estimate,L Logan said.K 4hat mone', %hich used to go mostl' to smugglers, no% also flo%s into the hands of drug cartel members.K 4he Center for $trategic and International $tudies , a bipartisan, nonprofit polic' institute based in 8ashington, noted in anK August report that human smuggling and other illegal acti/ities are pla'ing an increasingl' important role as narcotraffic=ers K di/ersif' their acti/ities.K L4he drug cartels ha/e not confined themsel/es to selling narcotics,L the report said. L4he' engage in =idnapping for ransom,K e<tortion, human smuggling and other crimes to augment their incomes.LK $ome cartels ha/e come to rel' more in recent 'ears on human smuggling. Trafficking is gro+ing 8 &o)ert"/ cartels an$ increase$ organi6e$ crime T'e Was'ington ?ost 11 (L&e<ican cartels mo/e into human traffic=ing,L :/(:/**, httpI//articles.%ashingtonpost.com/()**-):(:/%orld/B,(D:(,(;*;se<ual-e<ploitation-marisela-morales-cartels-//A&

As organi#ed crime and globali#ation ha/e increased, &e<ico has become a ma!or destination for se< traffic, as %ell as a transit point and supplier of /ictims to the 0nited $tates. Drug cartels are mo/ing into the trade, pre'ing on immigrant %omen, sometimes %ith the complicit' of corrupt regional officials / according to diplomats and
acti/ists.K ?If narcotics traffic=ers are caught, the' go to high-securit' prisons, but %ith the traffic=ing of %omen, the' ha/e found absolute impunit',@ said Rosi 1ro#co, a congress%oman in &e<ico and sponsor of a proposed la% against human traffic=ing. K In

&e<ico, thousands of %omen and children are forced into se< traffic e/er' 'ear , 1ro#co said, most of it in/ol/ing lucrati/e prostitution rings. K ?It is gro%ing because of po/ert', because the cartels ha/e gotten in/ol/ed and because no one tells them no,@ said 4eresa 0lloa, the regional director of the Coalition Against 4raffic=ing in 8omen and >irls in Latin America and the Caribbean. ?8e are fighting so that their li/es and their bodies are not merchandise.@ Me,ico4s currentl" s'ifting to $ecrease trafficking *ut it4s not enoug' T'e Was'ington ?ost 11 (L&e<ican cartels mo/e into human traffic=ing,L :/(:/**, httpI//articles.%ashingtonpost.com/()**-):(:/%orld/B,(D:(,(;*;se<ual-e<ploitation-marisela-morales-cartels-//A&

Authorities said federal police mounted a massi/e raid against human traffic=ing in bars and hotels in Ciudad Juare# last
%ee=end, arresting hundreds of suspects and reco/ering a missing *,-'ear-old girl and four other minors %ho %ere being used for se<ual e<ploitation.

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 .3/283 ut con/ictions are still rare, ma=ing the attention seem li=e empt' political rhetoric or a response to international pressure, said $aul Arellano, an anal'st at the CFIDA$ thin= tan=. .e /ie%ed the proposed la% as a much-needed step in the right direction, but he said it %ould ha/e to be matched b' a stronger effort to arrest and con/ict traffic=ers.

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2ac trafficking un$erre&orte$


Trafficking )ictims are un$erre&orte$ Mc1a'a an$ ;)ans/ 11 (Johnn' F. &c>aha, 7h.D. 7rofessor of Justice $tudies 6 Director, Fsperan#a Anti4raffic=ing 7ro!ect A"D Amanda F/ans, Fd.D. &$8, Assistant 7rofessor of $ocial 8or= 6 7rogram F/aluator , *)/C/**, ?8here are the GictimsH@, httpI//bebopper:D.%ordpress.com/()**/)E/B)/se<-traffic=ing-researchessa'-papers/-//F&
III. 4he .idden CrimeI Reasons for 7otential 0nderreporting As %e heard often during this s'mposium, b' the /er' nature of the crime, human traffic=ing is largel' hidden and accurate data on the e<tent and nature of human traffic=ing is hard to calculate. 4raffic=ing /ictims are often in dangerous positions and ma' be unable, or un%illing, to !eopardi#e their li/es to report to or see= help from rele/ant authorities. Gictims ma'

li/e dail' %ith emotional and ph'sical abuse, inhumane treatment, and threats to their families bac= home . 4he' ma' fear authorit' figures and are often told that if disco/ered, the' %ould be imprisoned, deported or tortured . Gisas and other identif' documents, if an' e<ist, are often ta=en b' their traffic=ers as an addition method of detaining the /ictims. 3ostering fear of authorit' in /ictims is a common contributor to poor detection of human traffic=ing /ictims . Douglas lac=mon W9X
compares the current issue of human traffic=ing to the past histor' of post-abolition sla/e treatment in the0.$. in the late *E))5s. According to lac=mon, for decades after emancipation, thousands of African Americans %ere forced into labor after charges %ere made against them through the criminal !ustice s'stem. 4o pa' off these so-called debts the' %or=ed for lando%ners %ithout, or at best minimal, compensation. If the' resisted, ne% charges %ere filed against them, thus their debt increased. 4his method of control is similar to man' founded cases of human traffic=ing toda'. 4his form of sla/er' /er' much resembles the stories of human traffic=ing toda'. ecause of these reasons, man' professionals feel that human

traffic=ing is an un$erre&orte$ crime, not unli=e domestic /iolence or rape %here /ictims ha/e to put their trust in police, prosecutors and /ictims ser/ices professionals to face their accusers in court. 4he fact that human traffic=ing /ictims are often from other countries and cultures that do not /alue %omen as %ell as being unfamiliar %ith the language or culture here, magnifies their distrust of authorit' and un%illingness to come for%ard . W*)X Another contributing factor is some /ictim5s fear
of access to !ustice because of their o%n immigration status. Gictims %ho entered this countr' %ithout proper documentation ha/e a limited understanding of their legal rights W**X. According toLogan, 8al=er, and .unt, human traffic=ing perpetrators often use /ictims for criminal acti/it' and /ictims fear that the' %ill be percei/ed as criminals as %ell if the' attempt to see= help.

Trafficking )ictims are afrai$ to s&eak out 1ar6a/ 11 (Rocio >ar#a, .ar/ard graduate, candidate for Juris Doctor, **/*/**, Addressing .uman 4raffic=ing Along the 0nited $tates-&e<ico orderI the "eed for a ilateral 7artnership, httpI//%%%.c!icl.com/uploads/(/9/,/9/(9,9:9*/c!icl;*9.(;gar#a;note.pdf-//F& .uman traffic=ing is a crime that traumati6es )ictims and intimi$ates t'em into silence. (*E ecause human traffic=ers are usuall' lin=ed to larger criminal organi#ation, /ictims ma' be hesitant and afraid to press charges after being released or escaping the grip of traffic=ers.(*9 It is less li=el' that /ictims %ill come for%ard %ith charges e/en %hen the' are able to if the' ha/e to admit %rongdoing that can be interpreted as consent to the crime
perpetrated against them. 0nder &e<ican legislation, ?the /ictims themsel/es must bring charges against the offenders in order for the crime to be considered human traffic=ing.@(() ReAuiring the traumati#ed /ictim to bring charges against the offender and to pro/e that he or she did not consent to the crime perpetrated against him or her places an almost insurmountable burden on that /ictim. Gictims of such heinous crimes should not ha/e to pro/e their lac= of consent as a prereAuisite to getting !ustice. 4o do so is to /iolate the &e<ican Anti-4raffic=ing La%5s core purpose to pro/ide protection to /ictims of human traffic=ing.((

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2ac la*or trafficking increasing


=a*or trafficking is ram&ant an$ lea$s to t'e +orse forms of in$i)i$ual )iolence <;:N1@=9 200% (Da/id, Director, 1phidian Research Institute+ International Coordinator, .IG/AID$ and 4raffic=ing 7ro!ects, 0"F$C1 ang=o=, August B), ()),, ?4hin= AgainI .uman 4raffic=ing,@ 3oreign 7olic', httpI//%%%.foreignpolic'.com/articles/()),/)E/B)/thin=;again;human;traffic=ingHpageYfull, .enselL&ost Gictims Are 4raffic=ed into the $e< Industr'L "o. 4raffic=ing of %omen and children (and, more rarel', 'oung men- for prostitution is a /ile and heinous /iolation of human rights, but labor traffic=ing is probabl' more %idespread. F/idence can be found in field studies of traffic=ing /ictims across the %orld and in the simple fact that the %orld%ide mar=et for labor is far greater than that for se<. $tatistics on the Lend useL of traffic=ed people are often unreliable because the' tend to o/errepresent the se< trade. 3or e<ample, men are e<cluded from the traffic=ing statistics gathered in 4hailand because, according to its national la%, men cannot Aualif' as traffic=ing /ictims. .o%e/er, a detailed ()), stud' b' the International Labour 1rgani#ation (IL1- found that, of the estimated 9., million /ictims of forced labor in Asia, less than *) percent are traffic=ed for commercial se<ual e<ploitation. 8orld%ide, less than half of all traffic=ing /ictims are part of the se< trade, according to the same report. Labor traffic=ing, ho%e/er,

is hardl' benign. A stud' of urmese domestic %or=ers in 4hailand b' &ahidol 0ni/ersit'Ps Institute for 7opulation and $ocial Research found beatings, se<ual assault, forced labor %ithout pa', sleep depri/ation, and rape to be common . Another stud' b' the >erman Agenc' for 4echnical Cooperation (>42- loo=ed at Fast African girls traffic=ed to the &iddle Fast and found that most %ere bound for oppressi/e domestic %or=, and often raped and beaten along the %a'.
o's from Cambodia and urma are also freAuentl' traffic=ed onto deep-sea commercial fishing boats, some of %hich sta' at sea for up to t%o 'ears. 7reliminar' research suggests *) percent of these 'oung cre%s ne/er return, and bo's that become ill are freAuentl' thro%n o/erboard.

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2ac c'il$ trafficking increasing


Trafficking of c'il$ la*orers is increasing A#A/ 7 (American ar Association, &arch ())9, ?.0&A" 4RA33ICJI"> A $$F$$&F"4 411L RF71R4 31R &FTIC1@, httpI//apps.americanbar.org/rol/publications/me<ico;())9;htat;en.pdf-//F& 4raffic=ing of children in &e<ico occurs in all of the sectors affected b' traffic=ing in adults . 4he three principal sectors
that %ere mentioned in all of the states /isited b' the assessment team %ere agricultural %or=, domestic %or=, and commerci al se<ual e<ploitation. 4he &inistr' of Fducation estimates that there are appro<imatel' B,),))) children %ho ser/e as temporar'

agricultural %or=ers each 'ear %ithin &e< ico, less than *)U of %hom are in school, and C(U of %hom suffer from malnutrition. According to federal labor la%s, children under *C ma' not %or=, but neither the companies that contract the families as %or=ers nor the federal inspectors inter/ene on a regular basis. 8hether o r not some of these children are traffic=ing /ictims is un=no%n. In terms of domestic %or=, a recent stud' presented b' the "ational "et%or= for Defense of Children in &e<ico sho%s that * in *) girls bet%een *( and *: 'ears old is forced to %or= as a domestic emplo'ee in &e<ico , sometimes onl' recei/i ng
room and board as pa'ment, or compensation %ell belo% the minimum %age. &e<icoI Indigenous >irls are the &ost Gulnerable to Child Domestic 8or= , L A J 1R"ADA , April E, ())E. In some situations, these girls m a' be mistreated, not allo%ed to go to school, and forced to

%or= long hours %ith no pa'. Domestic %or=ers are /ulnerable to ph'sical and se<ual abuse b' emplo'ees. 4he' are often confined to the homes, and unable to see= assistance. In addit ion, emplo'ers often retain their pa' so that the' cannot lea/e. In some
states it is common for parents to send their children from rural areas to larger cities to %or= as domestic %or=ers in e<c hange for room and board. A/ailable information on children in commercial se< ual e<ploitation sho%s that the phenomenon is both e<tensi/e and per/asi/e on the national le/ el. 4he most %idel' cited figure from the ())) 0nited "ations Children5s 3und Whereinafter 0"ICF3X report is *D,))), but man' ">1s that %or= %ith children belie/e the number is much higher. I n its special report on the topic in &e<ico Cit', the &e<ico Cit' .uman Rights Commission describes / arious %a's in %hich children are traffic=ed. 3or e<ample, 'oung %omen %ho arri/e in bus stations are sought out b' people %ho offer them !obs, food, and places to li/e. Recruit ers also go to poor to%ns in southern &e<ico and Central America to offer !obs to 'oung %omen, often %ith the consent of their parents. 1nce the traffic=ers ha/e the girls capti/e, the' tell them that the' ha/e to %or= as

prostitutes to pa' off the debt. Lastl', 'oung %omen %ho come to &e<ico from Latin America to %or= as models are forced into prostitution
upon arri/al. $ee generall' 3 FDFRAL D I$4RIC4 . 0&A" R I>.4$ C 1&&I$$I1" , $ 7FCIAL R F71R4 1" 4.F C 1&&FRCIAL $ FT0AL F T7L1I4A4I1" 13 C .ILDRF" I" & FTIC1 C I4M (())D-+ F LF"A A 2A1LA , 0"ICF3-D3$, 1M A"D > IRL G IC4I&$ 13 $ FT0AL F T7L1I4A4I1" I" & FTIC1 (()))-+ and F RICJ > 1&F2 -4 A>LF , C 1&&FRCIAL $ FT0AL F T7L1I4A4I1" 13 > IRL$ , 1M$ A"D A D1LF$CF"4$ I A $ 1CI1L1>ICAL A 77R1TI&A4I1" ("ational Institute for Criminal $ciences ()),-.

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2ac atQ sH sol)es


Status Huo $oesn4t sol)e Martins/ 13 (Flisa &artins, *)/,/*B ?.uman traffic=ing challenges &e<ico and Central America@, httpI//infosurho'.com/cocoon/saii/<html/en;> /features/saii/features/main/()*B/),/*)/feature-)*-//F&
?&e<ico and Central America ha/e mo/ed for%ard and ha/e gi/en more /isibilit' to the fight against human traffic=ing,@ de La 4orre said. ?0"1DC %or=ed %ith prosecutors for si< 'ears to train their police forces, propose la% reforms and promote meetings bet%een officials for an e<change bet%een &e<ico and Central America on this issue.@ 4he international campaign for the pre/ention of human traffic=ing ?Corablo A#ul@ ( lue .eart- %as

ta=en b' 0"1DC in ()*) to &e<ico, %here it %as %elcomed b' then-7resident 3elipe Caldermn. ?It %as a success in mobili#ing public opinion and encouraging legislati/e reform to spread the idea that human beings are not for sale,@ de La 4orre said. In ()*(, the >eneral La% on the 7re/ention, 7unishment and Fradication of Crimes against 4raffic=ing
in 7ersons %as enacted, in accordance %ith the 7alermo 7rotocols, %hich %ere created b' the 0nited "ations to go/ern fighting this crime. ?It is an important la% because it determines the assistance and protection for /ictims,@ 7arks 7ombo said. ?It does not reAuire /ictims to spea= as soon as the' are disco/ered. It directs the focus first to ps'chological support and shelter care.@ 4he Attorne' >eneral5s $pecial 7rosecutor5s 1ffice for Giolence Against 8omen and 4raffic=ing in 7ersons (3FGI&4RA-, created in ()):, included the construction of a shelter near

&e<ico Cit' to accommodate /ictims. Ho+e)er/ t'e structure is still insufficient for a countr" +it' /300 kilometer of *or$ers/ accor$ing to e,&erts. At the state le/el, attention is e/en more precarious, as /ictims often rel'
on religious shelters or accommodations offered b' ci/il organi#ations.

Status Huo solutions are coming too slo+ Tiano et al/ % ($usan 4iano, 7rofessor of $ociolog', and Director of the Latin American and Iberian Institute at the 0ni/ersit' of "e% &e<ico (0$A-. A"D ill' 0libarri, doctoral student at the 0ni/ersit' of "e% &e<ico A"D Carolina Ramos, Juris Doctorate Candidate at the 0ni/ersit' of "e% &e<ico $chool of La% 6 an &A Candidate in Latin American $tudies, 0ni/ersit' of "e% &e<ico, cites another article published in ()),, ?.uman 4raffic=ing on the 0$-&e<ico order@, httpI//%%%.freedomfromfearmaga#ine.org/inde<.phpH optionYcom;content6/ie%Yarticle6idY9(Ihuman-traffic=ing-on-the-us-me<ico-border6catidYB:Iissue*6ItemidY*,9-//F& 4he 0.$.-&e<ico border presents a distincti/e set of challenges for combating human traffic=ing. 4he in/oluntar' transport of human beings in order to e<ploit their labour or se<ualit' is nothing ne%. Met conditions in the current era of globali#ationNgro%ing economic ineAualities %ithin and among nations, increasing flo%s of labour and products across national borders, and the gro%th of informal economies and organi#ed criminal net%or=s, to name a fe%Nare causing it to &roliferate on a glo*al scale (3arr, ()),-. &an' of these conditions are magnified along the 0.$.-&e<ico border+ 'et the polic' res&onses necessar" to counteract the human trade 'a)e *een slo+ to emerge. F/en a fe% appraisals of e<isting policies ha/e suggested that the' could do more harm than good. &isdirected
polic' efforts run the ris= of creating a migrator' space that heightens e<ploitation of traffic=ing /ictims and increases the dangers for all unauthori#ed migrants. Irregular migration - population mo/ements outside the scope of go/ernments5 efforts to manage population flo%s %ithin their territories ta=es /arious forms. Fntrepreneurial irregular migration occurs %hen indi/iduals, on their o%n behalf, enter or remain in a countr' %ithout authori#ation. &igrant smuggling occurs %hen migrants purchase or secure the help of others to facilitate their mo/ements. oth t'pes are /oluntar', and though the' ma' be ris=', if not fatal, the' do not impinge upon migrants5 human rights. .uman traffic=ing, b' contrast, in/ol/es coercion, abuse of po%er, and human rights /iolations, as /ulnerable /ictims are transported, harbored, and ensla/ed. As states attempt to gain better control of their borders b' enacting more restricti/e immigration policies, migrants5 resulting /ulnerabilit' often forces them into the hands of smugglers and traffic=ers (Arono%it#, ())C-. 4his is happening along the 0.$.-&e<ico border, %here human traffic=ing is flourishing despite, and according to se/eral e<perts because of increasingl' stringent attempts of the 0.$. go/ernment to police and control the nation5s borders (7i#arro, ())(+ 7ecoud and >uchetenier, ())D-. 4he 0nited $tates and &e<ico share a long histor' of economic integration mediated b' cross-border population flo%s (Rui# and 4iano, *9E:-. 4he 0.$. econom' has al%a's relied on &e<ican labor in its fields and factories, though the le/el of 0.$. labor demand has oscillated along %ith periodic fluctuations of the econom'. 8hen economic boom or %ar-related labor shortages ha/e increased the need for migrant labor, immigration policies ha/e softened to attract foreign labor+ %hen economic do%nturns ha/e led to e<cess labor suppl', immigration policies ha/e become more restricti/e (3ernande#, *9::-. 7ublic sentiment to%ard immigrants has shifted in tandem %ith these economic c'cles, as politicians and the media ha/e alternati/el' praised them for helping the nation meet its labor needs and maligned them for lo%ering %age le/els or ta=ing scarce !obs from nati/e %or=ers. 4o promote this fle<ibilit', immigration la% has often ser/ed a s'mbolic function, allo%ing the public to bas= in the belief that their borders are secure %hile at the same time allo%ing for a stead' suppl' of migrant labor to flo% to those economic sectors most in need of their labor (4ichenor, ())(-. In turn the &e<ican econom', chronicall' unable to pro/ide enough !obs for its gro%ing population, has traditionall' depended on %ages earned in the 0nited $tates and transmitted /ia c'clical migration, remittances, or other flo%s of people or mone' across the porous border. In the post-9/** era, ho%e/er, this s'nergism bet%een the t%o nations has changed, as economic do%nturns and emerging forms of nationalism ha/e gi/en birth

to restricti/e immigration policies and heightened enforcement efforts aimed at securing the border . 4he increasing
apprehensions of entrepreneurial indocumentados and small-time co'otes that smuggle unauthori#ed border crossers suggest that the gro%ing militari#ation of the border is achie/ing its intended effect. Met if an'thing, the human pressures on the border are increasing, as the declining

fortunes of the &e<ican econom' in the post-"A34A era Nand the countr'5s gro%ing reliance on remittances

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 .8/283 from migrants5 foreign earningsNma=e it all the more important for &e<ican labour to see= emplo'ment al norte (>oldring, ())C-. At the same time, despite rising unemplo'ment in the 0nited $tates, !obless Americans are generall' unsuited or un%illing to meet the demand for lo%-%age labour in agriculture, food processing, personal ser/ices, and other highl' competiti/e sectors, %here the %or= force is being eroded b' the %or=place raids and resulting deportations of the undocumented migrants %ho ha/e traditionall' been the mainsta' of these industries. =a*our trafficking flouris'es in t'ese con$itions- 8hen the d%indling economic fortunes of &e<ican (and Central American- men and %omen lead to desperate attempts to cross the border at an' cost, and %hen puniti/e policies ma=e it more difficult for them to cross on their o%n, migrants become more /ulnerable to traffic=ers posing as smugglers. 8hen border patrol agents5 success in
apprehending small-time smugglers clears the pla'ing field for better-organi#ed traffic=ing net%or=s %or=ing hand in glo/e %ith corrupt local officials, their net%or=s flourish and e<pand into ne% territories. 8hen businesses ha/e a hard time attracting lo%-%age %or=ers to replace those apprehended and deported b' immigration agents, the' ma' turn a blind e'e to the illicit methods of traffic=ers posing as labour recruiters. 4he unintended conseAuences of restricted immigration policies can freAuentl' go unnoticed, and it could be argued, can contribute to labour traffic=ing along the 0.$.&e<ico border.

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2ac atQ gro+t' sol)es trafficking


;conomic $e)elo&ment alone $oesn4t sol)e trafficking 9ANA:=@CA5T2A:N@2 AN9 =AC3!@ 2010 (>ergana, 0$ >A1+ and 3ran=, International 1rgani#ation for &igration, International
&igration CEIC, 8ile' 1nline Librar'In sum, human

traffic=ing and de/elopment are multifaceted concepts and the relationship bet%een them is therefore comple< and multidimensional. 8hile po/ert' is often argued to be a root cause of traffic=ing, traffic=ing does not necessaril' occur from the poorest countries or the poorest regions %ithin the countries. &oreo/er, the poorest people in the countries of origin ma' not be those most li=el' to migrate and thus most /ulnerable to traffic=ing. De/elopment strategies, on the other hand, often aim at po/ert' alle/iation in the %orld5s poorest countries or target social groups at the bottom of the income distribution %ithin those countries as the programme beneficiaries. &oreo/er, factors, such as go/ernance, gender discrimination, access to mar=ets and information, also pla' an important role %ithin the traffic=ing-de/elopment ne<us .

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Sol)enc" Mec'anisms

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1eneral
Trafficking net+orks can *e eliminate$ 8 &lan sol)es #o66er 11 Lieutenant Colonel, 0$A3 ("anc' &., L&erida Initiati/eI 4he Ans%er for &e<icoHL 0.$. Arm' 8ar College &aster of $trategic $tudies
degree final paper, ()**, httpI//%%%.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/>et4RDocHADYADA,CBD,B-//A&K RRR ?In this $R7, the term ?terrorist@ refers *ot' to narcotic traffic=ers and other groupsK %ho aim to o/erturn the go/erning bodies and principals in their o%n countr'@ Q beginning of the article .o%e/er, these terrorists are /er' resilient and /er' adaptable to changing K en/ironments. $o these disruptions %ill cause onl'

temporar' setbac=s. ut continuous K disruptions create pressure b' forcing net%or=s to increase their spending on operating K and set-up costs at different locations. Disruption also complicates communication K %ithin the net%or=, %hich in turn causes turmoil %ithin. Continual pressure on the K net%or=s is disrupti/e. 4hese pressures could cause the organi#ation to implode, K thereb' increasing securit' %ithin the 0nited $tates and abroad.

T'is car$ coul$ ser)e a )ariet" of &ur&oses so : ke&t t'e returns0sol)enc" a$)ocate $escri*ing mec'anism/ a2Q sH sol)es/ S'a'ani/ ./1 (Ar!an $hahani, member of theNan international non-profit organi#ation dedicated to the promotion of non-/iolent conflict resolution, D/*C/*B, ?.uman 4raffic=ing in &e<ico@, httpI//%%%.americasAuarterl'.org/content/human-traffic=ing-me<ico-//F&
.uman traffic=ing is not ne% to &e<ico, but it %as not until ())C that the first anti-traffic=ing in persons la% %as passed, ma=ing this acti/it' a crime punishable b' up to *E 'ears of incarceration. In ())E, the Attorne' >eneral5s office created the 3iscalka Fspecial para los Delitos de Giolencia Contra Las &u!eres ' 4rata de 7ersonas (3FGI&4RA-, a special prosecutor5s team designated to %or= on crimes against %omen and human traffic=ing and

Caldermn passed a ne% la% ma=ing femicide a crime punishable b' up to D) 'ears in !ail . $ome radio ad campaigns ha/e been
%hose members ha/e recei/ed training from international outfits speciali#ing in these matters. And last 'ear, then-7resident 3elipe launched at a national le/el to focus on pre/ention.

4hese are important steps to%ard addressing the 4I7 problem, but clearl" more nee$s to *e $one to &ut a $ent in t'is )er" lucrati)e *usiness of 'uman e,&loitation . According to the 1rganisation for Fconomic Cooperation
and De/elopment (1FCD-, human traffic=ing is a SB( billion a 'ear business. According to the 0.$. $tate Department5s 4I7 1ffice, there are three ?p5s@

to tac=le to effecti/el' combat human traffic=ingI

protection, pre/ention and prosecution.


7rotection 4he legal frame%or= for

protection is more or less in place in &e<ico, and the aforementioned la%s protect /ictims. .o%e/er, putting the la%s in place is onl' the first step, and local institutions treating /ictims are a long %a' from pro/iding proper care to address the problem effecti/el' . 4he ()*( 0.$. $tate Department5s 4I7 report notes that &e<ico has relied
hea/il' on ">1s, international organi#ations, and foreign go/ernments ?to operate or fund the bul= of speciali#ed assistance and ser/ices for traffic=ing /ictims.@ 4he message is clearI &e<ican authorities need to in/est more in building local capacit' instead of depending on non-sustainable foreign aid.

4here is also a huge amount of %or= to be done to properl' habilitate shelters and migrant houses and to train staff ho% to properl' identif' and treat /ictims. According to the $tate Department report, /ictim ser/ices are often inadeAuate and some shelters for migrants and domestic abuse /ictims are reluctant to house traffic=ing /ictims ?due to fear of retribution from organi#ed crime.@ Anon'mous anecdotal testimonies of people %or=ing in some of these
shelters also tell the stor' of migrant houses actuall' hosting traffic=ers %ho pose as /ictims. 7re/ention

1n the pre/ention trac=, educational campaigns need to hit home through better and more effecti/e channels than a fe% superficial 4G and radio spots. 0nfortunatel', the &e<ican go/ernment5s budget allocation has sho%n other prioritiesI in ()**, the go/ernment reduced the anti-traffic=ing budget from SC.( million to SB*B,))).
7re/ention is not !ust about ma=ing sure people understand the crime of traffic=ing, but also about addressing its causes. In this regard, immigration reform in the 0nited $tates is crucial. Robust temporar' %or=er programs that disincenti/e illegal %or= %ould allo% the 0.$. to meet its demand for certain t'pes of labor and protect those %ho are %illing to fulfill it. Addressing the 4I7 problem in &e<ico

%ithout strengthening bilateral cooperation %ith the 0.$.N%hich dra%s migrants to their dangerous !ourne'N %ould be futile.
7rosecution

7rosecution against human traffic=ing has made some progress in &e<ico, but still falls drasticall' short . In ()**,
*C se< traffic=ers %ere con/icted, a massi/e difference from the one con/iction achie/ed the pre/ious 'ear. ut effecti/e prosecution is impeded b' a lac= of la% enforcement and embedded corruption.

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 72/283 Fffecti/e prosecution also has a long %a' to go %ith regards to training public attorne's on the differences bet%een traffic=ing, prostitution and other related crimes. 4here is not enough transparenc' to pro/ide effecti/e statistics on con/ictions /s. dropped cases in &e<ico, but in a con/ersation %ith a former emplo'ee of the American ar Association %or=ing on anti4I7 pro!ects in Latin America, I learned that most traffic=ers %ho are caught go free because of procedural errors during prosecution.

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?2@T;CT
T'e ?2@T;CT &rogram +as cancelle$ in 2007/ *ut no+ is t'e critical time to restart fun$ing0 *ilateral engagement *et+een t'e (-S- an$ Me,ico is t'e onl" solution to t'e trafficking &ro*lem1ar6a/ 11 (Rocio >ar#a, .ar/ard graduate, candidate for Juris Doctor, **/*/**, Addressing .uman 4raffic=ing Along the 0nited $tates-&e<ico orderI the "eed for a ilateral 7artnership, httpI//%%%.c!icl.com/uploads/(/9/,/9/(9,9:9*/c!icl;*9.(;gar#a;note.pdf-//F& RRNoteQ ?rote>a is t'e S&anis' +or$ for &rotect- T'e t+o refer to t'e same &rogramC. ilateral 7artnership bet%een 0nited $tates and &e<ico 3FGI&4RA could offer these strategies to the Inter-$ecretarial Commission, %hich could in turn e/aluate them and determine if the' can be used to shape the "ational Anti-4raffic=ing 7rogram. Gictims on both sides of the 0nited $tates-&e<ico border %ould greatl' benefit from impro/ements to both countries5 la%s and their implementation. Regardless, the 0nited $tates and &e<ico

can accomplish much more if the' !oin efforts and collaborate in a formal bilateral partnership that ta=es into account the internal and e<ternal factors that ma=e human traffic=ing possible. A bilateral partnership %ould ensure that both countries5 interests are represented in an' solution to eradicate human traffic=ing . It could be beneficial in prosecuting traffic=ers, protecting /ictims, and putting pre/entati/e measures in place. (B9 *. 7rosecution of 4raffic=ers A formal bilateral partnership could allo% the 0nited $tates and &e<ico to share information about traffic=ers, %hich could lead to more prosecutions. Currentl', if in the course of an in/estigation, a 0.$. prosecutor belie/es that a traffic=er returned
to &e<ico, the prosecutor ma' either petition for e<tradition or submit a reAuest for the &e<ican go/ernment to prosecute the accused in &e<ico.(CC >enerall', &e<ican 7resident Calderon cooperates %ith the 0nited $tates in e<traditing criminals.(C, $e/eral traffic=ers ha/e been e<tradited to the 0nited $tates in connection to high profile cases, such as the Carreto-Galencia brothers %ho %ere charged %ith human traffic=ing for running a forced prostitution ring in "e% Mor=. (CD After se/eral famil' members %ere charged in ())C, another participant %as e<tradited in ()): and sentenced in ())E.(C: Another case in/ol/ed defendants %ho illegall' transported &e<ican indi/iduals to 3lorida and forced them to %or= in fruit har/esting fields b' threatening them %ith /iolence.(CE If the strategies used to prosecute these traffic=ers %ere maintained b' a bilateral

partnership, both the 0nited $tates and &e<ico could e<pedite their in/estigator' processes instead of acting unilaterall' and onl' responding to each other5s reAuests for e<tradition and punishment . &ore efficient prosecutions %ould lea/e more resources and time to address the needs of /ictims. (. 7rotection of Gictims A bilateral partnership could be formed bet%een 0.$. Customs and order 7rotection agents and &e<ican customs officials in order to create better strategies to identif' human traffic=ing /ictims at the shared border. Although most immigrants agree to be smuggled, others are abducted and ta=en against their %ill. (C9 8hen these immigrants are intercepted at the border, the' are often confused %ith smugglers and the people the' are smuggling and not recogni#ed as /ictims .(,) .a/ing a bilateral partnership could ensure that these issues come to light and that proper training is pro/ided to 0.$. Customs and
order 7rotection agents in order to pre/ent them from simpl' deporting /ictims or sending them bac= to their traffic=ers. F/en if immigrants ha/e consented to being smuggled, 0.$. agents ma' be able to identif' the signs of human traffic=ing if information is shared across the border. $uspected /ictims of human traffic=ing could be turned o/er to &e<ican customs officials for further in/estigation and possible legal aid and protection. In a

bilateral partnership %ith representati/es from both countries, the 0nited $tates and &e<ico %ould be able to come up %ith strategies that =eep traffic=ers and smugglers out of the 0nited $tates %hile protecting the /ictims. 3or e<ample, if a partnership %ere in place, the members of the partnership could designate specific steps for 0.$. Customs and
order 7rotection agents to ta=e %hen the' suspect the people the' ha/e detained are /ictims of human traffic=ing. 4hese steps could include, for e<ample, sending /ictims directl' to predetermined and state-appro/ed &e<ican shelters eAuipped to handle their needs as /ictims of human traffic=ing. Another specific step that a partnership ma' be able to put in place is that 0.$. Customs and order 7rotection agents could separate people the' intercept at the border and as= them specific Auestions to determine if the' are /ictims. $ome /ictims of human traffic=ing report that if the' had not been near their traffic=ers at the time the' %ere stopped at the border and if the' had been as=ed more direct Auestions, the' %ould ha/e re/ealed that the' %ere being ta=en against their %ill and been rescued despite their fear of retaliation from traffic=ers. (,( B. 7re/ention of .uman 4raffic=ing

7re/ention tends to be a goal that is cast aside in fa/or of prosecution of traffic=ers and protection of /ictims because it is intangible. 1ne can count the number of prosecutions and /ictims helped but cannot ascertain ho% man' are sa/ed %ith

pre/entati/e measures. In the ())9 4I7 Report, $ecretar' of $tate .illar' Clinton ac=no%ledged that much remains to be done in identif'ing and tac=ling the root causes of human traffic=ing.(,B Clinton urged all go/ernments to le/erage their resources and offered 0.$. partnership to strengthen anti-traffic=ing efforts.(,C 1ne of the %a's in %hich the 0nited $tates can le/erage its resources is b' partnering %ith

&e<ico in order to continue raising a%areness about the dangers of human traffic=ing and ho% smuggling can easil' lead to traffic=ing. In addition, a &artners'i& +oul$ sen$ a message to *ot' countries a*out t'e seriousness of t'e crime an$ t'e urgent nee$ to a$$ress it toget'er . In a partnership bet%een 0.$. and &e<ican representati/es, the' %ould be able to strategi#e to de/elop /iable alternati/es to pre/ent illegal immigration, gi/en that most /ictims are /ulnerable due to a lac= of economic alternati/es. 3urthermore, through a partnership, the
0nited $tates and &e<ico could de/elop !oint and more informed a%areness campaigns to %arn their citi#ens about the dangers and criminal conseAuences of engaging in human traffic=ing. C. Challenges 1ne obstacle that %ould be faced in creating a bilateral partnership is the amount of %or= and resources necessar' for its organi#ation and implementation. .o%e/er, a model of a partnership alread' e<ists and could be

altered to accommodate a number of anti-traffic=ing efforts. 4he 0.$. go/ernment , pursuant to the 4G7A, established the

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?7resident5s Initiati/e to Combat 4raffic=ing in 7ersons@ and allocated

7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

fift' million dollars to fund coordinated efforts %ith eight countries. (,, &e<ico %as one of the eight countries selected for the program and the 0nited $tates designated SE.( million dollars to%ards anti-traffic=ing efforts %ith &e<ico.(,D 4he funds %ere distributed among the ?0.$. Agenc' for International De/elopment (0$AID-+ the Department of Justice (D1J-+ the Department of .omeland $ecurit' (D.$-+ the Department of Labor
(D1L-+ the Department of $tate5s 1ffice of 7opulation, Refugees and &igration (D1$/7R&-+ and the Department of .ealth and .uman $er/ices (..$-.@(,: 4hese entities, along %ith the 0.$. Fmbass' in &e<ico, !oined efforts %ith the &e<ican go/ernment and ci/il societ' to (*- raise

public a%areness+ ((- pursue anti-traffic=ing legislation + (B- strengthen local shelters+ and (C- de/elop and pro/ide technical assistance to anti-traffic=ing net%or=s.(,E 4he three-'ear program %as named 7R14FC4 Q 7ro!ect to $upport $helters for Gictims of 4raffic=ing in &e<ico (7R14FJA Q 7ro'ecto de Apo'o a Refugios para Gictimas de 4rata de 7ersonas en &e<ico- and %as in e<istence from &a' ())D to &arch ())9.(,9 7R14FC4 %as /er' effecti/e and its efforts informed the enactment of the &e<ican Anti-4raffic=ing La%. (D) If the 0nited $tates and &e<ico %anted to create a bilateral partnership, the' could begin b' follo%ing the 7R14FC4 model. Although the program ended in &arch ())9, a %ebsite %ith a record of all the efforts %ill remain a/ailable for the public until &arch and %ill be accessible be'ond that date. 4he 0nited $tates and &e<ico could minimi#e start-up costs and resources b' utili#ing this model. G. C1"CL0$I1" .uman traffic=ing is the sla/er' of the (*st centur'(D( and as such, it is incredibl' challenging to eradicate it. .uman traffic=ing is especiall' sinister because it ta=es ad/antage of people5s basic instinctNtheir desire to impro/e their li/ing conditions. 4he promise of a better !ob, better pa', and a better life, is %hat traffic=ers use e/er' da' as bait to e<ploit their /ictims. (DB Antitraffic=ing efforts ha/e greatl' impro/ed since the 0nited "ations con/ened to draft the 7alermo Con/ention denouncing the abuse and e<ploitation of people across the %orld.(DC &an' go/ernments around the globe ha/e !oined the efforts to eliminate these /ile crimes. .o%e/er, much remains to

be done. A number of countries ha/e enacted anti-traffic=ing legislation %hile others ha/e made impro/ements to legislation. Countries5 indi/idual
efforts are especiall' necessar' in times of economic do%nturn %hen people become more desperate to impro/e their li/ing conditions, and are more susceptible to traffic=ers.(DD Although anti-traffic=ing efforts of indi/idual countries %ill continue to be important,

coalitions and partnerships are the ne<t frontier in the fight against human traffic=ing .(D: In o/er a decade, since ())),
of e/aluating and reporting about human traffic=ing /ia 4raffic=ing in 7ersons Reports, the %orld has come to learn that human traffic=ing is a transnational crime that touches e/er' corner of the %orld. A solution to this problem must ta=e into consideration the

indi/idual factors that allo% traffic=ers to e<ploit people %ith impunit' and that ma=e those people targets for e<ploitation. 4he 0nited $tates and &e<ico ha/e a uniHue o&&ortunit" to collaborate to address human traffic=ing along their shared border. As the' continue their separate anti-traffic=ing efforts, the' should consider e<panding upon the model the' de/eloped %ith the three-'ear program 7R14FC4. (DE 4he desire to impro/e their economic conditions and be reunited %ith famil' members %ill al%a's seem to be a ris= %orth ta=ing to people in desperate situations. .o%e/er, b' %or=ing together, in a bilateral partnership, the 0nited $tates and &e<ico can create /iable alternati/es that do not include people ris=ing their li/es, and becoming pre' to traffic=ers, in their attempts to build a better life. 9escri*es t'e ?2@T;MA/?2@T;CT &rogram MS:/ 7 (&anagement $'stems International, ())9,?3ighting .uman 4raffic=ing and Aiding Gictims in &e<ico@, httpI//%%%.msi%orld%ide.com/pro!ect/fighting-human-traffic=ing-and-aiding-/ictims-inme<ico/-//F& RRNoteQ ?rote>a is t'e S&anis' +or$ for &rotect- T'e t+o refer to t'e same &rogram3or three 'ears, &$I helped to implement the &e<ico 4raffic=ing in 7ersons $helter 7ro!ect or 7R14FJA. 4he 0$AID-funded pro!ect %as part of the 7resident5s Initiati/e to Combat 4raffic=ing in 7ersons (4I7-. 7R14FJA helped in the successful appro/al of federal anti-traffic=ing legislation and la%s in se/en states. In ()):, the &e<ican "ational Congress appro/ed the federal La% to 7re/ent and
7unish 4raffic=ing in 7ersons. 7R14FJA finali#ed and published a Legislati/e and Comparati/e Anal'ses that ser/e as /ital instruments for identif'ing states most in need of immediate reform, and organi#ations or groups pursuing comprehensi/e anti-traffic=ing legislation. 4he pro!ect also

increased public understanding of traffic=ing and %as able to usher polic' changes through a /ariet' of means, including training of go/ernment officials and the public, holding educational forums for the public, using media to highlight the issue, de/eloping an interacti/e %ebsite, and producing educational materials li=e pamphlets
and a short film to reach broader audiences. &ore than *C,))) go/ernment officials and members of the public %ere trained in combating human traffic=ing. 7R14FJA %or=ed %ith fi/e local shelters to increase the impact and sustainabilit' of inter/ention models for traffic=ing /ictims and sur/i/ors. 4he pro!ects

e<perts updated their models to address traffic=ing /ictims5 needs, including the pro/ision of financial and technical aid through coordinated meetings, formal training and one-on-one consultations. 4he pro!ect also
held %or=shops at each shelter on basic traffic=ing concepts, appl'ing international instruments to prosecute and penali#e traffic=ers, the national- and state-le/el !udicial frame%or=s to prosecute, and the tools a/ailable to pro/ide assistance and protection to /ictims. 7R14FJA5s e<perts also assisted %ith the launch of criminal prosecutions for /iolations on behalf of the shelters and offered legal ad/ice to help traffic=ing /ictims. 4he pro!ect5s officials %or=ed %ith the shelters at an administrati/e le/el. Almost D,,))) /ictims recei/ed some sort of assistance. 4he 7R1JF4A pro!ect

concluded in ())9.

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 7%/283 More $escri&tion of ?2@T;MA/?2@T;CT RRNoteQ ?rote>a is t'e S&anis' +or$ for &rotect- T'e t+o refer to t'e same &rogramA;9 an$ ?2@T;MA/ 12 (Academ' for Fducational De/elopment and 7R14FJA, last modified B/(9/*(, ?7R14FJA Q 4RA33ICJI"> I" 7FR$1"$ (4I7- $.FL4FR 7R1JFC4@, httpI//ccsg.fhiBD).org/3actsheets/CA7;&e<ico.pdf-//F& 7ro!ect 1/er/ie%I 3unded b' 0$AID/&e<ico under the 7resident5s Initiati/e to Combat 4raffic=ing in 7ersons, CA7 &e<ico (())D-())9, SB million-, the CA7 &e<ico 4I7 $helter 7ro!ect (7R14FJA- is impro/ing legal protection and access to and Aualit' of ser/ices a/ailable to /ictims of traffic=ing. 4he pro!ect promotes a holistic approach encompassing medical, legal, ps'chosocial and /ocational ser/ices. 3rom &a' ())D to $eptember ())E , 7R14FJAI n Assisted &e<ico5s federal go/ernment in enacting national anti-4I7 legislation + n Assisted fi/e of &e<ico5s nine state legislatures in enacting anti-4I7 reforms, and the rest no% are considering reforms+ n Fmpo%ered shelters to %or= together to bring speciali#ed care to 4I7 /ictims+ n Fducated /ulnerable populations on traffic=ing and ho% to detect predators b' using materials that ha/e alread' been adopted b' national institutions+ and n 3ormed numerous net%or=s and tas= forces at local, state and natio nal le/els that either %or= to pre/ent 4I7, detect 4I7 or assist its /ictims.

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M;2:9A
;,&an$ing t'e MSri$a :nitiati)e sol)es 'uman trafficking Tena/ 10 (&aria, 4rans- order Institute, 0ni/ersit' of $an Diego, $eptember B), ()*), ?&odern Da' $la/er' in 0.$.Q&e<ican 4erritor'I .uman 4raffic=ing at the order,@ order rief, 4rans- order Institute, 0ni/ersit' of $an Diego, httpI//catcher.sandiego.edu/items/peacestudies/ order; rief;3I"AL; 8;octC;*).pdf, .enselAs neighboring countries that share a highl' /olatile border %ith high rates of human traffic=ing , smuggling, and drug traffic=ing, &e<ico and the 0.$. ha/e also ac=no%ledged that transnational cooperation bet%een them is essential. 3or this reason, in ()), the 0nited $tates and &e<ico launched the 1A$I$$ bi-national program (1peration against $mugglers Initiati/e
on $afet' and $ecurit'-, %hich has successfull' aided in the prosecution of traffic=ers and in the dismantling of smuggling and traffic=ing net%or=s (Department of .omeland $ecurit', ()),-. In ()):, the &orida Initiati/e %as also established to assist &e<ico and Central America

in battling organi#ed crime, including their human traffic=ing operations (0.$. Department of $tate, ())9+ Ari#ona Attorne'
>eneral, ())9-. Additionall', state-le/el initiati/es along the 0.$.-&e<ico border continue to pla' a critical role in effecti/el' tac=ling the comple< issue of human traffic=ing. .o%e/er, the 0nited $tates and &e<ico still ha/e a long %a' to go in the fight against human

traffic=ing, as both countries unco/er the hidden nature and %ide scope of the crime and strengthen their cooperation mechanisms so as to increase the number of prosecutions and rescued /ictims . Meri$a sol)es for a soft &o+er a&&roac' t'at increases coo&eration an$ successful &rosecutions an$ reforms #o66er 11 Lieutenant Colonel, 0$A3 ("anc' &., L&erida Initiati/eI 4he Ans%er for &e<icoHL 0.$. Arm' 8ar College &aster of $trategic $tudies
degree final paper, ()**, httpI//%%%.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/>et4RDocHADYADA,CBD,B-//A&K 8ith the

&orida Initiati/e in its infanc', it is premature to determine if the plan is K %or=ing. .o%e/er, there ha/e been some indicators that this putting &e<ico K on the right path. Increased cooperation bet%een 0nited $tates and &e<ico has led to K arrests of ma!or cartel pla'ers + to increased training and education of &e<ico5s 3ederal K 7olice force+ to reforming its !udicial and securit' institutions+ and to purchasing and K deli/er' of critical eAuipment to include ell C*( helicopters and 0.-D)& lac= .a%=s K
initiati/e is helicopters.*9K 3rom the 0$ perspecti/e, !oining in the &orida Initiati/e has forced the 0nited K $tates to ta=e a closer loo= at its o%n contribution to the problem. As of &arch ())9, 0$ K Customs and order 7atrol (C 7- officers began searches of $outh-bound /ehiclesNa K ne% initiati/e. During these inspections, the C 7 has sei#ed o/er S,) million in illicit K currenc' and hundreds of illegal firearms.() $ince ?o/er S*) billion in bul= cash WisX K crossing the border illegall',@ and %ith %eapons from ?o/er *(,))) gun shops bet%een K &e<ico, Ari#ona and 4e<as, coming from the 0nited $tates and feeding into organi#ed K crime,@K (* the 0nited $tates appears to be a significant part of the problem. 1/er 9) K percent of the homicide %eapons in &e<ico can be lin=ed bac= to the 0nited $tates.((K After ta=ing this hard loo=, the 0nited $tates has de/eloped the "ational $outh%est K order Counternarcotics $trateg' %hich outlines in further detail ho% the "ational K $ecurit' $trateg' %ill be e<ecuted. 4his document focuses on si< areas that K complement the &orida Initiati/eI K 4he 7resident5s "ational Drug Control $trateg' see=s to disrupt the illicit K drug industr' as close to the source as possible. 4his $trateg' aims to impro/e 3ederal counterdrug efforts on the $outh%est order in the K follo%ing areasI intelligence collection and information sharing, K interdiction at and bet%een ports of entr', aerial sur/eillance and K interdiction of smuggling aircraft, in/estigations and prosecutions, K countering financial crime, and cooperation %ith &e<ico.(B K ecause of the perception that this initiati/e has stalled, based on allegations of K human rights /iolations and the ?slo% rolling@ of mone' from the $tate Department, in K &a' ()*), the 1bama administration reframed the &orida Initiati/e and dubbed the ne% K initiati/e ? e'ond &orida@ or ?&orida (.).@ 4his ne% approach refocuses efforts on K ?institution building@

more than technolog' sharing. 0$ efforts to support &e<ico %ith a K ?soft po%er@ approach assures the &e<ican go/ernment that the 0nited $tates K understands the comple<it' of the problem and is !ust as committed to a solution. It K pro/ides a partnership en/ironment and eases the perception of a superpo%er bailing K out a failing state.K T'e Meri$a :nitiati)e sol)es 8 strengt'ens la+ enforcement 8 ke" to sto& crime gangs t'at are cro&&ing u& !irsc'ke 7 foreign affairs anal'st %ho has %ritten for 8orld 7ress Re/ie% and 4he Associated 7ress, among other outlets (Joseph, L.uman
$muggling Rings Dri/e &e<ico Giolence,L B/B)/)9, httpI//%%%.%orldpoliticsre/ie%.com/articles/B,(,/human-smuggling-rings-dri/e-me<ico/iolence-//A& 4he S:)) million program, %hich falls under the auspices of the &erida Initiati/e, is aimed at strengthening &e<ican la%

enforcement and !udicial capacit' in a number of =e' %a's. Its immediate goal is to assist &e<ican officials in stemming the flo% of drugs, guns and people across the border -- b' training officials in the rule of la% and human rights+ enhanced technolog' and hard%are, as %ell as Department of Defense training of &e<ican counternarcotics forces. 3rom the 0.$. side of the border, each of the main federal la% enforcement agencies %ill also coordinate to pro/ide
support. 4hese include the D.$, %hich %ill increase the number of its intelligence anal'sts and %or= more closel' %ith &e<ican border officials+ the

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Drug Fnforcement Agenc', %hich %ill be increasing its staff+ the ureau of Alcohol, 4obacco and 3irearms %hich is also bolstering its presence, along %ith the 3 I %hich is creating an intelligence tas= force and increasing its focus on =idnappings and corruption in areas near the $outh%est border. 4he Justice Dept.Ps 1rgani#ed Drug Fnforcement 4as= 3orces 7rogram, mean%hile, is adding personnel to its stri=e force along the $outh%est border. 4he fact that organi#ed gangs ha/e all but ta=en o/er illegal immigrant smuggling corridors to the 0.$. is nothing ne%. .o%e/er, their role in the current /iolence in &e<ico is far less ac=no%ledged. 4he addition of border patrol agents coupled %ith other obstacles has pushed immigration routes further inland in recent 'ears, deep into the desert areas of "e% &e<ico, Ari#ona and 4e<as. ConseAuentl', the !ourne'

has gro%n more treacherous for the immigrants themsel/es, and more difficult to na/igate for the traditional Lmom and popL co'otes that in the past ha/e accompanied and often e<ploited them. Into the breach ha/e Auic=l' appeared %ell-organi#ed criminal gangs %ith greater resources and more ruthless methods to mo/e their human cargo o/er the more dangerous route. L8ith thousands of additional border guards, it has been more difficult to cross the border,L said Jennifer Johnson, a senior
associate at the Latin American 8or=ing >roup. LAnd no% that the traffic has mo/ed to some of the remote stretches, itPs become more lucrati/e,L attracting criminal gangs. 4he /er' number of crossings made o/er the 0.$.-&e<ico border -- (,) million annuall', b' some estimates -- ma=es such unintended conseAuences more li=el' in the e/ent of a ma!or la% enforcement action on either side of the border, such as the increased deplo'ment of 0.$. border guards. L8hen 'ou crac= do%n on a crime,L noted 7eter .a=im, director of the Inter-American Dialogue, Lclearl' 'ou /er' often ha/e a %hole ne% =ind of crime.L 1fficials on both sides of the border are %ell a%are of this. 0nfortunatel', !ust as 0.$. and &e<ican la% enforcement officials are increasing their cooperation, La gro%ing ne<usL is forming bet%een &e<ican drug cartels, illegal-alien smuggling

rings and 0.$.-based gangs, according to inter/ie%s conducted b' staff of the 0.$. .ouse Committee on the Judiciar'Ps immigration
subcommittee %ith federal la% enforcement in &cAllen, 4e<as.

:ncreasing fun$ing for an$ e,&an$ing t'e Meri$a :nitiati)e sol)es Seelke 12 27 specialist in Latin American Affairs at CR$, co/ers ra#il, oli/ia, Fcuador, and &e<ico, as %ell as issues such as gangs and
traffic=ing in persons. .olds a &aster of 7ublic Affairs and &aster of Arts in Latin American $tudies (Clare Ribando, L4raffic=ing in 7ersons in Latin America and the Caribbean,L */(B/*(, httpI//%%%.fas.org/sgp/crs/ro%/RLBB()).pdf-//A& Acti/it' on combating 4I7 has continued into the **(th Congress , particularl' related to efforts to K reauthori#e the 4G7A and o/ersee 4I7 programs and operations, including

0.$.-funded programs K in Latin America. Congress ma' also consider increasing funding for anti-4I7 programs in the K region, possibl' through the &orida Initiati/e for &e<ico, the Central America Regional $ecurit' K Initiati/e (CAR$I- or through other assistance programs. Congress is li=el' to monitor ne% trends K in human traffic=ing in the region, such as the increasing in/ol/ement of &e<ican drug K traffic=ing organi#ations in 4I7 and the problem of child traffic=ing in .aiti, %hich has %orsened K since that countr' e<perienced a de/astating earthAua=e
on Januar' *(, ()*). 3or more general K information on human traffic=ing and a discussion of 4I7-related legislation in the **(th K Congress, see CR$ Report RLBCB*:, 4raffic=ing in 7ersonsI 0.$. 7olic' and Issues for Congress, K b' Alison $is=in and Liana $un 8'ler.

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?2S?
9ANA:=@CA5T2A:N@2 AN9 =AC3!@ 2010 (>ergana, 0$ >A1+ and 3ran=, International 1rgani#ation for &igration, International
&igration CEIC, 8ile' 1nline Librar'-

4he lin= bet%een migration and de/elopment is no% on the agendas of man' actors in the field of international de/elopment. .o%e/er, the coherent and comprehensi/e integration of migration in de/elopment agendas or strategic de/elopment polic' frame%or=s, such as 7o/ert' Reduction $trateg' 7apers (7R$7s-, Countr' and Regional strateg' papers or Common Countr' Assessments (CCA- and the 0" De/elopment Assistance 3rame%or= (0"DA3- is still lac=ing (I1&, ()),-. It has been freAuentl' argued in recent 'ears that migration is not sufficientl' integrated into national de/elopment plans and 7R$7s, and %hen migration is mentioned, it is more often cited as a factor hindering rather than contributing to de/elopment ( lac=, ()),+ &artin, ())E-. 1ne re/ie% of CE 7R$7s found that (* made no mention of migration and nine sa% it as a cause of ?brain drain@ (.C, ())C-. .o%e/er, go/ernment interest in lin=ing migration to 7R$7s seems to be gro%ing and during the period ())EQ())9, %ith *, countries ha/ing submitted 7R$7$ %hich include references to migration (>3&D, ())9-. 7R$7s are important for se/eral reasons (8 , ()):-I * 4he' pro/ide a frame%or= for countries to articulate =e' de/elopment issues and polic' ob!ecti/es+ ( 4he' are a tool to establish polic' priorities+ B 4he' encourage the coordination of donor efforts and allocation of resources to meet de/elopment ob!ecti/es+ C As 7R$7s should be monitored and e/aluated, the' should pro/ide a benchmar= for de/elopment outcomes. De/elopment funding is allocated to po/ert' reduction priorities identified b' partner go/ernments. If traffic=ing is not included in 7R$7s, there is less scope for discussion bet%een donors and partner go/ernments about a human de/elopment-oriented approach to tac=ling traffic=ing. 4he /isibilit' of traffic=ing in 7R$7s and similar documents is therefore /er' important. 4here are four main challenges lin=ed to mainstreaming migration/traffic=ing into 7R7$ and national de/elopment plans (>3&D, ())9-. 3irst, go/ernments ma' not identif' migration as an issue because of competing priorities. $econd, go/ernments ma' lac= the capacit' and resources needed to integrate migration into 7R$7s. 4hird, responsibilit' for migration polic' measures ma' be lin=ed to the %or= of se/eral different go/ernment departments and a fragmented approach to addressing migration. 3ourth, and of most concern for our discussion is that man' countries lac= the data and e/aluation tools and indicators to be able to adeAuatel' assess the impact of migration/traffic=ing on de/elopment. .o% to address this last point specificall' in relation to traffic=ing is the main focus of this last section of our paper.

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Consent
1A23A 2011 (Rocio, Candidate for Juris Doctor,
en!amin ". Cardo#o $chool of La%, &a' ()**+ A. . (()),- .ar/ard 0ni/ersit', CARD121 J. 13 I"45L 6 C1&7. LA8, &arch, %%%.c!icl.com/uploads/(/9/,/9/(9,9:9*/c!icl;*9.(;gar#a;note.pdf-

4he 0" 7rotocol pro/ides that the consent of /ictims of human traffic=ing is irrele/ant %here coerci/e means are used to obtain that consent. CD In other %ords, traffic=ers cannot claim that the /ictim5s initial consent to %or= or pro/ide ser/ices means that the' also consented to their o%n e<ploitation.C: A claim li=e the one abo/e as a defense %ould not e<empt traffic=ers from punishment under the 0" 7rotocol because such a defense %ould reAuire consent at all stages leading up to the /ictim5s e<ploitation as %ell as consent to the e<ploitation itself.CE &an' countries including the 0nited $tates and &e<ico ha/e used elements of the 0" 7rotocol definition as a foundation for their o%n la%s criminali#ing human traffic=ing.C9 .o%e/er, neither the 0nited $tates nor &e<ico mirror the consent pro/ision of the 0" 7rotocol in their anti-traffic=ing la%s,) because the 0" 7rotocol does not reAuire that anti-traffic=ing legislation follo% its language precisel'.,* In practice, factoring in /ictim5s consent in antitraffic=ing legislation, instead of ma=ing consent irrele/ant li=e the 0" 7rotocol does, results in traffic=ers claiming that the /ictim5s consent e<empts the traffic=ers from punishment.,( In a trial, the defendant5s counsel ma' raise the /ictim5s consent as an affirmati/e defense %hile the prosecutor, representing the human traffic=ing /ictim, offers proof that improper means used b' the traffic=er nullified that consent.,B A court %ould be left to assess the conflicting claims,,C %hich results in prosecutors being less effecti/e in prosecuting traffic=ers. ,, 4he e<clusion of a consent pro/ision in anti-traffic=ing legislation is especiall' problematic in a border region such as the 0nited $tates-&e<ico boundar' %here undocumented immigration is rampant.,D Gictims of human traffic=ing ma' not be recogni#ed as /ictims, but rather criminals, if the' are confused %ith undocumented immigrants %ho consented to being smuggled.,: .ence, it is essential to understand the distinction bet%een human traffic=ing and smuggling,E and to ensure that the distinction is represented in anti-traffic=ing legislation and ta=en into consideration in its implementation. 3or this reason, a bilateral partnership is necessar' in %hich both the 0nited $tates and &e<ico can commit to distinguishing bet%een human traffic=ing and smuggling b' ma=ing irrele/ant a /ictim5s consent to being traffic=ed. 4his %ould more often lead to protection of /ictims and prosecution of traffic=ers as established under the 0" 7rotocol.

1A23A 2011 (Rocio, Candidate for Juris Doctor,

en!amin ". Cardo#o $chool of La%, &a' ()**+ A. . (()),- .ar/ard 0ni/ersit', CARD121 J. 13 I"45L 6 C1&7. LA8, &arch, %%%.c!icl.com/uploads/(/9/,/9/(9,9:9*/c!icl;*9.(;gar#a;note.pdf-

1ne of the main differences bet%een the definitions of traffic=ing and smuggling is consent.DD As described abo/e, smuggling in/ol/es a person %ho consents to illegall' enter a countr', %hile traffic=ing in/ol/es a person %ho either ne/er consented to enter a countr' or %hose consent is in/alidated due to the traffic=er5s use of coercion, deception, or fraud.D: .ence, undocumented immigrants %ho consent to being smuggled are treated as criminals because the' /iolate the la%s of the countr' the' enter illegall' DE %hile people %ho are traffic=ed are or should be treated as /ictims.D9 Consent is a complicated issue because people generall' consent to being smuggled but not to being traffic=ed and %hat starts out as smuggling can sometimes turn into human traffic=ing.:) 4herefore, /ar'ing degrees of consent are reflected in human traffic=ing situations because /ictims ma' ha/e consented to the initial phaseN%hen the' %ere smuggledNbut ma' not ha/e consented to the conditions to %hich the' %ere subseAuentl' sub!ected.:* 1ften, /ictims of human traffic=ing belie/e that the' are being smuggled and ha/e consented to that, %hile in fact the' are being traffic=ed because the people illegall' transporting them into another countr' are planning to e<ploit them.:(

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 80/283 Along the 0nited $tates-&e<ico border, it is important to in/estigate people apprehended in the process of entering the 0nited $tates illegall' because some of them ma' ha/e been coerced or tric=ed and ma' be deser/ing of protection instead of deportation. 4hrough more bilateral cooperation, traffic=ing /ictims could be identified at the time the' attempt to enter the 0nited $tates instead of being sent bac= into the hands of traffic=ers for further e<ploitation.

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Sol)enc"

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2ac u-s- ke"


9es&ite efforts/ t'e (-S- lacks t'e means to gra&&le +it' Human Trafficking- Ne+ legislation is ke" to sol)e effecti)el" ET'is car$ also makes a res&onsi*ilit" argument for (-S- com&licit" in traffickingF

C'acon 40. (Jennifer, 7rofessor of La% at the 0ni/ersit' of California Ir/ine, ?&iser' and &'poiaI 0nderstanding the 3ailures of
0.$. Ffforts to $top .uman 4raffic=ing@, 3ordham La% Re/ie% Golume :C Issue D, httpI//ir.la%net.fordham.edu/cgi//ie%content.cgiH articleYC*:B6conte<tYflr W$>X-

In an increasingl' interdependent %orld, human migration is !ust another element of the global mar=etplace. 8hile much migration occurs through legal channels and as an e<ercise of free %ill on the part of the migrant, not all migration is underta=en b' choice. Garious forms of irregular migration ha/e been spurred b' social conflict, ci/il %ar, and the global consolidation of economic po%er centers. 4he 0nited $tates has ne/er de/eloped an immigration strateg' that effecti/el' grapples %ith the global forces that dri/e migration. A$ 'oc efforts to res&on$ to certain effects of glo*al migration 'a)e consistentl" faile$ to $eal realisticall" +it' t'e &ro*lems and blessings of migration. In this regard, the passage and enforcement of the Gictims of 4raffic=ing and Giolence 7rotection Act of ())) (L4raffic=ing Act,L L4G7A,L or LActL- is paradigmatic. 4he 4raffic=ing Act is intended to offer

statutor' protection to the /ictims of se/ere forms of human traffic=ing, to increase criminal penalties for persons %ho commit such acts of traffic=ing, and to foster international cooperation in efforts to combat human traffic=ing. 4he 4raffic=ing Act has inspired a great deal of scholarl' comment and criticism. 0nfortunatel', there is almost uni/ersal consensus that the 4raffic=ing Act, %hile %ell-intentioned, has

thus far failed to ma=e sufficient strides in addressing the problem of human traffic=ing, either internationall' or domesticall'. 4he most recent diagnoses of the domestic failure are tending to con/ergeI Commentators note that

the Act particularl' as it has been implemented-emphasi#es the la% enforcement components of anti-traffic=ing initiati/es in a %a' that undercuts the ActPs humanitarian goals of assisting traffic=ing /ictims. &uch of the literature diagnosing the domestic shortcomings of the 4G7A focuses upon the legal barriers to relief that are encountered b' traffic=ing /ictims in the 0nited $tates. 4he proposed solutions focus on impro/ing the identification and assistance of traffic=ing /ictims in the 0nited $tates. ut t'e (nite$ States is not a &assi)e reci&ient of trafficke$

'uman *eings- ;fforts to $eal more effecti)el" an$ 'umanel" +it' t'e $omestic manifestations of glo*al 'uman trafficking must take account of t'e role t'at t'e ( nite$ States &la"s in generating a )ia*le market for trafficking- 4his reAuires e<press recognition that specific elements of 0.$. la% and polic' actuall' facilitate the traffic=ing of human beings into and %ithin the 0nited $tates. 8hen the issue is framed in this %a', it Auic=l' becomes e/ident that the shortcomings of the 4raffic=ing Act are neither ne% nor uniAue failures+ the' are simpl' the most recent e<amples of the %ider failure of 0.$. la% to successfull' assess and grapple %ith the global and domestic forces that dri/e migration.

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2ac me,ico ke"


Me,ico is t'e largest trafficking 'ots&ot/ *ut t'e" aren4t $oing muc' a*out it 1o6$6iak an$ Collett/ % Institute for the $tud' of International &igration at >eorgeto%n 0ni/ersit' (Fl#bieta &. >o#d#ia= and Fli#abeth A. Collett, ()),, ?Research on .uman 4raffic=ing in "orth AmericaI A Re/ie% of Literature@ httpI//publications.iom.int/boo=store/free/data;res;human U, *U,D.pdf]pageY*))-//F& Although &e<ico is often described as source, transit, and $estination countr' for persons traffic=ed for se<ual e<ploitation and labour , information about the &e<ican >o/ernmentk s in/ol/ement in anti-traffic=ing acti/ities is scarce. According to the 4raffic=ing in 7ersons (4I7- report, the >o/ernment of &e<ico does not full' compl' %ith the minimum standards for the elimination of traf- fic=ing. At the moment, &e<ico lac=s national-le/el commitment to fight traffic=ing and a national anti-traffic=ing la% . 4he countr' did sign the &e<ican->uatemalan &arch ())C
&emorandum of 0nderstanding on traffic=- ing. In addition, &e<ico participated in recent conferences on traffic=ing in persons, including a conference organi#ed b' the 0$ Department of Labor as part of ongoing cooperati/e acti/ities bet%een the >o/ernments of Canada, &e<ico, and the 0nited $ tates under the "orth American Agreement of Labour Cooperation ("AALC-, and a conference on $trategies for Combating .uman 4raffic=ing %ithin the 0nited $tates, Canada, and &e<ico, organi#ed b' the Chicago-Jent College of La% , and sponsored b' the Canadian Department of 3oreign Af fairs and International 4 rade and the &e<ican Consulate in Chicago. 4he dif ferent le/el of in/ol/ement b' "orth American countries in anti-traf fic=ing acti/ities is related to the differences in defining the problem. 1r is it the other %a' aroundH

A1(:=;2A 2012 (Fli#abeth, ?An Inhumane 4radeI human traffic=ing,@ 0-4 $an Diego, $ep ((, httpI//%%%.utsandiego.com/ne%s/()*(/$ep/((/inhumanetrade/(/H]article-cop'-

.uman traffic=ing is a lucrati/e affair, ran=ing as one of the top three most profitable criminal enterprises (behind the arms trade and drug traffic=ing-, according to the 0.". 1ffice on Drugs and Crime, Interpol and the 0.$. $tate Department. It is estimated to be a SB( billion-a-'ear business that ensnares (* million to (: million /ictims %orld%ide, said the International Labour 1rgani#ation and Je/in ales, cofounder of 3ree the $la/es and author of ?Disposable 7eopleI "e% $la/er' in the >lobal Fconom'.@ $an Diego Count' pla's a significant role in human traffic=ing because it has the busiest land port in the %orld, miles of border territor', an international airport and eas' access to interstate high%a's. 4hose factors ma=e it one of the top *) 0.$. cities for child pornograph' and traffic=ing, said Joe >arcia, special agent in charge of Department of .omeland $ecurit' in/estigations in $an Diego. 4he $tate Department estimates that *,,))) to *E,))) foreign traffic=ing /ictims are brought to the 0.$. each 'ear. &an' of them come from &e<ico or cross through &e<ico into America from distant countries. Human trafficking in Me,ico is &articularl" unregulate$ 8 ke" starting &oint to sol)e 1ra'am 10 Council on .emispheric Affairs Research Associate (&elissa, L&e<icoPs "e% 8arI $e< 4raffic=ing,L *)/*B/()*),

httpI//%%%.coha.org/me<icoUF(UE)U99s-ne%-%ar-se<-traffic=ing/-//A& &e<ico5s drug cartels ha/e been at least a step ahead of the &e<ican go/ernment since Caldermn launched his campaign against them. Although some of the top drug lords ha/e been captured and !ailed, the' can beNand often areNeffecti/el' replaced. 4he capture of se/eral drug lords b' militar' forces has not actuall' benefitted Caldermn5s efforts. In fact, the remo/al of /arious cartel leaders has actuall' led, on some occasions, to the creation of ne% cartels- the eltran Le'/a Cartel being but one e<ample. As Caldermn has been distracted %ith drug control he has inad/ertentl' allo%ed

for the gro%th of human traffic=ing, a lucrati/e business left largel' unregulated b' &e<ican la%. K .uman traffic=ing accounts for D.D billion 0$D a 'ear in &e<ico alone,* a figure that is gro%ing as human traffic=ing continues its rise in profitabilit'. 4he /ast e<pansion of human traffic=ing from &e<ico to the 0nited $tates is notable in its absence from the media+ instead, a %ealth of anal'sis of drug related problems continuall' ta=es the spotlight. Conser/ati/e estimates conclude that o/er *)),))) %omen, a number predicted to increase b' the end of ()*), are traffic=ed out of Latin America annuall' for the purpose of prostitution.( K .uman traffic=ing has been attac=ed on a global scale %ith countries across the %orld focusing more of an effort on their o%n problems and using reports li=e the 4raffic=ing in 7ersons Report (4I7- to publici#e their efforts. &e<ico ho%e/er, remains an anomal'. 4he reason that the mainstream raped and sub!ected to unimaginable conditions. rothels hold %omen across the countr' , in places as far a%a' from the border as "e% Mor= Cit', %here the conditions of li/ing are so se/ere as to cause one 0.$. ph'sician to claim ?the first time I %ent to the camps I didn5t /omit onl' because I didn5t ha/e an'thing in m' stomach .@B

media does not focus much attention on human traffic=ing coming out of &e<ico is not because it is not ne%s%orth'+ it is instead because drug /iolence dominates the headlines. 4housands of %omen and children are sub!ected to a modern-da' form of sla/er', %ith man'

T'e status Huo lea)es +omen in Me,ico o&en to structural )iolence- =ack of coor$ination makes current &olic" ineffecti)e

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C;9@W 412 (Committee on the Flimination of all forms of Discrimination Against 8omen, 0" committee consisting of (B
e<perts on %omen5s rights from around the %orld, ?3emicide and Impunit' in &e<icoI A conte<t of structural and genearli#ed /iolence@, Jul' *:, ()*(, accessed /ia 7roOuest, W$>X-

4he gro%ing /iolence across the countr', aggra/ated b' the economic crisis, has had a direct impact on /iolence against %omen, %hich has alarmingl' increased during recent 'ears. Despite that, comprehensi/e measures to eradicate gender /iolence ha/e not been implemented in the countr', both at a 3ederal and local le/el. @n t'e contrar"/ t'e +i$es&rea$ failure *" t'e aut'orities at t'e $ifferent le)els of go)ernment seems to &refer its in)isi*ilit" an$ not to face its causes. $ome important actions aimed at addressing /iolence against %omen ha/e been ta=en, both at the 3ederal le/el and at some local entities, but the lac= of inter-institutional coordination and some polic' gaps ha/e pre/ented their successful implementation. 1n ()): Congress adopted a ne% legal frame%or= to ensure the right of
%omen to li/e free from /iolence and discrimination enshrined in the >eneral La% of Access for 8omen to a Life 3ree of Giolence (>LA8L3G-. Among other things, it sought to address the alarming situation of /iolence against %omen in &e<ico, e<pressed in its e<treme form of femicide. .o%e/er, more than fi/e 'ears after the >LA8L3G too= effect, its implementation and the protecti/e mechanisms enshrined on it are currentl' not guaranteeing the protection of the life and integrit' of %omen in &e<ico. &e<ico is ran=ed in the *Dth place in the incidence of homicides

against %omen globall'. According to a report produced b' 0"-8omen, cases of femicide in the countr' ha/e seen a stead' increase since the
'ear ()):, %hich had recorded the lo%est number of femicides since *9E,, but b' ())9 the number had alread' e<ceeded those recorded on *9E, b' about (,U. T'ere is a s"stematic &attern of im&unit" in Me,ico/ a reflection of t'e lack of access to

>ustice for +omen- 3reAuentl', /ictims are battered and discriminated %hen tr'ing to access the !ustice s'stem. &e<ico lac=s a comprehensi/e institutionali#ed polic' for granting access to !ustice for %omen and presents se/ere failures throughout all stages of criminal proceedings. A large ma!orit' of cases in/ol/ing /iolence against

%omen continue to go %ithout a formal in/estigation, !udgment and sanctions b' the !ustice s'stem, both at the 3ederal and local le/el. &oreo/er, the lac= of statistical data and reliable s'stems of information impede an adeAuate assessment on the se/erit' of the problem, as the institutions do not generate sufficient data and statistical information. Also, the absence of reliable records of /ictims impedes to =no% the real

magnitude of the situation. 4he >LA8L3G establishes as %ell the $tate5s dut' to guarantee the securit' and integrit' of /ictims through t%o

main mechanisms for their protection. In the first place, protection orders to grant immediate police and !udicial inter/ention in cases of famil' /iolence and/or rape. 4he other mechanism is =no%n as Declaration of >ender Giolence, %hich is a set of go/ernment emergenc' actions aimed at addressing and eradicating femicides in a gi/en territor', %hether e<ercised b' indi/iduals or b' the communit'. 7rotection orders are defined as acts of protection and urgent application for a better protection of the /ictim, %hich are mainl' precautionar' and protecti/e measures. .o%e/er, the progress made

b' states to ma=e these orders effecti/e has been rather slo%. 4o date, onl' (D states ha/e included to their local legislation the

three t'pes of protection orders established b' the >LA8L3G+ in (, states, regulator' frame%or=s indicate that the protection orders must be reAuested before a ?competent authorit'@, but does not clarif' the coordination among them+ in () states the application of measures ha/e a ma<imum duration of :( hours for its implementation, a time frame so e<tended that puts the li/es of %omen %ho see= protection orders at ris=.

Status Huo efforts to sto& trafficking focuses on &rosecution as a &rimar" solution5 t'is fails *ecause of lack of coor$ination
8FL3ARF@, ())9, httpI//%%%.du.edu/=orbel/hrh%/researchdigest/traffic=ing/4raffic=ing.pdf, pgs. *-( W$>X-

$4;stree 407 (Claude, 7rofessor of >eograph' at the Josef Jorbel $chool of International $tudies in Den/er, ?.0&A" RI>.4$ 6.0&A"
&uch li=e the first iteration of this 4opical Digest on human traffic=ing and modern sla/er', %ith an ?Introduction@ b' Dr. Je/in ales, this second iteration co/ers a %ide range of sub!ects, mo/ing from countr' specific and regional to broad sub!ects and issues of international !urisprudence. 4his

sur/e' of literature on human traffic=ing is of critical importance, especiall' in a 'oung, emerging, and contro/ersial field. In the last decade, the field of human traffic=ing has changed from an almost un=no%n and largel' unreported phenomenon to a cause celebre moti/ated b' sensational and disturbing stories reported in the media dail'. 4his is for good reasonI go/ernment statistics sho% that the illicit funds generated b' human traffic=ing are second onl' to the illegal sale of drugs %orld%ide and, as noted b' Dr. ales, there are more sla/es no% than at an' other time in histor'. :n res&onse/ go)ernment agencies/ international organi#ations, non-go/ernmental organi#ations, faith-based organi#ations, and the pri/ate sector are reallocating an$ mo*ili6ing some of t'eir resources to com*at t'is ancient scourge ma$e mo$ern- In the 0nited $tates, the Departments of $tate, Justice and .ealth and .uman $er/ices offer substantial financial grants to fight human traffic=ing (albeit pennies to the dollar in comparison to the ?%ar on drugs@-. An$ 'erein actuall" lies t'e &ro*lem- T'e )ast ma>orit" of anti5'uman trafficking mone" is *eing offere$ to organi6ations in)ol)e$ in rescue an$ re'a*ilitation +orkW'ile t'is is commen$a*le/ it also &otentiall" &uts t'e cart *efore t'e 'orse . 4he funding for research, data collection and anal'sis is rare and /er' hard to find either for short-term or longitudinal studies. 4he result is that go/ernments and international organi#ations are being forced to ma=e important polic' decisions based on /er' fe% substantial anal'sis of the problem. A re/ie% of the literature on human traffic=ing, count' b' countr', region b' region, and topic b' topic, is the critical
first step to understanding the scope of the problem, but also, perhaps more importantl', to finding the gaps in the =no%ledge base so that coordinated research can be directed to those areas. 8ithout research and attendant anal'ses, polic'ma=ers are ma=ing decisions in

the dar= and are %asting precious and limited resources.

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2ac traffickers come to u-s(-S- is t'e to& $estination for trafficking )ictims from Me,ico He&*urn an$ Simon/ 10 %riter and professor at the $chool of 7ublic Affairs at 8ashington College of La%, ($tephanie .epburn and Rita J. $imon, ,/*,/*),?.idden in 7lain $ightI .uman 4raffic=ing in the 0nited $tates@,Fbsco-//F& 4he 0$ is one of the top *) destinations for human traffic=ingN%ith tens of thousands of people traffic=ed into the countr' each 'ear. 4here ha/e been reports of traffic=ing in o/er 9) 0$ cities. In fact, the 0$ is the most freHuent $estination for /ictims traffic=ed from Latin America and the Caribbean , and one of the top three destinations for persons
traffic=ed from Asia (other than other Asian nations-. 7ersons are traffic=ed from &e<ico, Central America, Fast Asia, $outh Asia, Africa, and Furope for the purposes of forced labor and commercial se<ual e<ploitation WB9, ,*X.

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2ac u-s-5me,ico coo& ke"


#ilateral &artners'i& +it' Me,ico is ke" 1ar6a/ 11 (Rocio >ar#a, .ar/ard graduate, candidate for Juris Doctor, **/*/**, Addressing .uman 4raffic=ing Along the 0nited $tates-&e<ico orderI the "eed for a ilateral 7artnership, httpI//%%%.c!icl.com/uploads/(/9/,/9/(9,9:9*/c!icl;*9.(;gar#a;note.pdf-//F& &e<ico is a source countr' for traffic=ing &e<ican immigrants %ho fall /ictim at the hands of traffic=ers and are transported primaril' to the 0nited $tates and, to a lesser degree, Canada and 8estern Furope.9E In addition, &e<ico is also a transit countr' because Due to the large numbers of peoples that migrate through &e<ico b' entering its southern border, or lea/e &e<ico b' crossing its northern border %ith the 0nited $tates, the human traffic=ing problem is particularl' acute because &e<ico ser/es as a source, transit point, and destination for human traffic=ing. 3or this reason, a bilateral partnership bet%een the 0nited $tates and &e<ico, or e/en a multilateral partnership %ith other nations is necessar" to eradicate human traffic=ing.
human traffic=ing %ithin &e<ico is also an issue particularl' %ith ?&e<ican men and bo's W%hoX are traffic=ed from southern to northern &e<ico for forced labor.@*)(

immigrants from Central and $outh America usuall' tra/el through &e<ico en route to the 0nited $tates and then enter the 0nited $tates /ia its shared border %ith &e<ico.99 &e<ico is also a destination countr' for man' Central and $outh American immigrants %ho fail to enter the 0nited $tates *)) and are e<ploited in &e<ico. ?4he /ast ma!orit' of foreign /ictims traffic=ed into W&e<icoX for commercial se<ual e<ploitation are from Central America, particularl' >uatemala, .onduras, and Fl $al/ador.@*)* Internal

#ilateral &artners'i& +it' Me,ico is crucial 1ar6a/ 11 (Rocio >ar#a, .ar/ard graduate, candidate for Juris Doctor, **/*/**, Addressing .uman 4raffic=ing Along the 0nited $tates-&e<ico orderI the "eed for a ilateral 7artnership, httpI//%%%.c!icl.com/uploads/(/9/,/9/(9,9:9*/c!icl;*9.(;gar#a;note.pdf-//F&
4his "ote proposes that &e<ico amend the &e<ican Anti 4raffic=ing La% and ma=es recommendations for its implementation. .o%e/er, the "ote ac=no%ledges that e/en if the la%s are impro/ed, the solution ma' not be complete. 4he "ote argues that a more concrete bilateral

partnership bet%een the 0nited $tates and &e<ico is necessar" in order to pre/ent human traffic=ing, prosecute traffic=ers, and protect /ictims of human traffic=ing. 7art II presents bac=ground information including the definition of human

traffic=ing pursuant to international instruments, the distinguishing factors bet%een human traffic=ing and smuggling that can blur the line bet%een criminals and /ictims, and an o/er/ie% of the circumstances that further complicate anti traffic=ing efforts along the e<tensi/e shared bor der. 7art III r e /ie%s the /arious interrelated legal frame%or=s that ha/e been established to combat human traffic=ingI at the international le/el b' the 0nited "ations, in the 0nited $tates, and in &e<ico. 4he section di s cussing the international legal frame%or= includes a summar' of the 0" Con/ention Against 4ransnational 1rgani#ed Crime, %hich opened for signature b' &ember $tates at a .igh le/el 7olitical Conference con/ened in 7alermo, Ital', and the subseAuentl' adopted 0" 7rotocol that addresses hu man traffic=ing. 4he 0.$. legal frame%or= section discusses its intersection %ith the international legal frame%or= and a d dresses the 4G7A along %ith its most recent reauthori#ation. 4he &e<ican legal frame%or= section includes the pree<isting la%s relat ed to human traffic=ing, the &e<ican Anti 4raffic=ing La%, and the form a tion of the $pecial 7rosecution 0nit for Crimes against 8omen and .uman 4raffic=ing, (3FGI&4RA-. BD 7art IG recommends amending the &e<ican Anti 4raffic=ing La% and ma=es suggestions regarding its implementation. It also proposes a bilateral partnership bet%een the 0nited $tates and &e<ico and considers and responds to challenges

against the recommendations and the proposal. (-S-5Me,ico coo&eration ke" to t'e uniHue circumstances in t'e region 1ar6a/ 11 (Rocio >ar#a, .ar/ard graduate, candidate for Juris Doctor, **/*/**, Addressing .uman 4raffic=ing Along the 0nited $tates-&e<ico orderI the "eed for a ilateral 7artnership, httpI//%%%.c!icl.com/uploads/(/9/,/9/(9,9:9*/c!icl;*9.(;gar#a;note.pdf-//F& 4he 0" 7rotocol offers an e<cellent infrastructure for countries to use as a foundation for their o%n anti-traffic=ing la%s and strategies. .o%e/er, the strategies must be put into conte<t %ithin each countr'5s uniAue circumstances. In the cases of the 0nited $tates and &e<ico, their anti-traffic=ing efforts must ta=e into consideration their shared histor' and geographic border. T'e &lan rein)igorates coo&eration efforts 8 t'at4s ke" to sol)e 2"f 2 JD magna cum laude Case 8estern Reser/e 0ni/ersit' La% $chool, ())( (Jara, 4he 3irst &odern Anti-$la/er' La%I 4he 4raffic=ing Gictims
7rotection Act of ())), Case 8. Res. J. IntPl L..uman traffic=ing touches almost all nations of the %orld. As a result, this serious human rights problem can

onl' be eliminated through international cooperation. ecause traffic=ing presents social, health, economic, and crime problems for e/er' nation, each nation of origin, transit and destination 'as an incenti)e to %or= %ith the 0nited $tates to control traffic=ing. 4o facilitate international participation, the Act contains numerous pro/isions that

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 88/283 encourage nations to cooperatein eliminating traffic=ing, prosecuting traffic=ers, and protecting /ictims. 4he Act first reAuires the 0.$. $tate
Department to assess a foreign go/ernmentPs participation, facilitation or condoning of traffic=ing along %ith that go/ernmentPs efforts to cooperate in international in/estigations.4he $ecretar' of $tate %ill also head a committee that %or=s to encourage cooperation among origin, transit, and destination countries. A

recent arrest of thirt'-eight smugglers %ith B,,)) immigrants from t%ent'-fi/e different countries is a Ltestament to the necessit' and the effecti/eness of international cooperation.L Jno%n as
1peration 3orerunner, the arrests %ere a coordinated effort bet%een the 0nited $tates, eli#e, Fl $al/ador, >uatemala, .onduras, &e<ico, and 7anama. Crac=ing this ma!or smuggling operation in/ol/ed %or=ing simultaneousl' %ith all go/ernments and sharing intelligence information to pinpoint times, routes, and the transportation methods traffic=ers %ere using. Due to the success of 1peration 3orerunner, other countries ha/e begun to cooperate as %ell. China proposed an initiati/e to %or= %ith Furope to combat transnational crime, and 4ur=e' suggested that Ltechnical and operational cooperation and communication offices be set up bet%een the countries, WbecauseX the e<penses of the burden of the struggle should be shared b' all countries.L It is important that man' nations ha/e recogni#ed solidarit' as the foundation to eliminating traffic=ing . $uccess, ho%e/er,

ecause go/ernment corruption facilitates much of the traffic=ing industr', man' countries ha/e been un%illing to share intelligence , fearing the information %ill %ind up in the traffic=ersP hands. 4o reduce this fear, the Act pro/ides that the 0.$. $tate Department prepare a report e/aluating go/ernment authorities participation, facilitation, and condoning of traffic=ing acti/ities. 3urthermore, nations are reAuired to in/estigate and prosecute go/ernment authorities in/ol/ed in traffic=ing in order to meet the ActPs minimum standards criteria.
%ill not be achie/ed %ithout trust among nations. .o%e/er, as long as traffic=ing remains a highl' profitable enterprise it is unli=el' that participation in traffic=ign b' go/ernment authorities %ill end. As a result, t'e goal must *e to $eter trafficking *" making it a 'ig' risk/ lo+ &rofit acti)it"- ecause man'

4he Act, ho%e/er, changes this b' reAuiring all nations of origin, transit, and destination to enact anti-traffic=ing la%s %ith penalties appropriate for the heinous le/el of the crime in order to meet the minimum standards criteria. Independent of the Act, each nation must recogni#e the importance of educating local la% enforcement officials, prosecutors, and !udges to strictl' follo% the traffic=ing la%s. 8ithout harsh penal deterrence, traffic=ers %ill continue to prosper in nations %here traffic=ing la%s are not enforced or do not e<ist.
countries do not prohibit traffic=ing and punish the /ictims more harshl' than the traffic=ers, the ris= in the past has been /er' lo%.

#ilateral coo&eration is ke" to sol)e 1ar6a 11 Candidate for Juris Doctor, en!amin ". Cardo#o $chool of La%, A

from .ar/ard (Rocio, **/*/**, LAddressing .uman 4raffic=ing Along the 0nited $tates-&e<ico orderI 4he "eed for a ilateral 7artnership,L httpI//%%%.c!icl.com/uploads/(/9/,/9/(9,9:9*/c!icl;*9.(;gar#a;note.pdf-//A& 4he porous 0nited $tates-&e<ico border continues to be a K significant point of entr' for human traffic=ing /ictimsBC that are K be'ond the reach of the &e<ican Anti-4raffic=ing La% and K unli=el' to benefit from the 4G7A. Along the appro<imatel' K (,)))-mile di/ision, the

challenges of eradicating human traffic=ing K are manifold.B,K 1ne of these challenges is determining %hose K responsibilit' it is to remed' the human traffic=ing situation. K $hould the 0nited $tates e<pend more resources sa/ing /ictims K and incarcerating traffic=ers %ithin its bordersH Is it &e<ico5s K responsibilit' to %arn its citi#ens and =eep them safe from K
traffic=ersH $hould it matter that %hat ma=es /ictims /ulnerable K to traffic=ers is their basic human instinct to do better for themsel/es and their progen' b' see=ing better economic K opportunitiesH .uman traffic=ing transcends boundaries and so K must its solution.

4he 0nited $tates and &e<ico are both deepl' K affected and ine<tricabl' lin=ed b' human traffic=ing due to their K histor' and e<tensi/e shared geographic border. .ence, a solution K for addressing human traffic=ing must ta=e into consideration both K countries5 interests through a bilateral partnership. (nilateral a&&roac'es fail0&artners'i& is critical Cicero59omTngue6/ % ($al/ador A. Cicero-Domkngue#, graduate of the &atkas Romero Institute for Diplomatic $tudies in &e<ico Cit' and holds a Juris Doctor from 4he 1hio $tate 0ni/ersit' &orit# College of La%. .e currentl' ser/es as Director of the American ar Association/ American ar 3oundation5s 7ro!ect to Combat 4raffic=ing in 7ersons in Fcuador, 8inter ()), ?Assessing the 0.$.-&e<ico 3ight Against .uman 4raffic=ing and $mugglingI 0nintended Results of 0.$. Immigration 7olic'@ "orth%estern Journal of International .uman Rights, httpI//scholarl'commons.la%.north%estern.edu/cgi//ie%content.cgiH articleY*)BD6conte<tYn!ihr-//F& Despite this o/er%helming data sho%ing the defects of 0nited $tates and &e<ican go/ernmental responses to the dangerous en/ironment of the border and the e<pansion of traffic=ing rings operating all the %a' from Central and $outh America through &e<ican territor', no concrete proposal on cooperation has been put for%ard b' either go/ernment. KEC 4he issue of criminal deportees, as a contributing factor of important conseAuences in the smuggling and traffic=ing of people from &e<ico to the 0.$., remains largel' ignored in polic' planning efforts. 4he &e<ican go/ernment must design policies to assist these deportees to
integrate into &e<ican societ' and find !obs. 1ther%ise it %ill continue to suffer the conseAuences of ha/ing unemplo'able, 0.$. - trained delinAuents, participating in the gro%ing hum an traffic=ing and smuggling operations at the northern and southern borders of &e<ico. KE, Although some positi/e de/elopments ha/e occurred o/er the last 'ear, *(: it is essential t'at t'e (-S- an$ Me,ican go)ernments 'ol$ a

*ilateral conference to discuss the issue, not onl' from a la% enforcement perspecti/e, but also including the health, education and social ser/ice authorities (such as $F7, DI3, I&$$, etc., and their 0.$. counterparts- as %ell as ci/il

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 87/283 societ' at large. A bi-national tas= force, %hich includes ci/il societ' and academics, could stud' the *est means of coo&eration=ack of coo&eration onl" makes t'e &ro*lem +orse Cicero59omTngue6/ % ($al/ador A. Cicero-Domkngue#, graduate of the &atkas Romero Institute for Diplomatic $tudies in &e<ico Cit' and holds a Juris Doctor from 4he 1hio $tate 0ni/ersit' &orit# College of La%. .e currentl' ser/es as Director of the American ar Association/ American ar 3oundation5s 7ro!ect to Combat 4raffic=ing in 7ersons in Fcuador, 8inter ()), ?Assessing the 0.$.-&e<ico 3ight Against .uman 4raffic=ing and $mugglingI 0nintended Results of 0.$. Immigration 7olic'@ "orth%estern Journal of International .uman Rights, httpI//scholarl'commons.la%.north%estern.edu/cgi//ie%content.cgiH articleY*)BD6conte<tYn!ihr-//F& 8hile some remain s=eptical that such an approach %ill lead to a successful accord, %ithout such an agreement, or absent ne% legislati/e efforts to correct the migrator' situation of millions of people li/ing illegall' and tra/eling underground to the 0nited $tates, it is li=el' that the current en/ironment fostering smuggling and traffic=ing of people , not to mention firearms and drugs, %ill continue to prosper. 4his %ould onl' spur the traffic=ers and smugglers to attempt e/en ris=ier a/enues of entr' into the 0.$. GIII. C 1"CL0$I1" K9C 4he 0nited $tates and &e<ico must approach the issue of traffic=ing in human beings and associated phenomena, li=e smuggling of migrants, %ith an honest dialogue bet%een both nations. It is clear that the phenomena herein discussed is affected b' man' e<ternal factors li=e globali#ation, economic gro%th, social de/elopment, education, historical migration patterns and organi#ed crime, among others. It is ob/ious that a la% enforcement - onl' approach ma' ameliorate the situation, but %ill not resol/e it at its root. K9, 4he impact of each countr'5s policies on its neighbor must be ta=en into account, if an' effort is to be successful. 1ne of the comparati/e ad/antages that organi#ed crime has historicall' had o/er national go/ernments is that it coordinates its actions irrespecti/e of national boundaries to accomplish its mission. 8hile ac=no%ledging that e/er' countr' has a dut' to protect its territorial integrit' and borders, in doing so each countr' must decide ho% much authorit' to
ma=e decisions it is %il ling to share %ith its neighbors in order to accomplish !oint regional securit'. 8ithout this =ind of open dialogue, cooperation efforts are li=el' to ha/e little success.

1A23A 2011 (Rocio, Candidate for Juris Doctor,

en!amin ". Cardo#o $chool of La%, &a' ()**+ A. . (()),- .ar/ard 0ni/ersit', CARD121 J. 13 I"45L 6 C1&7. LA8, &arch, %%%.c!icl.com/uploads/(/9/,/9/(9,9:9*/c!icl;*9.(;gar#a;note.pdf-

Gictims on both sides of the 0nited $tates-&e<ico border %ould greatl' benefit from impro/ements to both countries5 la%s and their implementation. Regardless, the 0nited $tates and &e<ico can accomplish much more if the' !oin efforts and collaborate in a formal bilateral partnership that ta=es into account the internal and e<ternal factors(CB that ma=e human traffic=ing possible. A bilateral partnership %ould ensure that both countries5 interests are represented in an' solution to eradicate human traffic=ing. It could be beneficial in prosecuting traffic=ers, protecting /ictims, and putting pre/entati/e measures in place. *. 7rosecution of 4raffic=ers A formal bilateral partnership could allo% the 0nited $tates and &e<ico to share information about traffic=ers, %hich could lead to more prosecutions. Currentl', if in the course of an in/estigation, a 0.$. prosecutor belie/es that a traffic=er returned to &e<ico, the prosecutor ma' either petition for e<tradition or submit a reAuest for the &e<ican go/ernment to prosecute the accused in &e<ico.(CC >enerall', &e<ican 7resident Calderon cooperates %ith the 0nited $tates in e<traditing criminals.(C, $e/eral traffic=ers ha/e been e<tradited to the 0nited $tates in connection to high profile cases, such as the Carreto-Galencia brothers %ho %ere charged %ith human traffic=ing for running a forced prostitution ring in "e% Mor=. (CD After se/eral famil' members %ere charged in ())C, another participant %as e<tradited in ()): and sentenced in ())E.(C: Another case in/ol/ed defendants %ho illegall' transported &e<ican indi/iduals to 3lorida and forced them to %or= in fruit har/esting fields b' threatening them %ith /iolence.(CE (. 7rotection of Gictims If the strategies used to prosecute these traffic=ers %ere maintained b' a bilateral partnership, both the 0nited $tates and &e<ico could e<pedite their in/estigator' processes instead of acting unilaterall' and onl' responding to each other5s reAuests for e<tradition and punishment. &ore efficient prosecutions %ould lea/e more resources and time to address the needs of /ictims. A bilateral partnership could be formed bet%een 0.$. Customs and order 7rotection agents and &e<ican customs officials in order to create better strategies to identif' human traffic=ing /ictims at the shared border. Although most immigrants agree to be smuggled, others are abducted and ta=en against their %ill. (C9 8hen these immigrants are intercepted at the border, the' are often confused %ith smugglers and the people the' are smuggling and not recogni#ed as /ictims.(,) .a/ing a bilateral partnership could ensure that

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 70/283 these issues come to light and that proper training is pro/ided to 0.$. Customs and order 7rotection agents in order to pre/ent them from simpl' deporting /ictims or sending them bac= to their traffic=ers. F/en if immigrants ha/e consented to being smuggled, 0.$. agents ma' be able to identif' the signs of human traffic=ing if information is shared across the border. $uspected /ictims of human traffic=ing could be turned o/er to &e<ican customs officials for further in/estigation and possible legal aid and protection. In a bilateral partnership %ith representati/es from both countries, the 0nited $tates and &e<ico %ould be able to come up %ith strategies that =eep traffic=ers and smugglers out of the 0nited $tates %hile protecting the /ictims. 3or e<ample, if a partnership %ere in place, the members of the partnership could designate specific steps for 0.$. Customs and order 7rotection agents to ta=e %hen the' suspect the people the' ha/e detained are /ictims of human traffic=ing. 4hese steps could include, for e<ample, sending /ictims directl' to predetermined and stateappro/ed &e<ican shelters eAuipped to handle their needs as /ictims of human traffic=ing.(,* Another specific step that a partnership ma' be able to put in place is that 0.$. Customs and order 7rotection agents could separate people the' intercept at the border and as= them specific Auestions to determine if the' are /ictims. $ome /ictims of human traffic=ing report that if the' had not been near their traffic=ers at the time the' %ere stopped at the border and if the' had been as=ed more direct Auestions, the' %ould ha/e re/ealed that the' %ere being ta=en against their %ill and been rescued despite their fear of retaliation from traffic=ers. (,( B. 7re/ention of .uman 4raffic=ing 7re/ention tends to be a goal that is cast aside in fa/or of prosecution of traffic=ers and protection of /ictims because it is intangible. 1ne can count the number of prosecutions and /ictims helped but cannot ascertain ho% man' are sa/ed %ith pre/entati/e measures. In the ())9 4I7 Report, $ecretar' of $tate .illar' Clinton ac=no%ledged that much remains to be done in identif'ing and tac=ling the root causes of human traffic=ing.(,B Clinton urged all go/ernments to le/erage their resources and offered 0.$. partnership to strengthen anti-traffic=ing efforts.(,C 1ne of the %a's in %hich the 0nited $tates can le/erage its resources is b' partnering %ith &e<ico in order to continue raising a%areness about the dangers of human traffic=ing and ho% smuggling can easil' lead to traffic=ing. In addition, a partnership %ould send a message to both countries about the seriousness of the crime and the urgent need to address it together. In a partnership bet%een 0.$. and &e<ican representati/es, the' %ould be able to strategi#e to de/elop /iable alternati/es to pre/ent illegal immigration, gi/en that most /ictims are /ulnerable due to a lac= of economic alternati/es. 3urthermore, through a partnership, the 0nited $tates and &e<ico could de/elop !oint and more informed a%areness campaigns to %arn their citi#ens about the dangers and criminal conseAuences of engaging in human traffic=ing.

1A23A 2011 (Rocio, Candidate for Juris Doctor,

en!amin ". Cardo#o $chool of La%, &a' ()**+ A. . (()),- .ar/ard 0ni/ersit', CARD121 J. 13 I"45L 6 C1&7. LA8, &arch, %%%.c!icl.com/uploads/(/9/,/9/(9,9:9*/c!icl;*9.(;gar#a;note.pdf-

A number of countries ha/e enacted anti-traffic=ing legislation %hile others ha/e made impro/ements to legislation.(D, Countries5 indi/idual efforts are especiall' necessar' in times of economic do%nturn %hen people become more desperate to impro/e their li/ing conditions, and are more susceptible to traffic=ers.(DD Although anti-traffic=ing efforts of indi/idual countries %ill continue to be important, coalitions and partnerships are the ne<t frontier in the fight against human traffic=ing.(D: In o/er a decade, since ())), of e/aluating and reporting about human traffic=ing /ia 4raffic=ing in 7ersons Reports, the %orld has come to learn that human traffic=ing is a transnational crime that touches e/er' corner of the %orld. A solution to this problem must ta=e into consideration the indi/idual factors that allo% traffic=ers to e<ploit people %ith impunit' and that ma=e those people targets for e<ploitation. 4he 0nited $tates and &e<ico ha/e a uniAue opportunit' to collaborate to address human traffic=ing along their shared border. As the' continue their separate anti-traffic=ing efforts, the' should consider e<panding upon the model the' de/eloped %ith the three-'ear program 7R14FC4.(DE 4he desire to impro/e their economic conditions and be reunited %ith famil' members %ill al%a's seem to be a ris= %orth ta=ing to people in desperate situations. .o%e/er, b' %or=ing together, in a bilateral partnership, the 0nited $tates and &e<ico can create /iable alternati/es that do not include people ris=ing their li/es, and becoming pre' to traffic=ers, in their attempts to build a better life.

Human Trafficking Aff 71/283 1A23A 2011 (Rocio, Candidate for Juris Doctor,

7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

en!amin ". Cardo#o $chool of La%, &a' ()**+ A. . (()),- .ar/ard 0ni/ersit', CARD121 J. 13 I"45L 6 C1&7. LA8, &arch, %%%.c!icl.com/uploads/(/9/,/9/(9,9:9*/c!icl;*9.(;gar#a;note.pdf-

&e<ico is a source countr' for traffic=ing &e<ican immigrants %ho fall /ictim at the hands of traffic=ers and are transported primaril' to the 0nited $tates and, to a lesser degree, Canada and 8estern Furope.9E In addition, &e<ico is also a transit countr' because immigrants from Central and $outh America usuall' tra/el through &e<ico en route to the 0nited $tates and then enter the 0nited $tates /ia its shared border %ith &e<ico.99 &e<ico is also a destination countr' for man' Central and $outh American immigrants %ho fail to enter the 0nited $tates *)) and are e<ploited in &e<ico. ?4he /ast ma!orit' of foreign /ictims traffic=ed into W&e<icoX for commercial se<ual e<ploitation are from Central America, particularl' >uatemala, .onduras, and Fl $al/ador.@*)* Internal human traffic=ing %ithin &e<ico is also an issue particularl' %ith ?&e<ican men and bo's W%hoX are traffic=ed from southern to northern &e<ico for forced labor.@*)( Due to the large numbers of peoples that migrate through &e<ico b' entering its southern border, or lea/e &e<ico b' crossing its northern border %ith the 0nited $tates, the human traffic=ing problem is particularl' acute because &e<ico ser/es as a source, transit point, and destination for human traffic=ing. 3or this reason, a bilateral partnership bet%een the 0nited $tates and &e<ico, or e/en a multilateral partnership %ith other nations is necessar' to eradicate human traffic=ing.

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2ac mo$elling
(-S- 'uman trafficking &olicies are mo$ele$ glo*all" C'uang/ . 7ractitioner-in-Residence, American 0ni/ersit' 8ashington College olP La%. J .D., .ar/ard La% $chool+ A., Male 0ni/ersit' (Janie A. Chuang, 8inter ())D , ?4he 0nited $tates as >lobal $heriffI 0sing 0nilateral $anctions to Combat .uman 4raffic=ing@, &ichigan Journal of International La%, Gol. (:, "o. (, httpI//papers.ssrn.com.pro<'.lib.umich.edu/solB/papers.cfmHabstract;idY99))9E6do%nloadY'es-//F& 1nce an issue relegated to the margins of international human rights discourse, human traffic=ing has rapidl' become a mainstream political concern, both internationall' and domesticall' . Defined roughl' as the recruitment or mo/ement of persons b' means of coercion or deception into e<ploitati/e labor or sla/er'-li=e practices, traffic=ing is an interna- tional crime and human rights /iolation. According to the international Labour 1rgani#ation, appro<imatel' (., million people are traffic=ed %ithin and across borders at an' point in time, generating an estimated SB( billion in profits for organi#ed crime.P As the global econom' impels more and more people to migrate under circumstances rendering them /ulnerable to traffic=ers, go/ernments %orld%ide ha/e hastened to pass la%s and initiati/es to combat the problem. In the midst of this rapidl' changing legal en/ironment, the 0nited $tates has emerged as a domi- nant force, %ith the &olitical an$ financial +'ere+it'al to influence 'o+ ot'er countries res&on$ to t'e &ro*lem of 'uman trafficking-

Human Trafficking Aff 73/283

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2ac la+/state ke" ke"


=egislation is t'e onl" +a" to actuali6e c'ange0laun$r" list :=@/ % (International Labour 1rgani#ation, C/*/,, ?.uman 4raffic=ing and 3orced Labour F<ploit at ionI >uidance for Legislation and La% Fnforcement@, httpI//digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cgi//ie%content.cgiH articleY*)(*6conte<tYforcedlabor-//F&
4he act of ratification constitutes a commitment b' the $tate to ta=e action that %ill lead to the goal of eradicating traffic=ing, %hich is the second main role of legislati/e bod- ies. Legislation is the basis for such action as itI n 4ranslates the aims and principles of

international standards into national la%. n $ets the principles, ob!ecti/es and priorities for national action to combat traf- fic=ing and other forced labour outcomes of migration. n Creates the machiner' for carr'ing out that action. n Creates specific rights and responsibilities. n 7laces the authorit' of the $tate behind the protection of /ictims of traffic=- ing/migrant %or=ers. n Creates a common understanding among all actors in/ol/ed . n 7ro/ides a basis and procedure for complaints and in/estigations. n 7ro/ides legal redress for /ictims. n 7ro/ides sanctions for offenders. A number of Auestions arise from these points, for instanceI do criminal la%s prohibit all forms of forced labour and traffic=ingH Do the'
include pro/isions to prosecute all the per- petrators in/ol/edH Do the la%s pro/ide adeAuate protection for /ictims, regardless of %hether the' agree to file a complaint against the perpetrators of traffic=ing and forced labour upon identificationH Legislati/e bodies must ma=e sure that

their countr'5s legislation effecti/el' prohibits all forms of e<ploitation as defined b' the 7rotocol and the rele/ant IL1
Con/entions, as %ell as pro/iding appropriate protection and assistance for /ictims.

1o)ernment is ke" 8 t'e &erm sol)es *est (N@9C/ 07 (0nited "ations 1ffice on Drugs and Crime, &a' ()):, ?4he >lobal Initiati/e to 3ight .uman 4raffic=ing,@ httpI//%%%.unodc.org/pdf/giftU()brochure.pdf, .enselA 4eam Fffort 4eam%or= is /ital if %e %ant to ta=e the fight against human traffic=ing to ne% le/els . Dedicated
indi/iduals and groups around the %orld are alread' doing %hat the' can. 0".>I34 aims to harness and combine this enormous good%ill, pro/iding a frame%or= for coherent action. At the international le/el, a number of 0" agencies and regional programs alread' deal %ith man' aspects of human traffic=ing. 4hese institutions ha/e been %or=ing together in the Initiati/ePs preparator' phase through a steering committee. 4he' areI 0"1DC as the guardian of the 0" 7rotocol against traffic=ing in persons 0"ICF3, promoting the protection of children from /iolence, abuse and e<ploitation IL1, promoting protection against forced labour and pre/enting child labour I1&, promoting the protection of migrant %or=ers 1.C.R as the custodian of the anti-sla/er' legal instruments 1$CF, fighting human traffic=ing in its region. 3urthermore, since ())D a broad range of acti/ities and partners has been coordinated through the Inter-Agenc' Cooperation >roup against 4raffic=ing in 7ersons (ICA4-. >o/ernments

must be in/ol/ed, both to steer the process and to strengthen their capacit' to fight human traffic=ing. At the grass roots le/el %here the problem is most acute, non-go/ernmental organi#ations and other ci/il societ' groups protect /ictims and raise a%areness among /ulnerable groups. 4hese groups are the e'es and ears of the global communit', the front line of the anti-traffic=ing mo/ement. A number of pri/ate indi/iduals Neither through foundations, the media or on their o%n initiati/eN are champions of the anti-traffic=ing cause. 4heir %or=, either to raise global a%areness or to tac=le local problems, is an inspiration to us all. 1o)ernment is t'e onl" actor +'o can &ro)i$e fun$ing :=@/ % (International Labour 1rgani#ation, C/*/,, ?.uman 4raffic=ing and 3orced Labour F<ploit at ionI >uidance for Legislation and La% Fnforcement@, httpI//digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cgi//ie%content.cgiH articleY*)(*6conte<tYforcedlabor-//F& .o%e/er, a programme aimed at combating traffic=ing and forced labour, as %ell as its implementation and the monitoring and e/aluation of the implementation, cannot *e carrie$ out +it'out a$eHuate financial an$ 'uman resources. 3unding comes primaril' from go/ernment. An adeAuatel' funded central unit for the de/elopment and monitoring of the programme is ad/isable, to a/oid duplication of acti/ities among departments . $uch a
programme reAuires the in/estment of resources in areas such as la% enforcement, education, public health and social ser/ices. A large part of these funds should be de/oted to the training of personnel, for e<ample, la%'ers, la% enforcement personnel, administrators, social %or=ers and statisticians.

T'e go)ernment 'as to act 1ulati/ 10 Q 7hD, Associate 7rofessor of 7olitical $cience at entle' 0ni/ersit', &ember of the Regional 8or=ing >roup on &odern-Da' $la/er' and .uman 4raffic=ing, Carr Center for .uman Rights, Jenned' $chool of >o/ernment, .ar/ard 0ni/ersit' (>irish J. >ulati, Jul' *, ()*), ?&edia Representation of .uman 4raffic=ing in the 0nited $tates, >reat ritain, and Canada,@ entle' 0ni/ersit', pdf, .ensel-

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 7 /283 4his more comprehensi/e /ie% of the problem reAuires solutions that go be'ond empo%ering la% enforcement %ith more resources and authorit'. 8hile there is support for assisting foreign go/ernments %ith their enforcement and ser/ices ($hauer
and 8heaten ())D-, there is concern about the /alue of this approach in countries %here go/ernment officials and la% enforcement personnel ha/e been in/ol/ed in traffic=ing enterprises or place a /er' lo% priorit' on addressing problems e<perienced b' marginali#ed people. &ore emphasis is

placed on empo%ering %omen (Agustin ()),+ 3riman and Reich ()):- and assistance for economic de/elopment more generall' ($=eldon ()))- and penali#ing corporations %ho hire traffic=ing /ictims (>ill ()):+ $alt and $tein *99:-. $cholars from the human rights perspecti/e also echo the concern of the polic' communit' that more should be done to assist /ictims (>allagher ())D+ .a'nes ())C-, to inform the public (Jligman and Limoncelli ())C-, and to place pressure on go/ernments that fail to address traffic=ing, regardless of their strategic position or /alue in the %ar against international terrorism (3riman and Reich ()):+ Japstein ())D-. 4here also are suggestions to e<tend protections to se< %or=ers and allo% 0.$. assistance to go to organi#ations that do not ta=e a firm anti-prohibitionist stand on prostitution ("ieu%enhu's and 7ocoud ()):+ 7latt ())*+ $hauer and 8heaten ())D+ $ingh and .art ()):-. A ro*ust go)ernment res&onse is ke" Malone"/ 12 Q 0.$. Representati/e, "M *(th Congressional District (Carol'n, 1ctober E, ()*(, ?Rep. Carol'n &alone'I 8e Insist on Mour Dignit',@ 7olitics Dail', Le<is"e<is, .ensel1ne hundred fift' 'ears ago, Abraham Lincoln signed the Fmancipation 7roclamation, declaring that Lall persons held as sla/es... shall be free.L Last %ee= 7resident 1bama reminded us that the /ision of the >reat Fmancipator is not 'et fulfilled. Addressing business, philanthropic, and political leaders gathered for the Clinton >lobal Initiati/e, he announced

the AdministrationPs focus on combating human traffic=ing, rene%ing AmericaPs promise that Lour people... are not for sale.L 0nder a ne% 7residential F<ecuti/e 1rder L$trengthening
7rotections Against 4raffic=ing in 7ersons in 3ederal ContractsL contractors, subcontractors, and their emplo'ees %or=ing for the 0$ go/ernment, are Le<pressl' prohibitedL from Lthe procurement of commercial se< acts.L 4his announcement ensures that American ta< dollars in no %a' support human traffic=ing. In a dramaticall' personal address referencing his daughters, faith traditions, and the moral obligations of us all, the 7resident

described global human traffic=ing, including the crisis in our o%n countr' I It ought to concern e/er' person, because itPs a debasement of our common humanit'. It ought to concern e/er' communit', because it tears at the social fabric ... IPm tal=ing about the in!ustice, the outrage, of human traffic=ing, %hich must be called b' its true name -- modern sla/er'. In *EDC, the 4hirteenth Amendment declared that no one can be o%ned b' another, 'et toda' there are thousands
held in modern da' sla/er'. In the 0$, a ma!orit' of traffic=ing /ictims are %omen or girls %ho are forced into prostitution. 1n gi/ea%a' ne%spapers pages and bright computer screens, the ads are there. In cro%ded bars or elegant hotel lobbies, the transactions are made. 8omen and girls are

bought for se< in the dar= corners of our societ' protected b' our %illful ignorance . Runa%a's are special targets. 4a=en in b' predator' pimps and lured b' the promise of a substitute for famil', life in the shado%s becomes their means of sur/i/al . In the
0nited $tates, the a/erage age a girl enters prostitution is *B. ' federal definition, all minors -- e/en those not under the control of a pimp -- are traffic=ing /ictims. LetPs be straight. 4he idea that girls reall' choose prostitution as a career instead of accounting, medicine, or full-time parenting is a m'th. 4he o/er%helming ma!orit' of %omen trapped in that life sa' the' %ould lea/e if onl' the' thought the'

could. Research data are grimI A prostituted %oman is ()) times more li=el' to be murdered . 8hen the traffic=ing of %omen and girls is tolerated, %here the bu'ing and selling of people is allo%ed to flourish , the social costs rise and the ris=s to the innocent increase. Disease is spread. >irls become commodities. And %hat lesson does it teach our 'oung menH 1ur daughtersH Accepting the traffic=ing of %omen and girls as a norm coarsens our culture. In his address, our
7resident said, Las a nation, %eP/e long re!ected such cruelt'.L Met sadl', %ith each purchase of another human, %e become that much more callous to the casual cruelt' of traffic=ing. 3ortunatel' change is possible. 7rosecuting traffic=ers is one ans%er. ut pimps bring in more than S()),))) from each person the' control, so the' can afford top-notch la%'ers. Cases that ta=e months, e/en 'ears to build are often lost in court. ut surprisingl', bu'ers sa' the' %ould stop if the' thought the' %ould be arrested. And the' are brea=ing the la% almost e/er'%here in the 0$. Fffecti/el'

abolishing demand b' enforcing the la% in this %a' ho%e/er, %ill ta=e retraining police forces, %ho no% pic= up eight %omen for e/er' one bu'er. &ean%hile, %e need a robust and comprehensi/e approach to supporting sur/i/ors. &an' ha/e children the'Pre determined to support but not the means. 4he' need education, housing, and !obs, but also encouragement, counseling -- and communit'. 4hatPs %here each of us comes in. It %ill ta=e us all to fulfill
these proclamations. At the 7residentPs speech %e stood near three %omen recogni#ed for the price the' paid in Lthe life.L "o% %e stand proudl' %ith 7resident 1bama, repeating to them his %ordsI L8e hear 'ou. 8e see 'ou. 8e insist on 'our dignit'.L

=egislation is ke" Et'is car$ is a*out et'io&iaI--F Africa Ne+s/ 12 (Africa "e%s, &a' E, ()*(, ?.uman 4raffic=ing - Countr' >ets a Little 8a=e-0p Call,@ Le<is"e<is, .enselK ItPs al%a's been something that happens else%here, li=e "orth Africa, the &iddle Fast or Asia. ut %eP/e al%a's had our o%n uniAue problems, %hich has dri/en the need for legislation li=e the 7re/ention and Combating of 4raffic=ing in 7ersons ill %hich has languished in 7arliament for the last fi/e 'ears. ut last %ee= something happened that might speed things up a little. K K .uman

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traffic=ing doesnPt often ma=e the headlines in $outh Africa, but this %ee= %as an e<ception because the Limpopo police made a massi/e bust during %hich C: Fthiopians %ere sa/ed after being =idnapped for ransom from the &usina refugee centre in Limpopo. K K $outh African 7olice $er/ices spo=esman rigadier .ang%ani &ulaud#i tells Dail' &a/eric= that the police %ere first alerted to the situation %hen a relati/e of those held reported that *) famil' members %ere being held and that R(,))) %as being demanded for each. &ulaud#i sa's that if the ransom for those held %asnPt paid, the plan %as to sell the Fthiopian nationals into sla/er'. K K L4hese people come in as as'lum see=ers, but there %as mone' in/ol/ed in this case and that is ho% %e managed to grab the =idnappers.L $i< alleged =idnappers %ere apprehended. 3i/e of them %ere Fthiopians. K K &ulaud#i said police %erenPt sure of the nationalit' of the other person, but thought he could be Indian. K K L4a=ing into consideration the number of people getting

into our countr', one %ould thin= that there is a lot of traffic=ing happening. K K 4his case ga/e us a %a=e-up call. 8e need to ta=e this matter /er' seriousl' no%,L sa's &ulaud#i.K K $outh Africa should ha/e had a comprehensi/e la% to protect human rights in terms of human traffic=ing , but the 7re/ention and Combating of 4raffic=ing in 7ersons ill that is
sitting %ith the !ustice portfolio committee in 7arliament has 'et to be passed. 4he la% %as supposed to come into effect in April, but the latest indication from committee chairman Lu%ell'n Landers is that it %ill be signed into la% in &a'. K K 4he bill, %hich has been in 7arliament for the past fi/e 'ears, is specificall' aimed at stopping or at least pre/enting human traffic=ing through the imposition of harsh sentences, the prosecution of people in/ol/ed in the chain of human traffic=ing, and more importantl' see=s to aid and protect those people %ho are =idnapped. K K &ulaud#i sa's he doesnPt ha/e statistics for ho% often human traffic=ing happens in Limpopo, but sa's people are brought in and forced into hard labour. L&ost of these people come from 7a=istan or $omalia and are made to %or= in spa#a shops.L K K 4he C: Fthiopians %ho %ere rescued %ere all mature and are being ta=en bac= to the &usina refugee camp for processing, after Auestioning b' police. &ulaud#i sa's the people appear to ha/e been held %ithout being properl' fed, and %ere %ea= and malnourished %hen police freed them.K K L8hen %e got them the' %ere not in a good condition. 8e had to ma=e sure at the police station that the' got the nourishment the' needed. I %ould hope that b' no% the' %ill ha/e gotten a couple of decent meals. 4he' %ere onl' being fed bread and %ater b' the =idnappers,L sa's LimpopoPs police spo=esperson. K K 4he =idnappers ha/e appeared in court, %ere refused bail and %ill appear again on *C &a'. &ulaud#i sa's itPs the first time a case li=e this has occurred in the area, but DA Limpopo spo=esman Langa odlani sa's information he has on hand sho%s that the Lselling of people for sla/er' purposes is rife in Limpopo because of the pro<imit' to the borderL. K K L8e %ill be as=ing our colleagues in the "ational Assembl' to establish a national tas= team bet%een home affairs, foreign affairs and defence to determine if %e ha/e officials colluding %ith international crime s'ndicates. 4he people arrested are mostl' foreign and the people %ho %ere =idnapped %ere Fthiopian, %hich means this is li=el' the %or= of an international s'ndicate,L sa's odlani. L$omeone is bringing these people in.L K K odlani said it %as disturbing that such a gross human rights /iolation %as happening in $outh Africa in this da' and age. LIt is an affront to the people of Limpopo %ho are =no%n to be hospitable and %ho /alue the inherent dignit' of human beings. If it goes unabated it ma' affect our image as a tourist destination.L K K 4he DA intends pic=eting the courts to protest that human rights should be afforded to all, including foreign nationals. L8e %ant to e<press our condemnation against sla/er', %hich is against our Constitution and declared a crime against humanit' b' the international communit'. It goes against %hat %e are tr'ing to achie/e as a countr',L he said.K K .uman traffic=ing is rife across Africa. Anti-$la/er' International sa's thousands of 'oung girls in "iger are sold for bet%een RB,))) and RD,))) in "igeria and are forced into unpaid labour and made to %ear hea/' brass rings around their an=les to signif' that the' are o%ned -- that the' are sla/es. 8omen are freAuentl' forced to ha/e se< %ithout their consent once the' near pubert'. K K Fstimating accurate statistics for the global human traffic=ing is problematic, but the 0"Ps >lobal Initiati/e to 3ight .uman 4raffic=ing estimates profits to be in the region of SB*.Dbillion, %ith about ,U or S*.D-billion of this coming from sub-$aharan Africa. K K 4he organisation sa's about (., million people are traffic=ed into forced labour at an' gi/en time, and that ,.(U of forced labour (including se<ual e<ploitation- happens in sub-$aharan countries and 9.(U occurs in the &iddle Fast and "orth Africa.K K 7eople %ho are =idnapped or lured into human traffic=ing are usuall' bet%een the ages of *E and (C 'ears of age. 4he 0" estimates that about *.( million children are traffic=ed annuall'. &ore than 9)U of people %ho are caught up in the global human traffic=ing %eb, li=e 4ala=, e<perience ph'sical or se<ual /iolence.K K L&' master %as /er' mean and hit me,L the D)-'ear-old %oman told $arah &athe%son of Anti-$la/er' International. LI still remember the beatings he ga/e me. .e beat me until I bled and I still bear the mar=s.L K K LI %as /er' 'oung, ma'be *) 'ears old %hen I %as sold. I %as ne/er allo%ed to go out and pla'. I %as responsible for all the domestic %or=I dra%ing %ater from the %ell, gathering fire%ood, %ashing up, %ashing clothes, cleaning, caring for the children, pounding grain and coo=ing.L K K L.e sho%ed me no merc'. .e considered me to ha/e no soul. .e %ould ha/e se< %ith me %ithout m' consent. .e %ould use me %hile hatred %as burning in m' heart.L K K 4ala= finall' fled and %as able to escape across the border to a small /illage called 2ongon Ablo, %hich is home to hundreds of runa%a' sla/es. K K &ost donPt =no% %here the' %ere born because the' %ere ta=en and sold into sla/er' at an e<tremel' 'oung age. K K L&ost of the %omen, men, old people and 'oung people are li=e me,L 4ala= said. L"o one moc=s an'one else because e/er'one has had a tragic past.L K K In the latest issue of P>lobal F'e on .uman 4raffic=ingP published b' the International 1rganisation for &igration, Chris .or%ood %rites about L4he grim realit' of smuggling economics and migrant abuse.L K K .or%ood sa's that as people loo= to escape conflict, drought, floods, political oppression, endemic po/ert' or simpl' ma=e a li/ing for themsel/es, the suppl' of smuggling net%or=s surges and the demand to mo/e across international borders soars. K K Fthiopia has been hard hit, resulting in hundreds of thousands of people lea/ing their homes. 4hose %ho donPt see= as'lum in Jen'a ma=e their %a' do%n to $outh Africa. K K 4ens of thousands of refugees mo/e south annuall' to%ards $outh Africa, .or%ood sa's, adding that refugees and irregular migrants mo/ing %ith the LaidL of smugglers report grim tales of Lrough handling, abandonment, lac= of food and %ater or medical support, confinement, beatings, dro%ning, se<ual attac=s, e<tortion, detention, robber', =idnapping and death.LK K .or%ood addsI L4he perpetrators of these abuses are mainl' the smugglers themsel/es, closel' follo%ed b' corrupt $tate officials (police, prison officers, border guards, immigration officials and soldiers-, along %ith bandits and members of the communities through %hich the migrants pass.LK K $hoc=ingl', .or%ood states that the degree of complicit' and collusion of corrupt $tate officials as Lthe prime lubricant -o<'gen, e/en -- of the smuggling business is staggering.L 8ithout these corrupt officials smugglers %ould find it impossible to operate. K K 8ith media reports filled %ith tales of the notorious P>uma >umaP gang that rape, rob and assault %ould-be as'lum see=ers, and reports of organised smuggling s'ndicates operating in &usina, Auestions need to be as=ed about the complicit' of local officials. K K 4hen therePs the matter that the fence that is supposed to run along our northern border is in a state of complete disrepair. K K 8hile the 7re/ention and Combating of 4raffic=ing in 7ersons ill %aits in parliament nothing much, if an'thing, is being done to create the strong !udicial s'stem and la% enforcement reAuired to stop human traffic=ing. K K 7erhaps the shoc=ing ne%s of C: Fthiopians being held capti/e as Psla/esP in Limpopo %ill be the %a=e-up call needed to get the bill passed and mobilise

go/ernment to ta=e definiti/e action against human traffic=ing.

=egislation is ke" !ne&&er/ 07 Q 7hD, 7rofessor of Criminolog', $chool of La%, 0ni/ersit' of $heffield (7aul, Januar' ()):, ? ritish Je%s and the Racialisation of Crime in the Age of Fmpire,@ r J Criminol (Januar' ()):- C: (*-I D*-:9, .ensel3rom the beginning, the leaders of Anglo-Je%r' responsible for the JA7>8 committed themsel/es to a strateg' for tac=ling Je%ish traffic=ing that in/ol/ed mobilising both Je%s and non-Je%s. In *E9), the gentlemen5s committee in/ol/ed themsel/es in the prosecution of three men %ho had robbed and ta=en ad/antage of a 'oung %oman from Rosaline .ouse. &oro doubted that the solicitor

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 7./283 secured b' the prosecution %as competent, and although committee members appeared in court on behalf of the prosecution, the' failed to establish the burden of proof under e<isting la% . 4his e<perience con/inced them of the need for legislation to deal %ith the comple<ities of Za crime %hich is usuall' initiated in one countr' and consummated in another5 (JA7>8 *E9EI (C-. 4heir strateg' for mobilising the necessar' political resources hinged on the Za%a=ening of public feeling against the traffic5 and efforts for bringing &7s Zinto s'mpath' %ith the cause5 (JA7>8 *E9EI (B-. ?olice an$ la*or ins&ectors are ke" :=@/ % (International Labour 1rgani#ation, C/*/,, ?.uman 4raffic=ing and 3orced Labour F<ploit at ionI >uidance for Legislation and La% Fnforcement@, httpI//digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cgi//ie%content.cgiH articleY*)(*6conte<tYforcedlabor-//F& Legislation is meaningless %ithout enforcement. As such, the machiner' for enforcement should also be re/ie%ed. Labour inspectors and police pla' important roles. Indeed, the' are the ones %ho monitor %or=places and thus ha/e the abilit' to identif' /ictims as %ell as perpetrators of traffic=ing, and to ta=e correcti/e measures. Increased monitoring is li=el' to result in a
decrease in forced labour in the %or=place. In its Constitution the IL1 reAuires all member $tates to set up a s'stem of labour inspec- tion. IL1 instruments pro/ide that labour inspection is a public function, a responsibilit' of go/ernment, best organi#ed %ithin the %ider conte<t of a $tate s'stem to administer social and labour polic' and to super/ise compliance %ith all national legislation, regulations and standards that gi/e effect to it. 4he principal IL1 instrument in the area of labour inspection is its Labour Inspection Con/ention, *9C: ("o.E*-, %hich co/ers industr' and commerce. It is supplemented b' Recommendations "os. E* and E(, and a 7rotocol adopted in *99, that allo%s its e<ten- sion to the ser/ices sector. 1ther IL1 Con/entions on labour inspection e<ist for other sec- tors, such as agriculture, mining and transport. Con/ention "o.E* defines the functions and organi#ation of the labour inspectors. 4he' ha/e the po%er to enter freel' in a %or=- place liable to inspection, to carr'

out inAuiries freel' and in particular to interrogate per- sons alone, to e<amine documents and ta=e samples +
and the po%ers to ma=e orders %ith a /ie% to remed'ing defects and to decide %hether it is appropriate to gi/e %arnings and ad/ice or to institute or recommend proceedings. In return, inspectors are reAuired to respect certain obligationsI the' are prohibited from ha/ing an' direct or indirect inter- est in the underta=ings under their super/ision and shall not re/eal manufacturing or commercial secrets of the %or=places the' inspect, or the source of an' complaint. 4he main functions of labour inspection lie in the areas of general %or=ing conditions, occupational safet' and health, emplo'ment (legal or illegal- and industrial relations. $ome countries ha/e also included social securit' as part of the labour inspectors5 respon- sibilities. Among other duties, inspectors should suppl' information and ad/ice to emplo'- ers on ho% to compl' %ith e<isting la%s. 4he' should also alert the competent authorities to an' defects or abuses not co/ered b' e<isting legal pro/isions (Art. B.*-.

=egal solutions are ke" 2"f/ 2 JD magna cum laude Case 8estern Reser/e 0ni/ersit' La% $chool (Jara R'f, */(/(, ?4he 3irst &odern Anti-$la/er' La%I 4he 4raffic=ing Gictims 7rotection Act of ()))@, Fbsco-//F&
Almost all nations of the %orld, including the 0nited $tates, are burdened %ith increased economic, public health, and domestic and transnational crime problems as a result of traffic=ing in humans.P:D A

lac= of la%s and enforcement resources addressing traffic=ing, as %ell as a failure b' go/emments to ac=no%ledge the se/erit' of the issue. contribute to the spread of traffic=ing. 4hus, the enactment ofR the 4raffic=ing and Gictims 7rotections Act of ()(-) is a crucial step in eradicating this %orld phenomenon. As e/idence of the
aggressi/el' punish traffic=ers, and protect the /ictims %ho are coerced into participation in the traffic=ing industr'.

problemRs se/erit', the 0nited $tates has agreed to spend S9, million dollars o/er the ne<t t%o 'ears in both the 0nited $tates and abroad to combat traffic=ing.m 4his mone' %ill be appropriated to /arious go/emment agencies to implement the ne% la%ns in an effort to increase international cooperation, decrease go/emmental corruption,

0nfortunatel', it is doubtful %hether the Act %ill significantl' reduce %orld traffic=ing. 4o deter potential migrants from tuming to traffic=ers, the Act see=s to reduce po/ert' in countries of origin and alter the social causes that lead migrants to turn to traffic=ers for assistance in tra/eling abroad. 8hile it is essential to stop traffic=ing b' eliminating these causes, this goal is loft' and unattainable %ithin the near future . Indeed, controlling po/ert' in all nations of the %orld is
li=el' be'ond the po%er of the 0nited $tates or e/en se/eral countries %or=ing together. 3urthermore, altering belief s'stems and the role of %omen in societ' cannot be accomplished in such a short time period.

(S<1 action is necessar" for coo&eration t'at is critical to &re)enting trafficking 2"f/ 2 JD magna cum laude Case 8estern Reser/e 0ni/ersit' La% $chool (Jara R'f, */(/(, ?4he 3irst &odern Anti-$la/er' La%I 4he 4raffic=ing Gictims 7rotection Act of ()))@, Fbsco-//F& 3irst, increasing cooperation among nations is essential to eliminating %orld traffic=ing. ecause almost all countries are nations of either origin, transit or destination of traffic=ing /ictims,L it is important to %or= together to ensure traffic=ers are captured, prosecuted, and punished. 4o be successful, the 0nited $tates must form close %or=ing relationships %ith the enforcement agents in foreign countries and share intelligence information in order to follo% traffic=ers , learn their routes and pattems, and e/entuall' apprehend them. $uch cooperation is significantl' impeded b' sanctions that destro' all
efforts to establish an international force to fight the transnational traliic=ing problem.L

T'e efforts of nations are critical

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 77/283 2"f/ 2 JD magna cum laude Case 8estern Reser/e 0ni/ersit' La% $chool (Jara R'f, */(/(, ?4he 3irst &odern Anti-$la/er' La%I 4he 4raffic=ing Gictims 7rotection Act of ()))@, Fbsco-//F& As stressed throughout this Article, the =e' to reducing traffic=ing is intemational cooperation . .o% responsi/e and acti/e countries are to %or=ing together to fight this problem %ill ha/e a strong impact on the success of reducing this %orld%ide problem. An' countr' that chooses not to ta=e this issue seriousl', ho%e/er, %ill Auic=l' become a center for
traffic=ing acti/it'. 8hile the sanction pro/ision of the Act %ill also ha/e some effect on international cooperation, the degree of the effect %ill depend on ho% and if it is implemented b' the 0nited $tates go/emment.

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<raming

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7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

2ac 8 1U logic *a$


1U risk is $um* an$ &aral"6es action on real issues Meskill/ 7 (Da/id &es=ill, *(/9/9, ?4he L1ne 7ercent DoctrineL and Fn/ironmental 3aith@, httpI//da/idmes=ill.blogspot.com/())9/*(/one-percent-doctrine-and-en/ironmental.html-//F&
4om 3riedmanPs piece toda' in the 4imes on the en/ironment (httpI//%%%.n'times.com/())9/*(/)9/opinion/)9friedman.htmlH;rY*- is one of the flimsiest pieces b' a ma!or columnist that I can remember e/er reading. .e applies Chene'Ps L one percent doctrineL (%hich is similar to the

doctrine is both intellectuall' incoherent and practicall' irrele/ant. It is intellectuall' incoherent because it cannot be applied consistentl' in a %orld %ith man' potential disaster scenarios. In addition to the global-%arming ris=, therePs also the asteroid-hittingthe-earth ris=, the terrorists-%ith-nuclear-%eapons ris= (Chene'Ps original scenario-, the super-duper-pandemic ris=, etc. $ince each of these ris=s, on the Lone percent doctrine,L %ould deser/e all of our attention, %e cannot address all of them simultaneousl'. 4hat is, e/en %ithin the one-percent mentalit', %ePd ha/e to begin prioriti#ing, ma=ing choices and trade-offs. ut %h' then should %e onl' ma=e these trade-offs bet%een responses to disaster scenarios H 8h' not also choose bet%een them and other, much more cotidien, things %e /alue H 8h' treat the unli=el' but catacl'smic e/ent as
en/ironmentalistsP Lprecautionar' principleL- to the ris= of en/ironmental armageddon. ut this someho% fundamentall' different, something that cannot be integrated into all the other calculations %e ma=eH And in fact, this is ho% %e beha/e all the time. 8e get into our cars in order to bu' a cup of coffee, e/en though therePs some chance %e %ill be =illed on the %a' to the coffee shop. 8e are constantl' ris=ing death, if slightl', in order to pursue the things %e /alue. An' creature that adopted the Lprecautionar' principleL

%ould sit at home - no, not e/en there, since there is some chance the building might collapse. 4hat creature %ould neither be able to act, nor not act, since it %ould no%here disco/er perfect safet'. 3riedmanPs approach reminds me someho% of 7ascalPs %ager - Auasi-religious faith masAuerading as rational deliberation (as .ans Albert has pointed out,
7ascalPs %ager itself doesnPt add upI there ma' be a >od, in fact, but it ma' turn out that .e disli=es, and e/en damns, people %ho belie/e in him because the'P/e calculated itPs in their best interest to do so-. As m' friend James points out, itPs stri=ing ho% descriptions of the en/ironmental ris= al%a's describe the situation as if it %ere fi/e to midnight. It must be near midnight, since other%ise there %ould be no need to act. ut it can ne/er be fi/e ppastp midnight, since then acting %ould be pointless and %e might as %ell part' li=e it %as ()99. &an' religious mo/ements - for e<ample the earl' Jesus mo/ement - ha/e e<hibited precisel' this combination of traitsI the looming apocal'pse, %ith the time (!ust barel'- to ta=e action. "one of this is to den' - at least this is m' current sense - that human action is contributing to global %arming. ut %hat our response to this ne%s should be is another matter entirel'.

Human Trafficking Aff 100/283

7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

No War

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7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

2ac no +ar0laun$r" list


No +ar 8 international institutions an$ societal s'ifts Contreras/ 12 Q 3ello%, elfer Center for $cience and International Affairs, .ar/ard 0ni/ersit' (Dominic, citing $te/en 7in=er, .ar/ard College 7rofessor and Johnstone 3amil' 7rofessor in the Department of 7s'cholog' at .ar/ard 0ni/ersit', citing Joshua A. >oldstein, 7rofessor Fmeritus, $chool of International $er/ice, American 0ni/ersit', 3ebruar' *, ()*(, ?8inning the 8ar on 8arH@, elfer Center for $cience and International Affairs, .ar/ard 0ni/ersit', httpI//belfercenter.=sg.har/ard.edu/publication/(*:):/%inning;the;%ar;on;%ar.htmlHbreadcrumbY U(3pro!ectU(3,(U(3intrastate;conflict;program, .enselIn a !ointl' authored December ()** op-ed in the "e% Mor= 4imes, 7in=er and >oldstein %rote that ?the departure of the last American troops from IraA brings relief to a nation that has endured its most painful %ar since Gietnam. ut the e/ent is momentous for another reason. 4he in/asion of

IraA %as the most recent e<ample of an all-out %ar bet%een t%o national armies. And it could /er' %ell be t'e last one.@ $pea=ing at the forum, both echoed their assessment that %ar is less an$ less often being used as a tool for societies and states to resol/e conflicts, but the' differed in their /ie%s of %hat brought about this change. $pea=ing to the main argument of his boo= ?8inning the 8ar on 8arI the Decline of Armed Conflict 8orld%ide,@ >oldstein, professor emeritus of international relations at American 0ni/ersit', largel' credited international institutions for the pacification of the international communit', stating that ?After 8orld 8ar II %e did something ne%\%e founded the 0nited "ations\and %e5/e de/eloped this tool, peace=eeping\that has successi/el', progressi/el', o/er a number of 'ears, made it possible to resol/e more conflicts +it'out )iolence, to reduce /iolence %hen it has alread' occurred, and to sustain peace %hen 'ou5re able to negotiate a peace agreement.@ ?4he international communit' is not an o<'moron,@ >oldstein said, ?it actuall" +orks.@ 7in=er, the Johnstone famil' professor of
ps'cholog' at .ar/ard and author of the much heralded boo= ?4he etter Angels of 1ur "atureI 8h' Giolence .as Declined,@ concurred %ith >oldstein5s assessment of a ne% peace ta=ing hold. ut he %ent a step further, arguing that in addition to the international communit' promoting peace, inter&ersonal

norms and the de/elopment of social restraints ha/e fostered a shift a+a" from )iolence. 7in=er cited ?&s"c'ological c'anges through cosmo&olitanism and literac"\ Wand theX e<pansion of em&at'" and the consideration of others,@ as dri/ing forces in the societal tilt a%a' from %ar. .e also pointed to c'anging attitu$es to%ards /iolence as e<plaining this shift. ?Giolence is seen as something to be sol/ed and something %e can thro% our %its against\ societ' sees it as a problem, not a solution,@ 7in=er said. 7in=er and >oldstein both declared that the' are not optimists and had approached trends in %arfare as pessimists, onl' reaching their conclusions through rigorous scholarl' anal'sis. 4oft and
8alt, ho%e/er, %ere not so easil' con/inced that the data bear out the hopeful /ie%. 4oft, an associate professor of public polic' at the Jenned' $chool and director of the elfer Center5s Initiati/e on Religion in International Affairs, praised both authors and their boo=s, but pointed to %hat she percei/ed as a Furocentric tilt in their data pools. $he also cited changing global po%er d'namics, and %ondered if the trend %ould hold. Responding to 7in=er5s argument that societies ha/e become more ci/ili#ed 8alt, the Robert and Renee elfer professor of international affairs and facult' chair of the elfer Center5s International $ecurit' 7rogram, said, ?It5s not ob/ious to me that the ci/ili#ing instinct at the interpersonal le/el translates to more ci/ili#ed beha/ior bet%een states or bet%een states and other people.@ 8alt pointed to osnia and IraA as e<amples of cases in %hich boundar' conditions change and /iolence Auic=l' emerges from seemingl' peaceful societies. De/oid of a strong central state, both Mugosla/ia after the fall of 4ito, and IraA after the toppling of $addam both descended into ci/il %ar as competing groups /ied for control and po%er. 3urthermore, 8alt pointed to the post-Cold 8ar 0.$. that has gone to %ar four times through democratic processes and has choosen %arfare as a rational and preferred option. 4he panel largel' agreed that global %ar on the scale of 8orld 8ar I and II is unli=el' to occur again, because, according to >oldstein, ?trade is no% basis of prosperit' W%hereasX conAuering land used to be.@ .o%e/er, the' agreed, modern e<ceptions abound+ in some cases the 0nited "ations, %hich is charged %ith upholding peace, can sanction %ar, and in others, states can decide that %ar is in their interest. 8hether or not %ar is on the %a' out in the long-

term is up for debate, but according to 7in=er, ?'ou can4t miss t'e tren$ line.@ No +ar 8 statistics/ +it'$ra+als/ +arfare is c'anging/ t'e *rutalit" is $ecreasing/ multi&olarit" sol)es/ an$ no one +oul$ attack t'e (S 1ol$stein/ 11 Q 7rofessor Fmeritus, International Relations, American 0ni/ersit' (Joshua $., $eptember/1ctober ()**, ?4hin= AgainI 8ar,@ 3oreign 7olic', httpI//%%%.foreignpolic'.com/articles/()**/)E/*,/thin=;again;%ar, .enselK L4he 8orld Is a &ore Giolent 7lace 4han It 0sed to e.LK "o %a'. 4he earl' (*st centur' seems a%ash in %arsI the conflicts in
Afghanistan and IraA, street battles in $omalia, Islamist insurgencies in 7a=istan, massacres in the Congo, genocidal campaigns in $udan. All in all, regular fighting is ta=ing place in *E %ars around the globe toda'. 7ublic opinion reflects this sense of an e/er more dangerous %orldI 1ne sur/e' a fe% 'ears ago found that D) percent of Americans considered a third %orld %ar li=el'. F<pectations for the ne% centur' %ere blea= e/en before the attac=s of $ept. **, ())*, and their blood' aftermathI 7olitical scientist James >. light and former 0.$. Defense $ecretar' Robert &c"amara suggested earlier that 'ear that %e could loo= for%ard to an a/erage of B million %ar deaths per 'ear %orld%ide in the (*st centur'. K $o far the' ha/enPt e/en been close. In fact, the last decade has seen fe+er +ar $eat's than an' decade in the past *)) 'ears, based on data compiled b' researchers ethan' Lacina and "ils 7etter >leditsch of the 7eace Research Institute 1slo. 8orld%ide, deaths caused directl' b' %ar-related /iolence in the ne% centur' ha/e a/eraged about ,,,))) per 'ear, !ust o/er half of %hat the' %ere in the *99)s (*)),))) a 'ear-, a third of %hat the' %ere during the

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Cold 8ar (*E),))) a 'ear from *9,) to *9E9-, and a hundredth of %hat the' %ere in 8orld 8ar II. If 'ou factor in the gro%ing global population, %hich has nearl' Auadrupled in the last centur', the decrease is e/en sharper. 3ar from being an age of =iller anarch', the () 'ears since the Cold

8ar ended ha/e been an era of ra&i$ &rogress to+ar$ &eace.K Armed conflict has declined in large part because arme$ conflict 'as fun$amentall" c'ange$. 8ars bet%een big national armies all but disappeared along %ith the Cold 8ar, ta=ing %ith them the most horrific =inds of mass destruction . 4oda'Ps as'mmetrical guerrilla %ars ma' be intractable and nast', but the' %ill ne/er produce an'thing li=e the siege of Leningrad . 4he last conflict bet%een t%o great po%ers, the Jorean 8ar, effecti/el' ended nearl' D) 'ears ago. 4he last sustained territorial %ar bet%een t%o regular armies, Fthiopia and Fritrea, ended a decade ago. F/en ci/il %ars, though a persistent e/il, are less common than in the past+ there %ere about a Auarter fe%er in ()): than in *99).K If the %orld feels li=e a more /iolent place than it actuall' is, thatPs because t'ereGs more information a*out +ars -- not more +ars t'emsel)es.
1nce-remote battles and %ar crimes no% regularl' ma=e it onto our 4G and computer screens, and in more or less real time. Cell-phone cameras ha/e turned citi#ens into reporters in man' %ar #ones. $ocietal norms about %hat to ma=e of this information ha/e also changed. As .ar/ard 0ni/ersit' ps'chologist $te/en 7in=er has noted, L4he

decline of /iolent beha/ior has been paralleled b' a decline in attitudes that tolerate or glorif' /iolence,L so that %e see toda'Ps atrocities -- though mild b' historical standards -- as Lsigns of ho% lo% our beha/ior can sin=, not of ho% high our standards ha/e risen .LK LAmerica Is 3ighting &ore 8ars 4han F/er.LK Mes and no. Clearl', the 0nited $tates has been on a %ar footing e/er since 9/**, %ith a still-ongoing %ar in Afghanistan that has surpassed
the Gietnam 8ar as the longest conflict in American histor' and a pre-empti/e %ar in IraA that pro/ed to be longer, bloodier, and more e<pensi/e than an'one e<pected. Add the current "A41 inter/ention in Lib'a and drone campaigns in 7a=istan, $omalia, and Memen, and itPs no %onder that 0.$. militar' spending has gro%n more than E) percent in real terms o/er the last decade. At SD:, billion this 'ear, itPs no% B) percent higher than %hat it %as at the end of the Cold 8ar.K ut though the conflicts of the post-9/** era ma' be longer than those of past

generations, the' are also far smaller and less let'al. AmericaPs decade of %ar since ())* has =illed about D,))) 0.$. ser/ice members, compared %ith ,E,))) in Gietnam and B)),))) in 8orld 8ar II. F/er' life lost to %ar is one too man', but these deaths ha/e to be seen in conte<tI Last 'ear more Americans $ie$ from falling out of *e$ t'an in all (-S- +ars com*ine$.K And the fighting in IraA and Afghanistan has ta=en place against a bac=drop of *ase closures and &ersonnel $ra+$o+ns else%here in the %orld. 4he temporar' rise in 0.$. troop numbers in $outh Asia and the &iddle Fast, from *E,))) to (*(,))) since ())), contrasts %ith the permanent %ithdra%al of almost C),))) troops from Furope, BC,))) from Japan and $outh Jorea, and *),))) from Latin America in that period . 8hen 0.$. forces come home from the current %ars -- and the' %ill in large numbers in the near future, starting %ith C),))) troops from IraA and BB,))) from Afghanistan b' ()*( -- there %ill be fe%er 0.$. troops deplo'ed around the %orld than at an' time since the *9B)s. 7resident arac= 1bama %as telling the truth in June %hen he said, DT'e ti$e of +ar is rece$ing-DK L8ar .as >otten &ore rutal for Ci/ilians.LK .ardl'. In 3ebruar' ()*), a "A41 airstri=e hit a house in AfghanistanPs &ar!a district, =illing at least nine ci/ilians inside. 4he traged' dre% condemnation and made the ne%s, leading the top "A41 commander in the countr' to apologi#e to Afghan 7resident .amid Jar#ai. 4he response underscored !ust ho% much has changed in %ar. During 8orld 8ar II, Allied bombers =illed hundreds of thousands of ci/ilians in Dresden and 4o='o not b' accident , but as a matter of tactics+ >erman', of course, murdered ci/ilians b' the millions. And %hen toda'Ps ci/ilians do end up in harmPs %a', more &eo&le are looking out for t'em. 4he humanitarian dollars spent per displaced person rose in real terms from S*,) in the earl' *99)s to SB)) in ())D. 4otal international humanitarian assistance has gro%n from S( billion in *99) to SD
billion in ())) and (according to donor countriesP claims- S*E billion in ())E. 3or those caught in the crossfire, %ar has actuall' gotten more humane. K Met man' people insist that the situation is other%ise . 3or e<ample, authoritati/e %or=s on peace=eeping in ci/il

%ars (Roland 7arisPs a%ard-%inning At 8arPs Fnd and &ichael Do'le and "icholas $ambanisPs &a=ing 8ar and uilding 7eace-, as %ell as goldstandard reports on conflict from the 8orld an= and the Carnegie Commission on 7re/enting Deadl' Conflict, tell us that 9) percent of toda'Ps %ar deaths are ci/ilian %hile !ust *) percent are militar' -- the re/erse of a centur' ago and La grim indicator of the transformation of armed conflictL in the late ()th centur', as political scientist Jale/i .olsti put it. K >rim indeed -- but, fortunatel', untrue. 4he m'th originates %ith the *99C 0.". .uman De/elopment Report , %hich misread %or= that $%edish researcher Christer Ahlstrdm had done in *99* and accidentall' conflated %ar fatalities in the earl' ()th centur' %ith the much larger number of dead, %ounded, and displaced people in the late ()th centur'. A more careful anal'sis done in *9E9 b' peace researcher 8illiam Fc=hardt sho%s that the ratio of militar' to ci/ilian %ar deaths remains about ,)-,), as it has for centuries (though it /aries considerabl' from one %ar to the ne<t-. If 'ou are unluc=' enough to be a ci/ilian in a %ar #one, of course, these statistics are little comfort. ut on a %orld%ide scale, +e are making &rogress in helping ci/ilians afflicted b' %ar.K L8ars 8ill >et 8orse in the 3uture.LK 7robabl' not. An'thing is
possible, of courseI A full-blo%n %ar bet%een India and 7a=istan, for instance, could potentiall' =ill millions of people. ut so could an asteroid or -perhaps the safest bet -- massi/e storms triggered b' climate change. 4he big forces that push ci/ili#ation in the direction of catacl'smic conflict, ho%e/er, are mostl' ebbing.K 2ecent tec'nological c'anges are ma=ing %ar less brutal , not more so. Armed drones

no% attac= targets that in the past %ould ha/e reAuired an in/asion %ith thousands of hea/il' armed troops , displacing huge numbers of ci/ilians and destro'ing /aluable propert' along the %a'. And impro/ements in battlefield medicine ha/e made combat less lethal for participants . In the 0.$. Arm', the chances of d'ing from a combat in!ur' fell from B)
percent in 8orld 8ar II to *) percent in IraA and Afghanistan -- though this also means the 0nited $tates is no% seeing a higher proportion of in!ured /eterans %ho need continuing support and care.K "or do shifts in the global balance of po%er doom us to a future of

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 103/283 perpetual %ar. 8hile some political scientists argue that an increasingl' multipolar %orld is an increasingl' /olatile one -- that peace is best assured b' the predominance of a single hegemonic po%er, namel' the 0nited $tates -- recent geo&olitical 'istor" suggests ot'er+ise. Relati/e 0.$. po%er and %orld%ide conflict ha/e %aned in tandem o/er the past decade. 4he e<ceptions to the trend, IraA and Afghanistan, ha/e been lopsided %ars %aged b' the hegemon, not challenges b' up-and-coming ne% po%ers. 4he best precedent for toda'Ps emerging %orld order ma' be the *9th-centur' Concert of Furope, a collaboration of great po%ers that largel' maintained the peace for a centur' until its brea=do%n and the bloodbath of 8orld 8ar I. K 8hat about China, the most ball'hooed rising militar' threat of the current eraH ei!ing is indeed moderni#ing its armed forces, rac=ing up double-digit rates of gro%th in militar' spending, no% about S*)) billion a 'ear. 4hat is second onl' to the 0nited $tates, but it is a distant second I 4he 7entagon spends nearl' S:)) billion. "ot onl' is China a )er" long +a" from *eing a*le to go toe5to5toe %ith the 0nited $tates+ itGs not clear +'" it +oul$ +ant to. A militar' conflict (particularl' %ith its biggest customer and debtor- %ould impede ChinaPs global trading posture and endanger its prosperit'. $ince Chairman &aoPs death, China has been hands do%n the most peaceful great po%er of its time. 3or all the recent concern about a ne%l' asserti/e Chinese na/' in disputed international %aters, ChinaPs militar' hasnPt fired a single shot in battle in (, 'ears.

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2ac no +ar0&eacekee&ing
?eacekee&ing sol)es an$ em&irics &ro)e 8 +ar is $ecreasing 1ol$stein/ 11 Q 7rofessor Fmeritus, International Relations, American 0ni/ersit' (Joshua $., $eptember/1ctober ()**, ?4hin= AgainI 8ar,@ 3oreign 7olic', httpI//%%%.foreignpolic'.com/articles/()**/)E/*,/thin=;again;%ar, .enselK L7eace=eeping DoesnPt 8or=.L K K It does no%. 4he earl' *99)s %ere boom 'ears for the blue helmets , %ith *, ne%
0.". peace=eeping missions launched from *99* to *99B -- as man' as in the 0.".Ps entire histor' up to that point. 4he period %as also host to peace=eepingPs most spectacular failures. In $omalia, the 0.". arri/ed on a mission to alle/iate star/ation onl' to become embroiled in a ci/il %ar, and it Auic=l' pulled out after *E American soldiers died in a *99B raid. In R%anda in *99C, a %ea= 0.". force %ith no support from the $ecurit' Council completel' failed to stop a genocide that =illed more than half a million people. In osnia, the 0.". declared Lsafe areasL for ci/ilians, but then stood b' %hen $erbian forces o/erran one such area, $rebrenica, and e<ecuted more than :,))) men and bo's. (4here %ere peace=eeping successes, too, such as in "amibia and &o#ambiAue, but people tend to forget about them.- K K In response, the 0nited "ations commissioned a report in

())), o/erseen b' /eteran diplomat La=hdar rahimi, e<amining ho% the organi#ationPs efforts had gone %rong . ' then the 0.". had scaled bac= peace=eeping personnel b' E) percent %orld%ide, but as it e<panded again the 0.". adapted to lessons learned. It strengthened planning and logistics capabilities and began deplo'ing more hea/il' armed forces able to %ade into battle if necessar'. As a result, the *, missions and *)),))) 0.". peace=eepers deplo'ed %orld%ide toda' are meeting %ith far greater success than their predecessors .K K 1/erall, the presence of peace=eepers has been sho%n to significantl" re$uce t'e likeli'oo$ of a +arGs reigniting after a ceasefire agreement. In the *99)s, about half of all cease-fires bro=e do%n, but in the past decade the figure has dropped to *( percent. And though the
0.".Ps status as a perennial punching bag in American politics suggests other%ise, these efforts are Auite popularI In a ()): sur/e', :9 percent of Americans fa/ored strengthening the 0.". 4hatPs not to sa' there isnPt room for impro/ement -- therePs plent'. ut t'e (-N- 'as $one

a lot of goo$ aroun$ t'e +orl$ in containing +ar- L$ome Conflicts 8ill "e/er Fnd.LK K "e/er sa' ne/er. In ()),, researchers at the 0.$. Institute of 7eace characteri#ed *C %ars, from "orthern Ireland to Jashmir, as Lintractable,L in that the' Lresist an' =ind of settlement or resolution.L $i< 'ears later, ho%e/er, a funn' thing has happenedI All but a fe% of these %ars (Israel-7alestine, $omalia, and $udan- ha/e either ended or made substantial progress to%ard doing so. In $ri Lan=a, militar' /ictor' ended the %ar, though onl' after a brutal endgame in %hich both sides are %idel' belie/ed to ha/e committed %ar crimes. Jashmir has a fairl' stable cease-fire. In Colombia, the %ar sputters on, financed b' drug re/enue, but %ith little fighting left. In the al=ans and "orthern Ireland, sha=' peace arrangements ha/e become less sha='+ itPs hard to imagine either sliding bac= into full-scale hostilities . In most of the African cases -- urundi, R%anda, $ierra Leone,
0ganda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and I/or' Coast (not%ithstanding the /iolent flare-up after elections there in late ()*), no% resol/ed- -0.". missions ha/e brought stabilit' and made a return to %ar less li=el' (or, in the case of Congo and 0ganda, ha/e at least limited the area of fighting-.K K Could

%e do e/en betterH 4he late peace researcher Randall 3orsberg in *99: foresa% La %orld largel' %ithout %ar,L one in %hich Lthe /anishing ris= of great-po%er %ar has opened the door to a pre/iousl' unimaginable future -- a future in %hich %ar is no longer sociall'-sanctioned and is rare, brief, and small in scale.L Clearl', %e are not there 'et. ut o/er the decades -- and indeed, e/en since 3orsberg %rote those %ords -- norms about %ars, and especiall' about the protection of ci/ilians caught up in them, ha/e e/ol/ed rapidl', far more so than an'one %ould ha/e guessed e/en half a centur' ago. $imilarl' rapid shifts in norms preceded the ends of sla/er' and colonialism, t%o other scourges that %ere once also considered permanent features of ci/ili#ation . $o donPt be surprised if the end of %ar, too, becomes do%nright thin=able.

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2ac no +ar0&u*lic
?u*lic o&&osition &re)ents an" use of t'e *om* Wittner/ 7 7rofessor of .istor' at the $tate 0ni/ersit' of "e% Mor=/Alban', 7hD (La%rence $. 8ittner, :/D/9, ?8hat .as 7re/ented "uclear 8arH@, httpI//%%%.hnn.us/articles/9:((9.html-//F& 1ne of the great Auestions of the modern %orld isI 8h' has nuclear %ar not occurred since *9C,H 4he con/entional ans%er is that,
than=s to fear of mutual destruction, nuclear %eapons ha/e LdeterredL nuclear %ar. And 'et, this ans%er fails to account for some important de/elopments. $ince *9C,, nuclear po%ers ha/e not %aged nuclear %ar against non-nuclear po%ers. 3urthermore, if nuclear %eapons pre/ent nuclear %ar, it is hard to understand %h' nuclear po%ers ha/e signed disarmament agreements or ha/e %orried (and still %orr'- about nuclear proliferation. An alternati/e e<planation for nuclear restraint is that public opposition to nuclear %ar has caused go/ernment officials to step

bac= from the brin=. After all, peace groups ha/e agitated /igorousl' against nuclear %ar and opinion polls o/er the 'ears ha/e sho%n that the public has /ie%ed nuclear %ar %ith re/ulsion Nt%o factors that go/ernment leaders ha/e /ie%ed %ith alarm. In addition, there is substantial e/idence that underscores the decisi/e role of public pressure. In *9C,, 0.$. 7resident
.arr' 4ruman had launched the atomic bombing of Japan %ithout apparent moral Aualms or influence b' the public (%hich =ne% nothing of the go/ernmentPs atomic bomb program-. 4his use of nuclear %eapons, 4ruman declared !ubilantl', %as Lthe greatest thing in histor'.L ConseAuentl', fi/e 'ears later, %hen the Jorean 8ar erupted, there could %ell ha/e been a repeat performance in that blood' conflict. Certainl', there

seemed good militar' reasons for the use of nuclear %eapons . 1n t%o occasions, 0.$. troops %ere close to militar' defeat at the
hands of non-nuclear po%ers. Also, there %as no prospect of a nuclear counterattac= b' the $o/iet 0nion, %hich %as not participating directl' in the %ar, had onl' recentl' de/eloped an atomic bomb, and lac=ed an effecti/e deli/er' s'stem for it. ut, than=s to burgeoning antinuclear

sentiment, emplo'ing the atomic bomb in the %ar had become politicall' difficult. 0.$. intelligence reported that, in ritain, there e<isted L%idespread popular alarm concerning the possible use of the A-bomb. L 3rom the $tate
DepartmentPs specialist on the 3ar Fast came a %arning that use of the omb %ould cause a Lre/ulsion of feelingL to Lspread throughout Asia. . . . 1ur efforts to %in the Asiatics to our side %ould be cancelled and our influence in non-Communist nations of Asia %ould deteriorate to an almost none<istent Auantit'.L 7aul "it#e, the chair of the $tate DepartmentPs polic' planning staff, argued that, in militar' terms, the omb probabl' %ould be effecti/e. ut using it %ould Larouse the peoples of Asia against us.L 0ltimatel', then, political considerations

o/er%helmed militar' considerations, and 4ruman chose to re!ect calls b' 0.$. militar' commanders , such as >eneral Douglas &acArthur, to %in the %ar %ith nuclear %eapons . 4he Fisenho%er administration, too, began %ith a bree#' sense of the opportunities afforded b' 0.$. nuclear %eapons, promising Lmassi/e retaliation L against an' outbrea= of Communist aggression. ut it soon came up against the limits set b' popular loathing for nuclear %ar . According to the
record of a *9,D "ational $ecurit' Council ("$C- meeting, %hen the Joint Chiefs of $taff and other administration officials called for greater fle<ibilit' in the emplo'ment of nuclear %eapons, the 7resident respondedI L4he use of nuclear %eapons %ould raise serious political problems in /ie% of the current state of %orld opinion.L 4he follo%ing &a', countering ambitious proposals b' Le%is $trauss (chair of the Atomic Fnerg' Commission- and the Defense Department for nuclear %ar-fighting, $ecretar' of $tate John 3oster Dulles told another "$C meeting, according to the minutes, that L%orld

opinion %as not 'et read' to accept the general use of nuclear %eapons . . . . If %e resort to such a use of nuclear %eapons %e %ill, in the e'es of the %orld, be cast as a ruthless militar' po%er .L Dulles predicted, hopefull', Lthat all this
%ould change at some point in the future, but the time had not 'et come.L Although the $ecretar' of Defense rene%ed his pleas for use of nuclear %eapons, Dulles remained adamant that the 0nited $tates must not Lget out of step %ith %orld opinion.L 4he Jenned' administration

also found its options limited b' the publicPs distaste for nuclear %ar . A late *9D) Defense Department report to the 7resident-elect,
recalled one of its drafters, argued that Lthe political mood of the countr'L %eighed hea/il' against de/eloping a 0.$. LR%inP capabilit'L for a future nuclear %ar. 4his fear of the public response also tempered administration polic' during the Cuban missile crisis, %hen Jenned'Nas $ecretar' of $tate Dean Rus= recalledN%orried about Lan ad/erse public reaction,L including Ldemonstrations, peace groups marching in the streets, perhaps a di/isi/e public debate.L In addition, e/en in conflicts %ith non-nuclear po%ers, 0.$. polic'ma=ers felt it necessar' to rule out nuclear %ar than=s to the stigma attached to it b' the public. A nuclear po%er, Rus= e<plained 'ears later, L%ould %ear the mar= of Cain for generations to come if it e/er attac=ed a nonnuclear countr' %ith nuclear %eapons.L 4he Gietnam 8ar pro/ided a particularl' attracti/e opportunit' for the 0.$.

go/ernmentPs use of its nuclear might. .ere, once more, 0.$. militar' forces %ere engaged in a %ar %ith a non-nuclear nationNand,
furthermore, %ere losing that %ar. And 'et, as Rus= recalled, the Jenned', Johnson, and "i<on administrations deliberatel' Llost the %ar rather than P%inP it %ith nuclear %eapons.L &c>eorge und', %ho ser/ed as the national securit' ad/isor to Jenned' and Johnson, maintained that the 0.$. go/ernmentPs decision to a/oid using nuclear %eapons in the Gietnam conflict did not result from fear of nuclear retaliation b' the $o/iet and Chinese go/ernments, but from the terrible public reaction that a 0.$. nuclear attac= %ould pro/o=e in other nations. F/en more significant, und' maintained, %as the prospect of public uphea/al in the 0nited $tates, for L no 7resident could hope for understanding and support from his

o%n countr'men if he used the bomb.L Loo=ing bac= on the %ar, Richard "i<on complained bitterl' that, had he used nuclear %eapons in
Gietnam, Lthe resulting domestic and international uproar %ould ha/e damaged our foreign polic' on all fronts.L And so it %ent in the follo%ing decades. F/en the remar=abl' ha%=ish officials of the Reagan administration came up sharpl' against political realities . Fntering office tal=ing glibl' of fighting and %inning nuclear %ars, the' soon confronted a %orld%ide antinuclear uprising, undergirded b' public opinion. In April *9E(, shortl' after a "uclear 3ree#e resolution began %ending its %a' through Congress, the 7resident began declaring publicl'I LA nuclear %ar cannot be %on and must ne/er be fought.L .e added, on that first occasionI L4o those %ho protest against nuclear %ar, IPm %ith 'ou.L C'nics might argue that ReaganPs re!ection of nuclear %ar %as no more than rhetoric. "e/ertheless, rhetoric repeated often enough inhibits a polic' re/ersal. And, in fact, although the Reagan administration sponsored %ars in numerous places, it does not appear to ha/e factored nuclear %eapons into its battle plans. Jenneth Adelman, %ho directed the Arms Control and Disarmament Agenc' for most of the Reagan 'ears, claimed that he Lne/er heard an'one broach the topic of using nuclear %eapons. F/er. In an' setting, in an' %a'.L

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2ac no +ar0stats
Tren$s an$ statistics Mueller/ 07 Q 7hD, 8ood' .a'es Chair of "ational $ecurit' $tudies at the &ershon Center for International $ecurit' $tudies, 7rofessor, 7olitical $cience, 1hio $tate 0ni/ersit' (John, $ummer ())9, ?8ar .as Almost Ceased to F<istI An Assessment,@ 7olitical $cience Ouarterl', Golume *(C, Issue (, pp. (9:-B(*, 7roOuest, .ensel4.F 7RF$F"4 C1"DI4I1" "o matter ho% defined, then, there has been a most nota*le $ecline in the freAuenc' of %ars o/er the last 'ears. As 4able * suggests, bet%een ())( and ())E, fe% %ars reall' shattered the *,))) battle or battleN related death threshold.B: e'ond the %ars in IraA and Afghanistan, /iolent flareNups ha/e e<ceeded the 'earl' battle death threshold during the period in Jashmir, "epal, Colombia, urundi, Liberia, Chechn'a, $ri Lan=a, Afghanistan, Chad, $omalia, 7a=istan and 0ganda. Almost all of these ha/e !ust barel' done so. Indeed, if the 'earl' threshold %ere raised to a notNunreasonable B,))), almost the onl' %ar of an' =ind
that has ta=en place an'%here in the %orld since ())* %ould be the one in IraA. $e/eral of these intermittent armed conflicts could potentiall' rise abo/e the /iolence threshold in the future, though outside of Afghanistan, most of these seem to be $eclining in )iolence . Fthiopia and Fritrea continue to glare at each other, and plent' of problems remain in the &iddle Fast, %here in ())D and again in ())9, Israel too= on a substate group based in another countr', and %here the IraA conflict could ha/e spillo/er effects. And, of course, ne% %ars could emerge in other placesI concerns about China and the 4ai%an issue, for e<ample, are certainl' !ustified, and man' in the de/eloped %orld ad/ocate the application of %arfare as a last resort to pre/ent the acAuisition of nuclear %eapons b' undesirable countries.BE &oreo/er, there has been ?intercommunal@ or ?substate@ /iolence in countries li=e "igeria (and IraA- that often certainl' resembles %arfare, but is remo/ed from consideration here b' the definitional reAuirement that something labeled a ?%ar@ must ha/e a go/ernment on at least one side. .o%e/er, %ar, as con/entionall', e/en classicall', understood, has, at least for the time being, become

a remarka*l" rare &'enomenon. Indeed, if ci/il %ar becomes (or remains- as uncommon as the international /ariet', %ar could be on the /erge of ceasing to e,ist as a substantial phenomenon.

Human Trafficking Aff 108/283

7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

2ac +ont use nukes


No c'ance of miscalculation or escalation 8 countries +ill act in t'eir *est interests =uar$ 88 Research 3ello% at $t. Anton'Ps College, 1<ford. .e has been a diplomat, an academic, and a politician. .e is the author of man' %or=s
on international affairs. (F/an, LConflict and 7eace in the &odern International $'stem,L *9EE, httpI//boo=s.google.com/boo=sH idY#cT9$mstF2cC6pgY7A*EE6lpgY7A*EE6dAYU((nuclearq%arU((qAR10"D(*)-qU((improbableU((qseth6sourceYbl6otsY*t&(*b%t;c6sigYp),JJ8 l,&1GA3T3'sIEA3<"rRc6hlYen6saYT6eiYo8b00cud"D$2'A.FnICg A6/edY)C>OODAF%C4g J]/Yonepage6AYU((suchU()aU()ris=U()remainsU((6fYfalse-//A& "uclear %ar b' miscalculation is almost eAuall' improbable . 8ar of some sort b' miscalculation is al%a's a possibilit'. 4here ha/e no doubt been %ars in histor' resulting from some pro/ocati/e action underta=en in the e<pectation, or at least the hope, that no retribution %as to be e<pected. $uch a ris= remains toda'. Decisions for limited %ar ma' still be made. ut nuclear %ar is a choice of polic' no leader or

group of leaders is li=el', e)en in t'e ma,imum e,tremit", to belie/e to be %orth the possible ad/antages to be gained. Against nuclear po%ers, the perils of escalation %hich an' use of such %eapons, e/en at the lo%est le/el, %ould in/ol/e are so uni/ersall' appreciated that the li=elihood that an' go/ernment %ould ris= such an e/entualit' is remote. 4he in/ulnerable means of deli/er' no% a/ailable ensure that no po%er can pre/ent a repl' in =ind %hich, in a fe% hours, might effecti/el' destro' its e<istence as a nation. :t is )irtuall" certain, therefore, t'at +ere 'ostilities to *reak out *et+een nuclear &o+ers/ t'e ta*oos against nuclear +ea&ons +oul$ *e maintaine$, as %ere those against gas and germs before, and as those against nuclear %eapons ha/e been o/er the last fort' 'ears, e/en in the bitter inter-ideological struggles in Jorea and Gietnam , %here the ris= of retaliation in =ind %as remote. $uch self-den'ing ordinances are no% dictated b' the manifest self-interest of all. Con)entional use is more likel" Mueller J10 professor of political science at 1hio $tate 0ni/ersit' (John, 7olitical $cience Ouarterl', ?4hin= AgainI "uclear
8eapons,@ httpI//%%%.foreignpolic'.com/articles/()*)/)*/)C/thin=;again;nuclear;%eaponsHpageY),)-//A& "o. ut 'ou might thin= so if 'ou listen to %orld leaders right no%. In his first address to the 0.". $ecurit' Council, 0.$. 7resident arac=

1bama %arned apocal'pticall', LJust one nuclear %eapon e<ploded in a cit' -- be it "e% Mor= or &osco%, 4o='o or ei!ing, London or 7aris -- could =ill hundreds of thousands of people. And it %ould badl' destabili#e our securit', our economies, and our
/er' %a' of life.L 1bama has put nuclear disarmament bac= on the table in a %a' it hasnPt been for decades b' /o%ing to pursue a nuclear-free %orld, and, %ith a handful of big treat' negotiations in the %or=s, he seems to thin= ()*) has become a critical 'ear K ut the con/ersation is based

on false assumptions. "uclear %eapons certainl' are the most destructi/e de/ices e/er made, as 1bama often reminds us, and e/er'one from peaceni=s to neocons seems to agree. ut for more than D) 'ears no% all the'P/e done is gather dust %hile propagandists and alarmists e<aggerate their li=elihood of e<ploding -- it %as a certaint' one %ould go off in *) 'ears, C.7. $no% authoritati/el' proclaimed in *9D) -- and nuclear metaph'sicians spin fanc' theories about ho% the' might be deplo'ed and targeted. K "uclear %eapons ha/e had a tremendous influence on the %orldPs agonies and obsessions, inspiring desperate rhetoric, e<tra/agant theori#ing, and frenetic diplomatic posturing. .o%e/er, the' ha/e had /er' limited actual impact, at least since 8orld 8ar II. F/en the most ingenious militar' thin=ers ha/e had difficult' coming up %ith realistic %a's nu=es could concei/abl' be applied on the battlefield+ moral considerations aside, it is rare to find a target that canPt be struc= !ust as %ell b' con/entional %eapons. Indeed, their chief LuseL %as to deter the $o/iet 0nion from instituting .itler-st'le militar' aggression, a chimera considering that historical e/idence sho%s the $o/iets ne/er had genuine interest in doing an'thing of the sort. In other %ords, there %as nothing to deter.K Instead, nu=es ha/e done nothing in particular , and ha/e done that /er' %ell. 4he' ha/e, ho%e/er, succeeded in being a colossal %aste of mone' -- an authoritati/e *99E roo=ings Institution stud' sho%ed the 0nited
$tates had spent S,., trillion on nu=es since *9C), more than on an' program other than $ocial $ecurit'. 4he e<pense %as e/en more ludicrous in the cash-star/ed $o/iet 0nion.K And that does not include the substantial loss entailed in reAuiring legions of talented nuclear scientists, engineers, and technicians to de/ote their careers to de/eloping and ser/icing %eapons that ha/e pro/ed to ha/e been significantl' unnecessar' and essentiall' irrele/ant. In fact, the onl' useful part of the e<penditure has been on de/ices, protocols, and policies to =eep the bombs from going off, e<penditures that %ould, of course, not be necessar' if the' didnPt e<ist.

Human Trafficking Aff 107/283

7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

2ac atQ rogue states


T'ere4s 6ero em&irical *asis for t'is argument0Mao an$ Stalin +ere a lot more cra6"/ *ut t'e" $i$n4t e)en go to +ar Te&&erman/ 7 Deput' Fditor of "e%s%ee=, &ember of the Council on 3oreign Relations, no% &anaging Fditor of 3oreign Affairs, holds a .A. in Fnglish Literature from Male 0ni/ersit', an &.A. in Jurisprudence from 1<ford 0ni/ersit', and an LL.&. in International La% from "e% Mor= 0ni/ersit' (Jonathan 4epperman, E/(/E/9, ?8h' 1bama $hould Learn to Lo/e the omb@, httpI//%%%.thedail'beast.com/ne%s%ee=/())9/)E/(E/%h'-obama-should-learn-to-lo/e-thebomb.print.html-//F& "uclear pessimistsNand there are man'Ninsist that e/en if this pattern has held in the past, itPs cra#' to rel' on it in the future, for se/eral reasons. 4he first is that toda'Ps nuclear %annabes are so completel' unhinged, 'ouPd be mad to trust them %ith a bomb. 4a=e the s'baritic Jim Jong Il, %hoPs ne/er missed a chance to demonstrate his battiness, or &ahmoud Ahmadine!ad, %ho has denied the
.olocaust and promised the destruction of Israel, and %ho, according to some respected &iddle Fast scholars, runs a messianic mart'rdom cult that %ould %elcome nuclear obliteration. 4hese regimes are the ultimate rogues, the thin=ing goesNand therePs no deterring

rogues. ut are Jim and Ahmadine!ad reall' scarier and cra#ier than %ere $talin and &aoH It might loo= that %a' from $eoul or 4el A/i/, but histor' sa's other%ise. Jhrushche/, remember, threatened to Lbur'L the 0nited $tates, and in *9,:, &ao blithel' declared that a nuclear %ar %ith America %ouldnPt be so bad because e/en Lif half of man=ind died \ the %hole %orld %ould become socialist.L 7'ong'ang and 4ehran support terrorismNbut so did &osco% and ei!ing. And as for seeming suicidal, &ichael Desch of the 0ni/ersit' of "otre Dame points out that $talin and &ao are the real record holders hereI both %ere responsible for the deaths of some () million of their o%n citi#ens. Met %hen push came to sho/e, their regimes bal=ed at nuclear suicide, and so %ould toda'Ps international boge'men . 3or all of
Ahmadine!adPs antics, his po%er is limited, and the clerical regime has al%a's pro/ed rational and pragmatic %hen its life is on the line. Re/olutionar' Iran has ne/er started a %ar, has done deals %ith both 8ashington and Jerusalem, and sued for peace in its %ar %ith IraA

(%hich $addam started- once it reali#ed it couldnPt %in. "orth Jorea, mean%hile, is a tin', impo/erished, famil'-run countr' %ith a histor' of being in/aded+ its o/er%helming preoccupation is sur/i/al , and e/er' time it becomes more belligerent it re/erses itself a fe% months later (%itness last %ee=, %hen 7'ong'ang told $eoul and 8ashington
it %as read' to return to the bargaining table-. 4hese countries ma' be brutall' oppressi/e, but nothing in their beha/ior suggests the' ha/e a death %ish.

Human Trafficking Aff 110/283

7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

2ac atQ gi)e to terrorists


T'eir aut'ors incorrectl" correlate terrorist grou&s +it' Arogue statesB an$ t'e" +oul$ i$iots to gi)e t'eir nukes a+a" Te&&erman/ 7 Deput' Fditor of "e%s%ee=, &ember of the Council on 3oreign Relations, no% &anaging Fditor of 3oreign Affairs, holds a .A. in Fnglish Literature from Male 0ni/ersit', an &.A. in Jurisprudence from 1<ford 0ni/ersit', and an LL.&. in International La% from "e% Mor= 0ni/ersit' (Jonathan 4epperman, E/(/E/9, ?8h' 1bama $hould Learn to Lo/e the omb@, httpI//%%%.thedail'beast.com/ne%s%ee=/())9/)E/(E/%h'-obama-should-learn-to-lo/e-thebomb.print.html-//F& $till, e/en if Iran or "orth Jorea are deterrable, nuclear pessimists fear the'Pll gi/e or sell their deadl' to's to terrorists, %ho arenPtNfor itPs hard to bomb a group %ith no return address. Met loo= closel', and the ris= of a 8&D handoff starts to seem o/erblo%n. 3or one thing, assuming Iran is able to actuall' build a nu=e, Desch e<plains that Lit doesnPt ma=e sense that the'Pd then gi/e something the' regard as central to their sur/i/al to groups li=e .i#bullah, o/er %hich the' ha/e limited control. As for Al Oaeda, the' donPt e/en share common interests. 8h' %ould the mullahs gi/e 1sama bin Laden the cro%n !e%elsHL 4o do so %ould be fatal, for 8ashington has made it /er' clear that it %ould regard an' terrorist use of a 8&D as an attac= b' the countr' that supplied itNand %ould respond accordingl'.

Human Trafficking Aff 111/283

7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

2ac atQ state colla&se


<ortunatel"/ t'ere are &lent" of safeguar$s in &lace Te&&erman/ 7 Deput' Fditor of "e%s%ee=, &ember of the Council on 3oreign Relations, no% &anaging Fditor of 3oreign Affairs, holds a .A. in Fnglish Literature from Male 0ni/ersit', an &.A. in Jurisprudence from 1<ford 0ni/ersit', and an LL.&. in International La% from "e% Mor= 0ni/ersit' (Jonathan 4epperman, E/(/E/9, ?8h' 1bama $hould Learn to Lo/e the omb@, httpI//%%%.thedail'beast.com/ne%s%ee=/())9/)E/(E/%h'-obama-should-learn-to-lo/e-thebomb.print.html-//F& A much greater threat is that a nuclear "orth Jorea or 7a=istan could collapse and lose control of its %eapons entirel'. Met here again histor' offers some comfort. China acAuired its first nu=e in *9DC, !ust t%o 'ears before it descended into the mad chaos of the Cultural Re/olution, %hen /irtuall' e/er' Chinese institution %as threatenedNe<cept for its nuclear infrastructure, %hich remained secure . LIt %as nearl' a coup,L sa's Desch, L'et %ith all the unrest, nobod' e/er thought that there might be an unauthori#ed nuclear use.L 4he $o/ietsP %eapons %ere also =ept largel' safe (%ith 0.$. help- during the brea=up of their union in the earl' P9)s. And in recent 'ears &osco% has greatl' upped its defense spending (b' () to B) percent a 'ear-, using some of the cash to moderni#e and protect its arsenal. As for 7a=istan, it has ta=en numerous precautions to ensure that its o%n %eapons are insulated from the countr'Ps chaos, installing complicated firing mechanisms to pre/ent a launch b' lone radicals , for e<ample, and instituting special training and screening for its nuclear personnel to ensure the'Pre not infiltrated b' e<tremists . F/en if the 7a=istani state did collapse entirel'Nthe nightmare scenarioNthe chance of a 4aliban bomb %ould still be remote . Desch argues that the idea that terrorists Lcould use these %eapons radicall' underestimates the difficult' of actuall' operating a modern nuclear arsenal. 4hese things need constant maintenance and the'Pre /er' eas' to disable. $o the idea that these things could be stuffed into a gunn'sac= and smuggled across the Rio >rande is preposterous.L

Human Trafficking Aff 112/283

7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

(ac atI accidental %ar


9ecision making an$ em&irics &ro)e no acci$ental +ar Vuinlan 0%- former senior fello% at the International Institute of $trategic $tudies
($ir &ichael, ?4hin=ing About "uclear 8eapons,@ httpI//%%%.rusi.org/do%nloads/assets/8.7C*;O0I"LA".pdf, first published in *99:, reedited in ()),,-//A&

4here ha/e certainl' been, in o/er fift' 'ears since the $econd 8orld 8ar, man' accidents in/ol/ing nuclear %eapons, from transporters s=idding off roads to strategic bombers crashing %ith or losing the %eapons the' carried (in past da's %hen such carriage
%as a freAuent feature of readiness arrangements-. A fe% of these accidents ma' ha/e released into the nearb' atmosphere highl' to<ic material. "one ho%e/er has entailed a nuclear e<plosion. $ome commentators suggest that this reflects remar=able good fortune amid such massi/e acti/it' and deplo'ment o/er so long. A more rational deduction from the facts of this e<perience %ould ho%e/er be that t'e

&ro*a*ilit" of an" acci$entGs triggering a nuclear e,&losion is e,tremel" lo+ . It might be further noted that the mechanisms needed to set off such an e<plosion are highl' comple<+ and that in a large number of %a's the half-centur' has seen e<tensi/e impro/ements in safet' arrangements . It is undoubtedl' possible to see respects in %hich, after the Cold 8ar, some of the factors bearing upon ris= ma' be ne% or more ad/erse+ but some are plainl' less so. 4he half-centur' %e ha/e come through entirel' %ithout accidental e<plosion included earl' 'ears in %hich =no%ledge %as s=etchier, %eapon design less safet'-oriented and precautions less de/eloped than the' later became, as %ell as 'ears in %hich %eapon numbers %ere larger, deplo'ments more %idespread and alert arrangements more tense.

Human Trafficking Aff 113/283

7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

2ac $oesn4t cause e,tinction


Nuclear +ar $oesn4t cause e,tinction 8 &refer mo$els Seit6 . 5 former associate of the John &. 1lin Institute for $trategic $tudies at .ar/ard 0ni/ersit'5s Center for International Affairs (Russell, ?4heP
"uclear 8inter P &eltdo%n 7hotoshopping the Apocal'pse@, httpI//adamant.t'pepad.com/seit#/())D/*(/preherein;honor.html-//A& All that remains of $aganPs ig Chill are cur/es such as this , but histor' is full of prophets of doom %ho fail to deli/er, not all are %ithout honor in their o%n land. 4he *9EB P"uclear 8inter L papers in$cience %ere so politici#ed that e/en the eminentl' liberal 7resident of 4he Council for a Li/eable 8orld called L4he %orst e<ample ofthe misrepesentation of science to the public in m' memor'.L Among the authors %as $tanford 7resident Donald Jenned'. 4oda' he edits $cience , the nationPs ma!or arbiter of climate science--and polic'. K elo%, a case illustrating the mid-range of the j.: to j*.D degree C ma<imum cooling the ())D studies suggest is superimposed in color on the lac=l' Apocal'ptic predictions published in $cience Gol. (((, *9EB . 4he'Pre %orth comparing, because the range of soot concentrations in the ne% models o/erlaps %ith cases assumed to ha/e dire climatic conseAuences in the %idel' publici#ed *9EB scenarios --LApocal'ptic predictions reAuire, to be ta=en seriousl',higher standards of e/idence

than do assertions on other matters %here the sta=es are not as great.L %rote $agan in 3oreign Affairs , 8inter *9EB -EC. ut that Le/idenceL %as ne/er forthcoming.P"uclear 8interP ne/er e<isted outside of a computer e<cept as air-brushed animation commissioned b' the a 7R firm - 7orter "o/elli Inc. Met $agan predicted Lthe e<tinction of the human
species L as temperatures plummeted B, degrees C and the %orld fro#e in the aftermath of a nuclear holocaust. Last 'ear, $aganPs cohort tried to reanimate the ghost in a machine anti-nuclear acti/ists in/o=ed in the depths of the Cold 8ar, b' re-running eAuall' arbitrar' scenarios on a modern interacti/e >lobal Circulation &odel. ut the Cold 8ar is histor' in more %a's than one. It is a credit to post-modern

computer climate simulations that the' do not reproduce the apocal'ptic results of %hat $agan o<'moronicall' termed La sophisticated one dimensional model.L 4he sub#ero Pbaseline caseP has melted do%n into a tepid *.B degrees of a/erage cooling- gre' s=ies do not a Ragnaro= ma=e . 8hat remains is !ust not the stuff that Fnd of the 8orld m'ths are made of.K It is hard to e<aggerate ho% seriousl' L nuclear %inter L%as once ta=en b' polic' anal'sts %ho ought to ha/e =no%n better.
&an' %ere ta=en abac= b' the sheer force of $aganPs rhetoric Remar=abl', $ciencePs ne%s co/erage of the ne% results fails to graphicall' compare them %ith the old ones Fditor Jenned' and other recent e<ecuti/es of the American Association for the Ad/ancement of $cience, once proudl' co-authored and helped to publici#e.K Mou canPt sa' the' didnPt tr' to reproduce this Cold 8ar icon. 1nce again, soot from K imaginar' soft%are materiali#es in midair b' the megaton , fl'ing higher than &ount F/erest . 4his is not ph'sics, but a crude e<ercise in P garbage in, gospel outP parameter forcing designed to ma<imi#e and e<tend the cooling an aeosol can generate, b' sparing it from realistic attrition b' rainout in the lo%er atmosphere. Despite decades of progress in modeling atmospheric chemistr' , there is none in this computer simulation, and ignoring photochemistr' further e<tends its impact. 3ortunatel' , the histor' of science is as hard to erase as it is eas' to ignore. 4heir past master' of semantic agression cannot spare the authors of L"uclear 8inter Lite L direct comparison of their ne% results and their old. K Dar= smo=e clouds in the lo%er atmosphere donPt last

long enough to spread across the globe. Cloud droplets and rainfall remo/e them. rapidl' %ashing them out of the s='
in a matter of da's to %ee=s- not long enough to sustain a global pall. Real %orld %eather brings do%n particles much as soot is scrubbed out of po%er plant smo=e b' the %ater spra's in smo=e stac= scrubbers Roboc= ac=no%ledges this- not e/en a single degree of cooling results %hen soot is released at lo%er ele/ations in he models . 4he %or=around is to in!ect the imaginar' aerosol at trul' .imala'an ele/ations - pressure altitudes of B)) millibar and higher , %here the computer modelPs /ertical transport function modules pass it off to their e/en higher neighbors in the stratosphere , %here it does not rain and particles linger.. 4he ne% studies li=e the old suffer from the disconnect bet%een a desire to paint the s=' blac= and the /icissitudes of natural histor'. As %ith man' e<ercise in %orst case models both at in/o=e rare phenomena as commonplace, claiming it prudent to assume the %orst.

Nuclear +inter canGt *e &ro)en0t'eir stu$ies are &oliticall" *iase$ American :nstitute of ?'"sics 3 (L8intr' Doom,L August, httpI//%%%.aip.org/histor'/climate/8inter.htm-//A& Atmospheric scientists %ere %ell-placed to ta=e up the Auestion of smo=e from a nuclear %ar. &easurements li=e Crut#enPs of the effects of soot
and the li=e had greatl' ad/anced since the *9:, stud'. Richard 4urco and others, %or=ing on the dinosaur e<tinction problem, had de/eloped a computer model of a ha#e-filled atmosphere. &ean%hile James 7ollac= and rian 4oon had been %or=ing %ith Carl $agan on ho% the aerosol smo=e from /olcanoes could affect climate. Joining forces, the' calculated that after an e<change of h'drogen bombs, the soot' smo=e from burning cities could bring on a Lnuclear

%interL N months or e/en 'ears of cold so se/ere it %ould gra/el' endanger li/ing creatures.(E- 4he scientists did this %or= mainl' for public consumption. 8hen the' announced their results in *9EB, it %as %ith the e<plicit aim of promoting international arms control. $urel' the li=elihood that all-out nuclear %ar %as literall' suicidal %ould persuade nations to reduce their arsenalsH ut the studies mean%hile ad/anced scientific understanding of ho% aerosols could affect climate.(9- In fact the computer models %ere so simplified, and the data on smo=e and other aerosols %ere still so poor, that nothing could be said for certain. Critics , mostl' people opposed to nuclear disarmament, Auic=l' pointed out the deficiencies. In the mid *9E)s, detailed studies confirmed that it %as indeed li=el' that a nuclear %ar %ould temporaril' alter global climate. ut as $chneider and a co-author e<plained in a %idel' read article, it %ould probabl' not bring an apocal'ptic %inter, but onl' a Lnuclear fall .L(*)- 4here %ere so man' /ariable factors that nobod' could sa' %ith confidence %hat %ould happen. Nuclear +ar is sur)i)a*le 8 e,&ert consensus N"Huist 77 defense anal'st (J.R., LIs "uclear 8ar $ur/i/ableHL ,/()/99, httpI//mobile.%nd.com/*999/),/DBC*/-/A& I patientl' repl' to these correspondents that nuclear %ar %ould not be the end of the %orld . I then point to studies sho%ing that ?nuclear %inter@ has no scientific basis, that fallout from a nuclear %ar %ould not =ill all life on earth. $urprisingl', fe% of m' correspondents are con/inced. 4he' prefer apocal'ptic m'ths created b' pop scientists, mo/ie producers and !ournalists.

Human Trafficking Aff 11 /283

7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

If Dr. Carl $agan once said ?nuclear %inter@ %ould follo% a nuclear %ar, then it must be true. If radiation %ipes out man=ind in a mo/ie, then that5s %hat %e can e<pect in real life.K ut Carl $agan %as %rong about nuclear %inter. And the mo/ie ?1n the each@ misled American filmgoers about the effects of fallout. It is time, once and for all, to la' these m'ths to rest. "uclear %ar %ould not bring about the end of the %orld, though it %ould be horribl' destructi/e.K 4he truth is, man' prominent ph'sicists ha/e condemned the nuclear %inter h'pothesis. "obel laureate

3reeman D'son once said of nuclear %inter research, ?It5s an absolutel' atrocious piece of science , but I Auite despair of setting the public record straight.@K 7rofessor &ichael &cFlro', a .ar/ard ph'sics professor , also critici#ed the nuclear %inter h'pothesis. &cFlro' said that nuclear %inter researchers ?stac=ed the dec=@ in their stud', %hich %as titled ?"uclear
8interI >lobal ConseAuences of &ultiple "uclear F<plosions@ ($cience, December *9EB-. K "uclear %inter is the theor' that the mass use of nuclear %eapons %ould create enough smo=e and dust to blot out the sun, causing a catastrophic drop in global temperatures. According to Carl $agan, in this situation the earth %ould free#e. "o crops could be gro%n. .umanit' %ould die of cold and star/ation. K In truth, natural disasters ha/e

freAuentl' produced smo=e and dust far greater than those e<pected from a nuclear %ar. In *EEB Jra=atoa e<ploded %ith a blast eAui/alent to *),))) one-megaton bombs, a detonation greater than the combined nuclear arsenals of planet earth. 4he Jra=atoa e<plosion had negligible %eather effects. F/en more disastrous, going bac= man' thousands of 'ears, a meteor struc= Ouebec %ith the force of *:., million one-megaton bombs, creating a crater DB =ilometers in diameter. ut the %orld did not free#e. Life on earth %as not e<tinguished.K Consider the /ie%s of 7rofessor >eorge Rath!ens of &I4, a =no%n antinuclear acti/ist, %ho said, ?"uclear %inter is the %orst e<ample of misrepresentation of science to the public in m' memor' .@ Also
consider 7rofessor Russell $eit#, at .ar/ard 0ni/ersit'5s Center for International Affairs, %ho sa's that the nuclear %inter h'pothesis has been discredited.K 4%o researchers, $tarle' 4hompson and $tephen $chneider, debun=ed the nuclear %inter h'pothesis in the summer *9ED issue of 3oreign Affairs. 4hompson and $chneider statedI ?the global apocal'ptic conclusions of the initial nuclear %inter h'pothesis can no% be relegated to a /anishingl' lo% le/el of probabilit'.@K 1J, so nuclear %inter isn5t going to happen. 8hat about nuclear falloutH 8ouldn5t the radiation from a nuclear %ar contaminate the %hole earth, =illing e/er'oneH K 4he short ans%er isI absolutel' not . "uclear fallout is a problem, but %e should not e<aggerate its effects. As it happens, there are t%o t'pes of fallout produced b' nuclear detonations. 4hese areI *- dela'ed fallout+ and (- short-term fallout.K According to researcher 7eter G. 7r', ?Dela'ed fallout %ill not, contrar' to popular belief, graduall' =ill

billions of people e/er'%here in the %orld.@ 1f course, dela'ed fallout %ould increase the number of people d'ing of l'mphatic cancer, leu=emia, and cancer of the th'roid. ?.o%e/er,@ sa's 7r', ?these deaths %ould probabl' be far fe%er than deaths no% resulting from \ smo=ing, or from automobile accidents.@K 4he real ha#ard in a nuclear %ar is the short-term fallout. 4his is a t'pe of fallout
created %hen a nuclear %eapon is detonated at ground le/el. 4his t'pe of fallout could =ill millions of people, depending on the targeting strateg' of the attac=ing countr'. ut short-term fallout rapidl' subsides to safe le/els in *B to *E da's. It is not permanent. 7eople %ho li/e

outside of the affected areas %ill be fine. 4hose in affected areas can sur/i/e if the' ha/e access to underground shelters. In some areas, sta'ing indoors ma' e/en suffice.K Contrar' to popular misconception, there %ere no documented deaths from short-term or dela'ed fallout at either .iroshima or "agasa=i. 4hese blasts %ere lo% airbursts, %hich produced minimal fallout effects. 4oda'5s thermonuclear %eapons are e/en ?cleaner.@ If used in airburst mode, these %eapons %ould produce fe% (if an'- fallout casualties .

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(ac atI fallout


<allout cannot cause e,tinction0$eat' rates +oul$ *e relati)el" lo+ e)en if reactors +ere targete$ MA2T:N 1782 ph'sicist %hose research interests include stratospheric modelling. .e is a research associate in the Dept. of &athematics,
3acult' of $cience, Australian "ational 0ni/ersit' ( rian, ?Current Affairs ulletin,@ December, httpI//%%%.uo%.edu.au/arts/sts/bmartin/pubs/E(cab/inde<.html-//A&

7re/ious nuclear e<plosions ha/e in!ected an estimated , tonnes of plutonium into the atmosphere .W((X "o one
=no%s %hat effect this is ha/ing on human health. 1ne of the highest estimates of the conseAuences is b' John >ofman, %ho thin=s 9,),))) people %orld%ide ma' die of lung cancer as a result of this plutonium, o/er a period of man' decades.W(BX A C)))&t nuclear %ar could cause the

release of ten times as much plutonium , some ,) tonnes, %ith ten times the conseAuences. Large nuclear po%er reactors contain an a/erage in/entor' of perhaps B)) =ilogrammes of plutonium. If it is assumed that all the plutonium from () large reactors more than one tenth of the %orld total - %ere dispersed in a C)))&t nuclear %ar, this %ould add another si< tonnes of plutonium to the total released into the atmosphere. 4his %ould be about one tenth the amount directl' released b' the nuclear e<plosions themsel/es. 4he cancers and genetic defects caused b' global fallout from a nuclear %ar %ould onl' appear o/er a period of man' decades, and %ould cause onl' a small increase in the current rates of cancer and genetic defects. 4he scientific e/idence clearl' sho%s that global fallout from e/en the largest nuclear %ar poses no threat to the sur/i/al of the human species. "e/ertheless, the fact that hundreds of thousands or millions of people %ho %ould suffer and
die from global fallout cannot be ignored. 3urthermore, man' more people than this %ould die from e<posure to fallout in the immediate /icinit' of nuclear e<plosions.

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(ac atI o#one


Nuclear +ar +on4t kill t'e o6one MA2T:N 178 ph'sicist %hose research interests include stratospheric modelling. .e is a research associate in the Dept. of &athematics,
3acult' of $cience, Australian "ational 0ni/ersit' ( rian, ?F<tinction 7olitics,@ httpI//%%%.bmartin.cc/pubs/ECsana*.html-//A& 4he ne<t effect to %hich beliefs in nuclear e<tinction %ere attached %as o#one depletion . eginning in the mid-*9:)s,

$chell painted a picture of human annihilation from nuclear %ar based almost entirel' on effects from increased ultra/iolet light at the earthPs surface due to o#one reductions caused b' nuclear e<plosions. $chellPs boo= %as greeted %ith adulation rarel' obser/ed in an' field. Met b' the time the boo= %as published, the scientific basis for o#one-based nuclear e<tinction had almost entirel' e/aporated. 4he ongoing s%itch b' the militar' forces of the 0nited $tates and the $o/iet 0nion from multi-megatonne nuclear %eapons to larger numbers of smaller %eapons means that the effect on o#one from e/en the largest nuclear %ar is unli=el' to lead to an' ma!or effect on human population le/els, and e<tinction from o#one reductions is /irtuall' out of the Auestion WBX.
scares about stratospheric o#one de/eloped, culminating in *9E( in the release of Jonathan $chellPs boo= 4he 3ate of the Farth WCX.

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9is&osi*ilit"

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2ac traffickingW*a$
Cictims of trafficking are constantl" face$ +it' 'orrific )iolence5 stu$ies &ro)e Ac'ar"a 410 (Arun, 7hD in Anthropolog', 7rofessor at "ational Autonomous 0ni/ersit' in &e<ico, ?3emini#ation of &igration
and 4raffic=ing of 8omen in &e<ico@, $ocial Inter/ention /ol. B), httpI//%%%.rcis.ro/images/documente/rcisB);)(.pdf, W$>X-

&uch of the a/ailable empirical research on traffic=ed %omen and commercial se< indicates that %omen e<perience high le/els of /iolence, including, but not limited to, ph'sical and se<ual assaults, /erbal threats or abuse, ps'chological abuse
(Lo%man, ())), Ra'mond, ())C, Achar'a, ())D-. .o%e/er, some researchers anal'#ed that /iolence is ubiAuitous in all forms of prostitution ( arr', *99,- %hile others belie/ed the incidence of /iolence /aries enormousl' in different prostitution /enues. Also, it ma' /ar' from one brothel o%ner and traffic=er to another. 4his ne% emphasis on the domination of po%er and suppression in traffic=ing of %omen is long

o/erdue. 4his stud' suggests that %e need to proceed cautiousl' %hen assessing claims about the freAuenc' and nature of the /iolence perpetrated b' pimps and traffic=ers. During the inter/ie%s and anal'sis, it %as clearl' found that the incidence of both ph'sical and se<ual /iolence at the hand of traffic=ers and pimps is common in the life c'cle of these traffic=ed %omen, %hich do not ha/e an' limit. .ere, I ha/e anal'#ed the %omen %ho %ere e<posed to ph'sical and se<ual /iolence during one %ee= and again after one
month at the time of inter/ie%. 4he results sho% that after one %ee=I :)U of the %omen %ere beaten %ith an ob!ect, *))U %ere abused /erball', B)U %ere loc=ed in the house %ithout food, *,U %ere intended to burned b' traffic=ers or madam, (E.BU drugged b' cigarette, BE.BU %ere threaten to be =illed b' the madam, *)U and *.DU %omen reported that madam put chili po%der in their e'es and /agina, %hereas (*.:U %ere raped b' clients and traffic=ers and C,U %ere forced b' the madam to ha/e se< %ith more than one client at a time (see table E-. 4his clearl' indicates the

incidence of /iolence against %omen during one %ee= is e<tremel' inhuman and cruel, %hereas in one month period the intensit' of aggression %as increased. A %oman indicated during the inter/ie%I ?\.for us /iolence is common, it is nothing ne%, %e are habituated on this, here %e do not ha/e the right of our bod', here %e treated !ust li=e an animal, it is madrina (madam- %ho decide all for us, %hen %e ha/e to %or=, %ith %hom %e ha/e to %or=, %hat to do or not, %hen %e ha/e to eat, sleep etc., all these depend on her, %e do not ha/e right to tell a Zno5, if %e do not follo% her %ords she !ust use her po%er in man' %a's, for her our life is nothing, in this place her dog has more respect than us\.@. 4hus, once the %oman obligates herself to enter into this profession she is sub!ect to e<ploitation and a /ictim of ill health.

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2ac $is&osa*ilit" im&act/turns +ar


9e'umani6ation creates a foun$ation for all colonial an$ &olitical )iolence to occur
Accessed /ia 7ro!ect &0$F, W$>X8hat has e/ol/ed from the $elf/1ther distinction, ho%e/er, goes be'ond mere sur/i/al mechanisms.

To$res 407 (Jonathan, 7rofessor of La% at >eorgia $tate 0ni/ersit', ?La%, 1therness, and .uman 4raffic=ing@, Jul' ())9,
Indi/iduals are sociali#ed to accept a %a' of thin=ing of ?other indi/iduals either as e<tensions of the self, or as alien ob!ects to be manipulated for the ad/antage of the indi/idual or social self.@ 4his sociali#ation process results in otherness shaping the /ie%s and actions of e/en the most %ell- intentioned indi/iduals at the subconscious le/el. Cogniti/e ps'cholog' research has
found that indi/iduals, or at least indi/iduals from indi/idualist cultures, are prone to ?fundamental attribution error,@ %hereb' ?an indi/idual sees negati/e actions b' herself and positi/e actions b' others as highl' dependent on the situation, but sees positi/e actions b' herself and negati/e actions b' others as reflecti/e of some innate dispositional Aualit'.@ 4he result of this dichotomous /ie% is a persistent othering that

creates conditions in %hich simultaneousl' the 1ther is de/alued and the $elf is propped up. 4he $elf/1ther
distinction e<tends be'ond indi/iduals as%ell, leading to a group-le/el conception of the $elf and the 1ther. $ocial ps'chologists ha/e found group-le/el attribution error e<ists, in that indi/iduals are more li=el' to assess actions of out-group actors based on biased !udgments (and con/ersel' e/idence a more forgi/ing assessment of in- group indi/iduals5 actions-. 4he collecti/e sense of the $elf and the $elf5s perceptions of the

1ther are then gi/en /oice through the apparatus of the $tate. 4hat is, the $elf/1ther distinction is adopted b' the $tate and ser/es to shape the la% it promulgates, and that la%, in turn, ser/es to further ?affect social /aluations in general.@ At both the indi/idual and collecti/e le/el, this $elf/1ther dichotom' functions to create (*- a de/alued and dehumani#ed 1ther, enabling differential treatment of the 1ther+ ((- a conception of a /irtuous $elf and corresponding assumption that the $elf (or dominant group- is representati/e of the norm+ and (B- a distancing of the 1ther from the $elf. 4he persistent othering narrati/e and accompan'ing essentialism has deep historical roots ma=ing it harder to unearth. <irst/ an$ fun$amentall"/ ot'ering ser)es to $e)alue an$ $e'umani6e t'e @t'er- 4he 1ther is percei/ed as different from the $elf, and an' difference is /ie%ed as aberrant. 4hus earl' /o'agers to the ?"e% 8orld@ characteri#ed American Indians as ?sa/ages.@ 4he subseAuent colonial mandate of conAuering the %orld in the name of ?spreading ci/ili#ation@ reflected Furopean colonial po%ers5 /ie% that the rest of the %orld %as ?unci/ili#ed@ and of lesser standing. In this narrati/e, t'e $ominant grou& $e&icts t'e @t'er as *ar*aric/ amoral/ an$ of lesser intelligence- T'is $e'umani6ation of t'e @t'er/ in turn/ &ro)i$es t'e $ominant grou&4s rationale for treating t'e @t'er less 'umanel"- 4hus, in the 0.$. /ersion of the othering narrati/e, ?WfXrom this "ation5s inception, the race line %as used to demarcate and patrol the di/ide bet%een those %ho constituted the Z8e5 in Z8e 4he 7eople.5 @ 4he 4hree-3ifths Clause of the 0.$.
Constitution enshrined in the /er' foundational document of the nation the concept that certain indi/iduals %ere %orth less than others and b' la% could be treated as less than human, a perception that remained codified at the constitutional le/el for nearl' one hundred 'ears. &ore recentl',

narrati/es offered during the Gietnam 8ar and the current 8ar on 4error, including suggestions that ?the' don5t /alue life li=e %e do, ha/e been used to !ustif' differential treatmentNthat is, harsher and poorer treatmentNof the 1ther. $econd, in the $elf/1ther dichotom', the $elf is glorified and the beha/ior or characteristics of the $elf (or dominant group- are ta=en to be the norm b' %hich all are !udged. 4hus the narrati/e of
the 1ther asserts that onl' the 1ther commits sa/age or barbarous acts. 4he humanit' of the dominant group is presumed. 4he result is that acts b' the dominant group that do not fit %ith the conception of the /irtuous $elf are often denied or o/erloo=ed. $o, for e<ample, though the

dominant narrati/e of the .olocaust aptl' describes the atrocities committed b' the "a#is and the liberation of the concentration camps b' the Allies, it also engages in the process of othering b' attributing all e/il to the "a#is and ignoring the support of the .olocaust b' man' Allied po%ers. 8hile the 0nited $tates denounced "a#i theories of Ar'an supremac', it go/erned a societ' that sub!ected blac=s to Jim Cro% la%s, interned o/er **),))) Japanese-Americans follo%ing 7earl .arbor, and maintained immigration policies se/erel' biased against all non-%hites.In other %ords, othering operates to bloc= the $elf from seeing an' of its actions that do not fit %ith the /ie% of the $elf as /irtuous, humane, !ust, and intelligent.

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=ea$ers'i&

Human Trafficking Aff 121/283

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Sol)es soft &o+er


T'is is ma$e +orse *" massi)e criticism of status Huo anti5trafficking &olicies ?otock"/ 10 7hD, is professorat 3lorida International 0ni/ersit' (&iriam 7otoc=', 1ctober ()*), ?4he 4ra/est' of .uman 4raffic=ingI A Decade of 3ailed 0.$. 7olic'@, F $C1-//F& 4he foregoing are but a fe% e<amples of per/asi/e problems %ith the 0.$. human traffic=ing polic'. "umerous additional critiAues
ha/e been proffered b' others (for e<ample, 8omenPs Commission for Refugee 8omen and Children, ()):-. Also, this commentar' focuses on immigrant /ictims in the 0nited $tates and does not address the similarl' problematic element of the polic' that pertains to 0.$. go/ernment ran=ings of and sanctions against other countries in relation to traffic=ing+ this has also been +i$el" critici6e$ else+'ere (for e<ample, &alare=, ())B-. 4he e<amples pro/ided here demonstrate that current

federal polic' on human traffic=ing is fraught %ith political and ideological biases+ there is almost no e/idence base for an' of the polic' pro/isions+ there is little transparenc' or accountabilit' in polic' implementation+ relati/el' fe% immigrant /ictims ha/e been identified , and there is almost no e/idence regarding effecti/eness of /ictim ser/ices+ and prosecution is highl' problematic.
3undamentall', because there is no rational approach to the polic' implementation, public funds are %asted.

Stronger efforts are necessar" Hea)e"/ ./17 ($usan .ea/e', Reuters, D/*9/*B, ?0.$. cites Russia, China among %orst in human traffic=ingI report@, httpI//%%%.reuters.com/article/()*B/)D/*9/us-usa-humantraffic=ingid0$ RF9,I*LC()*B)D*9-//F& 7resident arac= 1bama last 'ear pledged to step up the 0.$. effort to target traffic=ing. $ecretar' of $tate John Jerr' said 8ednesda'Ps report %ould guide 0.$. action but did not offer details, citing continued Ldiplomac' and de/elopment effortsL as %ell as %or= %ith /ictim support groups, the pri/ate sector and others. LF/er' go/ernment can do better,L Jerr' said in a letter accompan'ing the findings. T'e &lan sol)es (S 'uman rig'ts lea$ers'i& #urro+s % 8omen $tudies $enior 4hesis, 0ni/ersit' of 8ashington (Christina, LAnti-4raffic=ing Legislation and the &edia Discourse on
7rostitution and 4raffic=ing in 8omenI A Comparati/e $tud' of the 0nited $tates and India,L httpsI//digital.lib.%ashington.edu/research%or=s/handle/*::B/():(-//A&

As a leader in human rights practices %ithin the international communit' the 0nited $tates has made significant efforts to combat human traffic=ing. In response to gro%ing concerns o/er the serious human rights /iolations that result from human traffic=ing all o/er the %orld, the 0nited $tates go/ernment, namel' the Department of $tate, has created the 4raffic=ing in 7ersons Report, %hich has been produced annuall' since ())), to be used as a tool to assess the scourge of human traffic=ing %orld%ide. 4he Trafficking in Persons e!ort of ())C b' the 0nited $tates
Department of $tate %as mandated b' the 4raffic=ing Gictims 7rotection Act (4G7A-, categori#es countries throughout the %orld %hich ha/e been determined to be destination, transit, or origin countries for a significant amount of people %ho ha/e been /ictims of traffic=ing in its se/ere forms such as se< traffic=ing, in/oluntar' ser/itude, debt bondage, peonage, or sla/er' *.

"es me,ico5us trafficking/k im&acts/ 'r cre$ im&act/a2 c& to enforce toug' *or$er la+s/$efense of usa action 1ra'am/ 10 Q Research Associate, Council on .emispheric Affairs (&elissa, 1ctober *B, ()*), ?&e<ico5s "e% 8arI $e< 4raffic=ing,@ Council on .emispheric Affairs, httpI//%%%.coha.org/me<icoUF(UE)U99s-ne%-%arse<-traffic=ing/, .enselK 4he ?8ar on Drugs@ as /ie%ed in &e<ico and the 0.$. is changing . "o longer are 7resident 3elipe Caldermn, the police, and &e<ican militar' forces fighting !ust drug traffic=ing+ no% the' must do battle against the rising traffic=ing of se<. 1/er the
past decade there has been a dramatic rise in /iolence lin=ed to the drug trade %ithin &e<ico. F/en though Caldermn has met %ith some success in reducing the amount of drugs traffic=ed across the border through drug sei#ures, his promise of a countr' free from cartel /iolence seems increasingl' unli=el'. .is administration5s inabilit' to effecti/el' control the cartels is increasingl' rooted in the fact that the %ar Caldermn thin=s he is fighting has e<panded.K K &e<ico5s drug cartels ha/e been at least a step ahead of the &e<ican go/ernment since Caldermn launched his campaign against them. Although some of the top drug lords ha/e been captured and !ailed, the' can beNand often areNeffecti/el' replaced. 4he capture of se/eral drug lords b' militar' forces has not actuall' benefitted Caldermn5s efforts. In fact, the remo/al of /arious cartel leaders has actuall' led, on some occasions, to the creation of ne% cartels- the eltran Le'/a Cartel being but one e<ample. As Caldermn has been distracted %ith drug control he has

inad/ertentl' allo%ed for the gro%th of human traffic=ing, a lucrati/e business left largel' unregulated b' &e<ican la%.K K .uman traffic=ing accounts for D.D billion 0$D a 'ear in &e<ico alone ,* a figure that is gro%ing as human traffic=ing continues its rise in profitabilit' . 4he /ast e<pansion of human traffic=ing from &e<ico to the 0nited $tates is notable in its absence from the media+ instead, a %ealth of anal'sis of drug related problems
1

United States Department of State Trafficking in Persons Report (200 !" p. 2 #2$" http%&&'''.state.gov&g&tip&rls&tiprpt&200 &

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 122/283 continuall' ta=es the spotlight. Conser/ati/e estimates conclude that o/er *)),))) %omen, a number predicted to increase b' the end of ()*), are traffic=ed out of Latin America annuall' for the purpose of prostitution .(K K .uman traffic=ing has been attac=ed on a global scale %ith countries across the %orld focusing more of an effort on their o%n problems and using reports li=e the 4raffic=ing in 7ersons Report (4I7- to publici#e their efforts. &e<ico ho%e/er, remains an anomal'. 4he reason that the mainstream media does not focus much attention on human traffic=ing coming out of &e<ico is not because it is not ne%s%orth'+ it is instead because drug /iolence dominates the headlines. 4housands of %omen and children are sub!ected to a modern-da' form of sla/er', %ith man' raped and sub!ected to unimaginable conditions. rothels hold %omen across the countr', in places as far a%a' from the border as "e% Mor= Cit', %here the conditions of li/ing are so se/ere as to cause one 0.$. ph'sician to claim ?the first time I %ent to the camps I
didn5t /omit onl' because I didn5t ha/e an'thing in m' stomach.@B K K In one e<ample, the police in 7lainfield, "e% Jerse' reported a raid upon a se< sla/e house described as a ?*9th-Centur' sla/e ship, %ith rancid, doorless bathrooms+ bare, putrid mattresses+ and a stash of penicillin, morning-after pills, and misoprostol, an antiulcer medication that can induce abortion.@C 8omen are placed into such brothels on both sides of the border and sub!ected to multiple se<ual acts a da', li/ing in fear that if the' do not compl' %ith their captor5s demands the', or their famil', %ill be =illed. 8omen and girls

traffic=ed into the 0nited $tates are thus dispersed across the countr', ma=ing this an issue that is much more than !ust a border problem.K K 4he position of %omen in &e<ican societ' has contributed to the gro%th of human traffic=ing rings, lea/ing them e<tremel' /ulnerable to the abuse of cartels and traffic=ing co'otes . 4he nature of se< and remaining Zpure5 is negated as a /er' important ideal for %oman in the largel' Catholic countr'. 8ithout the support from their go/ernment less than one percent of rape cases lead to an' sort of con/iction,, %ith %omen %ho become the /ictims of se<ual /iolence often choose to remain silent. 7ro/iding economic support for their families has become increasingl' challenging in &e<ico for these %omen as %ell. As the nation becomes more entrenched in drug-related /iolence, man' &e<ican %omen find themsel/es %ith little mone' and become desperate for %a's out, especiall' because legitimate opportunities to ma=e a decent %age remain scarce in their o%n countr'. &ale laborers often lea/e &e<ico to come into the 0nited $tates to %or=, and the' send a large portion of their %ages bac= home to their families. 4he %omen the' lea/e behind often find themsel/es in an unfortunate position . 4he desperate need to ma=e mone' often lea/es %omen susceptible to co'otes5 tempting offers that promise them mone' in e<change for ?running@ their drugs across the border, luring them into a life of traffic=ing. 4his is happening in the most troubled border muncipalit', Ciudad Jurre#, %here %omen go missing dail' and are ne/er heard from again. Moung %omen %ho go to Jurre# lac= the rights and protections of men because the' are seen as replaceable laborers , so if one girl goes missing from the maAuiladoras there is little effort spent to find out %h', especiall' since the border to%ns bet%een &e<ico and the 0nited $tates are increasingl' occupied %ith drug /iolence.K K It is the dispensabilit' of these %omen that ma=e them a target for drug and human traffic=ers. 1ften, 'oung %omen, mostl' under the age of eighteen, are placed un%illingl' into a s'stem of traffic=ing, and their families recei/e ransoms demanding mone' . 0suall', the famil' is too poor to afford to pa' the demand. 4his common occurrence creates a climate of terror. According to an inter/ie%
b' C"", Claudia, %ho %as fifteen at the time of her placement into a prostitution ring in the 0nited $tates, stated that the cartels threatened to =ill her famil' if she tried to escape.D 4he %omen %ho end up in these prostitution rings are often mo/ed from one brothel to another and sub!ected to high le/els of se<ual abuse. Claudia reported that she %as forced to ha/e se< %ith t%ent' men on her first da' in the brothel. .er horrific encounter is !ust one e<ample of %hat thousands of %omen e<perience each 'ear, as the' are forced into these prostitution rings. K K 4he recent conflict o/er

immigration has become another factor in the gro%th of human traffic=ing rings , as their le/els of strength increase e<ponentiall'. $ince ** $eptember ())*, the issue of border securit' has generated an o/er#ealous reaction on the 0.$ public5s part, gal/ani#ed b' politicians hungr' for an issue, to =eep ?others@ out . As a result, the 0.$.&e<ico border became almost impenetrable. .o%e/er, heightened border securit' bac=fired on the 0.$. go/ernment as it forced man' &e<icans into the areas of illegal traffic=ing groups in hopes that the' %ill gi/e them a better chance of getting across the border. As the debate o/er immigration continues, stringent 0.$. la%s %ill surel' pla' an important role in the gro%ing reliance of &e<icans on illegal traffic=ing groups . Recent la%s li=e Ari#ona5s $ *):), %hich critics argue encompass racial profiling, are causing increasing harm to man' /ictims of human traffic=ing. Amanda Jloer of change.org e<plains that the la% %ill ?up the chances that undocumented traffic=ing /ictims %ill end up detained or
deported and documented traffic=ers %al= free.@ Jloer reasons that /ictimi#ing those %ho ha/e been sub!ected to traffic=ing, /ia la%s li=e $ *):), is li=el' to =eep man' from coming for%ard to la% enforcement officials out of fear that the' %ill simpl' be deported bac= to &e<ico. An' change in the classification of ?illegal immigrants@ has to ta=e into account that not all of those criminali#ed b' e<isting 0.$. la%s are there b' choice. K K 0nfortunatel', Caldermn5s attac= on drug cartels has left fe% resources to combat human traffic=ing . &e<ico has tried to address

the issue through legal changes to combat traffic=ing as recentl' as ()):, %hen ?federal legislation to prohibit all forms of drug traffic=ing@: %as passed. "onetheless, according to the 0.$. Department of $tate5s 4raffic=ing of 7ersons Report ()*), ?some local officials tolerate and are sometimes complicit in traffic=ing, impeding the implementation of antitraffic=ing statutes.@E 4his limits the la% and at times ma=es it completel' ineffecti/e in combating the issue . Last
'ear, according to the same go/ernment report, the federal go/ernment in &e<ico in/estigated onl' CE cases of human traffic=ing. 1nl' one traffic=ing ring %as apprehended and the leader still remains at large. 1b/iousl', the la%s are not doing nearl' enough to stop %hat is happening b' passing la%s that, in realit', do /er' little.K K 4he problem %ith human and se< traffic=ing is that it has become a side business for

man' cartels to supplement their lost income in the ?%ar on drugs .@ Jloer again e<plains it bestI ?8hen a drug cartel traffics a

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pound of cocaine into the 0.$., the' can onl' sell it once. 8hen the' traffic a 'oung %oman into the 0.$., the' can sell her again and again.@9 Caldermn has un%ittingl' allo%ed the cartels to become in/ol/ed in other illicit business, such as human traffic=ing, and his administration has done little to address this issue. As human traffic=ing becomes a gro%ing problem shared b' &e<ico and the 0.$., it becomes the

responsibilit' of both go/ernments to properl' address the issue. Due to both countries5 stance on immigration polic', the current /iolence ta=ing o/er the countr', and the insubordination of %omen5s status in &e<ico, female traffic=ing has become the loophole in cartel5s mone'ma=ing abilities and is an issue that can be stopped if gi/en the right attention and a%areness. Caldermn, as %ell as other leaders in Latin America, must start attac=ing the cartels5 human traffic=ing acti/ities to help combat the gro%th of this industr' . 4he 0nited $tates also has a responsibilit' to help those that become labeled as ?/ictims@ of human traffic=ing. In situations li=e this, the 0nited $tates needs to assert their role as a guiding light in the 8estern hemisphere and aid /ictims %ho are not being helped b' their o%n go/ernment.

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@rgani6e$ Crime

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Me,ico

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aff sol)es
Trafficking is integral to t'e continuation of organi6e$ crime =e'ti an$ Aromaa/ . (&artti Lehti, researcher in the "ational Research Institute of Legal 7olic' in .elsin=i, 3inland, A"D Jau=o Aromaa, director of the Furopean Institute for Crime 7re/ention and Control affiliated %ith the 0nited "ations, ())D, ?4raffic=ing for $e<ual F<ploitation@, httpI//%%%.!stor.org/stable/*).*)ED/D,)B)D-//F& 7rostitution and related traffic=ing ha/e historicall' been closel' lin=ed to organi#ed crime . oth are lucrati/e
enterprises %ith relati/el' high profits and lo% ris=s. &an' criminal acti/ities, for e<ample, drug traffic=ing and human smuggling, are eas' to combine %ith them. 3or international drug traffic=ing net%or=s, pandering is an alluring side business, in %hich profits

eAual those from the %holesale trade in mild drugs, but the ris=s are almost none<istent. 4raffic=ing, pandering, and retail
sale of drugs complement one another %ell. Drug distribution can be concentrated on the premises %here prostitutes %or=, and prostitutes can be used as dealers and couriers. At the same time prostitutes can effecti/el' be brought under the control of pimps as accomplices and through drug abuse. All =inds of smuggling enterprises can easil' be combined %ith traffic=ing in prostitutes ("CI$ ())(, pp. B,, BEQB9+ see also Junninen ()),-. 4he lin= bet%een prostitution, traffic=ing, and organi#ed crime e<ists also in the prostitution debate toda' and is used as a rationale for both more liberal prostitution policies and tighter control measures. Ad/ocates of liberal policies see decriminali#ation and licensing as a %a' to cut the lin=s. If prostitution is gi/en a legal status eAual to that of other legitimate businesses, prostitutes5 needs for ser/ices and protection pro/ided b' organi#ed crime %ill disappear as %ill the potential of criminal groups to control and e<ploit prostitutes. 4hose pursuing more prohibiti/e policies see the lin=s as !ustification for total abolition. ?rostitution is seen as integral to acti)ities an$ financing of organi6e$ crime and as corrupting societ' and creating a fa/orable ground for the spread of all forms of /ice and criminalit' and for general social disintegration. In Furope, during the last decade, the debate has especiall' concerned the gro%th of eastern Furopean migrant prostitution in %estern Furope and its role in the infiltration of eastern Furopean criminal groups into %estern mar=ets. 4he real and alleged connections bet%een these phenomena ha/e been used b' the authorities and communit' action groups to !ustif' more prohibiti/e policies and legislation (e.g., in the 0nited Jingdom and the "ordic countries-.

Human trafficking is linke$ to $rug trafficking/ mone" laun$ering an$ terrorism !eefer . 0nited $tates Arm' Colonel ($andra L., L.uman 4raffic=ing and the Impact on "ational $ecurit' for the 0nited $tates,L
httpI//%%%.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/>et4RDocHLocationY0(6docY>et4RDoc.pdf6ADYADACCE,:B1/er the past decade, traffic=ing in human beings has reached K epidemic proportions.

"o countr' is immune, including the 0nited $tates. 4raffic=ers operate inK our o%n countr', stal=ing our o%n citi#ens, especiall' our children. ?4he 0. $. $tate K
Department5s ()), Report on .uman 4raffic=ing estimates that bet%een D)),))) to E)),))) K people are traffic=ed across international borders e/er' 'ear and almost (),))) are traffic=edK across 0.$. borders alone.@( K 8hat is more disturbing than that number is that half of allK

traffic=ing /ictims are children under the age of eighteen . 0nited $tates la% enforcement hasK documented cases of Lat/ian girls
traffic=ed into se<ual sla/er' in Chicago, or 0=rainian girls K traffic=ed in Los Angeles, and &ar'land, or 4hai, Jorean, &ala'sian and Gietnamese girls K traffic=ed in >eorgia, or &e<ican girls traffic=ed in California, "e% Jerse' and 3lorida. Li=e K sla/e o%ners of the past, modern traffic=ers use /iolence, threats, intimidation, and ph'sical K restraint to =eep sla/es at their tas=s. Met modern human traffic=ing seems e/en more harmfulK

than sla/er' of the past, in part because it is part of transnational organi#ed crime. ?.uman K traffic=ing is considered to be the third-largest source of criminal income %orld%ide, generating K an estimated S9., billion per 'ear. It is also closel' lin=ed %ith ?mone' laundering, document K forger', drug traffic=ing and international terrorism.@B

Trafficking causes organi6e$ crime/ terrorism an$ insta*ilit" #o66er 11 Lieutenant Colonel, 0$A3 ("anc' &., L&erida Initiati/eI 4he Ans%er for &e<icoHL 0.$. Arm' 8ar College &aster of $trategic $tudies
degree final paper, ()**, httpI//%%%.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/>et4RDocHADYADA,CBD,B-//A&K

Cooperation %ith &e<ico %ill be a =e' factor to stabilit' and securit' for the K 0nited $tates. &e<ico, !ust li=e Canada,
has /er' strategic importance to the 0nited K $tates in both commerce and national securit' due to pro<imit'. 4he border shared b' K &e<ico and 0nited $tates e<tends o/er B,))) miles. In &e<ico, transnational criminal K threats and threats to go/ernance continue to gro%

at a rampant rate+ this disruption K spills o/er onto so/ereign 0$ territor'. 4hese national securit' challenges undermine K stabilit', delegitimi#e go/ernment institutions, and cause fear amongst the population. K As transnational criminal organi#ations accrue enormous %ealth through drugs, K %eapons, and human traffic=ing, the' are infiltrating and corrupting the 0$ %a' of life, K libert', and pursuit of happiness and imposing crime and disorder among the 0nited K $tates, neighboring countries, and partners abroad. In addition, terrorists use criminal K net%or=ing for their logistical reAuirements, so the' undermine the international financial K s'stem and cost consumers billions of dollars annuall' b' compromising 0$ securit' K measures. Human trafficking 'as *ecome a catal"st for organi6e$ crime 8 ke" to grou&s4 re)enue in lig't of recent $rug crack$o+ns

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 127/283 Corcoran 11 anal'st for "n#ight $rime %ho speciali#es in &e<ican securit', formerl' based in northern &e<ico, has %ritten e<tensi/el' about
&e<ican politics and securit', publishing pieces in outlets li=e %orld Politics e&iew, 'ar&ard "nternational e&iew, and Foreign Policy in Focus. 7atric= is presentl' pursuing an &A at the Johns .op=ins $chool for Ad/anced International $tudies, %ith a concentration in Latin American studies and emerging mar=ets (7atric=, In$ight Crime, 9/*(/**,L.uman 4raffic=ing $courge Dra%s Attention of &e<ico >o/ernment,L httpI//%%%.insightcrime.org/ne%sanal'sis/human-traffic=ing-scourge-dra%s-attention-from-me<ico-go/ernment-//A& 4raditionall', human traffic=ing in &e<ico has been controlled b' small, independent net%or=s li=e that of the Rugeiro $aucedo famil'. .o%e/er, as %ith man' criminal acti/ities in the countr', the industr' has

increasingl' come under the influence of organi#ed crime groups in recent 'ears. A report from the 8ashington 7ost named the 2etas as a group that is particularl' in/ol/ed in human traffic=ing, %hich fits %ith its reputation as one of the gangs %ith the most di/erse set of re/enue streams. K 4his industr' shift has also been aided b' the drug gangsP greater control o/er the smuggling of illegal migrants see=ing passage into the 0.$., an acti/it' that has a great deal of o/erlap %ith human traffic=ing. ecause of &e<ico5s long border %ith the 0.$., its location bet%een migrant-producing nations of Central America, and its o%n migrator' pressure, the human smuggling net%or= has e<ploded o/er the pre/ious decade. According to the 0", the re/enues of the &e<ican Lpolleros,L as the illegal migrant guides are euphemisticall' =no%n, are %orth SD.D billion annuall'.K 3urthermore, greater enforcement efforts in the 0.$. ha/e also reAuired greater sophistication from the smuggling gangs than in the past, %hen polleros %ere largel' independent operators. 4his has also encouraged the incursion of organi#ed crime groups, %hose transnational net%or=s and abilit' to co-opt go/ernment officials in &e<ico gi/es them a significant competiti/e ad/antage o/er independent operators. K 3or the organi#ed crime groups, bringing an e<isting pollero net%or= under its umbrella allo%s them to increase re/enues and e<pand their territorial control %ithout redirecting an enormous amount of resources. Alternati/e sources of income are increasingl' important as crac=do%ns from the Colombian and the &e<ican go/ernments ha/e threatened the /iabilit' of man' e<isting drug traffic=ing net%or=s. Human trafficking is rising an$ ke" to organi6e$ crime Ca*rera 12 producer for J7 $ "e%s &idda' Fdition. &arissa has %or=ed as a multimedia !ournalist at /arious ne%s stations in $an Diego and
&ontere' (&arissa, */*D/*(, L.uman 4raffic=ing Along 0.$.-&e<ico order Is Rising,L httpI//%%%.fronterasdes=.org/ne%s/()*(/!an/*D/humantraffic=ing-us-me<ico-border-rising/-//A& $A" DIF>1 -- "earl' e/er' official %ho attended the second annual bi-national forum to address human traffic=ing in Chula Gista agreedI .uman

traffic=ing along the 0.$.-&e<ico border is on the rise. K >o/ernment figures sho% about *E,))) people are traffic=ed into the 0.$.
e/er' 'ear. ut officials also ac=no%ledge there are man' more /ictims hidden in communities %ho are sold for prostitution, labor or other ser/ices. 1ften times the illegal practice goes unreported. K 4he goal of 4hursda'Ps forum %as to impro/e collaboration bet%een agencies on both sides of the border to help crac=do%n on human traffic=ing and child prostitution. K Recentl', the state of a!a California implemented a ne% la% designed to deter human traffic=ing. It classifies the acti/it' as a Lgra/e crimeL and comes %ith a punishment of up to (( 'ears in prison. K Christopher 4enorio, an assistant 0.$ Attorne' for the $outhern District of California, applauds the ne% la%.K LItPs going to be /er' helpful for us,L 4enorio said. L8hat this establishes is that &e<ico %onPt be a ha/en for se< traffic=ers %ho %ill go bac= to &e<ico to tr' to a/oid capture.L K a!a officials sa' the ne% la% has led to the in/estigation of more than t%o do#en cases. K "orth of the border, Immigration and Customs Fnforcement (ICF- in $an Diego said it hired a full-time /ictim %itness coordinator last 'ear %ho is helping train officers on ho% to handle cases in/ol/ing human traffic=ing /ictims. K 1fficials also sa' human traffic=ing has become an integral part of organi#ed crime o/er the last se/eral 'ears. According to 4enorio, collaboration

%ith &e<ico is critical since the $an Diego-4i!uana border ser/es as a gate%a' for human traffic=ing.K L8e ha/e a uniAue communit' of /ulnerable /ictims because of our immigrant communit',L 4enorio said. L8e ha/e a lot of
people %ho are here illegall' and donPt spea= Fnglish. $o %ith those /ulnerabilities, the' can be e<ploited.L

Human trafficking is t'e largest criminal in$ustr" McA$ams 7 research associate at Council on .emispheric Affairs, a nonprofit, ta<-e<empt independent research and information organi#ation
dedicated to the Americas (&egan, L&odern Da' $la/er' in &e<ico and the 0nited $tates,L *(/(E/)9, httpI//%%%.thecuttingedgene%s.com/inde<.phpH articleY**EDD-//A& .uman traffic=ing is the fastest gro%ing illegal industr' in the %orld and , b' ()*), it is predicted to surpass the

illicit drug trade, %hich %ill ma=e it the %orld5s largest criminal acti/it'. 4he 0nited "ations defines human traffic=ing as ?the
recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons, b' means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, W\X for the purpose of e<ploitation.@ A common misconception is that an indi/idual must cross international borders to be considered a /ictim of human traffic=ing+ ho%e/er, as e/idenced b' the 0nited "ations5 definition, this is not al%a's the case.

Crime rings star)e$ for fun$s 'a)e *een force$ to turn to 'uman trafficking 8 &lan remo)es t'eir main source of income McA$ams 7 research associate at Council on .emispheric Affairs, a nonprofit, ta<-e<empt independent research and information organi#ation
dedicated to the Americas (&egan, L&odern Da' $la/er' in &e<ico and the 0nited $tates,L *(/(E/)9, httpI//%%%.thecuttingedgene%s.com/inde<.phpH articleY**EDD-//A&

4he 0.$.-&e<ico border is an especiall' conflicted area %here transnational crime is rampant . &e<ican 7resident
3elipe Calderon e<plained the relationship bet%een criminal acti/it' in &e<ico and the 0.$. sa'ing, ?the more secure &e<ico is, the more secure the

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 128/283 0nited $tates %ill be.@ As &e<ico and the 0.$. are connected ph'sicall' and through criminal lin=s, issues the &e<ican go/ernment deals %ith %ill subseAuentl' impact the 0.$. &an' of the &e<ican criminal net%or=s notable for narcotraffic=ing are also in/ol/ed in human traffic=ing . According to the Inter 7ress $er/ice, ?at least () net%or=s
are in/ol/ed in the traffic=ing of persons, %ith lin=s to organi#ed crime rings in/ol/ed in other acti/ities li=e drug smuggling.@ Rampant corruption plagues the 0.$.-&e<ico border, %here high-ran=ing &e<ican officials ha/e been accused of ta=ing bribes from drug rings. According to >ar' .ale, DFA intelligence chief for .ouston, the 0.$. effort to end the drug %ar has forced these criminal net%or=s to see= ?other

crime acti/ities to generate their income.@ .ale reports that, due to the 0.$. go/ernment5s crac=do%n on drug traffic=ing, crime rings income has decreased significantl'. As a result, man' of the criminal net%or=s ha/e searched for other acti/ities, li=e human traffic=ing, to supplement their income. K Ambassador C. de aca belie/es that focusing on eradicating human traffic=ing could impro/e 0.$.-&e<ican efforts to combat other forms of transnational crime. According to C. de aca, human traffic=ing ?appears to be an area %here the W&e<ican go/ernmentX is prepared to cooperate %ith Wthe 0.$.X.@ C. de aca and others are hopeful that the e<change of information on human traffic=ing cases %ill build relationships bet%een &e<ican and 0.$. officials that might help further combat the drug %ar. .

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s&illo)er to u-sMe,ican insta*ilit" s&ills o)er to t'e (-S#eittel/ /1% Anal'st in Latin American Affairs for Congressional Research $er/ice (June $. eittel, C/*,/*B, ?&e<ico5s Drug 4raffic=ing 1rgani#ationsI $ource and $cope of the Giolence@, httpI//%%%.fas.org/sgp/crs/ro%/RC*,:D.pdf-//F& &e<ico5s stabilit' is of critical im&ortance to t'e (nited States and the nature and the intensit' of the /iolence has been of particular concern to the 0.$. Congress. &e<ico shares a nearl' (,)))- mile border %ith the 0nited $tates and has close trade and demographic ties. In addition to 0.$. concern about this strategic partner and close neighbor, polic' ma=ers ha/e been concerned that the /iolence in &e<ico could ?s&ill o)erB into (-S- *or$er states Eor furt'er inlan$F despite beefed up securit' measures. According to the ()** "ational Drug 4hreat Assessment prepared b' the 0.$. Department of Justice, the potential harm of
&e<ico5s criminal groups is formidable. &e<ican D41s and their affiliates ?dominate the suppl' and %holesale distribution of most illicit drugs in the 0nited $tates@ and are present in more than *,))) 0.$. cities. (B

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laun$r" list
Trafficking causes organi6e$ crime/ corru&tion/ an$ 'uman rig'ts a*uses 2"f/ 2 JD magna cum laude Case 8estern Reser/e 0ni/ersit' La% $chool (Jara R'f, */(/(, ?4he 3irst &odern Anti-$la/er' La%I 4he 4raffic=ing Gictims 7rotection Act of ()))@, Fbsco-//F& .uman traffic=ing is associated %ith man' social problems such as organi#ed crime, document fraud, and cormption.( 3urthermore, traffic=ing perpetuates /arious human rights /iolations including in/oluntar' ser/itude, forced prostitution, and the bu'ing and selling of human beings.L Met man' turn to traffic=ers to escape po/ert', %ar, ethnic
cleansing or political persecution.L 4he traffic=ers promise attracti/e !obs in prosperous countries, luring immigrants into /irtual sla/er'.L 4raffic=ers also abduct /ictims off the streets to sell them for commercial purposes.L 1ther /ictims, mostl' 'oung girls, are forced into the industr' after a famil' member sells them to a traffic=er for desperatel' needed cashBB

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$emocrac"
!e" to Me,ican democrac' aile', ** Department of >o/ernment and $chool of 3oreign $er/ice Director, &e<ico 7ro!ect (John aile', :/(*/**?C1& A4I"> 1R>A"I2FD CRI&F A"D DR0> 4RA33ICJI"> I" &FTIC1I 8.A4 ARF &FTICA" A"D 0.$. $4RA4F>IF$H ARF 4.FM 81RJI">H@, httpI//%%%.%ilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/Chapter U()**-CombatingU()1rgani#edU()CrimeU()andU()DrugU()4raffic=ingU()inU()&e<ico,U()8hat U()areU()&e<icanU()andU()0$U()$trategies.pdf-//F& &e<ico confronts the greatest threat to its democratic go/ernance from internal /iolence since the Cristero Re/olt of the latter stages of the Re/olution of *9*)Q(9. In this case, the threat is posed b' criminal groups, especiall' b' politicall' sa//', h'per-/iolent drug-traffic=ing organi#ations (D41s-, currentl' inflicting spectacular damage in se/eral regions and so%ing insecurit' throughout the countr'. ut the D41s are onl' the most pressing s'mptom of a gro%ing mi< of forms of
organi#ed crime (1C- rooted in a robust informal econom' and a ci/ic culture mar=ed b' comparati/el' little confidence in the police-!ustice s'stem and lo% compliance %ith the state5s la%.* 4he threat is further e<acerbated b' a crisis of political legitimac' and state capacit'. "eo-liberal policies since the mid *9E)s ha/e not generated a ne% social contract to replace the populist consensus of the ?golden age@ of gro%th %ith stabilit' (*9,)sQ*9:)s-, and the &e<ican state lac=s an effecti/e police-!ustice-regulator' s'stem capable of enforcing its la%s %ith respect to public securit'. Flements of the

1C/D41 threat ha/e been present since at least the mid *9E)s. 8hat brings it to a le/el to threaten democratic go/ernance is its rapid recent gro%th and aggressi/eness. 4his is due to the confluence of large supplies of /iolent entrepreneurs and %eapons, financed b' domestic and foreign mar=ets for illegal drugs, all in the conte<t of slo% or e/en negati/e economic gro%th. 8hat in the past had been a chronic but tolerable problem of public securit' has passed the tipping point to become a genuine threat to national securit' and democratic go/ernance.( T'at is a critical glo*al mo$el of $emocrac" 555 onl" *olstering it &re)ents *acksli$ing Son$rol 1 (7aul C., Associate 7rofessor of 7olitical $cience Q 0ni/ersit' of Colorado, Colorado $prings, ? 11J DF7AR4&F"4I International Relations and 7oliticsI roo=er, 7aul. ())). "on-Democratic Regimes. 7p. /iii, (EE@, ,:E Annals *:C, "o/ember, Le<is, DeechWp*:CX Despite ad/ances in go/ernance, the %orld remains characteri#ed b' a host and /ariet' of t"rannical and o&&ressi)e regimes. 4oda' the concepts of authoritarian and totalitarian are routinel' and indiscriminatel' emplo'ed b' commentators interested in all-inclusi/e
generic labels to /arious autocracies, despotism, dictatorships, satraps, or t'rannies. 7aul roo=erPs boo= pro/ides a current and thoughtful e<amination of modern non-democratic regimes that in their /arious forms, dominated the t%entieth centur' and continue to thri/e in the t%ent'-first centur'. 4%o opening chapters effecti/el' dra% the reader in, e<amining ho% classic and leading theorists ha/e sought to e<plain and categori#e nondemocracies. roo=erPs careful and thorough literature re/ie% illustrates ho% totalitarianism emerged as an anal'tic concept during the 8orld 8ar II as a generation of social scientists attempted to understand the distincti/e characteristics of the .itler, $talin, and (to a lesser e<tent- &ussolini regimes. F<amining the %or=s of .annah Arendt, Carl J. 3riedrich, &ichael Curtis, Juan Lin#, Amos 7erlmutter, Leonard $hapiro, and others, roo=er sho%s ho% and %h' /arious s'stems of classification help scholars thin= clearl' about important differences bet%een totalitarianism and authoritarianism. Flements common to most ta<onomies include the role of the supreme leader, the nature and ideolog' (if an'- of the official part' (if such a part' e<ists-, the degree of political terror, social mobili#ation, and societal penetration. 4he core of the boo= adopts a thematic approach anal'#ing the most common form of dictatorships in modern timesI militar' and part' dictatorships. roo=erPs careful schema brings out the no/el aspects of modern nondemocracies relating to political control and social organi#ation and e<pertl' clarifies these concepts b' comparati/e cross-national anal'sis. Included in this are case studies of ChilePs >eneral 7inochet, 7aragua'Ps Alfredo $troessner, and IraAPs $addam .ussein, %ho transformed theirs into personalist dictatorships+ also considered is ho% dictatorships ma=e and implement policies and %hether the' are effecti/e in promoting economic gro%th. 7enultimate chapters e<amine the challenge of democrati#ation and ho% some modern semidemocracies/semidictatorships (such as &e<icoPs 7RI/7residentialist regime, or 7eruPs Albert 3u!imori- ha/e concluding chapter cautions

sought to disguise themsel/es as $emocratic regimes. roo=erPs current, con/entional %isdom that democrati#ation is ine/itable e/er'%here and that dictatorships are headed for the historical scrap heap. Democraticall' disguised, bureaucratic semi$ictators'i&s of &e<icoPs or 7eruPs il=, rather than blatant militar' Wp*:,X regimes, are probabl' the future mo$els. ;,tinction 9iamon$/ 7% N $enior 3ello% at the .oo/er Institution (Larr', ?7romoting Democrac' in the *99)s@, December *99,, httpI//%%ics.si.edu/subsites/ccpdc/pubs/di/*.htm14.FR 4.RFA4$ 4his hardl' e<hausts the lists of threats to our securit' and %ell-being in the coming 'ears and decades. In the former Mugosla/ia nationalist aggression tears at the stabilit' of Furope and could easil' spread. 4he flo% of illegal drugs intensifies through increasingl' po%erful international crime s'ndicates that ha/e made common cause %ith authoritarian regimes and ha/e utterl' corrupted the institutions of tenuous, democratic ones. "uclear, chemical, and biological %eapons continue to proliferate. 4he /er' source of life on Farth, the global

ecos'stem, appears increasingl' endangered. &ost of these ne% and uncon/entional t'reats to securit' are associate$ +it' or aggra/ated b' the %ea=ness or a*sence of $emocrac", %ith its pro/isions for legalit', accountabilit', popular so/ereignt', and openness. LF$$1"$ 13 4.F 48F"4IF4. CF"40RM 4he e<perience of this centur' offers important lessons. Countries t'at

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 132/283 go)ern themsel/es in a trul' $emocratic fas'ion $o not go to +ar %ith one another. 4he' do not aggress against their
neighbors to aggrandi#e themsel/es or glorif' their leaders. Democratic go/ernments do not ethnicall' LcleanseL their o%n populations, and the' are much less li=el' to face ethnic insurgenc'. Democracies do not sponsor terrorism against one another. 4he' do not build %eapons of mass

destruction to use on or to threaten one another. Democratic countries form more reliable, open, and enduring trading partnerships. In the long run the' offer better and more stable climates for in/estment. 4he' are more en/ironmentall' responsible because the' must ans%er to their o%n citi#ens, %ho organi#e to protest the destruction of their en/ironments. 4he' are better bets to honor international treaties
since the' /alue legal obligations and because their openness ma=es it much more difficult to breach agreements in secret. 7recisel' because, %ithin their o%n borders, the' respect competition, ci/il liberties, propert' rights, and the rule of la%, democracies are the onl' reliable foundation on %hich a ne% %orld order of international securit' and prosperit' can be built.

Me<ican democrac' is on the brin= no% @GNeil, ** $enior 3ello% for Latin America $tudies and Council on 3oreign Relations ($hannon J. 1P"eil, , 3ebruar' ()**, ?&e<icoI De/elopment and Democrac' at a Crossroads A &ar=ets and Democrac' rief@, httpI//%%%.cfr.org/me<ico/me<ico-de/elopment-democrac'-crossroads/p(C)E9-//F&
&a=ing Democrac' 8or= In ())), &e<icans and the international communit' hailed the /ictor' of opposition candidate Gicente 3o< from the "ational Action 7art' (7A"- as president. .is election and inauguration %ere the culmination of &e<icoPs slo% transition to democrac', ending se/ent' 'ears of one-part' rule. 4oda' &e<icoPs three main partiesNthe 7A", the Institutional Re/olutionar' 7art' (7RI-, and the 7art' of the Democratic Re/olution (7RD-Ncompete in reasonabl' clean and transparent elections, b' all accounts fulfilling the reAuisite of electoral democrac'. Met man' %orr'

about the true depth of change %ithin &e<icoPs political s'stem. &e<icoPs formal and informal rules still limit transparenc' and accountabilit' from the political class. 4he blan=et prohibition of reelectionN%hether for president or local to%n councilNlea/es fe% incenti/es for politicians to fulfill their campaign promises . Instead, as the' see= higher office,
the' must ha/e the support of unelected part' leaders. Informall', some of the most po%erful ministries in &e<ico, as %ell as the increasingl' influential state go/ernments %ithin the federal s'stem, ha/e begun to push bac= against broader transparenc' and accountabilit'. Denied or ignored reAuests under &e<icoPs freedom of information act are increasing, particularl' in the realm of securit'. Continued %ea= democratic go/ernance

and a lac= of accountabilit' is perpetuating corruption, and persistent impunit' erodes the credibilit' of institutions. 7ublic opinion is sho%ing increasing disillusionment %ith democrac'. Last 'earPs Latinobarmmetro sur/e' of attitudes to%ard democrac' in eighteen Latin American countries sho%ed &e<ico %ith the lo%est le/el of support in the region. 1nl' D( percent of &e<icans agreed that ?democrac' %as the best form of go/ernment,@ compared to an a/erage of :D percent across the region.*) 4he possible resurgence of the old ruling part'N the 7RINin recent state-le/el elections and %ithin the national congress has man' %orried about a return to the past. 4oda', b' most accounts, the ()*( presidential election is the 7RIPs to lose. A 7RI %in might signal a further entrenchment of corporatist-clientelist go/ernance beholden to oligarchic interests. ut as the economic side has its sil/er lining, so too does &e<icoPs political s'stem. After ten 'ears of democrac', &e<icoPs politics ha/e indeed been transformed. 4he da's of &e<icoPs ?imperial presidenc'@ are gone. >o/ernment institutionsN from the 3ederal Flectoral Institute (I3F- to the 3ederal Institute for Access to Information (I3AI-Nha/e gained ground, opening up the %or=ings of elections and go/ernment to a /ibrant and independent media and to &e<icoPs citi#ens more broadl'. Congress and the $upreme Court no% matter for polic'ma=ing. In fact, the lac= of significant reform in &e<ico bemoaned b' man' reflects a common democratic occurrenceNlegislati/e gridloc=. And e/en there, &e<icoPs political parties are slo%l' learning to %or= together. 7resident Caldermn has cobbled together legislati/e ma!orities to reform pensions, ta<es, and the oil sector, as %ell as the !udicial s'stem and electoral la%s. &e<ico has also seen a burgeoning of ci/il societ'. Mears of co-optation, and at times repression, b' the authoritarian 7RI go/ernment decimated the ran=s of independent non-go/ernmental
organi#ations. 4oda', although still %ea= in comparison to the rest of the region, the number, pluralit', and /ibranc' of ci/il societ' organi#ations, net%or=s, and alliances is unprecedented. 4heir focus has also e<panded, from social de/elopment to grassroots democrac', human rights, and, more recentl', securit'.** 4heir %or= has bro=en ne% ground %ith the passage of the countr'Ps federal freedom of information act in ())(, %hich represents a milestone in a campaign for transparent and accountable go/ernment begun in the *9:)s, and %ith the ())E !udicial reforms, %hich, once implemented, %ill fundamentall' transform &e<icoPs !udicial s'stem. Last 'earPs Jul' state-le/el elections sho% e/idence for optimism. 8ith elections for t%el/e go/ernorships up for grabs during a difficult election 'ear, half of them changed part' hands. Among these %ere three that had been ruled continuousl' b' the 7RI for o/er eight' 'earsNrepresenting the more authoritarian tendencies of the past. Goters in each of these states gal/ani#ed to ?thro% the scoundrels out,@ hoping to bring in a more open and inclusi/e future go/ernment. In the other three, /oters unhapp' %ith the pre/ious administration =ic=ed out the incumbents, also a common occurrence in flourishing democracies. 4he fight against drug traffic=ing, ho%e/er, is

e<acting a political toll. Drug traffic=ing organi#ations are increasingl' gaining influence o/er the state b' alternati/el' funding or threatening (mostl' local- political campaigns, and b' infiltrating la% enforcement and court s'stems. In the lead-up to last Jul'Ps elections drug traffic=ers pla'ed their most /isible role 'et in tr'ing to sub/ert the democratic process.
$e/eral campaign offices %ere bombed, candidates %ere threatened and =illed, and dead bodies %ere hung from bridges on the morning of the polling. .o%e/er, in spite of the /iolence, &e<icoPs /oters turned out in large numbers to elect ne% go/ernors, ma'ors, and state representati/es. In fact, the' re!ected candidates %ith percei/ed lin=s to traffic=ers. Despite the escalating /iolence, &e<icoPs democrac', fla%ed as it ma' be, endures. It is unrealistic to e<pect a countr' to turn instantl' from a closed corporatist economic s'stem to an open competiti/e mar=et, or from an authoritarian one-part' state to a trul' open, competiti/e, and inclusi/e democrac'. At the same time, &e<ico has no% been on these paths for o/er t%o decades, and in a global %orld, time ma' be running out. &e<icoPs relati/el' slo% economic gro%th and marginali#ation in the global economic and democratic subgroups (the RICs

Human Trafficking Aff 133/283


and the A$IC countries, among others- has at least in part to do %ith its inabilit' to get past its o%n legacies.

7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 &e<ico toda' is at a crossroadsN

the Auestion is %hich path it %ill ta=e.

Human Trafficking Aff 13 /283

7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

euro&ean $emocrac"
!e" to Me,ican democrac' aile', ** Department of >o/ernment and $chool of 3oreign $er/ice Director, &e<ico 7ro!ect (John aile', :/(*/**?C1& A4I"> 1R>A"I2FD CRI&F A"D DR0> 4RA33ICJI"> I" &FTIC1I 8.A4 ARF &FTICA" A"D 0.$. $4RA4F>IF$H ARF 4.FM 81RJI">H@, httpI//%%%.%ilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/Chapter U()**-CombatingU()1rgani#edU()CrimeU()andU()DrugU()4raffic=ingU()inU()&e<ico,U()8hat U()areU()&e<icanU()andU()0$U()$trategies.pdf-//F& &e<ico confronts the greatest threat to its democratic go/ernance from internal /iolence since the Cristero Re/olt of the latter stages of the Re/olution of *9*)Q(9. In this case, the threat is posed b' criminal groups, especiall' b' politicall' sa//', h'per-/iolent drug-traffic=ing organi#ations (D41s-, currentl' inflicting spectacular damage in se/eral regions and so%ing insecurit' throughout the countr'. ut the D41s are onl' the most pressing s'mptom of a gro%ing mi< of forms of
organi#ed crime (1C- rooted in a robust informal econom' and a ci/ic culture mar=ed b' comparati/el' little confidence in the police-!ustice s'stem and lo% compliance %ith the state5s la%.* 4he threat is further e<acerbated b' a crisis of political legitimac' and state capacit'. "eo-liberal policies since the mid *9E)s ha/e not generated a ne% social contract to replace the populist consensus of the ?golden age@ of gro%th %ith stabilit' (*9,)sQ*9:)s-, and the &e<ican state lac=s an effecti/e police-!ustice-regulator' s'stem capable of enforcing its la%s %ith respect to public securit'. Flements of the

1C/D41 threat ha/e been present since at least the mid *9E)s. 8hat brings it to a le/el to threaten democratic go/ernance is its rapid recent gro%th and aggressi/eness. 4his is due to the confluence of large supplies of /iolent entrepreneurs and %eapons, financed b' domestic and foreign mar=ets for illegal drugs, all in the conte<t of slo% or e/en negati/e economic gro%th. 8hat in the past had been a chronic but tolerable problem of public securit' has passed the tipping point to become a genuine threat to national securit' and democratic go/ernance.( T'at causes ;( mo$eling 9e Marte/ 13 >o/ernment 1fficer at Furopean 0nion (Raffaella De &arte, (/*(/*B, ?&e<ico and the Furopean 0nionI global challenges, democratic solutions@, httpI//%%%.europarl.europa.eu/thepresident/en/press/press;release;speeches/speeches/sp-()*B/sp-()*B-februar'/html/me<ico-and-theeuropean-union-global-challenges-democratic-solutions-//F& In m' /ie%, the Furopean 0nion and its transnational model of democrac' are facing t%o challenges. 8e are currentl' in the grip of an economic crisis the li=e of %hich %e ha/e not seen since the *9B)s. &ore than (D million
people in Furope are unemplo'ed. A fe% da's ago I %as in $pain,%here ,,U of 'oung people are out of %or=.During a con/ersation %ith a group of 'oung people, I %as as=edZMou are bailing out the ban=s %ith ta<pa'ers5 mone', but %hat are 'ou actuall' doing for usH5 >ertrude $tein, the great 7aris intellectual of the *9()s, called the 'oung people that had sur/i/ed the 3irst 8orld 8ar Za lost generation5. In Furope toda' %e are once again running the ris= of losing a %hole generation. Mesterda' I had the opportunit' to spea= %ith students at the "ational Autonomous 0ni/ersit' of &e<ico.Moung people here, too, are /er' committed. 4he' are =een to ma=e their /oices heard and to secure better representation for their interests.8e ha/e a dut' to do more to address the concerns and an<ieties of our generation of 'oung people. 4he second ma!or challenge Q and this is not onl' a matter of concern for Furopeans Q concerns our democratic model. In the face of the international financial crisis, %e are currentl'

seeing ho%, all o/er the %orld and under pressure from the mar=ets, decisions are being ta=en s%iftl' and, if possible, %ithout parliamentar' in/ol/ement. 4he right thing to do, ho%e/er, is precisel' the oppositeI democrac' and
parliamentarianism need time. And if %e do not ta=e that time %e %ill ha/e a democrac' that is at the merc' of mar=et principles, rather than a mar=et that complies %ith democrac'. Ladies and >entlemen, 4he Furopean 0nion has o/ercome man' setbac=s and crises in its D)-'ear histor', and toda' %e are once again sho%ing ho% good %e are at crisis management.I am sure that %e %ill emerge from this crisis e/en stronger. Ladies and >entlemen, 4he

lin=s bet%een the Furopean 0nion and &e<ico are stronger toda' than the' ha/e e/er been.&e<ico is a Zpri/ileged partner5 of the Furopean 0nion. It is the onl' Latin American countr' that has both an association agreement and a strategic partnership %ith the Furopean 0nion. 9emocratic insta*ilit" causes ;( &olitical insta*ilit" Hug'es/ 12 (Jirst' .ughes, */*D/*(, ?F0 democrac' in crisisI mired in a perfect storm or reboundingH@, httpI//%%%.opendemocrac'.net/=irst'-hughes/eu-democrac'-in-crisis-mired-in-perfect-storm-orreboundingAs forecasters and media focus on ho% or %hether the euro %ill sur/i/e in the 'ear ahead, Furopean democratic politics is also in deep crisis. A lethal mi<ture of F0 %ea=nesses are coming home to roostI the failure o/er the 'ears to effecti/el' tac=le the Furopean 0nionPs democratic deficit is no% in a perilous interaction %ith the political and economic inadeAuacies built into the /er' design of the euro. 8ith the euro crisis ta=ing off in the %a=e of the ()): global economic and financial
crisis, and %ith F0 go/ernments, dominated b' the right, still under the s%a' of neoliberal ideolog' and the financial mar=ets, Furopean politics and societ' are being more profoundl' challenged than for man' decades. 4he mismanagement, both political and economic, of the euro crisis o/er the

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 13%/283 last t%o 'ears is undermining both F0 and national democratic legitimac' and /italit' and e<acerbating pre-e<isting %ea=nesses. And at this moment of intense political and economic crisis, fe% F0 leaders ha/e, or at least are communicating, a political /ision or
strateg' for the F0 as a /ibrant, d'namic, contemporar' political pro!ect, rele/ant at home and in the %ider %orld. $hort-term management of national politics rather than a strategic grasp of the li=el' interaction of Furopean and domestic interests in the 'ears ahead is the order of the da'. F/en as an elite-dri/en pro!ect the F0 is losing political direction, %hile the F0Ps sui generis mi<ture of confederal and federal political structures is also letting it do%n on both sides. 4he intergo/ernmental Q confederal Q side is increasingl' dominated b' >erman' and 3rance, and so is out of =ilter %ith its more t'pical broad, relati/el' consensual approach of coalitions across smaller and larger member states. Met the legitimac' and role of the more transnational Furopean Commission Q and to a lesser e<tent the Furopean 7arliament Q has come under stronger challenge in this crisis than e/er before. As trust

and confidence in the F0 and in national politics and politicians fall across Furope and anger, disaffection and c'nicism gro%, man' %arn of the alread' /isible ris= of gro%ing nationalism and populism . >i/ing more po%er to technocrats Q %hether in the Furopean Commission or in national unit' go/ernments in Ital' and >reece Q to impose neoliberal austerit' programmes throughout the euro#one is /er' far from being a persuasi/e route either to rebuilding trust or legitimac', or to a real
democratic and political debate that tac=les the political and economic crisisW*X. 4he F0 is mired in a perfect storm that mi<es longer and shorter term political %ea=nesses, tired economic ideologies, inadeAuate political leaders, elitist and narro% political discourse at both national and F0 le/el, %ith publics disaffected b' recession, social decline and the posturing of politicians. Can Furope come through this perfect storm or %ill the neglect of the politics of Furopean democrac' reinforce the narro% neoliberal economic solutions being imposed and so intensif' the crisis e/en moreH $ome ha/e argued that the heart of the crisis rests in the fact that %hile the economic solutions to the euro crisis reAuire more Furope Q a federal, fiscal union Q Furopean politics and publics do not in this period support such a mo/e, meaning an' solution to the economic crisis %orsens the democratic crisis or /ice /ersa. ut this ma' be mista=en both in the economics and the politics. If the heart of the crisis lies in the politics Q including in the politics of the economic polic' choices being made Q then solutions ma' lie in the practice, and the d'namism, of democratic Furopean politics, and not in solutions around 'et more F0 institutional changes and the creation of an austerit' union. 8hat is clear is that there is no perfect solution to the perfect storm. 4he F0Ps sha=' democratic legitimac' In its more than fift' 'ears of e<istence, the Furopean 0nion has defined itself as promoting

peace, prosperit' and democrac' across its member states and aspiring members . 3ull' meeting democratic criteria has
been and remains a central condition for ne% members. Met the F0 itself has in man' %a's al%a's been an elite pro!ect constructed, in theor' at least, for but not b' the people. And so it has often been suggested that the F0 does not meet the /er' democratic criteria it demands of its member states. 4he failure to build an adeAuate democratic F0 politics has been increasingl' problematic as the F0 has acAuired e/er more po%ers o/er social, economic and political life of member states. ut the F0Ps democratic %ea=nesses ha/e ne/er been more po%erfull' e<posed nor more dangerous in their impact, than through the mismanagement of the euro crisis in the last t%o 'ears. 4here has been much in= spilled o/er man' 'ears in discussing the F0Ps Pdemocratic deficitP and man' political steps ta=en to address it. 4he Furopean 7arliament is no% much more po%erful than t%o or three decades ago+ the Furopean Commission is more accountable to the Furopean 7arliament. &inisters from F0 member states meeting in the Council of &inisters, no%, though /er' belatedl', agree la%s in public not in pri/ate Q though much of the technical, and some of the political, discussion before passing la%s is still behind closed doors. A large media pac= sits in russels follo%ing and reporting on F0 politics, including in the last t%o 'ears on e/er' last shift and turn in the euro crisis. And the F0Ps (: member states are functioning democracies. $o is there an' reason to sa' the F0 faces a democratic crisis Q be'ond the immediate one lin=ed to the emergenc' measures and the rushed, centralised decision-ma=ing engendered b' the euro crisis H 4he ans%er is 'esI it is these longer-term problems of %ea= F0 democratic process and legitimac' that ha/e helped to ensure that a deep economic crisis such as the 0nion no% faces is also a deep political crisis. 4he Furopean 0nion has de/eloped as the most integrated regional bod' in the %orld, %hile stopping some %a' short of becoming a full' federal 0nited $tates of Furope. It is part confederation Q a 0"-li=e, intergo/ernmental bod' Q and part, federation, in some %a's as integrated or more so than the 0$. It is this compromise mi<ture of confederal and federal that both ma=es the F0 uniAue, comple< to understand and, cruciall', that ma=es it in man' %a's a democratic compromise. In the end, especiall' in the absence of reall' talented, effecti/e politicians, this compromise leads to a fatal democratic %ea=ness. oth sides of the democratic compromise no% face challenges. 3or democraticall'-elected go/ernments to come together in intergo/ernmental fora and agree, for e<ample, a free trade pact is legitimate and fairl' eas' for publics to understand. ut as more and more po%ers Q from aspects of labour standards, parts of criminal !ustice, passport controls, through to national budgets Q ha/e been shifted o/er the 'ears to the F0 le/el, the practice of using intergo/ernmental meetings and summits bac=ed up b' technocratic monitoring and implementation, started to create a distance from F0 citi#ens made up of comple<it', lac= of transparenc' and accountabilit'. Attempts to tac=le these gro%ing democratic %ea=nesses ha/e focused on the more Auasi-federal F0 institutions Q the Commission and 7arliament. 4he' ha/e faced their o%n legitimac' problemsI %hile the Commission is not elected (though it gets a Furopean 7arliament stamp of appro/al- Q turnout for Furopean elections has fallen, in an ironic s'mmetr', as the 7arliamentPs po%ers ha/e increased o/er the 'ears. Commissioners are officials or technocrats, not elected politicians, 'et the' ha/e e<tensi/e political po%ers Q and in effect share the role of a Auasi-Furopean go/ernment %ith the F0Ps (: heads of go/ernment in the Furopean Council. 8hile the Furopean 7arliament pla's an important scrutin' role, the Commission does not come under the same sort of public, media and political scrutin' that politicians and go/ernments face in national democracies. 3alling /oter turnout for Furopean 7arliament elections, and the remoteness of its proceedings from F0 citi#ens, means it lac=s the legitimac' that national parliaments ha/e. $o an attempted increase in the institutional and structural machiner' of F0 democrac' has been met %ith a resounding thumbs do%n in terms of interest and participation from F0 citi#ens. 3ederal Furope as the perfect democratic solutionH In the face of the F0Ps democratic deficit, and especiall' in the midst of the euro crisis, Furopean federalists ha/e argued that the solution is a trul' federal Furope W(X. 1n paper this loo=s perfect Q creating a federal state sol/es man' (though not all- of the problems of the euro crisis, and it %ould create a perfectl' democratic structure a%a' from the ine/itable imperfections of the confederal-federal mish-mash of the present. 4he onl' problem is that eternal democratic challenge Q the %ishes and beliefs of the public (so notable b' their absence in some =e' federalist solutions to the euro crisis, that the' bring to mind rechtPs oft-Auoted remar= that it %ould be easier Pto dissol/e the people and elect anotherP-.

T'is 'urt (-S-5;( tra$ing relations Can @u$enaren/ 1 (John Gan 1udenaren, 3all ())*, ?F 7luribus ConfusioI Li/ing %ith the F0Ps $tructural Incoherence@, Fbsco-//F& I" GIF8I"> the F0Ps constitutional tra/ails , some 0.$. commentators ha/e e<pressed satisfaction %ith current trends and specificall' %ith
the apparent ascendanc' of L%ideningL o/er Ldeepening.L 2bignie% r#e#ins=i, for e<ample, suggests that enlargement on the scale being contemplated %ill result in a Furope that is Lgeographicall' and culturall' %hole, but almost certainl' politicall' diluted.L(n(- 4he accession of man' ne% members is li=el' to bloc= an' serious mo/e to%ard genuine or deep political integration, frustrating attempts to acAuire an autonomous militar' capabilit' and lea/ing the 0nited $tates through "A41 the arbiter of de/elopments on the continent. 4his is much too sanguine a /ie%. An F0 that is engaged

in perpetual constitutional reform and an open-ended process of enlargement %ill constitute a threat to an effecti/el' managed

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 13./283 international s'stem able to cope %ith the strains of globali#ation. An'thing that the 0nited $tates might gain from a politicall' di/ided, "A41compliant Furope %ill be more than lost in political ill %ill generated b' endless sAuabbles o/er trade and other economic issues. A more li=el' outcome of current trends is the emergence of an enormous trade and regulator' bloc ,
increasingl' able to influence the %orld econom', but lac=ing the reAuisite political cohesion either to pro/ide a le/el economic pla'ing field inside the 0nion or to deal %ith securit' threats in FuropePs near abroad (or in %hat could become unstable regions internal to the 0nion-. 4his is not a recipe for a Furope L%hole and free.L It is a formula for intra-alliance trade %ars, and for continued securit' dependence in an increasingl' fractious economic and political en/ironment. &an' of the escalating trade disputes bet%een the 0nited $tates and the F0 alread' reflect the e<ternali#ation of the une/en decision-ma=ing and enforcement situation %ithin the 0nion. 4he banana import and beef hormone cases demonstrate the difficult' the F0 has in bringing its trade and regulator' legislation into compliance %ith 841 rulings. 4he 0nited $tates and the F0 finall' managed to resol/e the banana dispute in earl' ())*, but onl' after a nine-'ear period in %hich a coalition of member states bloc=ed Commission efforts to establish a 841-compliant import regime. In the case of beef, the F0 has not e/en tried to meet 841 ob!ections+ instead it has offered compensation in the form of allo%ing the 0nited $tates to impose tariffs on unrelated products. It is an open Auestion as to %hether a liberal international trading order and a

solid transatlantic political relationship can sur/i/e the gro%ing stresses of the F0Ps internal incoherence. It is
%orth recalling that the celebrated /andali#ing of a local &cDonaldPs b' 3rench farmer Jose o/e %as prompted b' the imposition b' the 0nited $tates-in response to the beef hormone e<clusion--of 841-sanctioned tariffs on RoAuefort cheese made from the mil= of the sheep raised on orePs farm. o/ePs trial pro/o=ed a %a/e of anti-0.$. and anti-globali#ation protest in 3rance. &ean%hile, the 0.$. Congress, irritated b' F0 failure to compl' %ith ad/erse 841 rulings, sought to increase the price of noncompliance b' legislating so-called carousel retaliation, %hich in turn threatened to gi/e rise to further action in the 841, this time b' the F0. Lost in the trading of trade-%ar blo%s %as the fact that the entire c'cle of retaliation and counterretaliation %ould ne/er ha/e begun in the first place had the F0 been able to compl' %ith its o%n commitments.

Sol)es e)er" transnational t'reat an$ glo*al +ar Sti)ac'tis 10 (Dr. Mannis A., Director of International $tudies 7rogram Q Girginia 7ol'technic Institute, 7rofessor of 7olitical $cience Q Girginia 7ol'technic Institute, and 7h.D. in 7olitics and International Relations Q Lancaster 0ni/ersit', ?4he Imperati/e for 4ransatlantic Cooperation@, Research Institute for Furopean and American $tudies, httpI//%%%.rieas.gr/research-areas/global-issues/transatlantic-studies/:E.html4here is no doubt that 0$-Furopean relations are in a period of transition , and that the stresses and strains of globali#ation are increasing both the number and the seriousness of the challenges that confront transatlantic relations. 4he e/ents of 9/** and the IraA 8ar ha/e added significantl' to these stresses and strains. At the same time, international terrorism, the nucleari#ation of "orth Jorea and especiall' Iran, the proliferation of %eapons of mass destruction (8&D-, the transformation of Russia into a stable and cooperati/e member of the international communit', the gro%ing po%er of China, the political and economic transformation and integration of the Caucasian and Central Asian states, the integration and stabili#ation of the al=an countries, the promotion of peace and stabilit' in the &iddle Fast, po/ert', climate change, AID$ and other emergent problems and situations reAuire further cooperation among countries at the regional, global and institutional le/els. 4herefore, cooperation bet%een the 0.$. and Furope is more imperati/e than e/er to deal effecti/el' %ith these problems. It is fair to sa' that the challenges of crafting a ne% relationship bet%een the 0.$. and the F0 as %ell as bet%een the 0.$. and "A41 are more regional than global, but the implications of success or failure %ill be global. 4he transatlantic
relationship is still in crisis, despite efforts to impro/e it since the IraA 8ar. 4his is not to sa' that differences bet%een the t%o sides of the Atlantic did not e<ist before the %ar. Actuall', post-*9C, relations bet%een Furope and the 0.$. %ere fraught %ith disagreements and ne/er free of crisis since the $ue# crisis of *9,D. &oreo/er, despite trans-Atlantic proclamations of solidarit' in the aftermath of 9/**, the 0.$. and Furope parted %a's on issues from global %arming and biotechnolog' to peace=eeping and national missile defense. Ouestions such as, the future role of "A41 and its relationship to the common Furopean $ecurit' and Defense polic' (F$D7-, or %hat constitutes terrorism and %hat the rights of captured suspected terrorists are, ha/e been added to the list of 0$-Furopean disagreements. 4here are t%o reasons for concern regarding the transatlantic rift. 3irst, if Furopean leaders conclude that Furope must become counter%eight to the 0.$., rather than a partner, it %ill be difficult to engage in the =ind of open search for a common ground than an electi/e partnership reAuires. $econd, there is a ris= that public opinion in both the 0.$. and Furope %ill ma=e it difficult e/en for leaders %ho %ant to forge a ne% relationship to ma=e the necessar' accommodations. If both sides %ould acti/el' %or= to heal the breach, a ne% opportunit' could be created. A /ibrant transatlantic partnership remains a real possibilit', but onl' if both sides ma=e the necessar'

political commitment. 4here are strong reasons to belie/e that the securit' challenges facing the 0.$. and Furope are more shared than
di/ergent. 4he most dramatic case is terrorism. Closel' related is the common interest in halting the spread of %eapons of mass destruction and the nucleari#ation of Iran and "orth Jorea. 4his commonalit' of threats is clearl' percei/ed b' publics on both sides of the Atlantic.

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'egemon"
9rug cartels +ill mo)e to t'e (-S- an$ +i&e us off t'e ma& Stratfor/ 8 ($tratfor, ,/*B/E, ?&e<icoI 1n the Road to a 3ailed $tateH@, httpI//%%%.stratfor.com/%ee=l'/me<ico;road;failed;state-//F& Cartel Incenti/es for 0.$. F<pansion 4hat means there are economic incenti/es for the cartels to e<tend their operations into the 0 nited $tates. 8ith those incenti/es comes intercartel competition, and %ith that competition comes pressure on 0.$. local, state and, ultimatel', federal go/ernment and police functions. 8ere that to happen, the global implications ob/iousl' %ould be stunning. Imagine an e<treme case in %hich the &e<ican scenario is acted out in the 0nited $tates. 4he effect on the global s'stem economicall' and politicall' %ould be astounding, since 0.$. failure %ould see the %orld reshaping itself in startling %a's. Me,ican organi6e$ crime causes a &o+er )acuum on t'e *or$er t'at $istracts t'e (-S-0 $estro"s 'egemon" We*ster/ 7 (&ichael 8ebster, *(/(9/9, ?&e<icoPs ci/il %ar has =illed more than *,,)))@, httpI//%%%.rene%america.com/columns/%ebster/)9*((9-//F& 4he 0$ Department of Defense considers &e<ico one of the t%o go/ernments in the %orld most li=el' to suffer a Lrapid and sudden collapseL that could reAuire militar' inter/ention. A section on L%ea= and failing countries,L of a report released this 'ear b' the 0$ Joint 3orces Command sa's that narcotraffic and organi#ed crime could generate a chaotic scene and the arm' %ould be obligated to respond for reasons of national securit' . At the end of ())E, the 0$ go/ernment declared the &e<ican drug cartels to be the greatest threat to its territor'. According to the 0.$. Joint
3orces Command there is one d'namic in the literature of %ea= and failing states that has recei/ed relati/el' little attention, namel' the phenomenon of Lrapid collapse.L 3or the most part, %ea= and failing states represent chronic, long-term problems that allo% for management o/er sustained periods. 4he collapse of a state usuall' comes as a surprise, has a rapid onset, and poses acute problems . 4he collapse of Mugosla/ia into a chaotic tangle of %arring nationalities in *99) suggests ho% suddenl' and catastrophicall' state collapse can happen N in this case, a state %hich had hosted the *9EC 8inter 1l'mpics at $ara!e/o, and %hich then Auic=l' became the epicenter of the ensuing ci/il %ar. In terms of %orstcase scenarios for the Joint 3orce and indeed the %orld is &e<ico a large and important countr' bordering the 0nited $tates and

could be facing a rapid and sudden collapse. 4he &e<ican possibilit' of a failed state ma' seem less li=el' to man', but the >o/ernment,
its politicians, police, and !udicial infrastructure are all under sustained assault and pressure b' criminal gangs and %ealth' &e<ican drug cartels. .o% that internal conflict of %hich man' e<perts belie/e is actuall' a ci/il %ar turns out o/er the ne<t se/eral months %ill ha/e a ma!or impact on the stabilit' of the &e<ican state and therefore the 0.$. An' descent b' &e<ico into chaos %ould demand an American response based

on the serious implications for homeland securit' alone. &e<ico poses a real threat to the national securit' interests of the 8estern .emisphere. In particular, the gro%ing assault b' the %arring &e<ican drug cartels and their man' gangs of thugs on the &e<ican go/ernment o/er the past se/eral 'ears reminds one that an unstable &e<ico represents a homeland securit' problem of immense proportions to the 0nited $tates. Me,ican organi6e$ crime forces t'e (-S- to +it'$ra+ its forces from else+'ere to focus on Me,ico ?ease/ 11 master of arts in international securit' and former intelligence anal'st ($hadd A. 7ease, June ()**, ?Instabilit' in the $outhI 4he Implications of &e<ican $tate 3ailure on 0.$. "ational $ecurit'@, 7roAuest-//F&
4he securit' situation in &e<ico is an e<tremel' important issue for both the American polic'ma=ers and a/erage citi#ens ali=e. 4he 0nited $tates shares a /ast border %ith the &e<ican state. 4he routine breaches of the nearl' (,))) mile &e<ico-0.$. border b' assorted drug traffic=ing organi#ations and others, puts the 0nited $tates in a precarious position. 4he 0.$. is presentl' fighting t%o %ars in the &iddle Fast, and has

national assets spread across the globe for the purpose of promoting American national securit' . .o%e/er, the threat that the 0nited $tates faces south of its border is one that must not be ta=en lightl'. A failed &e<ican state %ould undoubtedl' affect the national securit' of the 0nited $tates. 4he follo%ing chapter of this thesis %ill e<plore the possible
implications of &e<ican state failure on American securit'.

9estro"s (-S- lea$ers'i& an$ makes us feel insecure ?ease/ 11 master of arts in international securit' and former intelligence anal'st ($hadd A. 7ease, June ()**, ?Instabilit' in the $outhI 4he Implications of &e<ican $tate 3ailure on 0.$. "ational $ecurit'@, 7roAuest-//F&

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&e<ican Drug 4raffic=ing 1rgani#ations Fffects on 0.$. "ational $ecurit' 4he /iolent operations

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that the /arious D41s are conducting in the state of &e<ico are destabili#ing for the &e<ican securit' apparatus+ ho%e/er, these operations also pose a serious threat to the so/ereignt' of the 0nited $tates. According to Donald $chul# of the $trategic $tudies Institute, 0.$. Arm' 8ar College, ?&e<ican drug organi#ations alread' operate deep inside the 0nited $tates, and there is mounting e/idence of their corrupting effect on 0.$. federal, state, and local la% enforcement agencies all along the Rio >rande, should drug /iolence in &e<ico escalate, %e %ill not be immune.@C9 4he continued /iolence in &e<ico and its destabili#ing effects %ill result in a deepening sense of American insecurit'. Regrettabl', the /iolence that is occurring on the border bet%een the 0nited $tates and &e<ico has alread' begun to sspill o/er into areas in the 0.$.+ conseAuentl', the ?crime and /iolence in &e<ico feedWsX into crime and /iolence in the 0nited $tates.@,)
4he narcotics and the organi#ations that deli/er these illicit products %ill continue to be an American national securit' threat.,* As a result, the %or= of the /arious drug traffic=ing organi#ations %ill become more aggressi/e if &e<ico cannot function as a so/ereign state. 4he members of these

organi#ations %ill continue to cross o/er the /ast border that separates the 0nited $tates from &e<ico. 4his border is largel' unguarded and e<tremel' porous. As &ort 2uc=erman, the editor-in-chief and publisher of the 0.$. "e%s and 8orld Report aptl' describes, 4his is not Wthe /iolence and destabili#ation in &e<icoX !ust a &e<ican matter. 4he drug gangs are described b' the Justice Department as sthe biggest organi#ed crime threat to the 0.$. Crimes connected to these cartels are spreading across the $outh%est, especiall' in
7hoeni<, %here most of WtheX murders and =idnappings are belie/ed to be lin=ed to the drug trade. 4he cartels are also increasing their relationship %ith prison and street gangs in the 0nited $tates to facilitate drug traffic=ing, according to a congressional report. 4his cooperation enables the traffic=ers to e<ca/ate cross-border tunnels and install ramp-assisted smuggling roads o/er the border fence bet%een the countries, in order to get their cargoes in the 0nited $tates.,( 4he /arious drug traffic=ing organi#ations in &e<ico pose a distinct threat to the securit' of the 0nited $tates. 0nfortunatel', the long and permeable border that the 0nited $tates shares %ith the countr' of &e<ico pro/ides man' of these indi/iduals %ith a clear a/enue into the American homeland. 4hese groups are able to utili#e the /ast desert and sparsel' populated areas, as %ell as, the lightl' defended border to gain access into the $outh%estern order $tates. elo% is a detailed map that illustrates the large 0.$. and &e<ico border.

T'e t'reat is am&lifie$ $ue to t'e 'ig'5le)el training of cartel mem*ers an$ &ossi*ilit" of &ro)i$ing +ea&ons to (-S- enemies ?ease/ 11 master of arts in international securit' and former intelligence anal'st ($hadd A. 7ease, June ()**, ?Instabilit' in the $outhI 4he Implications of &e<ican $tate 3ailure on 0.$. "ational $ecurit'@, 7roAuest-//F&
4he culti/ation and protection of /arious mari!uana fields on the so/ereign land of the 0nited $tates, as %ell as, the use of scouts b' D41s ma' become heightened due to continued &e<ican instabilit' and possible state failure. 4his issue %ill continue to be a national securit' threat to the 0.$. and affect, at the /er' least, the local American municipalities and possibl' the 0.$. as a %hole. 4he issue of /iolations of American control o/er large tracts of land is disconcerting+ ho%e/er, the possibilit' of the &e<ican militar' being sub!ugated b' the /arious drug traffic=ing organi#ations due to possible &e<ican state failure %ould ha/e implications on the national securit' of the 0nited $tates. 4he attac=s occurring in &e<ico are pro/iding the

drug traffic=ing organi#ation %ith substantial battle field e<perience . &an' of the indi/iduals %ho belong to the assorted D41s are former members of the &e<ican militar', and the' bring their e<pertise to their %or= in deadl' effects. 1ne such group, 4he 2etas, are former &e<ican special operations forces %ho turned their bac=s on the &e<ican state in order to %or= for the drug traffic=ing organi#ations. 4hese indi/iduals ha/e substantial militar' training and the' ha/e been particularl' brutal to those the' ha/e targeted. 3or e<ample, in late ()*) members of the 2etas drug traffic=ing organi#ation ?rolled
into the isolated /illage of 4ierras Coloradas and burned it do%n, lea/ing more than *,) people, mostl' children, homeless in the ra% mountain %inter.@DB4he members %ho belong to this drug traffic=ing organi#ation could become e<tremel' important as their militar' training ma' be utili#ed in order to target ri/al drug traffic=ing organi#ations, as %ell as, American citi#ens. According to Ra' 8alser, a senior polic' anal'st for Latin America in the Douglas and $arah Allison Center for 3oreign 7olic' $tudies, ?4he founding members of the 2etas are belie/ed to be a small group of !unior officers %ho deserted from a &e<ican militar' elite unit in the late *99)s. 4he 2etas ha/e brought dangerous sophistication in hea/' %eapons, communications, and intelligence collection to the =illing fields of the cartels.@DC 4he 2etas organi#ation %as formerl' aligned %ith the larger organi#ation =no%n as the >ulf Cartel. .o%e/er, these t%o groups became hostile to%ards one another. 4his riff bet%een the 2etas and the >ulf Cartel ignited further /iolence that claimed the li/es of man' &e<ican citi#ens. ConseAuentl', the hostilit' that these t%o organi#ations hold for each other %ill be the source of continued /iolence and instabilit' that ma' affect parts of the American homeland. 4he anticipated antagonism these t%o groups hold against each other %ill also most li=el' continue into ()**.D, 4he possibilit' of these militar'-trained &e<ican D41s freel' mo/ing across the

border into the 0nited $tates is a /iable threat to 0nited $tates national securit'. 4he continued instabilit' in &e<ico and
the possible state failure that ma' result %ill put the &e<ican securit' forces at ris=. ConseAuentl', some members of these forces could pro/ide the drug traffic=ing organi#ations %ith protection and, more disconcerting, the indi/iduals %ith militar' training could mo/e across the southern border into the ad!oining American states to further the protection of their drug routes. 4he %eapons that the D41s currentl' emplo' ri/al those

in use b' other countries militaries. Additionall', the battle field e<perience that the members of the cartels are gaining ma' possibl' cause
further instabilit' affecting the securit' of the 0nited $tates. 4his scenario is less probable but one that must be ta=en in account due to the possibilit' of it occurring. 7romisingl', the importance of focusing efforts on the situation in the state of &e<ico has been noticed b' members of the 0nited $tates Congress, as %ell as, prominent members of the 1bama administration.

(S &rimac" &re)ents glo*al conflict 8 $iminis'ing &o+er creates a )acuum t'at causes transition +ars in multi&le &laces #rooks et al 13 W$tephen >. roo=s is Associate 7rofessor of >o/ernment at Dartmouth College.>. John I=enberr' is the Albert >. &ilban= 7rofessor of 7olitics and International Affairs at 7rinceton 0ni/ersit'

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 137/283 in the Department of 7olitics and the 8oodro% 8ilson $chool of 7ublic and International Affairs. .e is also a >lobal Fminence $cholar at J'ung .ee 0ni/ersit'.8illiam C. 8ohlforth is the Daniel 8ebster 7rofessor in the Department of >o/ernment at Dartmouth College. ?DonPt Come .ome, AmericaI 4he Case against Retrenchment@, 8inter ()*B, Gol. B:, "o. B, 7ages :,*,httpI//%%%.mitpress!ournals.org/doi/abs/*).**D(/I$FC;a;))*):, >DI 3ileX A core premise of deep engagement is that it &re)ents the emergence of a far more $angerous global securit" en)ironment. 3or one thing, as noted abo/e, the 0nited $tates5 o/erseas presence gi/es it the le/erage to restrain partners from ta=ing pro/ocati/e action. 7erhaps more important, its core alliance commitments also deter states %ith aspirations to
regional hegemon' from contemplating e<pansion and ma=e its partners more secure, reducing their incenti/e to adopt solutions to their securit' problems that threaten others and thus sto=e securit' dilemmas. 4he contention that engaged 0.$. po%er dampens the baleful effects of anarch' is consistent %ith influential /ariants of realist theor'. Indeed, arguabl' the scariest portra'al of the %ar-prone %orld that %ould emerge absent the ?American 7acifier@ is pro/ided in the %or=s of John &earsheimer, %ho forecasts dangerous multipolar regions replete %ith securit' competition, arms races, nuclear proliferation and associated pre/enti/e %artemptations, regional ri/alries, and e/en runs at regional hegemon' and full-scale great po%er %ar. :( .o% do retrenchment ad/ocates, the bul= of %hom are realists, discount this benefitH 4heir arguments are complicated, but t%o capture most of the /ariationI (*- 0.$. securit' guarantees are not necessar' to pre/ent dangerous ri/alries and conflict in Furasia+ or ((- pre/ention of ri/alr' and conflict in Furasia is not a 0.$. interest. Fach response is connected to a different theor' or set of theories, %hich ma=es sense gi/en that the %hole debate hinges on a comple< future counterfactual (%hat %ould happen to Furasia5s securit' setting if the 0nited $tates trul' disengagedH-. Although a certain ans%er is impossible, each of these responses is nonetheless a %ea=er argument for retrenchment than ad/ocates ac=no%ledge. 4he first response flo%s from defensi/e realism as %ell as other international relations theories that discount the conflict-generating potential of anarch' under contemporar' conditions. :B Defensi/e realists maintain that the high e<pected costs of territorial conAuest, defense dominance, and an arra' of policies and practices that can be used credibl' to signal benign intent, mean that Furasia5s ma!or states could manage regional multipolarit' peacefull' %ithout theAmerican pacifier. Retrenchment %ould be a bet on this scholarship, particularl' in regions %here the =inds of stabili#ers that nonrealist theories point toNsuch as democratic go/ernance or dense institutional lin=agesNare either absent or %ea=l' present. 4here are three other ma!or bodies of scholarship, ho%e/er, that might gi/e decisionma=ers pause before ma=ing this bet. 3irst is regional e<pertise. "eedless to sa', there is no consensus on the net securit' effects of 0.$. %ithdra%al. Regarding each region, there are optimists and pessimists. 3e% e<perts e<pect a return of intense great po%er competition in a post-American Furope, but man' doubt Furopean go/ernments %ill pa' the political costs of increased F0 defense cooperation and the budgetar' costs of increasing militar' outla's. :C 4he result might be a ;uro&e that is inca&a*le of securing itself from

/arious threats that could be destabili#ing %ithin the region and be'ond (e.g., a regional conflict a=in to the *99)s

al=an %ars-, lac=s capacit' for global securit' missions in %hich 0.$. leaders might %ant Furopean participation, and is /ulnerable to the influence of outside rising po%ers. 8hat about the other parts of Furasia %here t'e (nited States has a su*stantial militar"

&resenceH 2egar$ing t'e Mi$$le ;ast, the balance begins tos%ing to%ard pessimists concerned that states currentl' bac=ed b' 8ashingtonN notabl' :srael/ ;g"&t/ an$ Sau$i Ara*iaNmig't ta=e actions upon 0.$. retrenchment that %ould intensif" securit" $ilemmas. And concerning ;ast Asia/ &essimismregarding the region5s prospects %ithout the American pacifier is &ronounce$. Arguabl' the principal concern e<pressed b' area e<perts is that Ja&an an$ Sout' !orea are likel" to o*tain a nuclear ca&acit" an$ increase their militar' commitments, %hich could stoke a $esta*ili6ing reaction from C'ina . It is notable that during the Cold 8ar, both $outh Jorea and 4ai%an mo/ed to
obtain a nuclear %eapons capacit' and %ere onl' constrained from doing so b' astill-engaged 0nited $tates. :, 4he second bod' of scholarship casting doubt on the bet on defensi/e realism5s sanguine portra'al is all of the research that undermines its conception of state preferences. Defensi/e realism5s optimism about %hat %ould happen if the 0nited $tates retrenched is /er' much dependent on itsparticularNand highl' restricti/eNassumption about state preferences+ once %e rela< this assumption, then much of its basis for optimism /anishes. $pecificall', the prediction of post-American tranAuilit' throughout Furasia rests on the assumption that securit' is the onl' rele/ant state preference, %ith securit' defined narro%l' in terms of protection from /iolent e<ternal attac=s on the homeland. 0nder that assumption, the securit' problem is largel' sol/ed as soon as offense and defense are clearl' distinguishable, and offense is e<tremel' e<pensi/e relati/e to defense. urgeoning researc' across the social and other sciences, ho%e/er,un$ermines

t'at core assum&tionI states 'a)e &references not onl' for securit' but also for &restige/ status, and other aims, and the'engage in tra$e5offs among the /arious ob!ecti/es. :D In addition, the' define securit' not !ust in terms of territorial protection but in /ie% of man' and /aried milieu goals . It follo%s that e/en states t'at are relati/el' secure ma' ne/ertheless engage in highl' com&etiti)e *e'a)ior. Fmpirical studies sho% that this is indeed sometimes the case. :: In sum, a bet on a benign postretrenchment Furasia is a bet that leaders of ma!or countries %ill ne/er allo% these nonsecurit' preferences to influence their strategic choices. 4o the degree that these bodies of scholarl' =no%ledge ha/e predicti/e le/erage, 0.$. retrenc'ment +oul$ result in a significant $eterioration in t'e securit" en)ironment in at least some of the %orld5s ke" regions. 8e ha/e alread' mentioned the third, e/en more alarming bod' of scholarship. 1ffensi/e realism predicts that the +it'$ra+al of the American pacifier +ill "iel$ either a competiti/e regional multipolarit' complete +it' associated insecurit', arms racing, crisis instabilit', nuclear proliferation/ and the li=e, or bids for regional hegemon', %hich ma' be *e"on$ t'e ca&acit" of local great &o+ers to contain (and %hich in an' case %ould generate intensel' competiti/e beha/ior, possibl' inclu$ing regional great po%er %ar-.

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latin American insta*

Success of $rug gangs results in massi)e insta*ilit" in t'e region Ha+le"/ 10 (Chris .a%le', (/*)/*), ?Drug cartels threaten &e<ican stabilit'@, httpI//usatoda'B).usatoda'.com/ne%s/%orld/()*)-)(-*)-me<ico-cartels;".htmHcspYusat.me]-//F& Crime Phas become defiant,P president sa's, as police and politicians are forced to face Pthe bribe or the bulletP 4he drug cartels of &e<ico ha/e gro%n into such a massi/e criminal enterprise that the' ha/e supplanted the go/ernment in %hole regions and t'reaten to turn t'e countr" into a narco5state like 1770s5era Colom*ia, sa' la% enforcement and criminal e<perts. Attempts b' the 0nited $tates and &e<icoPs federal go/ernment ha/e failed to stem the po%er of the cartels, %hich economists sa' emplo' as much as one-fifth of the people in some &e<ican states. L8e are approaching that red #one,L said Fdgardo uscaglia, an e<pert on organi#ed crime at the Autonomous 4echnological 0ni/ersit' of &e<ico. L4here are poc=ets of ungo/ernabilit' in the countr', and the' %ill e<pand.L 3or the past decade, large parts of &e<ico ha/e been
sliding to%ard the la%lessness Colombia e<perienced in %hich drug traffic=ers in league %ith left-%ing rebels controlled small to%ns and large parts of the interior through drug-funded briber' and gun-barrel intimidation, uscaglia and others sa'. F/en 7resident 3elipe Caldermn, %ho a 'ear ago angril' rebutted

suggestions that &e<ico %as becoming a Lfailed state,L is no% describing his crac=do%n as a fight for territor' and Lthe /er' authorit' of the state.L

9rug gang e,&ansion results in *roa$er u&'ea)al t'roug'out t'e region Stratfor/ 11 ($tratfor **/*:/**, ?4he &e<ican Drug Cartel 4hreat in Central America $ecurit' 8ee=l'@, httpI//%%%.stratfor.com/%ee=l'/()*****D-me<ican-drug-cartel-threat-centralamerica-//F&
>uatemalan 7resident-elect 1tto 7ere# &olina told &e<ican ne%spaper Fl 0ni/ersal on "o/. 9 that he plans to engage drug cartels in a Lfull frontal assaultL %hen he ta=es office in ()*(. 4he former general said he %ill use >uatemalaPs elite militar' forces, =no%n as Los Jaibiles, to ta=e on the drug cartels in a strateg' similar to that of the &e<ican go/ernment+ he has as=ed for 0.$. assistance in this struggle. 4he statements signal a shifting political landscape in alread' /iolent Central America. 4he region is e<periencing increasing le/els of crime and the prospect

of heightened competition from &e<ican drug cartels in its territor'. 4he institutional %ea=ness and securit' /ulnerabilities of
>uatemala and other Central American states mean that combating these trends %ill reAuire significant help, most li=el' from the 0nited $tates. 3rom $idesho% to Center $tage Central America has seen a remar=able rise in its importance as a transshipment point for cocaine and other contraband bound for the 0nited $tates. &ean%hile, &e<ican organi#ed crime has e<panded its acti/ities in &e<ico and Central America to include the smuggling of humans and substances such as precursor chemicals used for manufacturing methamphetamine. $ubstantial e/idence also suggests that Central American, and particularl' >uatemalan, militar' armaments including &D) machine guns and C) mm

grenades ha/e %ound up being used in &e<icoPs drug conflict. 3rom the *9:)s to the *99)s, Colombian cartels transited directl'
to &iami. After 0.$. militar' aerial and radar sur/eillance in the Caribbean effecti/el' shut do%n those routes, &e<ico became the last stop on the drug suppl' chain before the 0nited $tates, greatl' empo%ering &e<icoPs cartels. A subseAuent &e<ican go/ernment crac=do%n put pressure on &e<ican drug traffic=ing organi#ations (D41s- to di/ersif' their transit routes to a/oid increased enforcement at &e<icoPs airstrips and ports. Central America conseAuentl' has become an increasingl' significant middleman for $outh American suppliers and &e<ican bu'ers of contraband. 4he methods and routes for mo/ing illicit goods through Central America are di/erse and constantl' in flu<. 4here is no direct land connection bet%een the coca-gro%ing countries of Colombia, 7eru and oli/ia. A region of s%amp' !ungle terrain along the 7anamanian-Colombian border =no%n as the Darien >ap has made road construction prohibiti/el' e<pensi/e and thus barred all but the most intrepid of o/erland tra/elers. Instead, aircraft or %atercraft must be used to transport $outh American goods north, %hich can then be offloaded in Central America and dri/en north into &e<ico. 1nce past the Darien >ap, the 7an American .igh%a' becomes a critical transportation corridor. .onduras, for e<ample, reportedl' has become a ma!or destination for planes from Gene#uela laden %ith cocaine. 1nce offloaded, the cocaine is mo/ed across the loosel' guarded .onduran->uatemalan border and then mo/ed through >uatemala to &e<ico, often through the largel' unpopulated 7eten department. 4hough precise measurements of the blac= mar=et are notoriousl' difficult to obtain, these shifts in Central America ha/e been %ell-documented -- and the impact on the region has been star=. 8hile drug traffic=ing occurs in all Central American countries to some e<tent, most /iolence associated %ith the trade occurs in the historicall' tumultuous L"orthern 4riangleL of >uatemala, Fl $al/ador and .onduras. "o longer recei/ing the global attention the' did %hen the 0nited $tates became in/ol/ed in their Cold 8ar-era ci/il %ars, these countries remain po/ert' stric=en, plagued b' local gangs and highl' unstable. 4he /iolence has %orsened as

the drug traffic has increased. Fl $al/ador sa% its homicide rate increase b' D percent to DD per *)),))) inhabitants bet%een ()), and ()*).
At the same time, >uatemalaPs homicide rate increased *B percent to ,) per *)),))) inhabitants. &ean%hile, .onduras sa% a rise of *)E percent to :: per *)),))) inhabitants. 4hese are some of the highest homicide rates in the %orld. In comparison, the drug %ar in &e<ico caused murder rates to spi=e DC percent, from ** to *E deaths per *)),))) bet%een ()), and ()*). Conser/ati/e estimates put the number of dead from gang and militar' /iolence in &e<ico at ,),))). 4hese numbers are slightl' misleading, as &e<ican /iolence is concentrated in scattered poc=ets %here most drug traffic=ing and competition among drug traffic=ers occurs. F/en so, the' demonstrate the disproportionate impact organi#ed criminal groups ha/e had on the societies of the three "orthern 4riangle countries. >uatemalaPs 1utsi#ed Role Increased in/ol/ement b' &e<ican cartels in Central America ine/itabl' has affected the regionPs politico-economic structures, a process most /isible in >uatemala. Its territor' spans Central America, ma=ing it one of se/eral cho=e points on the suppl' chain of illicit goods coming north from Fl $al/ador and .onduras bound for &e<ico. >uatemala has a comple< and competiti/e set of criminal organi#ations, man' of %hich are organi#ed around tight-=nit famil' units. 4hese famil' organi#ations ha/e included the politicall' and economicall' po%erful Loren#ana and &endo#a families. 3irst rising to prominence in trade and agriculture, these families control significant businesses

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in >uatemala and transportation routes for shipping both legal and illicit goods. 4hough notorious, these families are far from alone in >uatemalaPs criminal organi#ations. &a!or drug traffic=ers li=e the %ell-=no%n &ario 7once and 8alther 1/erdic= also ha/e strong criminal enterprises, %ith 7once reportedl' managing his operations from a .onduran !ail. 4he relationship of these criminal organi#ations to &e<ican drug cartels is mur=' at best. 4he $inaloa and Los 2etas cartels are both =no%n to ha/e relationships %ith >uatemalan organi#ed criminal groups, but the lines of communication and their e<act agreements are unclear. Less mur=', ho%e/er, is that Los 2etas are %illing to use the same le/els of /iolence in >uatemala to coerce lo'alt' as the' ha/e used in &e<ico. 4hough both $inaloa and Los 2etas still need >uatemalan groups to access high-le/el >uatemalan political connections, Los 2etas ha/e ta=en a particularl' aggressi/e tac= in see=ing direct control o/er more territor' in >uatemala. 1/erdic= facilitated Los 2etasP entr' into >uatemala in ()):. 4he first indication of serious Los 2etas in/ol/ement in >uatemala occurred in &arch ())E %hen Leon crime famil' boss Juan Leon Ardon, alias LFl Juancho,L his brother .ector FnriAue Leon Chacon and nine associates all died in a gunbattle %ith Los 2etas, %ho at the time still %or=ed for the >ulf cartel. 4he fight se/erel' reduced the influence of the Leon crime famil', primaril' benefiting 1/erdic=Ps organi#ation. 4he 2etas most flagrant use of force occurred in the &a' ()** massacre and mutilation of (: peasants in northern >uatemala intended as a message to a local drug dealer allegedl' tied to the Leon famil'+ the 2etas also =illed and mutilated that drug dealerPs niece. &$-*B and Calle *E In addition to ramping up relationships %ith po%erful political, criminal and economic pla'ers, $inaloa and Los 2etas ha/e established relationships %ith Central American street gangs. 4he t%o biggest gangs in the region are &ara $al/atrucha (&$-*B- and Calle *E. 4he t%o groups are loosel' organi#ed around local cliAues+ the &e<ican cartels ha/e relationships at /ar'ing le/els of closeness %ith different cliAues. 4he 0.". 1ffice on Drugs and Crime estimates that there are BD,))) gang members in .onduras, *C,))) in >uatemala and *),,)) in Fl $al/ador. 4he' %ere formed b' Los Angeles gang members of Central American origin %hose parents had immigrated to the 0nited $tates to escape the regionPs ci/il %ars. After being arrested in the 0nited $tates, these gang members %ere deported to Central America. In some cases, the deportees spo=e no $panish and had no significant ties to their ancestral homeland, encouraging them to cluster together and ma=e use of the s=ills learned on the streets of Los Angeles to ma=e a li/ing in Central America /ia organi#ed crime. 4he gangs ha/e multiplied and migrated %ithin the region. &an' ha/e also returned to the 0nited $tatesI 0.$. authorities estimate that &$-*B and Calle *E ha/e a presence in as man' as C( states. 4hough the gangs are trul' transnational, their emphasis is on controlling locali#ed urban turfs. 4he' effecti/el' control large portions of >uatemala Cit', >uatemala+ 4egucigalpa, .onduras+ and $an $al/ador, Fl $al/ador. Competition %ithin and among these gangs is responsible for a great deal of the /iolence in these three countries. In a &arch statement, $al/adoran Defense &inister Da/id &unguia 7a'es said that his go/ernment had e/idence that both $inaloa and Los 2etas are acti/e in Fl $al/ador but that he belie/es &$-*B and Calle *E are too anarchic and /iolent for the &e<ican cartels to rel' on hea/il'. According to .onduran $ecurit' &inister 7ompe'o onilla, &e<ican cartels primaril' hire members of these gangs as assassins. 4he gangs are paid in drugs, %hich the' sell on the local drug mar=et. 4hough limited in their ties to the &e<ican cartels, the pre/alence of &$-*B and Calle *E in the "orthern 4riangle states and their e<treme /iolence ma=es them a force to be rec=oned %ith, for both the cartels and Central American go/ernments. If Central American street gangs are able to better organi#e themsel/es internall', this could result in closer collaboration, or alternatel' serious confrontations %ith the &e<ican cartels. In either case, the implications for stabilit' in Central America are enormous. 4he 0.$. Role 4he 0nited $tates has long pla'ed an important, comple< role in Latin America. In the earl' ()th centur', 0.$. polic' in the 8estern .emisphere %as characteri#ed b' the e<tension of 0.$. economic and militar' control o/er the region. 8ith tactics ranging from outright militar' domination to facilitating competition bet%een subregional po%ers >uatemala and "icaragua to ensuring the dominance of the 0nited 3ruit Co. in Central American politics and business, the 0nited $tates used the first se/eral decades of the centur' to ensure that Central America -- and b' e<tension the Caribbean -- %as under its control. After 8orld 8ar II, Central America became a pro<' battleground bet%een the 0nited $tates and the $o/iet 0nion. 1n a strategic le/el, Central America is far enough from the 0nited $tates (than=s to being buffered b' &e<ico- and made up of small enough countries that it does not pose a direct threat to the 0nited $tates. 0.$. interest in the region did not end after the Cold 8ar, ho%e/er, as it is criticall' important to the 0nited $tates that a foreign global competitor ne/er control Central America or the Caribbean. 4he ma!orit' of mone' spent combating drug traffic=ing from $outh America to the 0nited $tates o/er the past decade has been spent in Colombia on monitoring air and na/al traffic in the Caribbean and off the 7acific coasts, though the 0.$. focus has no% shifted to &e<ico. Central America, b' contrast, has languished since the Reagan 'ears, %hen the 0nited $tates allocated more than S* billion per 'ear to Central America. "o%, the region has been allocated a total of SBD*., million for fiscal 'ears ())E-()** in securit', economic and de/elopment aid through the &erida Initiati/e and the Central America Regional $ecurit' Initiati/e (CAR$I-. 4he 1bama administration has reAuested another S*)) million for CAR$I. 1f this allocated funding, ho%e/er, onl' *E percent has been dispersed due to failures in institutional cooperation and efficienc'. 4he 0.$. Drug Fnforcement Administration (DFA- has facilitated most 0.$.Central American securit' cooperation. 4he DFA operates teams in the "orthern 4riangle that participate in limited counternarcotic operations. 4he' are also tas=ed %ith both /etting and training local la% enforcement, a particularl' tric=' -- and most li=el' doomed -- tas=. As the failure of >uatemalaPs highl' /etted and lauded Department of Anti-"arcotics 1perations sho%s, pre/enting local la% enforcement from succumbing to the bribes and threats from %ealth' and /iolent D41s is a difficult, if not impossible, tas=. 4he DFAPs limited resources include fi/e 3oreign-deplo'ed Ad/isor' and $upport 4eams %orld%ide. 4hese are the agenc'Ps elite operational teams that are eAuipped to train foreign la% enforcement and militar' personnel and to conduct support operations. 1riginall' established to operate in Afghanistan e<clusi/el', the teams ha/e been deplo'ed to se/eral countries in Central America, including >uatemala and .onduras. 4hese teams are designed to be fle<ible, ho%e/er, and do not represent the =ind of long-term commitment that %ould li=el' be necessar' to stabili#e the region. Central AmericaPs Challenge Central America has no short-term escape from being at the geographical center of the drug trade and from the associated /iolence. 0nless and until technologies shift to allo% drugs to flo% directl' from producer to consumer /ia ocean or air transport, it appears li=el' that Central America %ill onl' become more important to the drug trade. 8hile the drug trade brings huge amounts of cash (admittedl' on the blac= mar=et- into e<ceedingl' capital-poor countries, it also brings e<treme /iolence. 4he billions of dollars drugs command create an insurmountable challenge for the regional counternarcotic campaigns. 4he 0.$. L%ar on drugsL pits the >uatemalan elitePs political and financial interests against their need to retain a positi/e relationship %ith the 0nited $tates, %hich /ie%s the elites as colluding %ith drug organi#ations to facilitate the free passage of drugs and =e' figures in the drug trade. 3or the leaders of Central America, foreign cartel interference in domestic arrangements and increasing /iolence is the real threat to their po%er. It is not the blac= mar=et that alarms a leader li=e 7ere# &olina enough to call for greater in/ol/ement b' the 0nited $tatesI It is the threat posed b' the infiltration of &e<icoPs most /iolent drug cartel into >uatemala, and the threat posed to all three countries b' further Central American drug gang destabili#ation, %hich could lead to e/en more /iolence. Loo=ing 3or%ard 4he 0nited $tates is hea/il' preoccupied %ith crises of /ar'ing degrees of importance around the %orld and the significant budget-tightening under %a' in Congress. 4his ma=es a ma!or reallocation of resources to >uatemala or its Central American neighbors for the fight against &e<ican drug cartels unli=el' in the short term. F/en so, =e' reasons for pa'ing close attention to this issue remain. 3irst, t'e situation coul$

$esta*ili6e ra&i$l" if 7ere# &olina is sincere about confronting &e<ican D41s in >uatemala. Los 2etas ha/e pro/ed %illing to appl' their signature brutalit' against ci/ilian s and ri/als ali=e in >uatemala. 8hile the >uatemalans %ould be operating on their o%n territor' and ha/e their o%n significant po%er bases, the' are neither technologicall' ad/anced nor %ealth' nor unified enough to tac=le the challenge posed b' hea/il' armed, %ell-funded 2etas. At t'e )er" least/ suc' a confrontation +oul$ ignite e,tremel" $esta*ili6ing )iolence- 4his /iolence could e<tend be'ond the "orthern 4riangle into more stable
Central American countries, not to mention the possibilit' that /iolence spreading north could open up a ne% front in &e<icoPs cartel %ar.

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terrorism

?ro)i$es a launc'ing &oint for terrorists to attack t'e (-S?ease/ 11 master of arts in international securit' and former intelligence anal'st ($hadd A. 7ease, June ()**, ?Instabilit' in the $outhI 4he Implications of &e<ican $tate 3ailure on 0.$. "ational $ecurit'@, 7roAuest-//F& 4he declining capabilit' of the &e<ican securit' apparatus to thoroughl' secure and protect the so/ereignt' of &e<ico ma' encourage members of foreign terrorist organi#ations to infiltrate and conduct operations on &e<ican soil %ith the purpose of entering the 0nited $tates. 4his creation of safe ha/ens or headAuarters , along %ith the operations of the /arious drug traffic=ing organi#ations, is the highest threat to the securit' of the 0nited $tates if &e<ico is no longer able to effecti/el' secure its territor'. 4he 0nited $tates is currentl' conducting militar' operations in multiple areas of the %orld. Additionall', the
0.$. de/otes huge sums of mone' to foreign states such as 7a=istan and Afghanistan in order to bolster their securit' and pre/ent terrorist organi#ations from establishing protected bases of operation. Although stabili#ing the &ideast region b' combating terrorist organi#ations is important for the 0nited $tates, it is also important that 0nited $tates foreign polic'ma=ers understand that a real threat e<ists %ith our neighbor to the south, and the abilit' of foreign terrorist organi#ations to possibl' e<ploit a declining &e<ican securit' apparatus.

?ro)i$es a *ase for terrorists to &re&are for a ma>or attack on t'e (-S?ease/ 11 master of arts in international securit' and former intelligence anal'st ($hadd A. 7ease, June ()**, ?Instabilit' in the $outhI 4he Implications of &e<ican $tate 3ailure on 0.$. "ational $ecurit'@, 7roAuest-//F& 3oreign 4errorist 1rgani#ations and Giolations of &e<ican $tate $o/ereignt' 4he possibilit' of foreign terrorist organi#ations using &e<ico as a base of operations for future attac=s on the 0nited $tates %ould ha/e ma!or implication on 0.$. national securit'. 3oreign terrorist organi#ations, most li=el' lin=ed to Al-Oaeda, %ould ha/e greater freedom of mo/ement in &e<ico due to the lac= of securit' in that countr'. 1rgani#ations such as Al-Oaeda seem to mo/e from countr' to countr' pre'ing on %ea= and chaotic states. 4he go/ernment of &e<ico %ould be unable to sufficientl' hamper the acti/ities of terrorist
organi#ations due to a failed state scenario. 4he &e<ican militar' and police forces %ould ha/e limited leadership from the federal go/ernment %hich is needed in order to confront terrorist organi#ations. 4he lac= of securit' %ithin the border of &e<ico %ould pro/ide terrorist organi#ations

%ith the needed co/er to plan, train, and conduct terrorist acti/ities. 4his insecurit' in &e<ico is in star= contrast %hen
compared to the 0nited $tates neighbor to the north, Canada.

Statements *" t'e 9HS &ro)e ?ease/ 11 master of arts in international securit' and former intelligence anal'st ($hadd A. 7ease, June ()**, ?Instabilit' in the $outhI 4he Implications of &e<ican $tate 3ailure on 0.$. "ational $ecurit'@, 7roAuest-//F& According to the "e% Mor= 4imes the former Deput' $ecretar' of .omeland $ecurit' , Admiral James &. Lo', cited in %ritten testimon', ?intelligence that sstrongl' suggests that Al Oaeda operati/es ha/e considered using the &e<ican border as an entr' point\@ into the 0nited $tates.99 Additionall', Admiral Lo' articulated that he had information %hich suggested that man' =e' Al Oaeda members %ould be able to pa' indi/iduals in &e<ico in order to infiltrate into the 0nited $tates.*)) 4he abilit' in %hich terrorists could infiltrate the countr' of &e<ico, lin= up %ith /arious drug traffic=ing organi#ations, e<change mone' and mo/e into the 0nited $tates is disconcerting.

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econom"
9estro"s *ot' (-S- an$ =atin American economies ?ease/ 11 master of arts in international securit' and former intelligence anal'st ($hadd A. 7ease, June ()**, ?Instabilit' in the $outhI 4he Implications of &e<ican $tate 3ailure on 0.$. "ational $ecurit'@, 7roAuest-//F& &e<ico is an important member of the economic communit', particularl' to the 0nited $tates. 4he damage incurred b' a failed state %ould affect the economic s'stem of man' countries throughout the Latin American region. 4he 0nited $tates %ould be predominantl' affected b' a failed &e<ican state %ith regards to the economic sector. 4his is e/ident as &e<ico is ?the largest Latin American trade partner, accounting for ,EU of the region s trade %ith the 0nited $tates\b' contrast, the rest of Latin America together ma=es up onl' E.BU Wof trade bet%een those countries and the 0nited $tatesX\@EE Although not directl' lin=ed to the national securit' issue, the econom' of the 0nited $tates %ould be effected due to &e<icos inabilit' to carr' on efficient trade %ith America. &oreo/er, an influ< of indi/iduals mo/ing into the American order $tates ma' hamper the local economic s'stems %hich could cause insecurit' in the mar=et regionall' and nationall'. 4his issue %ill be e<amined more methodicall' later in this thesis. 4he issue of internall' displaced persons in the state of &e<ico
%ould be a problem for the faltering &e<ican state. .o%e/er, the issue of refugees tra/eling into the 0nited $tates due to %ea=ening &e<ican securit' is a great concern. &e<ican refugees attempting to escape the /iolence and uncertaint' of a failed state ma' affect the econom' and the securit' of the 0nited $tates. 4he &e<ican refugees could strain

the alread' stretched resources of 0.$. la% enforcement, health care, and education s'stems. Additionall', a massi/e flo% of refugees into America could mas= foreign terrorist members %ho
attempt to merge into the %a/e of indi/iduals entering into the 0nited $tates. 4he issue of &e<ican refugees tra/eling into the 0nited $tates is a serious concern both economicall' and in regards to American securit'.

T'ese +ars go nuclear Harris an$ #urro+s 7 - p&athe%, 7hD Furopean .istor' V Cambridge, counselor in the "ational Intelligence Council ("IC- , ppJennifer, a member of the "IC5s Long Range Anal'sis 0nit (?Re/isiting the 3utureI >eopolitical Fffects of the 3inancial Crisis@ httpI//%%%.ciaonet.org/!ournals/t%A//B(i(/f;))*D*:E;*B9,(.pdf-//
(ncreased )otential for *lobal +onflict ,f course, the report encompasses more than economics and indeed believes the future is li-el. to be the result of a number of intersecting and interloc-ing forces. /ith so man. possible permutations of outcomes, each 'ith ample 0evisiting the 1uture opportunit. for unintended conse2uences, there is a gro'ing sense of insecurit.. 3ven so, histor. ma. be more instructive than ever. /hile 'e continue to believe that the *reat Depression is not li-el. to be repeated, the lessons to be dra'n from that period include the harmful effects on fledgling democracies and multiethnic societies (thin- +entral 3urope in 1420s and 1450s! and on the sustainabilit. of multilateral institutions (thin- 6eague of 7ations in the same period!. There is no reason to thin- that this 'ould not be true in the t'ent.#first as much as in the t'entieth centur.. 1or that reason, the 'a.s in 'hich the potential for greater conflict could gro' 'ould seem to be even more apt in a constantl. volatile economic environment as the. 'ould be if change 'ould be steadier. (n surve.ing those ris-s, the report stressed the li-elihood that terrorism and nonproliferation 'ill remain priorities even as resource issues move up on the international agenda. Terrorism4s a&&eal +ill $ecline if economic gro+t' continues in the 8iddle 3ast and .outh unemplo.ment is reduced. 1or those terrorist groups that remain active in 202$, ho'ever, the diffusion of technologies and scientific -no'ledge 'ill place some of the 'orld9s most dangerous capabilities 'ithin their reach. Terrorist groups in 202$ 'ill li-el. be a combination of descendants of long established groups:inheriting organi;ational structures, command and control processes, and training procedures necessar. to conduct sophisticated attac-s:and ne'l. emergent collections of the angr. and disenfranchised that become self#radicali;ed, particularl. in the absence of economic outlets that 'ould

become narro'er in an economic do'nturn. The most dangerous casualt. of an. economicall"5in$uce$ $ra+$o+n of (-S- militar" &resence 'ould almost certainl. be the 8iddle 3ast. <lthough (ran9s ac2uisition of nuclear 'eapons is not inevitable, 'orries about a nuclear#armed (ran could lead states in the region to develop ne' securit. arrangements 'ith external po'ers, ac2uire additional 'eapons, and consider pursuing their o'n nuclear ambitions. (t is not clear that the t.pe of stable deterrent relationship that existed bet'een the great po'ers for most of the +old /ar 'ould emerge naturall. in the 8iddle 3ast 'ith a nuclear (ran. 3pisodes of lo' intensit. conflict and terrorism ta-ing place under a nuclear umbrella could lead to an unintended escalation and broader conflict if clear red lines bet'een those states involved are not 'ell established. The close proximit. of potential nuclear rivals combined 'ith underdeveloped surveillance capabilities and mobile dual#capable (ranian missile s.stems also 'ill produce inherent difficulties in achieving reliable indications and 'arning of an impending nuclear attac-. The lac- of strategic depth in

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7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

neighboring states li-e (srael, short 'arning and missile flight times, and uncertaint. of (ranian intentions ma. place more focus on preemption rather than defense, potentiall. leading to escalating crises. 5= T.pes of conflict that the 'orld continues to experience, such as over resources, could reemerge , particularl. if protectionism gro's and there is a resort to neo#mercantilist practices. )erceptions of rene'ed energ. scarcit. 'ill drive countries to ta-e actions to assure their future access to energ. supplies. (n the 'orst case, this could result in interstate conflicts if government leaders deem assured access to energ. resources, for example, to be essential for maintaining domestic stabilit. and the survival of their regime. 3ven actions short of 'ar, ho'ever, 'ill have important geopolitical implications. 8aritime securit. concerns are providing a rationale for naval buildups and moderni;ation efforts, such as +hina9s and (ndia9s development of blue 'ater naval capabilities. (f the fiscal stimulus focus for these countries indeed turns in'ard, one of the most obvious funding targets ma. be militar.. >uildup of regional naval capabilities could lead to increase$ tensions, ri)alries, and counter*alancing mo)es, but it also 'ill create opportunities for multinational cooperation in protecting critical sea lanes. /ith 'ater also becoming scarcer in <sia and the 8iddle 3ast, cooperation to manage changing 'ater

resources is li-el. to be increasingl" $ifficult both 'ithin and bet'een states in a more dog#eat#dog 'orld.

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7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

u-s- econ
:t +ill colla&se t'e American econom" ?ease/ 11 master of arts in international securit' and former intelligence anal'st ($hadd A. 7ease, June ()**, ?Instabilit' in the $outhI 4he Implications of &e<ican $tate 3ailure on 0.$. "ational $ecurit'@, 7roAuest-//F& 4he Fconomic Costs to the 0nited $tates Due to a 3ailed &e<ican $tate 4he 0nited $tates and &e<ico are important trading partners. In Januar' of *99C, the 0nited $tates and &e<ico implemented the "orth American 3ree 4rade Agreement ( "A34A- in order to remo/e man' barriers related to trade and in/estment.*)E 4his agreement has helped integrate the agricultural sectors of the 0nited $tates, &e<ico and Canada+ business %ithin the free-trade #one has gro%n and the organi#ations that rel' on the 0nited $tates for agricultural contribution ha/e de/eloped.*)9 4he 0nited $tates and &e<ico ha/e benefited from the "A34A agreement in man' %a's . 4his agreement has led to the dismantling of trade barriers %hich brought about mar=et integration, has an a/erage annual gro%th in the agricultural sector of SEC: million , and has resulted in (,E,))) American !obs in the agricultural sector .**) .o%e/er, the gains that both the 0nited $tates and &e<ico made in the last *, 'ears ma' crumble as a result of the gro%ing instabilit' in the &e<ican state. 4he securit' situation in &e<ico ma' hamper trade relations %ith the 0nited $tates. 4his unfortunate reali#ation ma' hinder both !ob creation in America as %ell as affect 0nited $tates national securit'. &an' Americans rel' on the
economic success of both the 0nited $tates and &e<ico, and their respecti/e comparati/e ad/antages. 4he possibilit' of &e<ico becoming a failed state ma' !eopardi#e countless !obs %ithin the American homeland+ this %ould be due to &e<ico s inabilit' to perform the necessar' duties of a so/ereign state and e<ecute economic polic'. 4his %ould affect trade bet%een the 0nited $tates and &e<ico. As the author 7eter F/ans points out, ?\the state lies at the center of solutions to the problem of order. 8ithout the state, mar=ets, the other master institution of modern societ', cannot function.@*** America is a =e' destination for appro<imatel' E)U of &e<ico s e<ports.**( &e<ico also e<ports cars, and electronic eAuipment to the 0nited $tates.**B In addition, the countr' of &e<ico is a =e' e<porter of petroleum to the 0nited $tates+ &e<ico e<ports appro<imatel' *.B

million barrels of oil a da' to its northern neighbor.**C 4he oil imports that the 0nited $tates recei/es from be unable to adeAuatel' secure the transfer of oil to the 0nited $tates due to the decreased securit' in the countr'. 4he situation that ma' unfold in &e<ico could reflect the same serious situation that IraA faces %ith attac=s on important pipelines %hich sabotages oil production+ the /arious drug traffic=ing organi#ations as %ell as terrorist organi#ations %ould most li=el' be the culprits of such attac=s . In addition, the mone' that the
&e<ico are significant. .o%e/er, the go/ernment of &e<ico %ould state of &e<ico generates from oil e<ports is significant+ these e<ports constitute the largest source of re/enue for the countr'. &e<ico nationali#ed its oil production in *9BE under the national oil compan', 7eme<.**, 4his fact has significant conseAuences as pri/ate oil companies %ould be unable to assist the go/ernment of &e<ico in an' meaningful %a'. 3alling oil re/enues, lac= of securit' for /arious oil pipelines and a

continuation of economic decline in &e<ico %ill ha/e repercussions in the 0nited $tates. 4herefore, it is important that
American polic'-ma=ers understand that ?&e<icos ongoing political stabilit' and economic health are critical to the prosperit' and national securit' of the 0nited $tates.**D 4he national securit' significance that the &e<ican econom' has on the 0nited $tates must not be

underestimated b' American polic'ma=ers or regional leaders. 4he 0.$. and &e<ico are important trading partners. 4he possibilit' of a failed state
scenario %ould ha/e ob/ious deleterious effects on &e<ico but it %ould undoubtedl' affect the national securit' of America b' disrupting the flo% of goods into and out of &e<ico. Additionall', the possibilit' of /arious drug traffic=ing organi#ations and terrorist groups sabotaging oil pipelines and other a/enues of trade %ould be harmful. 4he loss of emplo'ment, reduced imports and e<ports as %ell as the all-important oil commodit' %ould ha/e lasting effects on the 0nited $tates if &e<ico deteriorated further. 4he ne<t section of this chapter %ill deal %ith the potential of &e<ican refugees crossing the 0nited $tates border illegall', and their prospecti/e effects on the 0nited $tates.

Human Trafficking Aff 1 ./283

7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

u-s- oil access


Me,ico is ke" to &ro)i$ing t'e (-S- oil ?ease/ 11 master of arts in international securit' and former intelligence anal'st ($hadd A. 7ease, June ()**, ?Instabilit' in the $outhI 4he Implications of &e<ican $tate 3ailure on 0.$. "ational $ecurit'@, 7roAuest-//F&
4he securit' situation in &e<ico ma' hamper trade relations %ith the 0nited $tates. 4his unfortunate reali#ation ma' hinder both !ob creation in America as %ell as affect 0nited $tates national securit'. &an' Americans rel' on the economic success of both the 0nited $tates and &e<ico, and their respecti/e comparati/e ad/antages. 4he possibilit' of &e<ico becoming a failed state ma' !eopardi#e countless !obs %ithin the American homeland+ this %ould be due to &e<ico s inabilit' to perform the necessar' duties of a so/ereign state and e<ecute economic polic'. 4his %ould affect trade bet%een the 0nited $tates and &e<ico. As the author 7eter F/ans points out, ?\the state lies at the center of solutions to the problem of order. 8ithout the state, mar=ets, the other master institution of modern societ', cannot function.@*** America is a =e' destination for appro<imatel' E)U of &e<ico s e<ports.**( &e<ico also e<ports cars, and electronic eAuipment to the 0nited $tates.**B In addition, the countr' of &e<ico is a =e' e<porter of

petroleum to the 0nited $tates+ &e<ico e<ports appro<imatel' *.B million barrels of oil a da' to its northern neighbor.**C 4he oil imports that the 0nited $tates recei/es from &e<ico are significant. .o%e/er, the go/ernment of &e<ico %ould be unable to adeAuatel' secure the transfer of oil to the 0nited $tates due to the decreased securit' in the countr' . 4he situation that ma' unfold in &e<ico could reflect the same serious situation that IraA faces %ith attac=s on important pipelines %hich sabotages oil production+ the /arious drug traffic=ing organi#ations as %ell as terrorist organi#ations %ould most li=el' be the culprits of such attac=s. In addition, the mone' that the state of &e<ico generates from oil e<ports is significant+ these e<ports constitute the largest source of
re/enue for the countr'. &e<ico nationali#ed its oil production in *9BE under the national oil compan', 7eme<.**, 4his fact has significant conseAuences as pri/ate oil companies %ould be unable to assist the go/ernment of &e<ico in an' meaningful %a'. 3alling oil re/enues, lac= of securit'

for /arious oil pipelines and a continuation of economic decline in &e<ico %ill ha/e repercussions in the 0nited
$tates. 4herefore, it is important that American polic'-ma=ers understand that ?&e<ico s ongoing political stabilit' and economic health are critical to the prosperit' and national securit' of the 0nited $tates.**D

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7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

iran +ar
:ran +ill use Me,ican insta*ilit" as co)er for an attack on t'e (-S?ease/ 11 master of arts in international securit' and former intelligence anal'st ($hadd A. 7ease, June ()**, ?Instabilit' in the $outhI 4he Implications of &e<ican $tate 3ailure on 0.$. "ational $ecurit'@, 7roAuest-//F& A failed state scenario in &e<ico %ould pro/ide the Iranians %ith enough international co/er to conduct such attac=s. 4he Iranians past and present dealings %ith terrorist organi#ations also lends itself to the belief that this state ma' %or= %ith the /arious drug traffic=ing organi#ations operating in &e<ico in order to facilitate their operations . 4he acti/ities of Iran
in the &iddle Fast region as %ell as an increasing presence in Latin America should be a cause of concern for American polic'ma=ers as it is li=el' that Iran %ould use &e<ico in order to destabili#e American interests. 4his section of the thesis %ill no% focus on Russia and the li=elihood that this countr' %ill attempt to garner more influence in the 8estern region b' e<ploiting &e<ican autonom'.

:ran +ar causes e,tinction C'ossu$o)sk"/ 10 N 7rofessor of Fconomics at the 0ni/ersit' of 1tta%a and Director of the Centre for Research on >lobali#ation (&ichael, ?4o%ards a 8orld 8ar III $cenarioH 4he Role of Israel in 4riggering an Attac= on Iran@, E/*B/()*), httpI//%%%.globalresearch.ca/inde<.phpconte<tY/a6aidY(),EC3or se/eral 'ears no% Iran has been conducting its o%n %ar drills and e<ercises. 8hile its Air force has %ea=nesses, its intermediate and long-range missiles are full' operational . IranPs militar' is in a state of readiness. Iranian troop concentrations are currentl' %ithin a fe%
=ilometers of the IraAi and Afghan borders, and %ithin pro<imit' of Ju%ait. 4he Iranian "a/' is deplo'ed in the 7ersian >ulf %ithin pro<imit' of 0$ and allied militar' facilities in the 0nited Arab Fmirates. It is %orth noting that in response to IranPs militar' build-up, the 0$ has been transferring large amounts of %eapons to its non-"A41 allies in the 7ersian >ulf including Ju%ait and $audi Arabia. 8hile IranPs ad/anced %eapons do not measure up to those of the 0$ and "A41, Iranian forces %ould be in a position to inflict substantial losses to coalition forces in a

con/entional %ar theater, on the ground in IraA or Afghanistan. Iranian ground troops and tan=s in December ())9 crossed the border into IraA
%ithout being confronted or challenged b' allied forces and occupied a disputed territor' in the Fast &a'san oil field. F/en in the e/ent of an effecti/e lit#=rieg, %hich targets IranPs militar' facilities, its communications s'stems, etc . through massi/e aerial bombing, using cruise missiles, con/entional bun=er buster bombs and tactical nuclear %eapons, a

%ar %ith Iran, once initiated, could e/entuall' lead into a ground %ar. 4his is something %hich 0$ militar' planners ha/e no doubt contemplated in their simulated %ar scenarios. An operation of this nature %ould result in significant militar' and ci/ilian casualties, particularl' if nuclear %eapons are used. 4he e<panded budget for the %ar in Afghanistan
currentl' debated in the 0$ Congress is also intended to be used in the e/entualit' of an attac= on Iran. 8ithin a scenario of escalation, Iranian troops could cross the border into IraA and Afghanistan. In turn, militar' escalation using nuclear %eapons could lead us into a 8orld 8ar III scenario, e<tending

be'ond the &iddle Fast Central Asian region. In a /er' real sense, t'is militar' pro!ect, %hich has been on the

7entagonPs dra%ing board for more than fi/e 'ears, t'reatens t'e future of 'umanit". 1ur focus in this essa' has been on %ar preparations. 4he fact that %ar preparations are in an ad/anced state of readiness does not impl' that these %ar plans %ill be carried out. 4he 0$-"A41Israel alliance reali#es that the enem' has significant capabilities to respond and retaliate. 4his factor in itself has been

crucial o/er the last fi/e 'ears in the decision b' the 0$ and its allies to postpone an attac= on Iran .

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7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

me,ican econom"
9rug )iolence $ecreases in)estment an$ tourism0&eo&le are too scare$ #eittel/ /1% Anal'st in Latin American Affairs for Congressional Research $er/ice (June $. eittel, C/*,/*B, ?&e<ico5s Drug 4raffic=ing 1rgani#ationsI $ource and $cope of the Giolence@, httpI//%%%.fas.org/sgp/crs/ro%/RC*,:D.pdf-//F&
As the /iolence in &e<ico has sharpl' increased o/er the past se/eral 'ears, it has also shifted locations. Drug traffic=ing-related /iolence once highl' concentrated near &e<ico5s northern border %ith the 0nited $tates shifted geographicall' in ()** and ()*( mo/ing from north%estern and north-central &e<ico to northeastern and central &e<ico. *B) As it has spread to ne% locations, the fear of /iolence has closed businesses

and had an impact on tourism. American in/estors in &e<ico ha/e gro%n concerned about the /iolence and businesses ha/e sent home dependents or close$ o&erations altoget'er in some cities. $mall and medium-si#ed businesses ha/e been particularl' hard hit, %ithout the resources to hire pri/ate securit' firms and pro/ide for emplo'ee safet' as ha/e the larger businesses and multinational corporations. *B* In ()**, the &e<ican go/ernment published a report indicating
that foreign direct in/estment (3DI- has continued to pour into some of the most /iolent states at le/els e<ceeding the in/estment prior to ())D, but others argue that !ob-creating in/estment %as mo/ing into safer cities %here drug traffic=ing- related /iolence %as lo%er. *

9rug )iolence 'as cause$ tourism to $ramaticall" $ecline #eittel/ /1% Anal'st in Latin American Affairs for Congressional Research $er/ice (June $. eittel, C/*,/*B, ?&e<ico5s Drug 4raffic=ing 1rgani#ationsI $ource and $cope of the Giolence@, httpI//%%%.fas.org/sgp/crs/ro%/RC*,:D.pdf-//F& &a!or tourist destinations, such as Acapulco, Canctn, Cuerna/aca, &a#atlan, and 4a<co, ha/e been hit b' /iolence, and the economicall' /ital tourist industr' has been affected. As noted abo/e, tourism along the 0.$.-&e<ico border has also suffered a $ramatic $ecline because of fears of /iolence. According to the 0.$. $tate Department, foreign tourists ha/e not been a D41 target. ut there ha/e been se/eral incidents of &e<ican tourists becoming /ictims. 4he $tate Department5s tra/el %arning
updated in 3ebruar' ()*( reported that the number of Americans murdered in &e<ico rose from B, in ()): to *() in ()**.

Me,ican organi6e$ crime c'okes t'e Me,ican econom"0t'at 'urts (-S- com&etiti)eness/ tra$e/ an$ increases immigration Cillarreal/ 10 $pecialist in International 4rade and 3inance for the Congressional Research $er/ice (&. Angeles Gillarreal, 9/9/*), ?4he &e<ican Fconom' After the >lobal 3inancial Crisis@, httpI//fpc.state.go//documents/organi#ation/*CE:E9.pdf-//F& $ummar' 4he state of &e<ico5s econom' is important for 0.$. polic'ma=ers for man' reasons, most significantl' because a prosperous and democratic neighboring countr' is in the best interest of the 0nited $tates. 4he t%o countries ha/e strong economic, political, and social ties, %hich ha/e direct polic' implications related to bilateral trade, economic competiti/eness, migration, and border securit'. In &a' ()*), 7resident arac= 1bama hosted &e<ican 7resident 3elipe Caldermn at a meeting in the 8hite
.ouse in %hich the t%o leaders discussed =e' issues affecting the t%o countries. 4he' agreed to continue and reinforce cooperation on creating !obs, promoting economic reco/er' and e<pansion, and encouraging inclusi/e prosperit' across all le/els of societ' in both countries. 4he ***th Congress is li=el' to maintain an acti/e interest in &e<ico on issues related to the "orth American 3ree 4rade Agreement ("A34A- and other trade issues, economic conditions in &e<ico, migration, border securit' issues, and counter-narcotics. 4he global financial crisis that began in ())E and the 0.$. economic do%nturn had strong ad/erse effects on the &e<ican econom', largel' due to its economic ties and dependence on the 0.$. mar=et. &e<ico5s gross domestic product (>D7- contracted b' D.DU in ())9, the sharpest decline of an' Latin American econom'. &e<ico5s reliance on the 0nited $tates as an e<port mar=et and the relati/e importance of e<ports to its o/erall economic performance ma=e it highl' susceptible to fluctuations in the 0.$. econom'. &ost other Latin American countries are not as dependent on the 0nited $tates as an e<port mar=et. Fconomic reforms o/er the past () 'ears and the go/ernment5s responses to the effects of the global financial crisis ha/e helped &e<ico %eather the economic do%nturn and impro/e conditions in ()*). .o%e/er, sustained economic reco/er' %ill li=el' depend on the 0.$. economic reco/er' and the abilit' to sustain this gro%th. In addition to the ad/erse effects from the global financial crisis and the 0.$. economic contraction, &e<ico5s econom' is e<periencing numerous other

challenges. 4he escalation of /iolence since the go/ernment5s crac=do%n on organi#ed crime and drug traffic=ing has led to in/estor uncertaint' in some regions of the countr' and, subseAuentl', a sharp decline in foreign direct in/estment flo%s. 4he impact has been the most se/ere on the manufacturing industr', %hich is mostl' located along the 0.$.-&e<ico border and has e<perienced significant !ob losses. Increasing unemplo'ment throughout the countr' has led to a gro%ing trend to%ards informalit' and self-emplo'ment. 4his ma' present a long-term problem for the go/ernment because gro%th in the informal sector can lead to increased po/ert' le/els, diminished producti/it', and lo%er prospects for sustained economic gro%th. Another issue is the *DU drop in remittances to &e<ico in ())9, %hich ha/e mostl' affected the poor. Remittance inflo%s, %hich
are largel' from the 0nited $tates, are &e<ico5s second-highest source of foreign currenc' after oil.

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7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

Human Trafficking Aff 1%0/283

7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

me,ican sta*ilit"
Me,ican organi6e$ crime &oses t'e largest risk to o)erall sta*ilit" 1rillo/ 11 !ournalist %ho has been reporting on &e<ican drugs for o/er *( 'ears (Ioan >rillo, ()**, ?Fl "arcoI 4he lood' Rise of &e<ican Drug Cartels@, >oogle oo=s-//F& 4his boo= is also an argument about the nature ofthis startling trans- formation. It contends- despite %hat some politicians and pundits sa'- that these gangsters ha/e become a criminal insurgenc' that poses the biggest armed threat to &e<ico since its *9*) re/olution. It loo=s at ho% failures of the American %ar on drugs and &e<icoPs political and eco- nomic turmoil ha/e triggered the
insurgenc'. And it argues for a drastic rethin=ing of strategies to stop the contlict from spreading into a %ider ci/il %ar on thc 0nited $tatesP doorstep, 4hat solution, this boo= argues, does not come from the barrel of a gun.

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7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

atQ me,ican sta*ilit" a$) c&


9oesn4t sol)e0$rug cartels are too com&licate$ to fig't0+e can onl" sto& t'em *" cutting off t'eir re)enue 1rillo/ 11 !ournalist %ho has been reporting on &e<ican drugs for o/er *( 'ears (Ioan >rillo, ()**, ?Fl "arcoI 4he lood' Rise of &e<ican Drug Cartels@, >oogle oo=s-//F& An'bod' ta=ing a closer loo= at the &e<ican Drug 8ar %or=s out Auic=l' that nothing is %hat it seems. F/er' /ie% is clouded b' $eceit an$ rumors, e/er' fact argued o/er b' competing interest groups and agencies, all =e' personalities, shrouded in m'ster' and contradictions. A sAuad of men dressed in police uniforms are filmed =idnapping a ma'or. Are the' reall' policeH 1r are the' gangsters in disguiseH 1r bothH An arrested thug tells all, signs of torture e/ident on his taped confession.
4hen thugs cap- ture a policeman and /ideotape the officer gi/ing a contradictor' /ersion of e/ents. 8hom do 'ou belie/eH A /illain commits murders in &e<ico, then becomes a protected %itness in the 0nited $tates, Can 'ou trust his testimon'H Another bi#arre element is ho% the conflict

can be e/er'%here and no%here. &illions of tourists sun themsel/es happil' on CanctinPs Ca- ribbean beaches, obli/ious that an'thing is amiss. 4he &e<ican capital is less murderous than Chicago, Detroit, or "e% 1rleans- And e/en in the hardest-hit areas, all can appear perfectl' normal, I ha/e arri/ed at a restaurant in $inaloa state t%ent' minutes after a police commander %as gunned do%n ha/ing brea=fast.
8ithin an hour, the corpse had been carted a%a' and %aiters %ere preparing tables for lunch+ 'ou could eat some tacos and ha/e no clue there had been an earl'- morning murder. I ha/e %atched hundreds of soldiers s%eep into a resi- dential neighborhood and =ic= do%n doors-and suddenl' /anish %ith the same speed the' arri/ed. Americans /isit the colonial to%n of $an &iguel de Allende or the &a'an p'ramids of 7alenAue and %onder %hat all the fuss is about. 4he' canPt see an' %ar or se/ered craniums. 8h' is the media h'ping itH 1thers /isit famil' o/er the 4e<as border in 4amaulipas state. 4he' hear gunshots popping on the street li=e lirecrac=ers at a carni/al, and the' %onder %h' these battles are not e/en mentioned in the ne<t da'Ps ne%s- papers. 7oliticians are lost for language to e/en describe the conflict. &e<ican president 3elipe Calderon dresses up in a militar' uniform and calls for no Auarter on enemies %ho threaten the fatherland-then bal=s angril' at an' notion &e<ico is fighting an insurrection. 4he 1bama adminis- tration is e)en more confuse$- $ecretar' of $tate .illar' Clinton assures people that &e<ico is simpl'

suffering from inner-cit' crime li=e the 0nited $tates in the eighties. 4hen she later sa's &e<ico has an insurgenc' a=in to ColombiaPs. An embarrassed 1bama implies that Clinton didnPt mean %hat she said. 1r did sheH 4he head of the DFA cheers on
Calderon for %inning the %ar. 4hen a 7entagon anal'st %arns that &e<- ico is in danger ofa Mugosla/ia-st'le rapid collapsea Is it a Lnarco stateLH 1r a Lcaptured stateLH 1r !ust in a right blood' stateH Are there narco terroristsH 1r is that phrase, as some conspirac' theorists claim, part of an American plot to in/ade &e<icoH 1r a CIA plot to steal budget from the DFAH 7erhaps such confusion should he e<pected from a &e<ican Drug 8ar. 4he fight

against drugs is famousl' a game of smoke an$ mirrors+p &e<ico is a modern classic in the consAnirac'-theor' genre+ and %ar
al%a's emits Rig. 7ut all three together and %hat do 'ou getH $mo=', blac= mur=iness so dense that 'ou canPt see 'our nose in front of 'our face. Confounded b' such perple<it', man' understandabl' thro% their hands in the air and shrug that %e !ust cannot comprehend %hat is going on.

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7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

2ussia

Human Trafficking Aff 1%3/283

7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

:m&act Calc
Com&arati)el" out+eig's XXXX 9urc'/ 77 senior associate at the .enr' L. $timson Center in 8ashington, D.C., %here he co-directs the pro!ect on Reducing "uclear Dangers and uilding Co-operati/e $ecurit' (8illiam J. Durch, ?$earching for "ational $ecurit'I 4hreat and Response in the Age of Gulnerabilit'@, 4he .enr' L. $timson Institution, httpI//%%%.stimson.org/images/uploads/research-pdfs/$earchingfor"ational$ecurit'.pdf-//F& 4here is a %idel' recogni#ed need for better approaches to threat assessment in the ne% national securit' en/ironment. Important dimensions of securit' threats include their damage potential , ho% much %arning %e ma' ha/e of their occurrence, and a sense of their o/erall probabilit' or ?strategic li=elihood, @ not the li=elihood of an'
particular action but a measure of predisposition to act. 4o compare disparate threats N interstate, transnational, and ecological N ten-point scales %ere de/ised for %arning time and four separate dimensions of damage potential (depth, breadth, ripple effect, and reco/er' time-. A/eraged scores on these fi/e scales produce simple inde< of threat. $ample indices for historical and h'pothetical e/ents appear in the table belo%. (Li=elihood estimates are not factored into these numbers but ma' be found in the main te<t.- 1f the sample threats e/aluated, political-militar' deca' in Russian sufficient to %ea=en its nuclear command and control s'stem, increase the probabilit' of an accidental launch of some fraction of its remaining nuclear forces, or increase the probabilit' of 8&D falling into terrorist hands, could ha/e the most de/astating conseAuences for the 0nited $tates. 8hile attac=s such as that b' the in Laden group against 0$ embassies in *99E %ere deadl', and serious, their damage potential to the 0nited $tates is less than that posed b' economic collapse in &e<ico, or information attac=s that succeeded in disabling some significant element of 0$ infrastructure. F<amples rated b' threat inde< Russian political/militar' deca', impact on 0$, longer term 9.,) Catastrophic eruption, &t. Rainier :.:) Information

attac=, unprotected po%er grid :.,) 0$-IraA, Januar' *99*, impact on IraA :.,) "orth Jorea nuclear-tipped IC & against 0$ cit' :.,) .urricane /s 0$ $outheast D.E) >lobal climate change D.:) &e<ican migration pressure in econ. crisis D.D) in Laden-0$ embassies, *99E D.() Information attac=, protected po%er grid (.B) Acci$ental launc' out+eig's e)er" mo$ern t'reat 9urc'/ 77 senior associate at the .enr' L. $timson Center in 8ashington, D.C., %here he co-directs the pro!ect on Reducing "uclear Dangers and uilding Co-operati/e $ecurit' (8illiam J. Durch, ?$earching for "ational $ecurit'I 4hreat and Response in the Age of Gulnerabilit'@, 4he .enr' L. $timson Institution, httpI//%%%.stimson.org/images/uploads/research-pdfs/$earchingfor"ational$ecurit'.pdf-//F& 1/ershado%ed politicall' b' the rising ne% threats are the still-dangerous arsenals of the Cold 8ar. F/en ha/ing been reduced in si#e from their late Cold 8ar le/els, the measurable threat posed b' alerted nuclear arsenals N that portion read' to launch on short notice N out+eig's t'at of an" element of t'e ne+ t'reat arra" . Deterrence does not %or= against chance occurrences, and no planned defenses %ould blunt the impact of a substantial, if accidental, Russian missile launch. ConseAuence management %ould be nightmarish, lea/ing pre/ention as the onl' good option. "o 0$ securit' ob!ecti/e, therefore, could be more imperati/e than support for political and economic stabilit' in Russia, for its fight against the organi#ed crime net%or=s that undermine that stabilit', and for ta=ing alerted arsenals off-line . Indeed, onl' %hen the 0nited $tates, Russia, and other
nuclear po%ers find their %a' past these monuments to the t%entieth centur'5s most dangerous standoffs can the' sa' that the' are read' to address the threats of the future.

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A:9S

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aff sol)es
?re)enting 'uman trafficking is ke" to &re)ent A:9S s&rea$ A:9S ?olic" K =a+ 7 (?3ormer surgeons general decr' political meddling in health issues@, E-(C, L/".ar/ard 0ni/ersit' researchers said the'P/e found a high rate of .IG infection among 'oung girls from "epal %ho %ere se<-traffic=ed to India. A stud' of the girls found that BE percent %ere .IG-positi/e. 4he rate %as e/en higher - D) percent - among girls forced into prostitution prior to the age of *, , the report said. L4he high rates of .IG %e ha/e documented support concerns that se< traffic=ing ma' be a significant factor in both maintaining the .IG epidemic in India and in the e<pansion of this epidemic to its lo%er-pre/alence neighbors,L the report said. 4he report
%as published in the Journal of the American &edical Association. India has the third-largest .IG/AID$ population in the %orld, %ith about (., million infected indi/iduals. As such, the report said the pre/ention of se< traffic=ing should be seen as a critical aspect of

pre/enting the spread of .IG. Trafficking accelerates t'e s&rea$ of H:C 9ANA:=@CA5T2A:N@2 AN9 =AC3!@ 2010 (>ergana, 0$ >A1+ and 3ran=, International 1rgani#ation for &igration, International
&igration CEIC, 8ile' 1nline Librar'-

In addition, traffic=ing contributes

to the spread of .IG b' significantl' increasing the /ulnerabilit' of traffic=ed persons to infection according to the findings of a recent 0"D7 stud' (0"D7, ()):-. oth human traffic=ing and .IG greatl' threaten human de/elopment and securit'. .o%e/er, lin=s bet%een traffic=ing and .IG/AID$ ha/e to be e<plored %ith caution (AD ,
())B-. ?&an' traffic=ing a%areness-raising campaigns ha/e inad/ertentl' con/e'ed the message to fearful communities that all traffic=ed persons are infected %ith the disease (.IG/AID$-, leading to further stigmatisation of all %omen returning to their communities.@

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atQ confine$ to africa


A:9S is a glo*al issue0not confine$ to Africa ;l*e/ % Lecturer in International Relations in the Department of >o/ernment at the 0ni/ersit' of Fsse< ($tefan Flbe, ()), ?.IG/AID$I 4he International $ecurit' Dimensions@, stefanelbe.com/resources/Fl=e oo=.doc-//F& 4his chapter argues that the global AID$ pandemic is no longer solel' a health issue, but also has emerging human, national, and international securit' dimensions that must be ac=no%ledged b' scholars and international polic'ma=ers. In order to substantiate this argument, the chapter specificall' anal'ses these three dimensions in greater detail, and outlines the broad polic'
implications that follo% from such an anal'sis. It is important to recogni#e these securit' dimensions of the AID$ pandemic, the chapter concludes, (i- in order to arri/e at a more comprehensi/e understanding of the nature and e<tent of the contemporar' pandemic+ (ii- in order for the le/el of the international response to become commensurate %ith the e<tent of the global challenge posed b' the AID$ pandemic+ and (iii- because the securit' sector, as a high-ris= group and /ector of the /irus, can ma=e a responsible contribution to international efforts to reduce the transmission of .IG/AID$. "ote about the Author Dr. $tefan Flbe is a .e is author of $trategic Implications of .IG/AID$ (1<ford 0ni/ersit' 7ress, ())B- and FuropeI A "iet#schean 7erspecti/e (Routledge, ())B-. .is articles ha/e appeared in International $ecurit', &illennium, and the Journal of 7olitical Ideologies. .IG/AID$I 4he International $ecurit' Dimensions "o% in its third decade, .IG/AID$ is %ell poised to become the most

$e)astating &an$emic in mo$ern 'uman 'istor". 4hroughout the %orld an estimated C( million people are alread' li/ing

%ith .IG, %hile in some African countries national .IG pre/alence rates are currentl' thought to be %ell in e<cess of one-third of the adult population. 4he immense scale of this pandemic means that almost three times as man' persons continue to die from AID$-related illnesses e/er' da', than died during the terrorist attac=s on $eptember **, ())*. $o great is the scale no% reached b' this pandemic that scholars and polic'-ma=ers are beginning to recogni#e that in the %orst affected countries the longer term impact of .IG/AID$ %ill not be confined to the indi/idual human tragedies suffered b' those persons li/ing %ith the /irus and b' their respecti/e families+ in these same countries .IG/AID$ %ill also ha/e a plethora of %ider

economic, political, and social ramifications that %ill need to be carefull' considered and addressed . Amongst these

hitherto o/erloo=ed ramifications, this chapter suggests, are the emerging human, national, and international securit' dimensions of the illness. $cholars and polic'-ma=ers %ill ha/e to recogni#e these securit' dimensions (i- in order to arri/e at a more comprehensi/e understanding of the nature of the current pandemic+ (ii- in order for the le/el of the international response to become commensurate %ith the e<tent of the humanitarian and global securit' challenge posed b' the AID$ pandemic+ and (iii- because the securit' sector, as a high-ris= group and /ector of the illness, can ma=e a responsible contribution to international efforts to reduce the transmission of .IG in the 'ears to come. *. 4he >lobal .IG/AID$ 7andemic F/en though the magnitude of the .IG/AID$ pandemic is clearl' immense, determining its precise e<tent is fraught %ith comple< difficulties. 4o date the most comprehensi/e data on the pandemic has been !ointl' compiled b' the 8orld .ealth 1rgani#ation (8.1- and the Joint 0nited "ations 7rogram on .IG/AID$ (0"AID$-. F/en the figures pro/ided b' the 8.1 and 0"AID$ are onl' estimates, ho%e/er, and should not be ta=en as e<act representations. 4he' are sub!ect to considerable political pressures and logistical difficulties, se/eral of %hich remain be'ond the control of 0"AID$. In man' countries, for e<ample, s'stematic .IG/AID$ sur/eillance remains mostl' inadeAuate, ma=ing it hard to obtain reliable data and to detect hidden epidemics not captured b' e<isting sur/eillance mechanisms. According to the 8.1 the number of reported AID$ cases ranges from less than ten percent in some countries to almost 9) percent in others. 4he follo%ing figures are thus best seen as indicators of broad trends rather than e<act representations, but this should also initiall' suffice for the purposes of capturing and illustrating the broader securit' dimensions accompan'ing the AID$ pandemic. 4he figures compiled b' 0"AID$ clearl' illustrate the global scope of .IG/AID$. 4his %orld%ide reach of the AID$ pandemic alread' emerged as earl' as *9E,, b' %hich time .IG cases had been reported from e/er' region in the %orld. $ince then there has been a steep and une<pectedl' high rise in the number of infections %orld%ide. As of December ())B 0"AID$ estimates that around C) million people are li/ing %ith .IG or ha/e AID$. Conceptuall', this number e<ceeds the entire population of a countr' li=e $pain or Argentina. 1f these C) million people, B: million are thought to be adults (aged *,-C9-, and (., million are children (under the age of *,-. In ())B alone an estimated B million people died of AID$-related illnesses, and , million persons became ne%l' infected %ith .IG. 4o date, 0"AID$ belie/es that around (, million people ha/e died from AID$-related illnesses throughout the %orld. Contrar" to +i$es&rea$ *elief/ H:C/A:9S is not at all confine$ to su*5Sa'aran

Africa- ;)er" region of t'e +orl$ currentl' has a significant number of people li/ing %ith .IG/AID$, and the illness is thus also best thought of as a pandemic rather than merel' as an epidemic. Fpidemiological indicators
sho% that .IG is spreading Auic=l' in Asia, the Indian subcontinent, the Caribbean, Russia, and in eastern Furope. elo% are the current 0"AID$ estimates for the regional distribution of persons li/ing %ith .IG at the end of ())BI

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o/+ +ar
A:9S out+eig's +ar ;l*e/ % Lecturer in International Relations in the Department of >o/ernment at the 0ni/ersit' of Fsse< ($tefan Flbe, ()), ?.IG/AID$I 4he International $ecurit' Dimensions@, stefanelbe.com/resources/ElkeBook.doc-//F&

&uch in this /ein the .uman De/elopment Report %ent on to define human securit' as Zsafet' from constant threats of hunger, disease, crime and repression. It also means protection from sudden and hurtful disruptions in the patterns of our dail' li/es--%ither in our homes, our !obs, in our communities or in our en/ironments5. $pecificall', the report identified se/en components of human securit'I economic, food, health, en/ironmental, personal, communit', and political. Although this particular %a' of thin=ing about securit' has pro/o=ed considerable debate in post-Cold 8ar securit' studies, especiall' regarding its breadth as an anal'tical concept, it is important to bear in mind that such thin=ing about the notion of securit' is not as no/el as it might initiall' appear in conte<t of the contemporar' debate. Fmma Rothschild has sho%n ho% man' of these ideas ha/e e/ident Fnlightenment roots that can be traced bac= at least to the eighteenth and nineteenth centur', if not earlier. 3rom this perspecti/e, the narro%ing of securit' thin=ing in the course of the t%entieth centur' represents an historical anomal'--one lin=ed, perhaps, to the e<traordinar' /iolent nature the t%entieth centur'. In either case, the idea of human securit' has not onl' been embraced b' the 0nited "ations $ecurit' Council, but has also attracted a %ider coalition of national go/ernments, including Canada, "or%a', and Japan. If the human securit' approach is intimatel' concerned %ith securing not onl' the sur/i/al of the state, but also the sur/i/al and %elfare of indi/idual human beings, then .IG/AID$ clearl' amounts to an important securit' issue %ithin this frame%or=. Ouantitati/el', .IG/AID$ is alread' amongst the fi/e most freAuent causes of death %orld%ide. In Africa the illness e/en /ies for the unen/iable position of posing the greatest human securit' threat. In Africa .IG/AID$ is not onl' the leading cause of death+ it is also

estimated to cause more t'an ten times as man" $eat's as armed conflict. AID$ thus alread' poses a numericall' greater ris= to the sur/i/al and %elfare of indi/iduals in Africa than armed conflict. Oualitati/el', moreo/er, .IG/AID$ also directl' and indirectl' affects most of the components of human securit' identified b' the 0nited "ations De/elopment 7rogram. At the most basic le/el, .IG/AID$ is a lethal illness that threatens the life of those %ho de/elop AID$ and %ho do not en!o' access to life-

sa/ing medicines. As a result, the a/erage life e<pectanc' in some African countries is li=el' to drop b' as much as () to B) 'ears o/er the ne<t decades. ' ()*) the life e<pectanc' in man' countries could e/en be lo%er than at the beginning of the t%entieth centur', to no small e<tent due to the impact of .IG/AID$, thus further undermining /irtuall' an entire centur' of modest de/elopmental gains. e'ond these indi/idual tragedies, .IG/AID$ also has a plethora of direct and indirect human securit' ramifications for those families and communities affected b' the illness. 0nli=e man' other illnesses associated %ith old age--li=e ischemic heart disease, cerebro/ascular disease, and lo%er respirator' infections--AID$-related illnesses affect persons at a much 'ounger and more producti/e age. ConseAuentl' there is an important relationship, for e<ample, bet%een high .IG pre/alence rates and le/els of food securit'. As persons become too ill the' ma' become unable to pro/ide or acAuire nourishment for their families, or be unable to tend to the fields in order to secure adeAuate le/els of food. 4he' ma' e/en ha/e to sell off their possessions and/or li/estoc= in order to compensate for this lac= of income. 4he same holds true for their more general abilit' to generate income, as indi/iduals become too ill to maintain stead' emplo'ment. 8hat is more, man' urban d%ellers decide to return to their /illages once the' become ill, thus further perpetuating this c'cle.

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refugees
A:9S causes refugee flo+s +orl$+i$e Singer/ 2 1lin 7ost-Doctoral 3ello% in 3oreign 7olic' $tudies at the roo=ings Institution (7. 8. $inger, $pring ())(, ?AID$ and International $ecurit'@, /ol. CC, no. *, , pp. *C,Q*,E u4he International Institute for $trategic $tudies, httpI//%%%.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/*).*)E)/))B9DBBE.())(.9DEE,CD-//F& 4he threats of economic and political collapse from the disease can also lead to ne% refugee flo%s . esides facilitating the spread of the disease, the sudden and massi/e population mo/ements such collapses pro/o=e ha/e led to heightened region%ide tension and destabilisation. BB 8ith AID$ li=el' to reach pandemic le/els in the Caribbean and former $o/iet 0nion, American and Furopean go/ernments %ill ha/e to prepare for refugee crises reminiscent of the .aitian collapse and al=an %ars of the *99)s . 4he more direct securit' threat is that failed states can become ha/ens for the ne% enemies of global order. As the 0" $pecial Fn/o' La=hdar rahimi noted, the e/ents of ** $eptember %ere ZA %a=eup call, Wleading man'X ... to reali#e that e/en small countries, far a%a', li=e Afghanistan cannot be left to sin= to the depths to %hich Afghanistan has sun=5. BC Deca'ing states gi/e e<tremist groups freedom of operation, %ith dangerous conseAuences a %orld a%a'. 4his ha#ard applies e/en to seemingl'
disconnected state failures. $ierra Leone5s collapse in the *99)s, for e<ample, certainl' %as of little concern to polic'-ma=ers in 8ashington and had little connection to radical Islamic terrorist groups. F/idence has since emerged, ho%e/er, that the tin' 8est African countr' is connected to al-Oaeda fundraising efforts in/ol/ing the diamond trade. B,

T'ese &o&ulation $is&lacements cause regional +ars =oesc'er/ 2 W>il, $enior 3ello% for 3orced &igration and International $ecurit' V International Institute for $trategic $tudies, ulletin of the Atomic $cientists, ? laming the /ictimI refugees and global securit'I the bul= of the %orldPs refugees remain in the de/eloping %orld. And the industriali#edstates, more %orried after $eptember **, are ta=ing ne% steps to =eep them a%a'.+ 4he 0prooted@, **-*, ,EID, Le<isX 3or de/eloping countries, displaced populations are both a conseAuence of conflict and a cause of continuing conflict and instabilit'. 3orced displacement can obstruct peace processes, undermine attempts at economic de/elopment, and e<acerbate intercommunal tensions. Refugee flo%s also can be a source of regional conflict, causing instabilit' in neighboring countries, triggering e<ternal inter/ention, and sometimes pro/iding armed refugee groups %ith base camps from %hich to conduct insurgenc', armed resistance, and terrorist acti/ities. 1oes nuclear #ergeron/ 2 WJenneth, ())(, $cience 8riter formerl' V $candia "ational Laboratories, ?4ritium on Ice@, p. ,, >oogle 7rintX 4he 0nited $tates and the %orld can ill afford this =ind of inconsistenc'. 8e stand at a critical transition in the histor' of nuclear %eapons. If the t%entieth centur' is characteri#ed as the age of the bilateral nuclear standoff, the t%ent'-first %ill /er' li=el' be the age of broad proliferation of nuclear %eapons and the means to deli/er them, an age %hen e/en small and regional conflicts can escalate into nuclear %ars %ith profound and unpredictable effects on the %orld econom', the global en/ironment, and international securit'.

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toka" gecko *io$i)ersit"


H:C t'reat increases $eman$ for t'e Toka" 1ecko T'orn'ill/ 11 (4ed 4hornhill, **/*:/**, ?P0nfoundedP claims that Asian gec=os cure Aids are dri/ing species to e<tinction, %arns %ildlife group@, httpI//%%%.dail'mail.co.u=/sciencetech/article-()D((E(/>ec=os-dri/ene<tinction-claims-cure-Aids.html-//F& Claims that a nocturnal Asian li#ard can be used to help treat the .IG /irus ha/e led to a s'ar& *oom in smuggling of t'e re&tile/ &utting it at risk of e,tinction , a conser/ation group said 'esterda'. Demand for the 4o=a' >ec=o has s='roc=eted in recent 'ears after online blogs, ne%spaper articles and %ildlife traders trumpeted the consumption of the li#ardPs tongue and internal organs as a miracle cure for .IG , %ildlife trade monitoring group 4raffic
said in a report.

:ncrease$ 'ar)est of Toka" geckos causes 'a*itat $estruction +'ic' $estro"s *io$i)ersit" Trainor/ 10 3acult' of Fducation, .ealth and $cience at Charles Dar%in 0ni/ersit' and 7hD candidate (Colin Richard 4rainor, ()*), ?4imorPs fauna influence of scale, histor' and land-use on faunal patterning@, espace.cdu.edu.au/eser//cduI9BDC/4hesis;CD0;9BDC;4rainor;C.pdf-//F&

4he e<tinction of 7leistocene giant rats on 4imor about *,)))-(,))) 'r 7 (Aplin and .elgen ()*)- is an unambiguous e<ample of the impact of humans on the island5s %ildlife. At :,))) 'r 7 4imor had a distincti/e fauna including at least four giant rats (>lo/er *9ED-. 4he presence of giant rat bones in sub-fossil ca/e deposits is e/idence that humans %ere hunting them+ but the human-assisted introduction of a %ide range of mammals (Common $potted Cuscus 7halanger orientalis, Long-tailed &acaAue &acaca fascicularis, Common 7alm Ci/et 7arado<urus hermaphroditus, Furasian 8ild 7ig $us scrofa, Rusa Deer Cer/us timorensis, .ouse &ouse &us musculus, .ouse Rat Rattus tane#umi, ro%n Rat Rattus nor/egicus, 7ol'nesian Rat Rattus e<ulans and .ouse $hre% $uncus murinus- probabl' also accelerated the decline of some of the endemic fauna, through predation, competition, introduction of ne% diseases and/or conseAuential habitat change. 4he introduced species all originate from $outh Fast Asia, e<cept the cuscus %hich is from "e% >uinea. 4he redisco/er' of the murid rodent unom's naso (Jitchener *99*- on nearb' 3lores Island, follo%ing its original description from sub-fossil deposits, and the recent disco/er' of Rattus (Jomodom's- timorensis (Jitchener et al. *99*- from the - CB - mountains of 8est 4imor demonstrates that some of the original rodent fauna has persisted and pro/ides some hope that other components might still be li/ing. $e/eral reptile and amphibian species ha/e also recentl' been introduced to 4imor but their impact on nati/e species is un=no%n. >ec=os such as the 4o=a'

>ec=o >e==o gec=o, the .ouse >ec=o .emidact'lus frenatus, and the 3lo%erpot $na=e 4'phlops braminus ha/e entered 4imor through

transport of goods from Asia or Australia. According to the I0C", three tree species, four (plus *, Z"ear threatened5- birds, three mammals and one butterfl' on 4imor are considered threatened %ith e<tinction (4able (.C- generall' because of loss of tropical forest. .abitat destruction,

particularl' tropical forest loss and con/ersion, is the main disturbance agent for more than E)U of the %orld5s globall' threatened bird species ( irdLife International ())C- and a high proportion of forest biota generall'. 3orest loss leads to re$uce$ 'a*itat/ increase$ fragmentation of +il$life &o&ulations +it' re$uce$ o&&ortunities for $is&ersal an$ to increase$ risk of local an$ ultimatel" glo*al e,tinction ( irdLife International ())C-. Additional threats such as
hunting for bush-meat and capture for pet trade increase the ris= of local e<tinction.

;,tinction 9iner/ 7 WDa/id, 7h.D., 7lanetar' $cience and >eolog', L4he Arm' and the Fndangered $pecies ActI 8hoPs Fndangering 8homH,L &ilitar' La%
Re/ie%, *CB &il. L. Re/. *D*X 4o accept that the snail darter, harelip suc=er, or Dismal $%amp southeastern shre% :C could sa/e WhuXman=ind ma' be difficult for some. &an', if not most, species are useless toWhuXmanWsX in a direct utilitarian sense. "onetheless, the' their e<tirpations could affect a directl' useful species negati/el'. In a closel' interconnected ecos'stem, the loss

ma' be critical in an indirect role, because of a species affects other species dependent on it. :, &oreo/er, as the number of species decline, the effect of each ne% e<tinction on the remaining species increases dramaticall' . C. iological Di/ersit'. -- 4he main premise of species preser/ation is that di/ersit' is better

than simplicit'. :: As the current mass e<tinction has progressed, the %orldPs biological di/ersit' generall' has decreased. 4his trend occurs %ithin ecos'stems b' reducing the number of species, and %ithin species b' reducing the number of indi/iduals. oth trends carr' serious future implications. :E Wp*:BX iologicall' di/erse ecos'stems are characteri#ed b' a large number of specialist species, filling narro% ecological niches. 4hese ecos'stems inherentl' are more stable than less di/erse s'stems. L4he more comple< the ecos'stem, the more successfull' it can resist a stress. . . . WlXi=e a net, in %hich each =not is connected to others b' se/eral strands, such a fabric can resist collapse better than a simple, unbranched circle of threads -- %hich if cut an'%here brea=s do%n as a %hole.L :9 ' causing %idespread e<tinctions, humans ha/e artificiall' simplified man' ecos'stems. As biologic simplicit' increases, so does the ris= of ecos'stem failure. 4he spreading $ahara Desert in Africa, and the dustbo%l conditions of the *9B)s in the 0nited $tates are relati/el' mild e<amples of %hat might be e<pected if this trend continues. 4heoreticall', eac' ne+ animal or plant e,tinction/ %ith all its diml' percei/ed and intert%ined affects, coul$ cause total ecos'stem collapse and human e<tinction. Fach ne% e<tinction increases the ris= of disaster. Li=e a mechanic remo/ing, one b' one, the ri/ets from an aircraftPs %ings, E) WhuXman=ind ma' be edging closer to the ab'ss.

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'egemon"
A:9S &uts im&ortant (-S- in)estments glo*all" at risk/ colla&sing 'egemon"0oil/ allies/ an$ more Singer/ 2 1lin 7ost-Doctoral 3ello% in 3oreign 7olic' $tudies at the roo=ings Institution (7. 8. $inger, $pring ())(, ?AID$ and International $ecurit'@, /ol. CC, no. *, , pp. *C,Q*,E u4he International Institute for $trategic $tudies, httpI//%%%.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/*).*)E)/))B9DBBE.())(.9DEE,CD-//F&
4he securit' danger presented b' failed states e<tends be'ond the simple human traged' pla'ed out in the ensuing chaos and collapse. 8hile stable states outside the region might imagine themsel/es secure and able to stand aside from failed states, the realities of the global s'stem no longer permit this. &a!or po%ers ha/e clear national interests in man' of the regions most /ulnerable to state failure

generated or e<acerbated b' disease. 4he 0$, for e<ample, has economic in/estments in at-ris= areas in Africa that are, b' some measures, comparable to in/estments in the &iddle Fast or Fastern Furope. B* FAuall', a number of indi/idual states at ris=, such as Angola, "igeria, and $outh Africa, are core regional allies, as %ell as critical suppliers of oil (roughl' one5fift' of all (S im&orts- and strategic minerals. B( A:9S colla&ses t'e (-S- militar" an$ &uts (-S- lea$ers'i& in >eo&ar$" <el$*aum et al/ . Director of >lobal .ealth, 3ood $ecurit' and De/elopment at the "ational $ecurit' Council (.arle' 3eldbaum, Jelle' Lee, 7reeti 7atel, D/*B/D, ?4he "ational $ecurit' Implications of .IG/AID$@, httpI//%%%.plosmedicine.org/article/infoUBAdoiU(3*).*B:*U(3!ournal.pmed.))B)*:*-//F&
4%o leaders in the global fight against .IG/AID$NRichard 3eachem, F<ecuti/e Director of the >lobal 3und to 3ight AID$, 4uberculosis, and &alaria, and 7eter 7iot, F<ecuti/e Director of the Joint 0nited "ations 7rogramme on .IG/AID$ (0"AID$-Nha/e recentl' argued that .IG represents an

e,traor$inar" national securit" t'reat W*, (X. 4heir intent has been to appeal to the material and strategic interests of states in
order to increase high-le/el commitment to the fight against .IG/AID$. 8hile increased engagement b' political leaders is clearl' %elcome, a public health perspecti/e on the lin=age bet%een public health and national securit' has so far been missing. 4he benefits and dangers of !ustif'ing efforts to address the pandemic in terms of its impact on national securit' are underappreciated. Despite the high-profile lin=ing of .IG/AID$ and securit', including four 0nited "ations $ecurit' Council (0"$C- meetings and prominent mention %ithin the 0nited $tates national securit' strateg', critical debate about the %a's in %hich public health interacts %ith the securit' interests of states are scarce in public health !ournals. Journals ha/e e<amined the %a's national securit' issues, including the recent %ar in IraA and the IsraeliQ7alestinian conflict WB, CX, ha/e negati/el' affected public health. .o%e/er, the %a's public health affects national securit' interests ha/e rarel' been considered. It is essential to e<amine this debate, including e/idence for the lin=s bet%een .IG/ AID$ and national securit', from a public health perspecti/e because of the implications this lin=age has for the direction and funding of global .IG/ AID$ efforts. 4his paper argues for greater understanding and anal'sis of the public healthQnational securit' ne<us to ensure this lin=age benefits the fight against .IG/AID$. $uccessfull' negotiating this ne<us is essential because the humanitarian ob!ecti/es of global health do not fit easil' into the state-centered perspecti/e of national securit'. >lobal health %or=s to impro/e the health of all people %ithin and across states, %hile the national securit' field %or=s to protect the people, propert', and interests of onl' one state. 4his article %ill present the uniAue national securit' perspecti/e on the .IG/AID$ pandemic and e/idence on the lin=s bet%een .IG/AID$ and national securit', and %ill e/aluate the ris=s and benefits of addressing .IG/ AID$ as a national securit' issue. 4he "ational $ecurit' 7erspecti/e on the .IG/AID$ 7andemic "ational securit' is traditionall' defined as the protection of a statePs territor', population, and interests against e<ternal threats. 8hile recogni#ing the humanitarian dimensions of the .IG/AID$ pandemic, national securit' anal'ses rel' on the human impacts of the disease to be large enough to affect the militar', political, and economic interests of a state. 3or e<ample, a partiall' declassified 0$ "ational Intelligence Council estimate argues that

infectious diseases threaten American national securit' because the' %ill ?endanger 0$ citi#ens at home and abroad, threaten 0$ armed forces deplo'ed o/erseas, and e<acerbate social and political instabilit' in =e' countries and regions in %hich the 0nited $tates has significant interests@ W,X. 4his focus on strategic interests %ithin national
securit' thin=ing partiall' e<plains %h' other global health problems of comparabl' high morbidit' and mortalit', such as noncommunicable diseases, are not currentl' considered threats to national securit'. 4he effects of these global health problems are not seen to significantl' impact the strategic interests of po%erful states. 4hree main arguments lin=ing .IG/ AID$ and national securit' emerge from the securit' communit'Ps anal'ses of the .IG/AID$ pandemic. 4he

first describes the impact of .IG/AID$ on indi/iduals critical to the maintenance of state and international securit'I soldiers and peace=eepers. 4he second argument suggests that the epidemic in some sub-$aharan African nations ma' cause state instabilit' and failure. 4he third argument focuses on the securit'
effects of the %orsening pandemic on the large, strategicall' important states of Russia, India, and China (see 3igure *-. 4he e/idence for each of these arguments is considered in turn. .IG/AID$ is se/erel' affecting the armed forces of man' countries. Accurate data on pre/alence of .IG among soldiers is difficult to obtain because affected states either do not collect or do not %ant .IG pre/alence data published. In *99E, 0"AID$ estimated that se<uall' transmitted disease ?rates among armed forces are generall' ( to , times higher than in ci/ilian populations@ WDX. Recent estimates are more conser/ati/e and suggest that .IG pre/alence among armed forces is eAual to or slightl' greater than ci/ilian rates from the same countr' W:X. Despite the lac= of reliable data, there is e/idence that the disease is affecting African militaries. 0gboga "%o=o!i and Ademola A!u%on state that ?AID$ is no% the leading cause of death in militar' and police forces in some African countries, accounting for more than half of in-ser/ice mortalit'@ WEX. 4he 0$ "ational Intelligence Council estimates that ?.IG/AID$ probabl' %ill complicate staffing in the militar' officer corps@ of "igeria and Fthiopia W,X. .o%e/er, the impact of .IG/AID$ on militaries is not limited to Africa. In Russia, 9,))) potential draftees ha/e been re!ected for ser/ice because of testing .IG positi/e in the last fi/e 'ears, %ith ,,))) re!ected in the last t%o 'ears alone (&. 3eshbach, unpublished data-. 8hile China and IndiaPs large populations pro/ide some insulation against shortages in militar' personnel, these countries are increasingl' monitoring AID$ in their militaries as epidemics in these countries spread W,X. 4he impact that high .IG pre/alence %ill ha/e on the strategic capabilities of militaries is comple<. &ost anal'sts

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 1.1/283 emphasi#e the negati/e securit' implications of increasing rates of .IG infection in militaries . 4he loss of highl' trained, professional soldiers to AID$ %ill ha/e a ma!or impact on affected armed forces . 4rained soldiers are difficult and e<pensi/e to replace, and their absence interrupts the training of 'ounger recruits. Armed forces that rel' %holl' or partiall' on conscripts face a decreasing pool of health' recruits as .IG/AID$ continues to spread. RussiaPs .IG
epidemic is alread' e<acerbating an e<isting shortage of health' indi/iduals a/ailable for militar' ser/ice. It is also argued that armed forces %ith high .IG pre/alence ma' incur mounting costs to treat soldiers %ith antiretro/iral drugs, leading the militar' to see= greater proportions of public e<penditure %hile rendering them less able to protect national and international interests W9, *)X.

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resource +ars/$emocrac"
H:C causes glo*al insta*ilit"/ resource +ars/ an$ 'urts $emocrac" 2us'ton/ 10 Centre for .ealth and International Relations, Department of International 7olitics ($imon Rushton, 9/9/*), ?AID$ and international securit' in the 0nited "ations $'stem@, httpI//heapol.o<ford!ournals.org/content/(,/D/C9,.full-//F& 4hat .IG is a threat to the stabilit' of states or regions . A /ariet' of %a's in %hich the disease can contribute to instabilit' ha/e been proposedI the Zhollo%ing out5 of state institutions through illness and premature death (>arrett
()),I C*-+ the economic and social conseAuences of lost producti/it' (3o< and Jassalo% ())*I *,,,-+ the creation of AID$ orphans, %hich could fuel the child soldier problem ($inger ())(I *,*-+ illness and premature death ha/ing a detrimental impact upon the effecti/eness of the militar' and securit' ser/ices charged %ith maintaining order (1stergard ())(I BC(QC-. 4hat the threat posed b' .IG %ill increasingl' be a global one. Although to date attention has largel' focused on sub-$aharan Africa, much of the same logic could appl' in other regions, including Asia %here pre/alence rates in the Zne<t %a/e5 of states (including emerging po%ers seen as critical to regional and global securit' such as China and India- are on the rise ("ational Intelligence Council ())(+ $chneider and &oodie ())(+ 4hompson ())C+ .unter ()),-. As Alan Dupont (())*I ((,- has arguedI L? If

.IG continues to proliferate in Fast Asia, as seems li=el', the /irus %ill undermine ci/il societ', slo+ t'e $emocratisation &rocess an$ intensif" &o)ert"/ resource scarcit" an$ conflict , directl' affecting the national securit' interests of afflicted states, the region5s collecti/e securit' interests and the li/es of millions of people. 8hat is especiall' %orr'ing about the AID$ pandemic is that e/en though Asia has alread' o/erta=en Africa as the epicentre of
the disease, its full impact %ill not be felt for perhaps another decade because of .IG5s length' incubation period.@L

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faile$ states
A:9S colla&ses t'e foun$ations of sta*ilit" Singer/ 2 1lin 7ost-Doctoral 3ello% in 3oreign 7olic' $tudies at the roo=ings Institution (7. 8. $inger, $pring ())(, ?AID$ and International $ecurit'@, /ol. CC, no. *, , pp. *C,Q*,E u4he International Institute for $trategic $tudies, httpI//%%%.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/*).*)E)/))B9DBBE.())(.9DEE,CD-//F& AID$ and the militar' 4he primar' connection bet%een AID$ and conflict appears to come from the uniHue linkage bet%een the disease and the institution of the militar' . $tudies consistentl' find that the a/erage infection rates of soldiers are significantl' higher than eAui/alent age groups in the regular ci/ilian population . 4his is true across the globe, %hether in the 0$, 0J, 3rance, or in armies of the de/eloping %orld %here the problem is magnified. Recent studies in Africa
ha/e found that *CE 7. 8. $inger militar' infection rates are around four times that of the ci/ilian population. During periods of %ar, this figure often soars to as much as ,) times higher. *C 4he reasons for this unhapp' lin= are /aried. In addition to being recruited from the most

se<uall' acti/e age groups, soldiers are t'picall' posted a%a' from their communities and families for long periods of time. esides disconnecting them from traditional societal controls on beha/iour, this also means that the' are remo/ed from contact %ith spouses or regular se<ual partners. 7ersonnel are often lonel' or stressed and t'picall' ha/e more mone' than the local population, but little to spend it on . 4heir cloistering in bases
thus tends to attract other high-ris= populations, including prostitutes and drug dealers. 3inall', soldiers li/e and %or= inside an institution and culture that tends to encourage ris=-ta=ing, so precautions against certain beha/iour are often esche%ed. In blunt terms, e/en in peacetime, militar' bases tend to attract prostitutes and soldiers usuall' don5t use condoms. 1n deplo'ment, this problem is heightened. *, 4he result is that man' armies are the focal point of AID$ infection in their nation and are essentiall' under direct attac= from the disease. 4he a/erage infection rate of African militaries is about B) U, but is much higher for the states that ha/e e<perienced AID$ for longer periods of time. Fstimates of .IG infection rates among African armies are as high as ,) U in the Congo and Angola, DD U in 0ganda, :, U in &ala%i and E) U in 2imbab%e. *D It is the primar' cause of death in man' armies Q e/en those, such as the Congo5s, %hich ha/e freAuentl' been at %ar o/er the last decade. *: It permeates the $outh African militar' to the e<tent that soldiers (as %ell as police- are prohibited from gi/ing blood. &ilitaries be'ond the sub-$aharan African AID$ core Q that is, from states %ith lo%er infection rates Q are follo%ing this trend. 3or e<ample, the arm' of $ierra Leone is, %ith ritish militar' assistance, attempting to rema=e itself into an effecti/e fighting force. 4he disco/er' that as man' as one in three in the arm' are no% .IG-positi/e is ma=ing this more difficult. *E $imilarl', one in three Russian draftees is no% re!ected for /arious health reasons, compared to one in t%ent' *, 'ears ago. *9 4he results are de/astating for the militar' as an institution and can lead to a dangerous %ea=ening of its capabilities. As Colonel Je/in eaton of the 0J5s Ro'al Arm' &edical Corps noted, Z.istor' is littered %ith e<amples of armies falling apart for health reasons5. () esides the effect on the regular troops and the general recruiting pool ,

the disease is particularl' costl' to militar' forces in terms of its draining effect on the s=illed positions . AID$ is
not onl' =illing regular conscripts but also officers and "C1s Q =e' personnel that militar' forces are least able to lose. 4hus, leadership capacities and professional standards are directl' suffering from the disease5s scourge. $e/eral armies, including those of ots%ana, 0ganda and 2imbab%e, are alread' facing serious gaps in their leadership cadres. In &ala%i, at least half the general staff is thought to be .IG-positi/e, %hile the arm'5s commander stated that he belie/ed a Auarter of his o/erall force %ould be dead from the disease %ithin the ne<t three 'ears. (* 4his hollo%ing-out of militaries,

particularl' at the leadership le/el, has a number of added implications for securit'. As human capacit' is lost, militar' organisations5 efforts to modernise are undermined. 7reparedness and combat readiness deteriorate . F/en if a ne% recruiting pool is found to replace sic= troops, cohesion is compromised. As the' lose their leadership to
an un'ielding, demoralising foe, the organisations themsel/es can unra/el. 4he higher ris= %ithin the militar' compounds the disease5s impact b' transferring it to the political le/el. Commanders in countries %ith high rates of infection alread' %orr' that the' are no% unable to field full contingents for deplo'ment or to assist their nation5s allies. AID$-%ea=ened militaries also pose the ris= of domestic instabilit' and ma'

e/en in/ite foreign attac=. "amibia5s defence ministr', deeming AID$ to be a ne% form of strategic /ulnerabilit', has treated militar' infection rates as classified information. (( AID$ and state failure AID$ threatens not !ust the militar' but the %hole state. As the disease spreads and becomes e/er more per/asi/e, Zit $estro"s t'e )er" fi*re of +'at constitutes a nationI indi/iduals, families and communities, economic and political institutions, militar' and police forces5. (B 4he manner in %hich AID$ can hollo% out alread' %ea= states parallels its effect on militaries . In contrast to other epidemics, %hich tended to =ill
off the %ea= and infirm first, AID$ in the de/eloping %orld tends to claim the li/es of the more producti/e members of societ', %ho are not easil' replaced. Fducated and %ell-off citi#ens are more mobile, and thus ha/e often contracted the disease first. &an' states ha/e clusters of the disease in the middle and upper le/els of management in both business and go/ernment, and AID$ is alread' being blamed for shortages of s=illed %or=ers in a number of countries. (C 3or e<ample, *) U of all African teachers are e<pected to die from AID$ b' ()), , %hile bet%een (,Q,) U of health-care %or=ers in stric=en states such as &ala%i %ill similarl' die from the disease. (, In the %ords of 7eter 7iot, the head of 0"AID$, the 0" organisation concerned %ith AID$5 global impact, the disease Zis de/astating the ran=s of the most producti/e members of societ' %ith an efficac' histor' has reser/ed for great armed conflicts5. (D 4he impact is felt not !ust in go/ernance, but also in economic and social de/elopment. esides acting as a ne% sort of ta< on societ', b' increasing the health-care costs of business across the board, the disease also discourages foreign in/estment. 8or=force producti/it' decreases, %hile re/enues go do%n as the local consumer base is impo/erished. (: 4he disease increases budgetar' needs at the same time as it shrin=s the ta< base. T'e conseHuences coul$ +ell *e s'attering for alread' impo/erished states. 4he 8orld an=

considers AID$ to be the single biggest threat to economic de/elopment in AfricaI it is e<pected to reduce >D7 in man' states b' as much as () U, in !ust the ne<t decade. 4he rapid spread in po/ert'-stric=en post-$o/iet states, including those in Central Asia ne%l' important to the %ar on terrorism, could be eAuall' catastrophic. (E 4he precise securit' threat here is that AID$ causes dangerous %ea=nesses in the pillars of an other%ise stable state I its militar'+ its go/erning institutions and *,) 7. 8. $inger econom'. 4he disease is accordingl' no longer !ust a s'mptom but a fundamental catal'st of state crisis. (9 As public

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 1. /283 institutions crumble and senior officials succumb to the disease, public confidence in go/erning bodies is further threatened. B) 4he %ea=ening of state bodies at points of crisis has repeatedl' been the spar= for coups, re/olts and other political and ethnic struggles to secure control o/er resources. As the recent collapse of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC- illustrates, %arlords, plunderers and other /iolent actors %ill mo/e in to fill the /oid left b' a failing state . 4hat the disease is concentrating in areas alread' undergoing tenuous political transitions Q such as Africa and the former $o/iet 0nion Q onl' heightens the ris= of instabilit' and state failure . A:9S causes faile$ states/ insta*ilit"/ an$ genoci$e0C:A re&ort &ro)es Singer/ 2 1lin 7ost-Doctoral 3ello% in 3oreign 7olic' $tudies at the roo=ings Institution (7. 8. $inger, $pring ())(, ?AID$ and International $ecurit'@, /ol. CC, no. *, , pp. *C,Q*,E u4he International Institute for $trategic $tudies, httpI//%%%.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/*).*)E)/))B9DBBE.())(.9DEE,CD-//F&
A recurring theme at all these meetings %as the gro%ing danger presented b' the epidemic, not !ust in terms of direct /ictims of the disease itself, but to international securit'. $pea=ing at the 0" $ecurit' Council session, James 8olfensohn, head of the 8orld an=, stated, Z&an' of us used to thin= of AID$ as a health issue. 8e %ere %rong ... nothing %e ha/e seen is a greater challenge to the peace and stabilit' of African societies than the epidemic of AID$ ... %e face a ma!or de/elopment crisis, and more than that, a securit' crisis5. ( Indeed, a significant continuit' bet%een Clinton and ush administration %orld/ie%s is the perception of a lin= bet%een AID$ and increased instabilit' and %ar. 3ollo%ing a CIA report

on ho% the disease increased the prospects of Zre/olutionar' %ars, ethnic %ars, genocide, and disrupti/e regime transitions5, the Clinton administration declared .IG/AID$ a Znational securit' threat5 in ())) . 4he administration %as initiall' accused of
pandering to certain acti/ist groups, but b' the time of his confirmation hearings in ())* , the ne% $ecretar' of $tate Colin 7o%ell %as also declaring the disease a Znational securit' problem5. B $imilarl', 0$ 0nder-$ecretar' of $tate 7aul Dobrians=' stated that Z.IG/AID$ is a threat to securit' and global stabilit', plain and simple5. C 4he looming securit' implications of AID$, particularl' %ithin Africa, are no% a baseline assumption. .o%e/er, the mechanisms b' %hich ZAID$ has changed the landscape of %ar5 are barel' understood. , 4his essa' see=s to e<plain those mechanisms. AID$ not

onl' threatens to heighten the ris=s of %ar, but also multiplies its impact. 4he disease %ill hollo% out militar' capabilities, as %ell as state capacities in general, %ea=ening both to the point of failure and collapse . &oreo/er, at these times of increased /ulnerabilit', the disease also creates ne% pools of militant recruits, %ho portend e/en greater /iolence, as %ell !eopardising certain pillars of international stabilit' . In isolation, this increased ris= of %ar around the globe is bad enough, but there are also certain t'pes of cross-fertilisation bet%een the disease and conflict, intensif'ing the threat . 4he ultimate d'namic of %arfare and AID$ is that their combination ma=es both more likel" an$ more $e)astating-

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&eacekee&ing
A:9S re$uces t'e success an$ &o&ularit" of su&&orting &eacekee&ing o&erations ;l*e/ % Lecturer in International Relations in the Department of >o/ernment at the 0ni/ersit' of Fsse< ($tefan Flbe, ()), ?.IG/AID$I 4he International $ecurit' Dimensions@, stefanelbe.com/resources/ElkeBook.doc-//F& C. .IG/AID$ and International $ecurit' 4he significance of the impact of .IG/AID$ on the armed forces goes be'ond the domestic considerations of those countries affected+ it also gi/es rise to an important international securit' dimension because man' of these same armed forces regularl' contribute to international peace=eeping operations aimed at mitigating and containing the outbrea= of armed conflicts. .IG/AID$ poses additional logistical and political problems for these

peace=eeping operations as it becomes increasingl' %ell =no%n that peace=eepers are at a special ris= both of contracting and spreading .IG %hen and %here the' are deplo'ed. 4here are three important %a's in %hich .IG/AID$ has alread' begun to affect peace=eeping operations o/er the course of the past 'ears. 3irst, it has become increasingl' %ell-=no%n that peace=eepers can contribute to the spread of .IG %here and %hen the' are deplo'ed. Z.ere,5 Richard .olbroo=e has argued, Z%e get into one of the ugliest secret truths \ about AID$I it is spread b' 0" peace=eepers.5 In his /ie% this creates Zalmost the greatest iron' of allI in the cause of peace=eeping to spread a disease %hich is =illing *) times as man' people as %ar.5 In $ierra Leone, for e<ample, the ci/il %ar seems to ha/e escalated the number of infections partiall' due to peace=eepers %ho %ere, amongst other places, from 2ambia, Jen'a and "igeria--all countries %ith high pre/alence rates in the militar'. Although accurate data is again lac=ing, one recent report notes that ZB( percent of peace=eepers Win $ierra LeoneX originate from countries %ith .IG pre/alence rates greater than , percent.5 >i/en such circumstances the .IG/AID$ coordinator .irut efecadu has insisted that Zthe population should be protected from the soldiers as %ell, because most of the troops come from places %here AID$ is a problem.5 4he recognition that peace=eepers can be sources of .IG transmission has begun to create political problems for international peace=eeping operations, as countries cite this problem as a ground for refusing to host such missions. In eastern Africa, for e<ample, Fritrean officials initiall' %anted a guarantee that no .IG-positi/e soldiers %ould be deplo'ed there. 4he' %rote to the $ecurit' Council in &arch of ())* e<plicitl' reAuesting that countries contributing troops should screen them for .IG. 4he letter contained an Zappeal to troop contributing countries to understand our concern. Fritrea is at the moment engaged in a /er' rigorous national campaign to pre/ent the spread of AID$\.5 4his political problem %as further e<acerbated b' the subseAuent emergence of accusations of se<ual abuse against one peace=eeper. 4he Fritrean go/ernment has demanded that the peace=eeper accused of se<uall' abusing an under-age girl be brought to !ustice and used to opportunit' to add its concern that it had as=ed peace=eepers to be tested for .IG/AID$, but that this had not 'et been properl' implemented. In Asia, political problems ha/e also been emerging o/er the past decade regarding the transition authorit' in Cambodia. As the 0nited "ations arri/ed in Cambodia bet%een the spring of *99( and $eptember *99B in order to implement the peace agreement and in order to organi#e democratic elections, the .IG rate appears to ha/e increased dramaticall'. ' the end of *999 there %ere an estimated ((),))) people li/ing %ith .IG. Although there is insufficient data to discern %hat proportion of this increase %as due to the presence of international peace=eepers, some officials in 7hnom 7enh place considerable blame for the spread of the epidemic in Cambodia on the 0nited "ations 4ransition Authorit' in Cambodia (0"4AC-. 4he 0"4AC mission %as uniAue at the time and brought more than (),))) foreign people into Cambodia. 4his influ< of people, man' of %hom %ere ci/ilian officials and not !ust peace=eepers, also infused a fair amount of mone' into a countr' other%ise struggling %ith po/ert' for man' 'ears. 1n a/erage, se< %or=ers (coming in some cases from as far a%a' as Fastern Furope- reportedl' doubled the number of their clients per night from fi/e to ten during the time of the 0" mission. $ubseAuent testing on 0"4AC soldiers from the 0nited $tates and from 0rugua' sho%s that the' %ere infected %ith the .IG subt'pe F, %hich had pre/iousl' onl' been found in $outheast Asian and in Central Africa. Reali#ing the potential problem %ith the Cambodia mission, the Indonesian militar' decided to screen BD(: soldiers that participated in 0"4AC. 4%el/e of these tested .IG positi/e, at least se/en infections of %hich are li=el' to ha/e been acAuired %hilst in Cambodia. 4his figure e<ceeded the onl' other t%o deaths amongst Indonesian peace=eepers that resulted from non-AID$ related causes. "or is this a problem confined to Asia and Africa. During the al=ans conflict, 2agreb officials, too, made a /ocal attempt to ensure that African peace=eepers do not ser/e in Croatia in light of the ris= of .IG transmission. In the long run, therefore, the impact of .IG/AID$ ma' %ell influence the %illingness of countries to host such operations. A second %a' in %hich the impact of .IG/AID$ on armed forces could pose a future

challenge for international peace=eeping operations is that it ma' also ma=e such missions increasingl' unpopular amongst those countries that contribute peace=eepers to them. After all, man' of the factors that render national

militar' populations a high-ris= group in terms of .IG/AID$ appl' !ust as %ell to international peace=eepers. 7eace=eepers, too, can be posted a%a' from home for long periods of time. In one case, "igerian peace=eepers %ere on field dut', %ithout rotation, for up to three 'ears. In this particular case the incidence rate %as actuall' correlated to the duration of the deplo'ment, increasing to se/en percent in the first 'ear, to ten percent after t%o 'ears, and e/en fifteen percent after three. 7eace=eeping missions additionall' tend to attract large numbers of se< %or=ers, thus lin=ing t%o high-ris= groups. Countries ma' conseAuentl' become reluctant to contribute to peace=eeping operations if the' reali#e that some of those %ho are deplo'ed %ill return .IG-positi/e. 1f the *),))) troops that "igeria sent to $ierra Leone in *99:, ** percent of the returning ones tested .IG-positi/e. 4he "igerian go/ernment admitted in December of *999 that there %as an e<tremel' high pre/alence rate amongst its troops participating in the FC18A$ &onitoring >roup (FC1&1>- peace=eeping operations in neighboring 8est African states. Although specific figures %ere not gi/en, Gice 7resident Abuba=ar Ati=u described the situation as Zgra/e.5 4his is actuall' part of a larger trend %hereb' more peace=eepers ha/e succumbed to AID$-related illnesses since the *9E)s than to battle in!uries. 4hese losses are not onl' regrettable from the point of /ie% of the indi/idual soldiers and the armed forces, but also for peace=eeping operations in general as soldiers %ith /aluable prior e<perience die prematurel' from AID$-related illnesses.

?eacekee&ing failure causes glo*al nuclear +ar 9ean/ 7% (Jonathan, former ambassador to "A41, 4he ulletin of Atomic $cientists-

In an' e/ent, in a %orld of interconnecting communications and en/ironmental, trade, and financial lin=s, the 0nited $tates, a leading industrial trading countr' that needs access to ra% materials and mar=ets, usuall' ends up pa'ing in one %a' or another %hen a ma!or regional conflict erupts. In practical terms, it is impossible for the 0nited $tates to a/oid some degree of in/ol/ement %hen ma!or regional conflicts brea= out. 3or ()) 'ears, the united states has been urging libert', freedom, democrac', human rights, free mar=et /alues, /oluntar' mutual aid and collecti/e securit' on the outside %orld. 4he united states is the sole sur/i/ing %orld-class po%er, %ith militar' strength and gnp far larger than an' other countr'. As a result, %hen large-scale

conflict erupts, the 0nited $tates cannot a/oid being called on for help, as it %as in $omalia, osnia, R%anda, and .aiti. 3or the 0nited $tates to see= to stand aside or to respond onl' %ea=l' in such cases is to ris= damage to its credibilit' and %orld%ide influence.

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7resident clinton !ustified the nato bombing of serbian positions in bosnia and the u.s. in/asion of haiti b' sa'ing that the credibilit' and reliabilit' of the u.s. %as at sta=e, as it %as. It is true that past administrations used similar arguments to !ustif' continued u.s. in/ol/ement in /ietnam long after it %ould ha/e been %ise to %ithdra%. "onetheless, %hen the collecti/e disappointment of %orld opinion o/er the beha/ior of the united states (or of an' ma!or countr'- becomes intense and enduring, it begins to undermine the international prestige and standing of the entire nation considerable diminution of u.s. stature and influence has alread' ta=en place o/er the past four or fi/e 'ears in connection %ith faltering u.s. policies to%ard bosnia, somalia, and r%anda. 3ortunatel', americans are not spartans, romans or prussians-self-disciplined militaristic peoples %ho considered it a matter of national pride not to recoil from conflict because of casualties among their forces. .o%e/er, if the trends continue that underlie the public outrage that follo%ed the death of u.s. ser/icemen in somalia, and u.s. administrations continue to abstain from peace=eeping acti/ities because the' could entail casualties, the united states %ill not long remain a %orld po%er. If 0.$. national prestige declines further under conditions li=e these, the 0.$. capacit' to constructi/el' influence the course of e/ents %ithout the use of force %ill decrease. And %hen

force must be used, the 0nited $tates ma' ha/e to use more of it to be effecti/e. F<perts throughout the %orld e<pect gro%ing population pressures and increasing en/ironmental stress to
de/elop o/er the coming decades into intense, far-reaching social unrest and regional conflict. Fconomic de/elopment is the solution, ho%e/er slo% and uncertain it ma' be in coming. ut the %orld also needs effecti/e regional conflict-pre/ention procedures . Left on its o%n,

regional /iolence can lead to confrontation and e/en %ar bet%een the great po%ers, including the 0nited $tates, as might occur, for e<ample, in the e/ent of conflict bet%een 0=raine and Russia or bet%een China and its neighbors. In the final anal'sis, unchec=ed regional /iolence and the fear of further /iolence %ill lead more states to de/elop nuclear %eapons. In past decades, this process occurred in Israel, $outh Africa, India, 7a=istan , iraA, and presumabl', in "orth Jorea. A %orld %ith () or B) nuclear %eapon states %ould not onl' ma=e a more effecti/e global securit' s'stem impossible, it %ould lead the present
nuclear %eapon states to moderni#e and increase their %eapons-and it %ould mar=edl' increase the /ulnerabilit' of the 0nited $tates to direct attac=. Instead of shrugging at human fallibilit', accepting %ar as ine/itable, and reacting after it happens, 0.$. polic' should aim at establishing an

international &eacekee&ing s"stem that can 'ea$ off an increasing number of conflicts. ConseAuences if this reasoning
is accepted, the administration should decide on and publicl' declare an e<plicit long-term polic' of !oining %ith other countries in see=ing a gradual lo%ering of the le/el of armed conflict in the %orld through pre/enting a gro%ing proportion of potential %ars and curtailing %ars %hen the' do occur.

4his goal %ould be achie/ed b' building an increasingl' effecti/e %orld%ide net%or= of regional conflictpre/ention and peace=eeping organi#ations headed b' a more effecti/e 0nited "ations .

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2ac atQ offcase

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to&icalit"

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2ac to&icalit"
Trafficking is a ke" economic issue0it4s at t'e 'eart of international economic &olic" 9ANA:=@CA5T2A:N@2 AN9 =AC3!@ 2010 (>ergana, 0$ >A1+ and 3ran=, International 1rgani#ation for &igration, International
&igration CEIC, 8ile' 1nline Librar'-

.uman traffic=ing is possibl' the +orst 'uman $e)elo&ment outcome lin=ed to increasing global mobilit' .
against self and famil', and e/en death@. ut the impact of human traffic=ing also has %ider implications because ?traffic=ing undermines the health, safet', and securit' of all nations it touches@ (0$ Department of $tate, ())EI ,-. 4his paper argues that the human

.uman traffic=ing has been described as a form of modern-da' sla/er', %hich depri/es people of their human rights and freedoms. 4he ())E 4raffic=ing in 7ersons Report (0$ Department of $tate, ())E-, notes that, ?.uman traffic=ing has a de/astating impact on indi/idual /ictims, %ho often suffer ph'sical and emotional abuse, rape, threats

for human de/elopment,

de/elopment gains from greater mobilit' could be significantl' enhanced if there %ere greater coherence bet%een policies to combat human traffic=ing and policies to promote de/elopment . Although, man'

traffic=ed persons are either traffic=ed %ithin or from a de/eloping countr', to date traffic=ing and de/elopment ha/e been treated as /er' separate polic' areas. Ffforts to promote human de/elopment ha/e not focused /er' much on the fight against traffic=ing, and policies to tac=le traffic=ing tend not to be lin=ed to %ider measures to promote human de/elopment. >lobal efforts to combat traffic=ing in persons ha/e focused mainl' on the criminali#ation of traffic=ing, along %ith measures to protect and assist /ictims. Relati/el' little attention has been gi/en to the relationship bet%een de/elopment polic' and traffic=ing. Anti-traffic=ing polic' has been dominated b' the pre/ention, protection and prosecution paradigm, %hich tends to focus polic' primaril' on short-term inter/entions.

Trafficking is an economic issue 9ANA:=@CA5T2A:N@2 AN9 =AC3!@ 2010 (>ergana, 0$ >A1+ and 3ran=, International 1rgani#ation for &igration, International
&igration CEIC, 8ile' 1nline Librar'-

4raffic=ing is a comple< de/elopment issue because it has man' different dimensionsI ?It is an economic problem, as the /ast ma!orit' of (men and- %omen see=ing to escape po/ert' are lured into traffic=ing b' the false promise of economic gain .
4raffic=ing is a health problem, as traffic=ed %omen and children are most at ris= of .IG infection. It is a gender problem, as uneAual po%er relations reinforce %omen5s secondar' status in societ'. Lastl', it is a legal problem, as its /ictims are stripped of their human rights@ (0"D7, ()):-.

Trafficking relies fun$amentall" on market im&erfections0t'e &lan is economic engagement *ecause it4s a reme$" to economic $istortions 9ANA:=@CA5T2A:N@2 AN9 =AC3!@ 2010 (>ergana, 0$ >A1+ and 3ran=, International 1rgani#ation for &igration, International
&igration CEIC, 8ile' 1nline Librar'-

Indi/iduals participate in the econom' b' pro/iding labour ser/ices, recei/ing income in return, and bu'ing goods and ser/ices supplied b' firms. 8ith complete information on !ob openings at /arious locations, and free mo/ement of labour, indi/iduals pro/ide labour ser/ices to
firms regardless of firms5 location so as to ma<imi#e indi/idual %ell-being. If indi/iduals choose to mo/e from one location to another o/er a certain time period, the' do so if the return for their s=ills and ser/ices is higher, %hich enables them to afford a larger set of goods and ser/ices as %ell as to acAuire ne% s=ills, technolog' and human capital. 4he financial mar=et facilitates the flo% of funds b' channelling remittances bac= home and opening access to credit for those %ho need it.

Long-standing tradition and cultural factors, as %ell as ne% ones, such as transition to a mar=et econom' and a burgeoning underground econom', lead to labour and financial mar=et imperfections, %hich increase people5s /ulnerabilit', particularl' for those at the bottom end of the income distribution. 4raffic=ing net%or=s could e<ploit that /ulnerabilit' at an' stage of the traffic=ing c'cle b', for e<ample, recruiting and decepti/el' promising emplo'ment or other gains to indi/iduals in need of sustainable li/elihoods . In such instances traffic=ing could be /ie%ed as a form of e<change bet%een indi/idual recruiters and firm o%ners hiring traffic=ed labour for production . 4his e<change ma' or
ma' not ta=e place in a mar=et %ith an e<plicit price mechanism that eAuilibrates suppl' and demand. 4he net%or=s earn profits channelled through financial mar=ets for the perpetuation of the crime or other related criminal acti/ities such as mone' laundering, drug traffic=ing and human smuggling. 4he net%or=s allo% limited or no remuneration for the labour ser/ices of traffic=ing /ictims, thus largel' eliminating the remittances channel to household members at home.

4he imperfections in the labour and financial mar=ets, as %ell as the absence of accurate labour mar=et information restrict indi/idual access to resources and thus relati/e indi/idual po/ert', %hich is often /ie%ed as the ?root cause@ of human traffic=ing.
po/ert', discrimination against %omen and girls and ineAualit' need to be addressed@ (D3ID, ()):I:-+ ? 0"D7

7o/ert' is usuall' listed first on an' list of traffic=ing /ulnerabilit' factors in the de/eloping %orld. ?If the traffic=ing of people is to be pre/ented, its root causes Q such as

loo=s at traffic=ing not !ust as a human rights issue but also a de/elopment issue and po/ert' has been identified as one of the root causes of traffic=ing@ (0"D7, ())B-. In this

conte<t, po/ert' is /ie%ed as a broader concept %ith financial and non-financial aspects including access to both social and economic capital (see discussion of human de/elopment in the pre/ious subsection-. An understanding of the noneconomic elements of po/ert' -- lac= of human capital and gender discrimination -- also helps identif' the most /ulnerable to marginali#ation from the de/elopment process (AD , ())B-.

;fforts to com*at trafficking are economic engagement @?;N C@N12;SS 2012 (1pen Congress is a non-profit, non-partisan public %atchdog, ?1/er/ie%,@ ..R.,*,: - 3ostering Rights through Fconomic
Fngagement in Gietnam Act, httpI//%%%.opencongress.org/bill/**(-h,*,:/sho%-

C/(:/()*(--Introduced.3ostering Rights through Fconomic Fngagement in Gietnam Act or 3RFF Gietnam Act - Amends the 4rade Act of *9:C to add Gietnam to the list of countries ineligible for designation as a beneficiar' de/eloping countr' for purposes of dut'-free treatment of its products under the generali#ed s'stem of preferences unless the 7resident certifies to Congress that GietnamI (*- is not on the special %atch list of countries not in compliance %ith minimum standards for the elimination of human traffic=ing+

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 170/283 ((- does not engage in per/asi/e /iolations of internationall'-recogni#ed human rights, including freedom of speech and freedom of religion+ and (B- other%ise meets the reAuirements of this Act. Authori#es the 7resident to %ai/e such reAuirements if it is in the 0.$. national interest.

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kritiks of $isa$ im&acts

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2ac asteroi$s
T'e t'reat of asteroi$s is a social construction use$ to >ustif" militari6ation of t'e skies Mellor/ 7 Lecturer in $cience Communication at Imperial College London (3elicit' &ellor, E/E/:, ?Asteroid Research and the Legitimi#ation of 8ar in $pace@, httpI//sss.sagepub.com/content/B:/C/C99.full.pdf-//F& $ince the late *9E)s, a small group of astronomers and planetar' scientists has repeatedl' %arned of the threat of an asteroid impacting %ith Farth and causing global destruction. 4he' foretell a large impact causing global fires, the failure of the %orld5s agriculture and the end of human ci/ili#ation . ut, these scientists assure us, %e li/e at a uniAue moment in histor' %hen %e ha/e the technological means to a/ert disaster . 4he' call for support for
dedicated astronomical sur/e's of near-Farth ob!ects to pro/ide earl' %arn- ing of an impactor and the' ha/e regularl' met %ith defence scientists to discuss ne% technologies to deflect an' incoming asteroids. 4he scientists %ho ha/e promoted the asteroid impact threat ha/e

done so b' in/o=ing narrati/es of technological sal/ation Q stories %hich, li=e the $trategic Defense Initiati/e ($DI-, promise securit' through a super%eapon in space. 4he asteroid impact threat can therefore be located %ithin the broader cultural histor' of fantasies about securit' and po%er, %hich, ruce 3ran=lin (*9EE- has argued, is ine<tricabl'
lin=ed to the centur'-old idea that a ne% super%eapon could deli/er %orld peace. .o%ard &cCurd' (*99: :EQE(-, in his stud' of the %a's in %hich the 0$ space programme %as shaped b' popular culture, has suggested that the promotion of the impact threat can be seen as the completion of

Cold 8ar fantasies, %hich had used a politics of fear to !ustif' space e<ploration. &cCurd' highlights the align- ment
bet%een the promotion of the impact threat and %or=s of fiction. In this paper, I consider the reconceptuali#ation of asteroid science that this alignment entailed. It is be'ond the scope of this paper to gi/e a complete histor' of the sci- ence of planetar' impacts. &' focus is on ho% a group of scientists mo/ed from seeing impacts as significant e/ents in Farth histor' to seeing them as threatening e/ents in the human future Q a mo/e from historical to futuro- logical narrati/es. "or is there space to gi/e a full account of the empirical de/elopments that %ere used to support the construal of asteroids as a threat. Rather, I %ish to ma=e the case that these empirical de/elopments %ere gi/en meaning %ithin a specific narrati/e conte<t %hich dre% ci/ilian astronomers into contact %ith defence scientists, especiall' those %or=ing on $DI. A number of studies (for e<ample, &cDougall, *9E,+ 3orman, *9E:+ Je/les, *99)+ DeGor=in, *99(+ Leslie, *99B+ Dennis, *99C- ha/e re/ealed the %a's in %hich 0$ research programmes and nominall'-ci/ilian scien- tific institutions originated in militar' programmes. * 1ne aim of this paper is to demonstrate ho% the boundar' bet%een ci/ilian and militar'

science is blurred not !ust institutionall' , but also at a fundamental conceptual le/el. 4he ci/ilian scientists discussed here
follo%ed different %or=ing prac- tices and traded in different forms of e<pertise than did the defence scien- tists. 4he' %ere t'picall' astronomers or planetar' scientists %ho %or=ed for "A$A or on "A$A-funded research programmes at uni/ersities and pri/ate institutes. 4he' sa% themsel/es as distinct from the defence scien- tists %ho %ere t'picall' ph'sicists and engineers %or=ing on ne% %eapons s'stems or other technologies of national securit' at the Los Alamos and La%rence Li/ermore "ational Laboratories or at armed ser/ices institu- tions. ( Met the t%o groups came to share an interest in asteroids and %ith that a set of assumptions about the nature of human societ', the role of technolog' and our place in outer space. As the' came into contact, their differing bac=grounds meant the' disagreed o/er a number of issues, 'et both sides pursued the collaboration despite the tensions.

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2ac c'ina
T'eir $iscursi)e construction of a AC'ina t'reatB makes +ar ine)ita*le ?an/ 0 Q Department of 7olitical $cience and International Relations, 3acult' of Arts, Australian "ational 0ni/ersit' (Cheng<in, ())C, ?4he LChina 4hreatL in American $elf-ImaginationI 4he Discursi/e Construction of 1ther as 7o%er 7olitics, Alternati/es, (9, pp. B),-BB*, J$41R, .enselI ha/e argued abo/e that the LChina threatL argument in mainstream 0.$. IR literature is deri/ed , primaril', from a $iscursi)e construction of ot'erness. 4his construction is predicated on a particular narcissistic understanding of the 0.$. self and on a positi/ist-based realism , concerned %ith absolute certaint' and securit', a concern central to the dominant 0.$. self-imaginar' . 8ithin these frame%or=s, it seems imperati/e that China be treated as a t'reatening, a*solute ot'er since it is unable to fit neatl' into the 0.$.-led e/olutionar' scheme or guarantee absolute securit' for the 0nited $tates, so that 0.$. po%er preponderance in the post-Cold 8ar %orld can still be legitimated. "ot onl' does this re$uctionist re&resentation come at the e<pense of understanding China as a d'namic, multifaceted countr' but it lea$s ine)ita*l" to a &olic" of containment t'at, in turn, tends to enhance the influence of realpoliti= thin=ing, nationalist e<tremism, and hard-line stance in toda'Ps China. F/en a small dose of the containment strateg' is li=el' to ha/e a highl' dramatic impact on 0.$.-China relations, as the *99,-*99D missile crisis and the ())* sp'-plane incident ha/e /i/idl' attested. In this respect, Chalmers Johnson is right %hen he suggests that La polic' of containment to%ard China implies the possibilit' of %ar , !ust as it did during the Cold 8ar /is-a-/is the former $o/iet 0nion . 4he balance of terror pre/ented %ar bet%een the 0nited $tates and the $o/iet 0nion, but this ma' not %or= in the case of China.L (9B- 3or instance, as the 0nited $tates presses ahead %ith a missiledefence shield to LguaranteeL its in/ulnerabilit' from rather unli=el' sources of missile attac=s, it %ould be almost certain to intensif' ChinaPs sense of /ulnerabilit' and compel it to e<pand its current small nuclear arsenal so as to maintain the efficienc' of its limited deterrence. In conseAuence, it is

not impossible that the t%o countries, and possibl' the %hole region, might be dragged into an escalating arms race that %ould e/entuall' ma=e %ar more li=el' . "either the 0nited $tates nor China is li=el' to be =een on fighting the other. ut as has been demonstrated, t'e DC'ina t'reatD argument, for all its alleged desire for peace and securit', ten$s to make +ar &re&are$ness t'e most DrealisticD o&tion for *ot' si$es-

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2ac econom"
T'e negati)e4s a&&roac' to t'e econom" assures catastro&'ic colla&se0t'e econom" is too 'ar$ for us to un$erstan$ !roker/ 8 7h.D. in political science and professor of political science at the 0ni/ersit' of Gictoria, director of the 7acific Centre for 4echnolog' and Culture and $enior Research $cholar at the 0ni/ersit' of Gictoria (Arthur and &arilouise Jro=er, *)/B)/E, ?Cit' of 4ransformation 7aul Girilio in 1bamaPs America@, httpI//%%%.ctheor'.net/articles.asp<HidY,9:]bio-//F& Are %e be'ond $peed and 7oliticsH 8hat characteri#es contemporar' politics is the unstable mi<ture of speed information and slo% mo/ements. Li=e the slo% implosion of the manufacturing econom' , the slo% rise of e/angelical /isions of catastrophe, the slo% ascent -- the slo% ubiAuit' -- of the speed of technolog', the slo% descent of culture into the cold state of sur/eillance under the sign of bio-go/ernance. Mou can see it e/er'%here. In the %orld econom', the speed of mortgage bac=ed securities, credit s%ap debt offerings, and comple< deri/ati/es al%a's see=s to mo/e at the speed of light . Iceland is the %orldPs first countr' actuall' liAuidated b' h'perrealit' %ith debts amassed at light-speeds no% constituting *) times its national %ealth. Li=e &ichel $erresP the perfect parasite, the 8all $treet financial elite has %or=ed a perfect number on the host of the %orld economies -- implanting un=no%n le/els of to<ic debt e/er'%here in the circulator' s'stem of finance capital, from China and Japan to the Furopean communit'. 8a=ing up to the danger of hot debt mo/ing at light-speed %hen it is definitel' too late, Japanese ban=ers suddenl' declaim that LIt is be'ond panic.L 8all $treet t'pes sa' it is Lpanic %ith a capital 7.L .ar/ard economists, standing on the sidelines li=e a chorus of lament,
%isel' add that %e are no% bet%een Lcapitulation and panicL and Ldebt is good.L 4hat in a %orld of o/er-e<tended economies, sudden loss of financial credibilit', and a sei#ing up of credit mechanisms e/er'%here, the onl' thing to do, financiall' spea=ing, is %ait for the capitulation point -- that fatal moment %hen despair is so deep, pessimism so loc=ed do%n tight in the in/estorPs heart, that e/er'thing !ust stops for an instant. "o in/estments, no hope, no circulation. And for the al%a's hopeful financial anal'sts, this is precisel' the point to begin ane%, to rein/est, to sei#e financial redemption from despair. Definitel' then, not a speed econom', but a politics and econom' of comple< recursi/e loops, trapped in c'cles of

feedbac= %hich no one seems to understand, but %ith /er' real, /er' slo% conseAuencesI li=e /anishing !obs, abandoned health care and trashed communities. In 4he Cit' of 7anic, Girilio %rites about the Lt'rann' of real time,L Lthis accident in
time belonging to an e/ent that is the fruit of a technological progress out of political control.L 3or Girilio, %ePre no% interpellated b' a comple<, three dimensional space-time in/ol/ed in the acceleration of technological progress Lthat reduces the e<tent, the fullness of the %orld to nothing.L 1r something elseH "ot reall' a fatal oscillation bet%een fast technolog' and slo% societ', but h'per-technologies of global financial manipulation that can mo/e so Auic=l' because, !ust as Jean audrillard long ago %arned, the h'perreal, simulational %orld of deri/ati/es, credit

s%aps, and mortgage bac=ed securities long ago blasted off from material realit', reaching escape /elocit', and then orbiting the %orld as star-li=e high finance satellites -- purel' /irtual satellites %hich ha/e no real meaning for the rest of us as long as the' sta' in space as part of the alienated, recursi/e loops of ad/anced capitalism. ut %hen the meltdo%n suddenl' happens, %hen that immense %eight of o/er-indebtedness and to<ic mortgages and credit deri/ates plunge bac= into the gra/itational %eight of real politics and real econom', %e finall' =no% %hat it is to li/e %ithin tra!ectories of the catastrophic. Fconomists are Auoted as sa'ing the financial crisis effects Le/er'one on earth.L Is this GirilioPs Lglobal accidentHL Ouite certainl' it is panic financeI that moment %hen the credit mechanisms necessar' for capitalist liAuidit' slam shut, a time made to measure for GirilioPs
brilliant theor' of bun=er archeolog', %ith each ban= its o%n to<ic bun=er of !un= assets, each ban=er a born again socialist. 3or e<ample, al%a's /igilant automatic circuit brea=ers %or=ing in the dar=ness of night recentl' pre/ented a global plunge of the futures mar=et. Allan >reenspan thro%s up his hands, e<claiming LIPm in shoc=ed disbelief.L

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2ac mi$east
Their representations of the Middle East are rooted in binary systems of exclusion which culminate in violence against the Other who occupies the devalued position in this system. .irchi, &ohammed P):, L&edia Representations of the &iddle Fast,L 8ACC. 8orld Assoc. for Christian Communication. 1nline. This mar-ing of difference is articulated 'ithin clear boundaries " it does not tolerate ambiguous, unstable or h.brid
spaces of indeterminac.. <ccording to ?all% @Stable culture re2uires things to sta. in their appointed place. S.mbolic boundaries -eep the categories @pure9, giving cultures their uni2ue meaning and identit.. /hat unsettles culture is Amatter out of placeBC the brea-ing of our un'ritten rules and codes9 (144D% 25=!. This process of purification legitimi es

e!clusion, intolerance and racism. It also allocates marginal identities to individuals who do not conform to the values of the "est as a geographical and a cultural space. (n this perspective, s.mbolic
representations are necessar. to maintain difference% @S.mbolic boundaries are central to all culture. 8ar-ing AdifferenceB leads us, s.mbolicall., to close ran-s, shore up culture and to stigmati;e and expel an.thing 'hich is defined as impure, strangel. attractive precisel. because it is forbidden, taboo, threatening to cultural order9 (?all, 144D% 25D!. Throughout the centuries, s.mbolic boundaries have been ver. po'erful in maintaining separation bet'een nations and individuals. Since its first contacts 'ith the <rab 'orld, the "est has developed a set of stereotypes depicting Arabs as uncivili ed and violent. ,ne of the most prominent texts that capture this historical encounter is the 12th centur. 1rench epic poem @The Song of 0olland.9 The 3nlightenment, a period during 'hich philosophers ran-ed societies along an evolutionar. scale from @barbarism9 to @civili;ation9, enormousl. contributed to the vulgari;ation of this ideolog.. /ith the spread of coloni;ation during the 14th centur., a 'ell organi;ed scholarship devoted to the representation of @,therness9 emerged as a defining moment in this cross#cultural histor.. (n the United States, a similar ideolog. evolved throughout the 20th centur.. 1rom 14 $ on'ard, the United States became increasingl. involved 'ith the <rab 'orld and (srael . <s a staunch supporter of (srael, <merica found itself in a difficult position to negotiate its preeminence in a 'orld of competitive interests. 8edia corporations too- an active role in redefining <merican cultural and political agendas. 0epresentation of the 8iddle 3ast in mainstream <merican media 8an. media experts in the United States 'ould argue that <merican media cover the 8iddle 3ast 'ithin the 'orldvie' of a primaril. /estern audience. The coverage 'ill thus remain negative and stereot.pical unless a redefinition of cultural differences bet'een the United States and the 8iddle 3ast is negotiated.

Diplomatic historians approach #.S. foreign policy toward the $iddle %ast from a rational perspective privileging American interests in the region. +ulture, in this context, pla.s a subordinate role. (n this
institutional frame'or-, ne's media can be seen as a driving force behind political mobili;ation, both domesticall. and internationall.. The media fosters stereot.pical representations of 8iddle 3astern cultures and peoples and promote misunderstanding and intolerance in the mainstream <merican culture. Since 4&11 and the invasion of (ra2, these negative representations became even more anchored in the <merican cultural imaginar.. 8edia apparatuses contribute enormousl. to the construction of these images and s.mbols rather than construct a conceptual model that sheds light on the complex relationship bet'een the media, culture, and the political process. (n the United States, despite the fact that <rabs have significantl. contributed to the 'ell being of this nation for at least the last t'o centuries, negative representations of this ethnic group abound in scope and intensit.. The constructed images manipulated throughout time have delegated <rabs to second degree citi;ens, unable to embrace the secular ideals of the /estern 'orldvie'. (n this respect, the representation

of $iddle %asterners in the American media is articulated within the framework of a binary oppositional dynamics where the $iddle %ast is classified as an undesired space of barbarism and tyranny. <s cultural critic Stuart ?all puts it, @binar. oppositions are crucial for all classification&establish a difference to
facilitate the tas-s of organi;ing s.stems of perceptions and classifications9 (144D% 22= !. This s.stem of classification is

elaborated to maintain oppositional relationships bet'een the civili;ed and the uncivili;ed, etc. and to create an

atmosphere of fear and discomfort to enhance &difference' for the purpose of controlling the (ther .
(n this context, misrepresentation becomes an effective instrument for advancing political agendas. Throughout the histor. of the /est, negative portra.als have been used to develop means b. 'hich the imperial proEect can be achieved through visual representations. These representations serve as a popular medium to create a lin- bet'een the (mperial e.e and the domestic imagination. (n 1rance for example, the +olonial 3xhibition at the end of the 14th centur. served to capture the relationship bet'een the empire and its @domestic other9. 0epresentation is a complex phenomenon, especiall. 'hen dealing 'ith cultural differences. (t engages emotions, attitudes, reactions and tries to control the vie'er9s fears and 2uestions. (t also promotes a set of cultural values that respond to the anxieties of the vie'er. (n this context, the 8iddle#3asterner in <merican popular media is defined according to these historical and cultural paradigms. >esides his barbarism and his violence, he is also depicted as belonging to the realm of emotions, violent savage and blood thirst.. 8ainstream images of the <rab in the <merican media operate according to a d.namics of cultural distortions" the <rab is al'a.s portra.ed as closer to nature than culture, geneticall. incapable of @civili;ed9 refinements. The concept of @7aturali;ation9 connotes the impossibilit. of <rabs to

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 17./283 embrace culture. Therefore, the. are imprisoned in a space of stabilit. and of fixed @difference9 and meaning. The. are be.ond histor. and incapable of embracing cultural emancipation.

Oriental discourse encourages war and makes their impacts inevitable Jabri )D 7rofessor of International 7olitics and the Director of the Centre for International Relations at the Jing5s College London WGi/ienne, ?8ar,
$ecurit' and the Liberal $tate@ $ecurit' Dialogue httpI//sdi.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/B:/*/C:X

The practices of warfare ta-ing place in the immediate aftermath of 11 September 2001 combine with societal processes, reflected in media representations and in the wider public sphere, where increasingl. the source of threat, indeed the source of terror, is perceived as the cultural other, and specificall. the other associated variousl. 'ith (slam, the 8iddle 3ast and South <sia. There is , then, a particularit. to 'hat <gamben (144$, 200 ! calls the @state of exception9, a state not so much generali;ed and generali;able, but one that is experienced differentl. b. different sectors of the global population. (t is precisel. this differential experience of the

exception that dra's attention to practices as diverse as the formulation of interrogation techni2ues b. militar. intelligence in the )entagon, to the recent provisions of counter#terrorism measures in the UF,G to the legitimi;ing discourses surrounding the invasion of (ra2. All are practices that draw upon a dis)course of

legitimi ation based on prevention and pre)emption. %nemies constructed in the discourses of war are hence always potential, always abstract even when identified, and, in being so, al'a.s dra'n 'idel.
and, in conse2uence, communall.. There is, hence, a @profile9 to the state of exception and its experience. )ractices that profile particular communities, including the citi;ens of 3uropean states, create particular challenges to the self# understanding of the liberal democratic state and its capacit., in the 21st centur., to deal 'ith difference. "hile a

number of measures undertaken in the name of security, such as proposals for the introduction of identit. cards in the UF or increasing surveillance of financial transactions in the US<, might encompass the population as a whole, the politics of e!ception is marked by racial and cultural signification. Those targeted b.
exceptional measures are members of particular racial and cultural communities. The assumed threat that underpins the measures highlighted above is one that is no' openl. associated variousl. 'ith (slam as an ideolog., (slam as a mode of religious identification, (slam as a distinct mode of lifest.le and practice, and (slam as a particular brand associated 'ith particular organi;ations that espouse some form of a return to an (slamic +aliphate. "hen

practices are informed by a discourse of antagonism, no distinctions are made between these various forms of individual and communal identification. /hen communal profiling ta-es place, the
distinction bet'een, for example, the choice of a particular lifest.le and the choice of a particular organi;ation disappears, and diversit. 'ithin the profiled communit. is sacrificed in the name of some @precautionar.9 practice that targets all in the name of security.4 The practices and language of antagonism, 'hen raciall. and culturall. inscribed, place the onus of guilt onto the entire communit. so identified, so that its individual members can no longer simpl. be citi;ens of a secular, multicultural state, but are constituted in discourse as particular citi;ens, subEected to particular and hence exceptional practices . /hen the 8inister of State for the UF ?ome ,ffice states that
members of the 8uslim communit. should expect to be stopped b. the police, she is simpl. expressing the condition of the present, 'hich is that the 8uslim communit. is particularl. vulnerable to state scrutin. and invasive measures that do not appl. to the rest of the citi;enr..10 /e -no', too, that a distinctl. racial profiling is ta-ing place, so that those 'ho are

ph.sicall. profiled are subEected to exceptional measures. 3ven as the so#called 'ar against terrorism recogni;es no boundaries as limits to its practices C indeed, man. of its practices occur at transnational , often indefinable, spaces C 'hat is crucial to understand, ho'ever, is that this does not mean that boundaries are no longer constructed or that they do not impinge on the sphere of the political. The paradox of the current context is that 'hile the war against terrorism in all its manifestations assumes a boundless arena, borders

and boundaries are at the heart of its operations. The point to stress is that these boundaries and the exclusionist
practices that sustain them are not coterminous 'ith those of the state" rather, the. could be said to be located and

perpetuall. constructed upon the corporealit. of those constructed as enemies, as threats to securit.. (t is indeed the corporeal removal of such subEects that lies at the heart of 'hat are constructed as counter#terrorist measures, t.pified in practices of direct 'ar, in the use of torture, in extra#Eudicial incarceration and in Eudiciall. sanctioned detention. /e might, then, as- if such measures constitute violence or relations of po'er, 'here, follo'ing 1oucault, 'e assume that the former acts upon bodies 'ith a vie' to inEur., 'hile the latter acts upon the actions of

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subEects and assumes, as Deleu;e (14G=% D0C45! suggests, a relation of forces and hence a subEect 'ho can act. /hat (

'ant to argue here is that violence is imbricated in relations of power, is a mode of control, a

technology of governmentality. "hen the population of Ira* is targeted through aerial bombardment, the conse*uence goes beyond in+ury and seeks the pacification of the $iddle %ast as a political region. /hen legislative and bureaucratic measures are put in place in the name of securit., those targeted are categories of population. At the same time, the war against terrorism and the security discourses utili;ed in its legitimi;ation are conducted and constructed in terms that imply the defence or protection of populations. ,ne option is to limit policing, militar. and intelligence efforts through the targeting of
particular organi;ations. ?o'ever, it is the limitless construction of the 'ar against terrorism, its targeting of particular

racial and cultural communities, that is the source of the challenge presented to the liberal democratic state. (n conditions constructed in terms of emergenc., war permeates discourses on politics, so that these come to

be sub+ect to the restraints and imperatives of war and practices constituted in terms of the demands of security against an e!istential threat. The implications for liberal democratic politics and our conceptions of the modern state and its institutions are far#reaching,11 for the liberal democratic polity that considers itself in a state of perpetual war is also a state that is in a permanent state of mobili ation, where every aspect of public life is geared towards combat against potential enemies, internal and
external.

Orientalist discourse creates unrestricted imperialism in the Middle East which results in mass killings. 3al=, P),. Richard LImperial /ibrations, 9/**, and the ordeal of the &iddle Fast,L 7aper (B, 0 of Cali. httpI//repositories.cdlib.org /gis/(B
7o matter ho' these issues are understood, it seems clear that the $iddle %ast

has become for the 21st centur. 'hat 3urope 'as in the 20th, that is, the pivot of geopolitical struggle for world domination, the regional site
'here the most dangerous ris-s of strategic 'arfare are at their highest. #add a 2ualif.ing phrase, something to conve. ?,/ the. are similar since the differences are so stri-ing% ma.be as obEects of struggles for controlHI (ndeed, it is 3urope that has recentl. adopted an anti#imperial moderating voice critical of <merican global leadership. This 3uropean critical stance is moc-ed b. neoconservative ideologues as the Jold 3urope.K )roperl. understood, it is the 3uropean call for a geopolitics deferential to international la' and the United 7ations that is reall. expressive of a Jne' 3urope.K This is not the Ane' 3uropeB of 3U enlargement underta-en after the cold 'ar to include countries formerl. in the Soviet bloc, but of a political consciousness that see-s for the sa-e of its o'n interests to moderate conflict and contain the <merican imperial appetite and restrain 'ar ma-ing impulses. This 3uropean perspective is b. no means monolithic, and is as .et in an explorator. mode, undecided and in disagreement about ho' far to push a challenge to <merican leadership. 3urope remains generall. subordinate to the <merican approach to global securit., lac-ing the strategic assets to pursue a trul. independent 'orld role. 7o'here is this subordination more obvious than in the 8iddle 3ast. 1or this reason, the mild 3uropean dissents from -e. <merican policies in the region lac- geopolitical 'eight. (t is here that <merican priorities 'ith respect to support for (srael continue to doom the )alestinians to the cruel realities of prolonged occupation, along 'ith the persistent erection of obstacles bloc-ing )alestinian self#determination, 'ithout encountering a serious 3uropean challenge. (t is here in the 8iddle 3ast that

the American semi)secular crusade on behalf of ,freedom- has turned the cities of Ira* into wastelands of death and devastation, 'hile the rest of the 'orld 'aits and 'onders. (t is here that the control of
energ. reserves and prices is li-el. to determine the course of the 'orld econom. for at least the next t'ent. .ears,
and it is the <merican approach that alone is important in challenging anti#/estern currents of opinion. (t is here that the viabilit. of /ashingtonKs grand strateg. of global domination is being tested b. the strength of nationalist and cultural&religious resistance, 'hile 3urope comments from the sidelines. <nd it is here that the <merican public has been subEected to a propaganda onslaught to the effect that the sole purpose of U.S. militar. presence in the 8iddle 3ast is to defeat Jterrorism,K 'hich itself is explicitl. lin-ed to (slamic extremism, as epitomi;ed b. the al#Laeda attac-s on the /orld Trade +enter and )entagon in 2001. The 3uropeans generall. do not believe this propaganda, but lac- the means to contest it meaningfull.. <ccording to )resident >ush, it is onl. the extermination of these anti#<merican (slamic net'or-s that can bring peace and securit. to the 'orld, and until that (in fact unreali;able! end has been achieved, the region and the 'orld 'ill necessaril. have to be treated as a borderless 'ar ;one. Such prospects are dismal and dangerous, if not altogether apocal.ptic, in their implications. <t the ver. least, 'e need to comprehend the gravit. of this situation as it bears upon the peoples of the 8iddle 3ast, <merica, and the 'orld. %$.I/% A0D (/I%0TA1IS$ The four boo-s under revie' here need to be considered against this broader bac-ground. 3ach ma-es a distinct contribution to a better grasp of the situation confronting the 'orld since 4&11. 3ach is critical of and exceedingl. 'orried b. <merican behavior. 3ach is influenced b. the 'ritings and outlooof 3d'ard Said. 3ach is convinced that <merica has unreali;able imperial ambitions that are intensif.ing the distress of the 8iddle 3ast peoples, particularl. the )alestinians, and dangerousl. inflaming further anti#<merican resentments among

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8uslims ever.'here, especiall. in <rab countries. 3ach is convinced that the histor. of the 8iddle 3ast needs to be ta-en into account in assessing the contemporar. situation. <nd each believes that ,rientalist vie's of the region and its problems have shaped perceptions of leaders and citi;ens, exerting a deforming effect on the <merican capacit. to thin- clearl. about polic., action, goals. >ut be.ond these similarities, each author ta-es on the issues in an innovative and illuminating scholarl. manner, and these four boo-s can and should be read as complements to one another. Met despite these commonalities, there is surprisingl. little overlap. (t is easiest, perhaps, to begin 'ith 0ashid FhalidiKs Resurrecting Empire. (t is meant for the non# specialist, covering mostl. familiar ground in a clear st.le and displa.ing an impressive command of the subEect#matter of imperial ambition in the 8iddle 3ast. FhalidiKs historical baseline for comprehending the present is the period immediatel. after /orld /ar (. That 'as the period 'hen the >ritish and 1rench successfull. reEected /oodro' /ilsonKs half#hearted efforts to insist that the principles of selfdetermination be applied to the peoples previousl. ruled b. the ,ttoman 3mpire. Fhalidi argues that the <merican effort to fill the imperial shoes of the >ritish and 1rench in the region 'as misguided from the outset, and no'here more so than 'ith respect to the (srael&)alestine conflict. There is a sensible chapter devoted to the conflict, critici;ing as self#defeating the approach ta-en b. (srael and /ashington. Fhalidi proposes that future diplomatic efforts should not defer discussion of the core issues of land, Nerusalem, refugees, and 'ater until the last stage of negotiations. 8oreover, (srael must be induced to free;e, if not reverse, its provocative actions 'ith respect to the underl.ing contested issues, 'ith the construction and expansion of settlements being treated as radicall. inconsistent 'ith a search for a solution that has an. prospect of being acceptable to the )alestinians. ,n the broader issues of <merican empire, Fhalidi reflects criticall. on the scale and grandiosit. of the vision that he considers Ain man. 'a.s unprecedented in human histor..B (p.1$5!. ?e loo-s at the failures of past colonial efforts to pacif. the region, as 'ell as at <merican frustrations experienced during the cold 'ar, to dra' his maEor geopolitical lesson, 'hich is a counsel of restraint% A(f this is a lesson in an.thing, it is in the limitations of ra' po'er, and in the capacit. of stubborn local realities to dissipate even the most vivid ideological proEectionsB (p.1D$!.. Fhalidi believes that <merican societ. can come to understand political realit. to the extent necessar. to act intelligentl. and humanel. if it can brush aside the influence of pressure groups so as to be able to perceive, 'ith the benefit of an a'areness of anticolonial nationalism in the <rab 'orld during the 20th centur., the dangers and fallacies of a Jresurrecting empireK proEect. To reach this a'areness, <merican leaders and the public must first reali;e ho' the policy

being +ustified in the name of ,anti)terrorism- is seen else'here in the 'orld, especiall. the 8iddle 3ast% as a coloni ing pro+ect driven by oil, Israel, and strategic goals of regional domination. This pro+ect, argues Fhalidi, is certain to fail, imposing tragedy and catastrophe on both the perpetrators and the victimi ed peoples seeking to survive in the midst of bloody struggle. /hile Fhalidi presents political realit.
in the 8iddle 3ast as filtered through a historicall. conditioned geopolitics, Oacher. 6oc-man is preoccupied 'ith the

influence of ideologicall. loaded interpretative filters provided b. the prevailing modes of scholarl. interpretation that have long distorted our perceptions of the region and its civili;ation. ?e argues that the policy makers

cannot act constructively in relation to Islam and the $iddle %ast until they free themselves of the 2(rientalist3 paradigms of interpretation that appear to validate perceptions of the Islamic other as an implacable and barbaric enemy. Contending Visions of the Middle East is a sophisticated, lucidl. presented
account of 'hat 6oc-man labels as Athe politics of -no'ledgeB (p. 5!. (t see-s to uncover the deep roots of ,rientalism, contending that the clash bet'een (slam and the /est began in earnest over nine hundred .ears ago, specificall. in 104$ 'hen the 1irst +rusade 'as launched in response to )ope Urban ((Ks call to +hristians Ato unite, mobili;e and attac- the Jenemies of *od.KB (p. 2D! The related contention is that from this time on'ard, A(slam occupied a uni2ue (though never simple! place in the imaginations of 'estern 3uropeans . . .that it 'as 3uropeKs JotherK in a special senseB (p. 5=!. (slam 'as regarded as Athe dangerous enem. right next door, the usurper 'hich had sei;ed the ?ol. 6and as 'ell as man. other lands in 'hich +hristianit. once flourished, and 'hich continued to constitute a threat to +hristendomB (p. 5D!. 6oc-man see-s to expose the ideological roots of ,rientalism as constituted b. a combination of /estern civili;ational self#esteem (at the expense of others! and a simplistic vie' of (slam in essentialist terms of degenerate otherness. The civili;ational outloo- of the /est 'as originall. shaped in an ancient *reece that assessed the 'orld in terms of a fundamental dualism bet'een the civili;ed self and the barbaric other. Such a dualism later 'as adopted b. 3urope in general and applied to (slam, 'hich 'as portra.ed b. scholarl. discourse as an unchanging essence fostering J,riental despotismK producing uniforml. oppressive political arrangements. (t also featured an A(slamic mind,B or an A<rab mind,B 'hich 'as irrational and illogical, as contrasted 'ith the A/estern mind,B 'hich 'as rational and coherent. The reader is then ta-en on an intellectual tour through the scholarl. landscape that mar-s the evolution of this ,rientalist perception, giving detailed attention to the 'or- of ?.<.0. *ibb and >ernard 6e'is, 'hich he labels Alate ,rientalism.B 6e'is is portra.ed convincingl. as a scholar 'ho used his erudition dangerousl. as an ideological tool to promote his inflammator. insistence on Ja clash of civili;ationsK (anticipating ?untingtonKs notorious social scientific argument built around the same phrase!. The (slamic 'orld 'as vie'ed as opposed to all that 'as modern, and as irremediabl. autocratic in state&societ. relations. 1or 6oc-man, the 6e'is outloo-, formulated more than t'ent. .ears before the 4&11 attac-s, involved the standard vie' of (slam as a unitar. civili;ation 'ithout important internal tensions. Under this vie', the (slamic resurgence, coupled 'ith the Afailed encounter 'ith modernit.,B produced rage and extremism among the <rab masses, thereb. posing Aa serious threat to the JNudeo#+hristianK /estB (p. 1D$!. 6oc-man presents himself as dedicated to the humane and responsible uses of -no'ledge as the basis of a more appropriate politics. ?e

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ends the boo- b. reaffirming his central message that as <mericans 'e no longer can Aafford not to -no', if 'e ever could. The costs of historical amnesia, 'illful ignorance, and crude misunderstandings about the rest of the 'orld and our place in it pervade <merican societ., culture and politics and onl. li-el. to rise, and it is the innocent here and abroad 'ho 'ill b. and large pa. the price.B (p.2D2! (t is a call to redeem the politics of -no'ledge from those 'ho 'ould lead societ. astra. 'ith hidden imperialist agendas or misleading readings of civili;ational essentialism. Such a call from 'ithin seems appropriate given the 'a. the >ush administration has mobili;ed 'illing academic accomplices such as >ernard 6e'is and 1ouad <Eami to explain its crusading commitment to moving for'ard on the path of 'arfare and imperial geopolitics in the aftermath of 4&11. 4(1(0IA1IS$ /%D#5 /hile all four boo-s under revie' here ma-e a maEor contribution to a better understanding of <mericaKs relationship to the 8iddle 3ast, the originalit. and profundit. of Dere- *regor.Ks The Colonial Present puts it at the top of m. list. (n a significant respect, 8amdaniKs approach lin-s 'ith that espoused b. *regor. in his trul. extraordinar. volume% both emphasi;e the U.S. claim of being exempt from the limits on its behavior imposed b. international la' and common moralit.. (t is this invocation of a state of exception, and 'ith it an ethos of impunit. for transgressing even the most basis norms of international la', that leads *regor. to accept the illuminating relevance of *iorgio <gambenKs concept of homo sacer to designate humans totall. unprotected b. an. concept of right or status and 'ho can be -illed or abused at 'ill. )rovocativel., *regor. insists that <merica is conducting its response to 4&11 'ithin this space of exception, treating ATaliban fighters and al#Laeda terrorists, <fghan refugees and civiliansB as homines sacri (p. =5!. The reference here is obviousl. to the indiscriminate bombing of civilian targets and, more vividl., to the manner of confinement and interrogation, 'hich includes the invention of designations (Jenem. combatantsK!, procedures (secret militar. commissions to assess criminal liabilit.!, and non#places (+amp P#0a. at *uantanamo >a., 'hich is subEect to the la' of neither United States nor +uba!. *regor.Ks Aspace of exceptionB also involves the s.stemic and repeated reliance on collective punishment against Jthe enem.,K a designation made possible b. essentiali;ed thin-ing that fails to ac-no'ledge individual diversit. and choice. The main thrust QthrustHI of *regor.Ks boo- is to insist that it is delusion to comment on 'orld order as if the colonial era 'ere over and could be assessed from a post#colonial standpoint. Using the modes of control relied upon b. the United States and (srael to impose their 'ill upon <fghanistan, (ra2, and )alestine, *regor. sho's in vivid detail that each of these war ones embodies an ongoing colonialist relationship between occupiers and indigenous populations. 7o punches are pulled in developing the overall argument% AThe Oionist dream of uniting the diaspora in a Ne'ish state 'as b. its ver. nature a colonial proEect. (n a gesture that has been repeated time and time again since the 3uropean con2uest of the 7e' /orld, the discourse of modern Oionism constructed )alestine as a space empt. of its native <rab population.B (p.DG! Oionism in this regard functions for *regor. as a root metaphor for the overall character of the colonial present. (n each of these settingsR <fghanistan, (ra2, and )alestine##the familiar dualism is conve.ed of barbaric destro.ers from the desert arra.ed against the forces of civili;ation conceived as builders and moderni;ers. *regor.Ks approach, li-e that of the other authors, is informed b. 3d'ard SaidKs 'or- on ,rientalism" li-e them, too, he repudiates the apologists for the colonial present, including 6e'is, ?untington, and <Eami. *regor.Ks formulation here is 'orth 2uoting% ATo them, the (slamic 'orldRin the singularR'as degenerate, a thro'bac- to feudalism, and hence incapable of reaching an accommodation 'ith the modern 'orld (no less singular, but protot.picall. <merican!B (p. $G!. This is 'hat *regor. aptl. calls A,rientalism 'ith a vengeanceB (p. $G!. )art of 'hat ma-es this boo- valuable, be.ond its explicit concerns, is *regor.Ks gift for theori;ing in 'a.s that give the reader enduring tools for understanding the unfolding 'orld order, a globalit. that defies the traditional interpretative categories of international relations. *regor.Ks sophistication as a political geographer is put to excellent use, especiall. in his description of Jimaginative cartographiesK (e.g., p. 11D!, the places and non#places depicted b. the colonial mind at its 'orst as spaces 'ithout rules 'here J-illing fieldsK can be established. 6omit7 .esI. (n this vein *regor. does not hesitate to connect (sraelKs occupation of the /est >an- and <mericaKs 'ars in <fghanistan and (ra2 'ith each other and, more dramaticall., 'ith the chilling recall of 7a;i atrocit. and mentalit. (see pp. 11D# 5!. The chapter on the (sraeli occupation of )alestine is uncompromising in its criti2ue of the behavior of an occup.ing po'er and as a model for <merican behavior to'ard its adversaries since 4&11. *regor.Ks geographical imagination is illuminating. ?is contrast bet'een the territoriali;ing of an essentiall. non#territorial enem. in the terror 'ar 'ith the Jaggressive deterritoriali;ingK of the 'orld econom., thereb. liberating mar-et forces to 'rechavoc on various communities around the 'orld, is of the utmost importance in grasping the changing nature of 'orld order. (n the end, *regor. gives a dar- reading to the trends associated 'ith the colonial present that are the preoccupation of his boo-. ?e contends that the American pro+ect, properl. understood, is totali ing in its situating the entire world

within the imaginative borders of its empire. .art of the reason it can do this is its elimination of any sense of an ,outside- that has traditionall. set limits on the reach of aspirants to 'orld empire (p. 2$$!. (f *regor.
offers a note of hope, it comes at the ver. end of his boo- in the form of a signpost pointing to a more benevolent future and calling for Athe destruction of the architectures of enmit. that have been produced and have been sustained b. those dreadful events Qthe 4&11 attac-sIB (p. 2=2!. <nd finall., Ait 'ill be necessar. to explore other spatiali;ations and other topologies, and to turn our imaginative geographies into geographical imaginations that can enlarge and enhance our sense of the 'orld and enable us to situate ourselves 'ithin it 'ith care, concern, and humilit..B (p.2=2!. 6i-e 8amdani, *regor. counsels that <merica 'ill have to learn ho', in DerridaKs 'ords, Jto live together 'ellK in this turbulent 'orld of the 21st centur.##

if it is to live at allS This 'ill re2uire a far stronger sense of human solidarit. and spirit of geopolitical humilit. than have hitherto been demonstrated. 1or this to be possible, a surge of inventiveness 'ill be re2uired to devise ne' categories

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for construing and adEusting to an unfolding 'orld order that is best understood as transitional and beset b. contradictor. tendencies. There is a common message and motif in these fine boo-s, and that is that the path of empire is littered

with corpses and will end in mass burials. 8urther, dividing the world along civili ational lines of friends and enemies leads to self)destructive authoritarianism at home and fierce wars abroad . /ill
'e have the 'isdom, imagination, and strength to construct a sustainable imaginative geograph. that replaces the nightmares of exterminationist scenarios and grandiose visions of global empire 'ith a 2uest for Jhumane governanceKH These 2uestions are posed b. these authors in s'eepingl. general language, but also are depicted b. them on the
ground b. reference to frighteningl. concrete imager. of violence and destruction. <nd so 'e are 'isel. instructedS

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2ac &olitics
Winners +in/ &c4s not real/ an$ t'e neg4s a&&roac' to &olitics causes )iolence 2u*"5Sac's/ 08 (Fmma, La%'er, "o/ember (C, ())E, ?Ran=ing the IssuesI >a' Rights in an Fconomic Crisis,@ .uffington 7ost, httpI//%%%.huffingtonpost.com/emma-rub'sachs/ran=ing-the-issues-ga'ri;b;*CD)(B.html, .ensel4he classic approach to politics is to ran= priorities and measure the finite bo%l of political capital . If 1bama pushes hard on a green ne% deal, he li=el' %onPt ha/e much left for uni/ersal health care. If he bac=s off of serious economic regulation, then he might get more support for social programs from Republicans.K ecause ga' ci/il rights struggles affect fe%er indi/iduals and relate to less Auantifiable harms, itPs hard to !ustif' putting them at the top of the list.K T'e alternati)e is to re>ect t'e ranke$ &riorities &olitical mo$el altoget'er .K 4here is little e)i$ence that s%a' and support is finite in the American political s'stem . 7olitical capital relates to the actions of the leader, 'es, but can be infinitel" large or non5e,istent at an' point in time. In some %a's, t'e more "ou get $one/ t'e more t'e *o+l of ca&ital s+ells- K Ran=ing AmericaPs problems to conser/e political influence is a narro% minded approach to sol/ing this crisis . 7utting ban=s at the top of the list a/oids the plight of large emplo'ers (li=e car companies - as much as %e lo/e to hate their e<ecuti/es-. $ending health care and other social programs to second or third place, lea/es those immediatel' affected b' the crisis %ith nothing to fall bac= on .K 3inall', ignoring the disenfranchisement of a segment of the population breeds discontent, encourages protest, bo'cotts (a definite harm in this econom'- and /iolence. It di/ides families (especiall' those %ho are still unable to sponsor their
partner into the 0nited $tates-, imposes higher ta< burdens on ga' couples, denies benefits to ga' spouses in man' emplo'ment situations and polari#es social conser/ati/es and social liberals in a time %hen consensus is essential.

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2ac &rolif
4heir discourse on proliferation is eAui/alent to "uclear Apartheid %here non-%hite countries are denied the bomb because of an underl'ing racist ideolog' rooted in colonialism >usterson 99 (.ugh, American Anthropological Association, &I4+ L8eapons and the 1ther in the 8estern ImaginationLI Cultural Anthropolog',
Gol. *C, "o. * (3eb., *999-, pp. ***-*CB+ &0$F-

Thus in "estern discourse nuclear weapons are represented so that 9theirs9 are a problem whereas 9ours9 are not. During the +old /ar the /estern discourse on the dangers of Tnuclear proliferationT defined the term in such a 'a. as to sever the t'o senses of the 'ord proliferation. This usage split off the TverticalT proliferation of the superpo'er arsenals (the development of ne' and im# proved 'eapons designs and the numerical expansion of the stoc-piles! from the Thori;ontalT proliferation of nuclear 'eapons to other countries, presenting onl. the latter as the Tproliferation problem.T 1ollo'ing the

end of the +old /ar, the <merican and 0ussian arsenals are being cut to a fe' thousand 'eapons on each side. ?o'ever, the United States and 0ussia have turned bac- appeals from various nonaligned nations, especiall. (ndia, for the nuclear po'ers to open discussions on a global convention abolishing nuclear 'eapons . <rticle = of the 7on#
)roliferation Treat. not'ithstanding, the +linton administration has declared that nuclear 'eapons 'ill pla. a role in the defense of the United States for the indefinite future. 8ean'hile, in a controversial move, the +linton administration has bro-en 'ith the polic. of previous administrations in basicall. formali;ing a polic. of using nuclear 'eapons against nonnuclear states to deter chemical and biological 'eapons ()anofs-. 144G" Slo.an 144G!. The dominant discourse

that stabili es this system of nuclear apartheid in "estern ideology is a speciali;ed variant within a broader system of colonial and postcolonial discourse that takes as its essentialist premise a profound
(therness separating Third "orld from "estern countries .= This inscription of Third /orld (especiall. <sian and 8iddle 3astern! nations as ineradicabl. different from our o'n has, in a different context, been labeled T,rientalismT b. 3d'ard Said (14DG!. Said argues that orientalist discourse constructs the world in terms of a series of binary oppositions that produce the (rient as the mirror image of the "est: where 9we9 are rational and disciplined, 9they9 are impulsive and emotional " 'here T'eT are modern and flexible, Tthey9 are

slaves to ancient passions and routines; 'here T'eT are honest and compassionate, Tthe.T are treacherous and uncultivated. "hile the blatantly racist orientalism of the high colonial period has softened, more subtle
orientalist ideologies endure in contemporary politics. The. can be found, as <-hil *upta (144G! has argued, in discourses of economic development that represent Third /orld nations as child nations lagging behind /estern nations in a uniform c.cle of development or, as 6ut; and +ollins (1445! suggest, in the imager. of popular maga;ines, such as 7ational *eographic. ( 'ant to suggest here that another variant of contemporary orientalist ideology is also to be found in #.S. national security discourse. 1ollo'ing <nthon. *iddens (14D4!, ( define ideolog. as a 'a. of constructing political ideas, institutions, and behavior 'hich (1! ma-es the political structures and institutions created b. dominant social groups, classes, and nations appear to be naturall. given and inescapable rather than sociall. constructed" (2! presents the interests of elites as if the. 'ere universall. shared" (5! obscures the
connections bet'een different social and political antagonisms so as to inhibit massive, binar. confrontations (i.e., revolutionar. situations!" and ( ! legitimates domination. The "estern discourse on nuclear proliferation is ideological in all four of these senses% (1! it makes the simultaneous ownership of nuclear weapons by the

ma+or powers and the absence of nuclear weapons in Third "orld countries seem natural and reasonable while problemati ing attempts by such countries as India, .akistan, and Ira* to ac*uire these weapons ; (2! it
presents the securit. needs of the established nuclear po'ers as if the. 'ere ever.bod.Ks" (5! it effaces the continuit. bet'een Third /orld countriesK nuclear deprivation and other s.stematic patterns of deprivation in the underdeveloped 'orld in order to inhibit a massive north#south confrontation" and ( ! it legitimates the nuclear monopoly of the recogni ed nuclear powers.

"uclear apartheid mas=s the dangers of proliferation and ma=es 8estern militar' dominance ine/itable >usterson 99 (.ugh, American Anthropological Association, &I4+ L8eapons and the 1ther in the 8estern ImaginationLI Cultural Anthropolog',
Gol. *C, "o. * (3eb., *999-, pp. ***-*CB+ &0$F-

This article has criti2ued polic. tal- grounded in an unsustainable binar. opposition bet'een nations that can be trusted 'ith nuclear 'eapons and nations that cannot #an opposition that can be found in some antinuclear as 'ell as establishment discourse in the /est. ( do not 'ant to minimi;e the potential dangers of nuclear proliferation,

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'hich are, surel., clear enough. ( do 'ant to argue that these dangers, such as the. are, should not

be spoken about in terms that demean the peoples of the Third "orld. 0or should they be represented in ways that
obscure both the dangers inherent in the continued maintenance of our own nuclear arsenals and the fact that our own actions are often a source of the instabilities we so fear in Third "orld nations . So, 'here does this leave usH This article has set out to criti2ue not a particular polic. but the 'a. our conversations about polic. choices on the nuclear issue ma. unthin-ingl. incorporate certain neocolonial hierarchies and assumptions that, 'hen dra'n to our attention, man. of us 'ould diso'n. 7or is this Eust a matter of policing language, for the embedded orientalist assumptions I have been criti*uing here underpin a global security regime that sanctifies a particular kind of "estern military dominance in the world . >ecause ( have set out to critici;e a
particular -ind of polic. tal- rather than a specific polic., ( 'ill conclude not 'ith a prescribed polic. but b. suggesting that there are three different discursive positions on proliferation, each pointing in the direction of a ver. different global securit. regime, that do not embod. the double standard ( have been concerned to critici;e here. ( call them Texclusion,T Tparticipation,T and Trenunciation.T

0$ anti-proliferation discourse depicts third %orld countries as irrational animals. 4hese depictions are based on false pretenses and ser/e no purpose but to further entrench 0$ racism and orientalism abroad >usterson 99 (.ugh, American Anthropological Association, &I4+ L8eapons and the 1ther in the 8estern ImaginationLI Cultural Anthropolog',
Gol. *C, "o. * (3eb., *999-, pp. ***-*CB+ &0$F-

>. contrast, Third

"orld countries are often represented in the discourse on proliferation as countries lacking impulse control and led by fanatical, brutal, or narcissistic leaders who might misuse nuclear weapons. Defense Secretar. /illiam +ohen, for example, referred to (ndia and )a-istan as countries Tengaging in
chauvinistic chest#pounding about their nuclear manhoodT (<brams 144G!. 0ichard )erle, a leading arms control official in the 0eagan administration, said, 7uclear 'eapons, once thought of as the Tgreat e2uali;er,T must no' be seen differentl.. The. are one thing in the hands of governments animated b. rational policies to protect national interests and a normal regard for human life. The. are 2uite another in the hands of a brutal megalomaniac li-e Saddam 'ho 'ouldnKt blin- at the mass destruction of his Tenemies.T . . . The most formidable threat to our 'ell#being 'ould be a Saddam in possession of true 'eapons of mass destruction.... (n an. contest in 'hich one side is bound b. the norms of civili;ed behavior and the other is not, histor. is, alas, on the side of the barbarians. Q1440%<GI Similarl., Senator 3d'ard Fenned. (Democrat, 8assachusetts! 'arned that

Tnuclear 'eapons in the arsenals of unstable Third /orld regimes are a clear and present danger to all humanit..... Dictators threatened 'ith attac- along their borders or revolutions from 'ithin ma. not pause before pressing the button. The scenarios are terrif.ingT (14G2%ix<. It is often also assumed in the discourse on proliferation that Third "orld nuclear weapons e!ist to serve the ends of despotic vanity or religious fanaticism and ma. be used 'ithout restraint. (n the public discussion of (ndiaKs nuclear tests in 144G, for example, it 'as a recurrent theme that
(ndia conducted its nuclear tests out of a narcissistic desire for self#aggrandi;ement rather than for legitimate national securit. reasons. This image persists in spite of the fact that (ndia, 'ith a declared nuclear po'er (+hina! on one border and an undeclared nuclear po'er ()a-istan! on the other, might be thought to have reasons ever. bit as compelling as those of the five official nuclear po'ers to test nuclear 'eapons. Strategic anal.st 8ichael =repon said on The 0ews >our with ?im

1ehrer, 9These tests weren-t done for security purposes .... They were done for reasons of domestic politics and national pride.... /e have street demonstrations to protest nuclear 'eapons. The. have them to celebrate
themT (144G!. 8ean'hile, in an article entitled T7uclear 1ear and 7arcissism Sha-e South <sia,T a 7e' Mor- Times reporter, spea-ing of (ndia as if it 'ere a spoiled child, 'rote that (ndia, Ttired of 'hat it considers to be its o'n second#class status in 'orld affairs ... has gotten the attention it 'antedT (/eisman 144G%1=!. Similarl., Senator 0ichard 6ugar (0epublican, (ndiana! said that (ndia tested in part because Tthere 'as a lot of indifference, under#appreciation of (ndia. ... /e 'ere not spending 2ualit. time in the <dministration or +ongress on (ndiaT (+ongressional Luarterl. /ee-l. 144G%15=D#15=G!. <nd 'hen

3d'ard Teller, the so#called father of the h.drogen bomb, 'as as-ed if (ndia and )a-istan 'ere follo'ing his motto that T-no'ledge is good,T he replied, TThese explosions have not been performed for -no'ledge. (t ma. be to impress people. (t ma. be a form of boastingT (8a.er 144G%> 1!. The "estern discourse on nuclear

proliferation is also permeated by a recurrent an!iety that Third "orld nations will use nuclear weapons to pursue religious s*uabbles and crusades. +ommentators particularl. fear an T(slamic bombT and a
8uslim hol. 'ar. Said (14DG%2GD! identified the fear of a 8uslim hol. 'ar as one of the cornerstones of orientalist ideolog.. Senator 3d'ard Fenned. 'orries about a scenario in 'hich T6ib.a, determined to ac2uire nuclear 'eapons, receives a gift of the >omb from )a-istan as an act of (slamic solidarit.T (14G2%ix!. Senator Daniel )atric- 8o.nihan 'arns that T.ou could have an (slamic bomb in no time, and *od have merc. on usT (<ssociated )ress 144G!. 8ar. 8c*ror. fears that Tnothing is more important than -eeping the K(slamic bombK out of the hands of (ran. 6et it be introduced into the 8iddle 3ast and .ou can -iss the 'orld 'e -no' goodb.eT (144Ga%<5!. The San 1rancisco 3xaminer 2uotes an anal.st 'ho explained Saddam

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?usseinKs 'illingness to forego U100 billion in oil revenues rather than end his nuclear 'eapons program b. sa.ing, TThe single most important reason is SaddamKs vision of his role in histor. as a saviour of the <rab 'orld. ?e is comparing himself 'ith SaladinT (Fempster 144G%<1D!. 1inall., s.ndicated columnist 8orton Fondrac-e speculates about a despot Tli-e

the Shah of (ranT 'ho Tsecretl. builds an arsenal to increase his prestigeT% Then he is overthro'n b. a religious fanatic resembling the <.atollah 0uhollah Fhomeini, 'ho then uses some of the ShahKs bombs to intimidate or destro. neighboring countries. <nd other bombs he passes on to terrorists that 'ill use them to 'age hol. 'ars. >e glad that
it didnKt happen in real life. >ut something li-e it could. Q14G5I The "estern

discourse on proliferation also stresses the supposedl. ancient *uality of feuds and hatreds in South Asia and the $iddle %ast. <s
>ritish Eournalist 7igel +alder puts it, T(n that troubled part of the 'orld, 'here modern technolog. serves ancient bitterness and nuclear explosions seem li-e a Eust expression of the 'rath of *od, imagining se2uences of events that could lead to a regional nuclear conflict is not difficultT (14D4%G5!. 3xplaining 'h. )a-istan named its ne' missile the *hauri, Senator 8o.nihan said, T*hauri 'as a 8uslim prince 'ho invaded (ndia in the t'elfth centur.. These things donKt go a'a.T (144G!. T7uclear missiles named for ancient 'arriors 'ill probabl. be deplo.ed b. t'o nations 'ith a histor. of 'arfare, religious strife, and a simmering border dispute,T said an <>+ 7e's reporter (/outers 144G!. (n this vein it 'as 'idel. reported in

the U.S. media that the (ndian )rithvi missile 'as named after an ancient 'arrior#-ing and that (ndiaKs <gni missile 'as named for the god of fire (e.g., 8ar2uand 144G!. This 'idel. circulated claim is particularl. stri-ing because, 'hile it resonates 'ith our stereot.pes of ?indus enslaved to religion and tradition, it is 2uite untrue. T he 'ord
)rithvi means T'orldT or Tearth,T and <gni means fire itself and does not refer to a god. The (ndians are naming their missiles after elements, not after 'arriors or gods (*hosh 144G!. ,f course, if /estern commentators 'ere loo-ing for a countr. that names its nuclear 'eapons after ancient gods and dead 'arriors, the. need have loo-ed no further than the United States, 'ith its Nupiter, Thor, )oseidon, <tlas, )olaris, 8inuteman, and )ershing missiles.

Rhetoric of 4hird 8orld Instabilit' is a forced meme created b' 0$ feelings of insecurit' %hich creates hostilit' and racism to%ards the 1ther >usterson 99 (.ugh, American Anthropological Association, &I4+ L8eapons and the 1ther in the 8estern ImaginationLI Cultural Anthropolog',
Gol. *C, "o. * (3eb., *999-, pp. ***-*CB+ &0$F-

These falsely obvious arguments about the political unreliability of Third "orld nuclear powers are, ( have been arguing, part of a broader orientalist rhetoric that seeks to bury disturbing similarities between 9us9 and 9them9 in a discourse that s.stematicall. produces the Third "orld as (ther. (n the
process of producing the Third /orld, 'e also produce ourselves, for the ,rient, one of the /estKs Tdeepest and most recurring images of the other,T is essential in defining the /est Tas its contrasting image, idea, personalit., experienceT (Said 14DG%1#2!.

The particular images and metaphors that recur in the discourse on proliferation represent Third "orld nations as criminals, women, and children. >ut these recurrent images and metaphors, all of 'hich pertain in some 'a. to disorder, can also be read as telling hints about the facets of our own psychology and culture which we find especiall. troubling in regard to our custodianship over nuclear weapons. The metaphors and images are part of the ideological armor the /est 'ears in the nuclear age, but they are also clues that suggest buried, denied, and troubling parts of ourselves that have mysteriously surfaced in our distorted representations of the (ther. <s <-hil *upta has argued in his anal.sis of a different orientalist
discourse, the discourse on development, T'ithin development discourse .. . lies its shado'. double ... a virtual presence, inappropriate obEects that serve to open up the Kdeveloped 'orldK itself as an inappropriate obEectT (144G% !.

Rhetoric surrounding proliferation casts developing worlds as villains and criminals in an attempt to discredit proliferation efforts
>usterson 99 (.ugh, American Anthropological Association, &I4+ L8eapons and the 1ther in the 8estern ImaginationLI Cultural Anthropolog',
Gol. *C, "o. * (3eb., *999-, pp. ***-*CB+ &0$F-

(n the era of so#called rogue states, one recurrent

theme in this system of representations is that of the thief, liar, and criminal% the ver. attempt to come into possession of nuclear weapons is often cast in terms of racketeering and crime. After the Indian and .akistani nuclear tests, one newspaper headline read, 9@)A 0ations $ove to .unish 0uclear (utlawsT (0eid 144G%1!, thereb. characteri ing the two countries as criminals even though neither had signed#and hence violated#either the 0on#.roliferation Treat. or the
+om# prehensive Test >an Treat.. /hen >ritish customs officers intercepted a ship# ment of -r.trons destined for (ra2Ks nuclear 'eapons program, one ne'spaper account said that Saddam ?ussein 'as Tcaught red#handed tr.ing to steal atomic detonatorsT ()erlmutter 1440, emphasis added!#a curious choice of 'ords given that (ra2 had paid good mone. to bu. the

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-r.trons from the com# pan. 3*V*. ((n fact, if an. nation can be accused of theft here, surel. it is the United States, 'hich too- U=$0 million from )a-istan for a shipment of 1#1=s, cancelled the shipment 'hen the >ush administration determined that )a-istan 'as see-ing to ac2uire nuclear 'eapons, but never refunded the mone..! <c# cording to an article in the 7e' MorTimes, Tit re2uired more than three de# cades, a global net'or- of theft and espionage, and uncounted millions for )a-i# stan, one of the 'orldKs poorest countries, to explode that bombT (/einer 144G%=!. 8ean'hile the same paperKs editorial page

lamented that Tfor .ears )a-istan has lied to the U.S. about not having a nuclear 'eapons programT and insisted that the United States Tpunish )a-istanKs perfid. on the >ombT (7e' Mor- Times 14GDa%<5 , 14GDb%<5 !. And /epresentative Stephen Solar (Democrat, 7e' Mor-! warns that the bomb will give .akistan 9the nuclear e*uivalent of a Saturday 0ight SpecialT (Smith 14GG%5G!. The image of the Sat) urday night special

assimilates .akistan symbolically to the disorderly under) world of ghetto hoodlums who rob corer stores and fight gang wars. #.S. nu) clear weapons are, presumably, more like the 9legitimate9 weapons carried by the police to maintain order and keep the peace.lG

4he affirmati/es representations of nuclear apartheid reinforce a hierarch' of nations rooted in racism >usterson 99 (.ugh, American Anthropological Association, &I4+ L8eapons and the 1ther in the 8estern ImaginationLI Cultural Anthropolog',
Gol. *C, "o. * (3eb., *999-, pp. ***-*CB+ &0$F-

These metaphorical representations of threshold nuclear nations as criminals, women, and children assimilate the relationship between the "est and the Third "orld to other hierarchies of dominance 'ithin /estern culture. The. use the s.mbolic force of domestic hierarchies#police over criminals,
men over 'omen, and adults over children#to buttress and construct the global hierarch. of nations, telling us that, li-e 'omen, children, and criminals, Third "orld nations have their proper place. The sense in the "est

that Third "orld nations have their proper place at the bottom of a global order in which nuclear weapons are the status symbols of the powerful alone#that nuclear proliferation is transgressing important
s.mbolic hierarchies#is nicel. conve.ed b. the condescending reactions in the /estern media to (ndiaKs and )a-istanKs nuclear tests of 144G. ?ere man. commentators sounded li-e secretaries of exclusive members#onl. clubs
blac-balling applications from the nouveau riche. T/ith scant regard for the admonitions of other members of the QnuclearI group, (ndia has abruptl. and loudl. elbo'ed itself from the bottom into the top tier of this privileged elite,T said one commentator (Smith 144G%< 12!. )utting the upstarts bac- in their place, U.S. Secretar. of State 8adeline <lbright said that it 'as Tclear that 'hat the (ndians and )a-istanis did 'as unacceptable and that the. are not no' members of the nuclear clubT (8arshall 144Gb%<12!. The same sentiment 'as expressed in stronger terms on the op#ed page of the 7e' Mor- Times b. former 7ational Securit. <dviser 0obert 8c1arlane, 'hose characteri;ation of (ndia dra's on classic orientalist imager. to ma-e its point that the (ndians are not TourT -ind of people% T/e must ma-e clear to the (ndian government that it is toda. 'hat it 'as t'o 'ee-s ago, an arrogant, overreaching cabal that, b. its devotion to the caste s.stem, the political and economic disenfranchisement of its people and its religious intolerance, is un'orth. of membership in an. clubT (144G%15!. $ary $c@rory, an alleged liberal, 'riting for the /ashington )ost op#ed page, expressed the same reaction against people rising above their proper station in life. (n a comment extraordinar. for its simple erasure of the great literar. and

cultural achievements made b. persons of the (ndian subcontinent over man. centuries, she said, 9.eople who

cannot read, write or feed their children are forgetting these lamentable circumstances in the ghastly glory of being able to burn the planet or their enemies to a crispT (144Gb%+1!.

Human Trafficking Aff 18./283

7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

2ac terrorism
No terrorist t'reat 8 treating terrorism as a t'reat is +'at makes it one 3ulaika/ 10 (Joseba, Center for asAue $tudies, 0ni/ersit' of "e/ada, ?4he terror/counterterror edgeI %hen non-terror becomes a terrorism problem and real terror cannot be detected b' counterterrorism,@ Critical $tudies on 4errorism, Gol. B, "o. (, August ()*), pg. (C:-(D), 4a'lor and 3rancis, pdfIn fact, bet%een *9:C and *99C, t%o decades in %hich terrorism loomed as the greatest threat to American securit' , more people died in the 0nited $tates of bee stings+ and John &ueller has sho%n the e<tent to %hich the dangers of terrorism ha/e been Zo/erblo%n5 (&ueller ())D-. Consider the four 'ears *9E9Q*99( to realise the magnitude of the non-4error problem
afflicting the 0nited $tates. 4hese %ere the 'ears in %hich communism as the historic enem' of the 8est disappeared and terrorism %as called to substitute for it. And 'et, contrar' to rian Jen=ins5s prediction that b' the end of the *9E)s terrorism incidents might double, during those four 'ears there %as not a single fatalit' from terrorism in the 0nited $tates. During those same 'ears there %ere appro<imatel' *)),))) reported Znormal5 deaths. In the same period o/er *,)) boo=s on terrorism %ere published. It is not a !o=e to sa' that the real problem for this entire terrorism

industr' %as the /er' absence of terrorism. 4he /er' logic of Zanomal'5 reAuires that some e<ceptional e/ent ta=es place, so that at last
one Zterrorist5 death %ill ma=e a thousand other deaths Zordinar'5. ut if the ratio is, as it %as during those four 'ears, *)),))) /ersus #ero, then the /er' non-e<istence of the anomalous puts in Auestion the normalit'/abnormalit' polarit' and depri/es the entire terrorism discourse of its basic frame. 8hat do 'ou do in such situationsH If there is no problem but there is supposed to be one, consciousl' or unconsciousl' 'ou end up helping create one. 4his is the /er' definition of the self-fulfilling prophec'. As sociologist Robert &erton puts itI 4he self-fulfilling prophec' is, in the beginning,

a false definition of the situation e/o=ing a ne% beha/ior %hich ma=es the original false conception come true. 4his specious /alidit' of the self-fulfilling prophec' perpetuates a reign of terror. 3or the prophet %ill cite the actual course
of e/ents as proof that he %as right from the /er' beginning . . . such are the per/ersities of social logic. (&erton *9DE, p. C::- It %as false that al-Oaeda %as in IraA before &arch ())B (the e<cuse to go to %ar- but it is true that there is al-Oaeda in IraA no% Q %hich ser/es as a !ustification to

continue the %ar. It %as false that there %as a minaret problem in $%it#erland (the e<cuse for an anti&uslim referendum- but it is true that there
is a minaret problem in $%it#erland no%. A similar affliction appears to be ta=ing o/er in other regions of the Furopean 0nion. Countries such as 3inland, as an e<ample, are so peripheral to the hot spots of the current international politics that there has ne/er been a terrorist act, let alone a terrorist organisation, in their soil. 8hen 4error is the tabooed coin of political centralit', a countr' %ith no 4error problem

appears to be a second-class po%er depri/ed of s'mbolic capital. $uch non-e<istence borders on the anomalous. It is no surprise
therefore that 3inland, under obligation from the Furopean 0nion and international treaties, has decided to enact antiterrorist legislation. It is one thing not to be a nuclear po%er, a prerogati/e that reAuires enormous economic and political might, and %hich is the ultimate s'mbol of militar' po%er+ but in the absence of nuclear po%er, %hat else but in/ol/ement in counterterrorism (al%a's s'mbioticall' related to nuclearism in the current %orld- holds enough s'mbolic capital as to guarantee that a countr' is not totall' irrele/ant in current %orld affairsH $o, e/en if there is no threat of

terrorism and this is the last thing the authorities %ant to plague their countr', the d'namics of international politics sub!ect to the Z8ar on 4error5 and the omnipresence of the apocal'ptic messages of terror spread b' the media ma=e it ine/itable the de/elopment of a tough counterterrorist legislation (%ith the li=elihood that pre/iousl' non-terrorist acts %ill no% be categorised as Zterrorist5- and the in/ol/ement in a dominant public discourse in %hich e/er'one is affected b' the threat from terrorism. It appears to be partl' a case of terrorism en/'. I remember asAue friends of mine being affected b' this malad' in their
'outhsI an'one %orth his salt should ha/e been in F4A during the anti-3rancoist resistance of the *9D)s and earl' *9:)s. If 'ou %ere not, 'ou suffered from a clear case of s'mbolic castration. In/ol/ement in F4A %as the %a' to sho% that 'ou had %hat it too=. And in order to be considered b' F4A a %orth' candidate, 'ou had to do something daring, such as putting at ris= the life of an alleged police informer b' pro/o=ing a car accident, hoping in the meantime that this %ould be re%arded %ith membership in the group. 8hen F4A had all the s'mbolic capital of heroic resistance, 'ou felt guilt' for not participating in its /iolent acti/it' and en/ious of those %ho en!o'ed its m'stiAue. $omething similar seems to ta=e place %ith nations regarding international terrorism. 8as not the good luc= of 7rime &inister Jose &arka A#nar that he had a pun' domestic terrorist group, =illing a to%n councilman or a !ournalist once in a %hile, against %hich he could in/ol/e his entire nation+ and as a re%ard for %hich he could suddenl' turn $pain, after centuries of political and militar' irrele/ance on the %orld stage, and as illustrated b' the photograph of the A#ores before the IraAi %ar, into a po%er pla'er on the international scene in the compan' of 7resident >eorge 8. ush and 7rime &inister 4on' lairH 8hich second- or third-rate countr' %ould not feel political en/' %hen seeing such influence in e<change for three or four terrorist fatalities a 'earH 7la'ing terrorist egona Aret<aga /ie%s the response of the $panish state terror to F4A5s terrorism as the result of mimetic terrorist desire, namel', Zan organi#ed mimesis of terrorism as the constituting force of the state as sub!ect5 (Aret<aga ()),, p. ((B-. In essence, in order to /anAuish asAue terrorism, state officials became terrorists and organised a state terrorist organisation b' the name of >rupos Antiterroristas de Liberackon (>AL, Antiterrorist Liberation >roups-. Aret<aga sho%s ho% the $panish agents5 in/ol/ement in the =illing of asAue refugees reads li=eI a parod' of stoc= representations of asAue terrorists. It imitates the landscape and actions associated %ith F4A in cinema, fiction, and the media. . . . 8hat is produced in this mimetic

engagement of the state %ith the representation of terrorism is, precisel', terrorI a traumatic read of dead bodies and intense affects Q e<hilaration, anger, and fear. And not onl' terror, but the state itself as sub!ect, is produced in the act of producing terror Q a restless state sub!ect characteri#ed b' uncontrolled e<citement. (Aret<aga ()),, pp. ((BQ((C1ne of the =idnappings b' the $panish officials %as that of a 3rench citi#en b' the name of $egundo &are'+ soon the' found out that he had no connection %ith F4A at all+ still, instead of admitting the mista=e and letting the man free, the Chief of 7olice consulted %ith the Ci/il >o/ernor and the .ead of Intelligence and decided to =eep &are' =idnapped in order to e<ploit him politicall' against the 3rench state. 4he' issued a communiAuo as=ing the 3rench authorities to release t%o $panish policemen detained in 3rance for an attempted =idnapping or &are' %ould be =illed. 4here %as tal= among the officers about =illing the man, but luc=il' 3rance released the $panish policemen and &are' %as also freed. 4his %as a clear case in %hich state officials %ere Zpla'ing terrorist5 (the' e/en decided to organise an e<tortion s'stem similar to F4A5s that in/ol/ed =idnapping 3rench industrialists and le/'ing a Zre/olutionar' ta<5-. In the process, the' Zgot carried a%a' b' the e<citement of transgression and the sensation of omnipotence it brings5 (Aret<aga ()),, p. ((*-. ' then, 7rime &inister 3elipe >on#ale# had famousl' !ustified the state5s counterterrorist dirt' %ar as the need for Zthe se%ers of the $tate5. 4he state terror %ent on for four 'ears and resulted in the =illings of (: refugees. It is a case of terrorism en/' in %hich %hat

counts for state officials is not the legalit' of freeing an innocent man, but instead, obser/es Aret<aga (()),-I %hat

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 187/283 matters is the po%er emanating from mimetic action, the enactment of the desire to be a terrorist. It is the act of =idnapping, =illing, e<torting that ma=es terrorism Q li=e the state Q real and effecti/e, b' binding its actors to and in an imaginar' relation that constitutes an alternati/e realit'. 1n the stage of the state being, fantas' cannot be
separated from the calculated ob!ecti/es that originall' triggered the actions of terror. Indeed, it is through the enactment of fantas' in mimetic performance that terror becomes real and the state po%erful. (p. ((C- Could not %e sa' similar things about the open adoption of torture b' ush5s administrationH If terrorists can =idnap, torture and =ill, then %h' not our po%erful stateH Regardless of the %ell-recognised fact that it does not bring forth reliable truth, torture is the ultimate transgressi/e act of po%er. &irror images inside terroristsI from &cGeigh to &a!or .asan 8hat about the terrorism en/' of those %ho, according to media representations, became paradigmatic Zterrorists5 such as the 0nabomber, 4imoth' &cGeigh, or most recentl' &a!or "idal .asanH In the case of asAue friends of mine %ho suffered F4A en/', it %as an armed organisation that had to recruit them after %eighing up %hether the' %ere suitable material for an underground organisation+ I =no% of se/eral %ho %ere re!ected despite their Zactions5 to pro/e their %orth. ut in the current media fren#', an'one can instantl' become a Zterrorist5 regardless of being part of an armed group or ha/ing a stated strateg'. 4his is the case of &cGeigh %hose acts did not fit an' classical definition of an armed terrorism group engaged in ps'chological terror %ith a political agenda. 8hat is remar=able about &cGeigh is the self-fulfilling nature of his terrorist career, because the basic references of his plot %ere pro/ided b' counterterrorism discourseI his shooting practice targets %hile a soldier %ere Zterrorists5+ his action plan %as scripted b' 8illiam Luther 7ierce5s (under the pseudon'm Andre% &acdonald- right-%ing 4he 4urner Diaries (*9:E- (itself inspired b' the anon'mous apocal'ptic no/el 4he John 3ran=lin Letters (*9,9- in %hich America falls under a global $o/iet conspirac'-+ his alias %as Z4. 4utle5, the name of the superterrorist hero in the .oll'%ood film ra#il (*9E,-+ and the da' chosen for the bombing %as *9 April, the second anni/ersar' of the 8aco traged', a cause colvbre for militias angered b' the go/ernment5s /iolent response to the apocal'ptic ranch Da/idians. $o the Auestion isI after his re!ection b' the arm', %here he %anted to ser/e as a marine, to %hat e<tent %as a de!ected &cGeigh5s desire for /iolent action prompted out of spite and follo%ing the /er' counterterrorism agenda he had pursued earlier in his arm' careerH In &cGeigh5s sub!ecti/it' the terrorist and the marine soldier had an imaginar' relationship in %hich the' constituted each other as in a Lacanian Zmirror image5. 8hat ma=es a soldier a soldier in counterterrorist %arfare is his deadl' opposition to the figure of the terrorist+ similarl', e/en if ordinaril' the aspiration of the terrorists is not to fight soldiers, in an allout %ar in %hich the enem' is defined as Zterrorist5, %hat ma=es him or her a terrorist is the determination to fight the soldier to the end. &cGeigh felt the po%er b' %hich his o%n self could e<perience both sides of his di/ided self, the soldier and the terrorist, b' s%itching from one side of the imaginar' mirror to the other+ and his omnipotence consisted in demonstrating to the American public that he %as the sub!ect %ho could be the edge bringing both irreconcilable sides of the mirror together. $ince he %as not allo%ed to be the marine counterterrorist hero, he could instead be its arch-enem' b' en/iousl' appropriating for himself the po%er of the tabooed 4errorist. And %hat about &a!or .asan and the 3ort .ood massacreH 8as it a case of insanit' or terrorismH .e seems to be a &uslim fanatic, connected to other &uslim fanatics. Is he a terroristH Does he ha/e an organisation behind him read' to use terror to further a political agendaH 1r is he someone %ho, in a case of terrorism en/', translated his ps'chotic confusion, pushing him o/er the edge into the fantas' of becoming a Zmart'r5 for his &uslim brothersH .e must ha/e seen himself in the mirror of his split American and &uslim personae. $hould he be on the side of his o%n American arm' =illing &uslims in IraA and Afghanistan, or should he be sAuarel' on the side of the &uslims and therefore against his o%n arm'H 8hen he could no longer harbour inside the split bet%een both phantasmatic realities constituting each other, he decided to o/ercome the unbearable b' turning himself into a mart'r in the name of Allah. As Robert 8right %rote in an op-ed pieceI 4he 3ort .ood shooting, then, is an e<ample of Islamist terrorism being spread partl' b' the %ar on terrorism Q or, actuall', b' t%o %ars on terrorism, in IraA and Afghanistan. And 3ort .ood is the biggest data point %e ha/e Q the most lethal Islamist terrorist attac= on American soil since 9/**. It5s onl' one piece of e/idence, but it5s a salient piece, and it supports the liberal, not the conser/ati/e, %ar-on-terrorism paradigm. (8right ())9, p. 8**- Conser/ati/es ma' argue that %e cannot allo% people li=e .asan /eto po%er o/er our foreign polic', but the realit' is that alienated, /ulnerable people li=e him are li=el' to end up going o/er the edge because of the ha%=ish anti-!ihad 8ar on 4error that led to disasters such as the IraA %ar. Is such a ne/er-ending %ar

necessar' %hen, in the era of the Internet, terrorist acts can be orchestrated from an'%here, including a 0$ militar' barrac=s such as 3ort .oodH In 8right5s opinion, Zthe case of "idal .asan sho%s one thing for sureI .omegro%n American
terrorists don5t need a safe ha/en. All the' need is a place to bu' a gun5 (8right ())9, p. 8**-. $till, .asan is, out of the millions of American &uslims, the onl' one to ha/e committed such a horrific massacre in the eight 'ears since 9/**, %hich sho%s that &uslims are not intrinsicall' an' more /iolent than Christians. ut %hen, in the era of the Internet and /ideo technolog', 'ou ha/e instances such as minaret bans in $%it#erland and denigration of &uslims in the %or=place, the li=elihood of /ulnerable people going o/erboard increases dangerousl'. 4here %as also the case of Carlos ledsoe, con/erted to Islam as a teenager, %ho fatall' shot a soldier in Little Roc= %ho, upon being arrested, told the police about &uslims being =illed in IraA and Afghanistan. 4o %hat e<tent is all of this a case of self-fulfilling prophec'H 1n C December ())9, at "e% Mor=5s inghamton 0ni/ersit', a $audi Arabian student stabbed to death an emeritus ::-'ear-old professor %ho had been a member of his dissertation committee. 1ne of the student5s roommates declared that, before the murder, the &uslim graduate student Z%as acting oddl', li=e a terrorist5 ($chmidt and Regan ())9, p. A(B-. Is there no% an' %a' in %hich the actions of a &uslim %ho goes mad in the 0nited $tates %ould not be translated into ZterrorismH5 And then, on ** December ())9, there %ere reports that fi/e 'oung &uslim Americans from the suburbs of 8ashington had been arrested in 7a=istan on their %a' to 4aliban territor'. 4he men5s intention %as apparentl' to fight American troops in Afghanistan+ reportedl', the' had been recruited b' a 7a=istani militant through an Internet chat roomI It %as unclear on 4hursda' ho% serious a threat the group presented, or %hether these 'oung men had bro=en an' la%s in 7a=istan of the 0nited $tates. At least t%o of the men %ere being Auestioned in 3. .I. custod' in 7a=istan, and all of them %ould probabl' be deported, a senior administration official in 8ashington said. 8hether the men acted on a lar= or %ere recruited as part of a larger militant outfit, the case has rene%ed concerns that American citi#ens, some %ith ethnic ties to 7a=istan and other &uslim countries, are increasingl' at the centre of terrorist plots against the 0nited $tates and other nations. (>iliani and 7erle#, ())9, p. A()- elo% the report there %as another piece about the suspected men being praised b' their neighbours as Zintensel' de/out ?good gu's@5 (Lorber and $outhhall ())9, p. A()-. If the' had been recruited b' Za militant %ith lin=s to al Oaeda5, once in 7a=istan the fi/e men %ere stranded. 4he' tried to !oin Zan e<tremist Islamic school5 near Jarachi and an Ze<tremist organisation5, but %ere Zrebuffed in both places because of their 8estern demeanor and their inabilit' to spea= the national language, 0rdu5. 4he fi/e men had been arrested at a home in a go/ernment housing comple< that belonged to an uncle of the eldest of the group. 4he picture of fi/e American citi#ens recruited allegedl' b' al-Oaeda through the Internet and unable to !oin an e<tremist group once in 7a=istan does not underscore a /er' efficient terrorist organisation+ still, the !ournalists %ondered Z%hether the men had been recruited to a specific militant or terrorist organi#ation5 and mentioned the possibilit' of ties to banned groups such as Jaish-e-&uhammad and Jamaat-ud-Da%a. 8hat the report did not disclose %as the m'ster' of %ho the 7a=istani close to al-Oaeda %as %ho recruited them %ith promises of ta=ing them Zto Afghanistan to fight !ihad5, and %ho Zboo=ed them in a hotel in Lahore5, but Zonce the' got there, their contact %ent to ground and the' %ere stranded5. In the end, %ere the fi/e &uslim Americans caught in the Zmirror image5 inside their split identities, b' %hich their religious self and their ci/ic citi#enship are constituted in irreconcilable mutual antagonismH $uch a mirror split, needless to sa', is lin=ed directl' to the policies and mind-set of the 8ar on 4error turned into the self-fulfilling soil in %hich &uslim Americans are pushed to%ards the edge. A %ee= after the ne%s of the fi/e 'oung men caught in 7a=istan bro=e, another report delineated the larger conte<ts of &uslim anger in the 0nited $tates and a clear picture, once again, of ho% counterterrorism ma' become terrorism5s best all'.

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7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

2ac +arming
T'eir a&ocal"&tic framing of +arming encourages tec'nocratic solutions t'at onl" re&licate en)ironmental issues Crist/ 7 (Fileen Crist, ()):, ? e'ond the Climate CrisisI A CritiAue of Climate Change Discourse@, httpI//!ournal.telospress.com.pro<'.lib.umich.edu/content/()):/*C*/(9.full.pdfqhtml-//F& 8hile the dangers of climate change are real, I argue that there are e/en greater dangers in representing it as the most urgent problem %e face. 3raming climate change in such a manner deser/es to be challenged for t%o reasonsI it encourages the restriction of proposed solutions to the technical realm, b' po%erfull' insinuating that the needed approaches are those that directl' address the problem+ and it detracts attention from the planet5s ecological predicament as a %hole , b' /irtue of claiming the limelight for the one issue that trumps all others. Identif'ing climate change as the biggest threat to ci/ili#ation, and ushering it into center stage as the highest priorit' problem, has bolstered the proliferation of technical proposals that address the specific challenge. 4he race is on for figuring out %hat technologies, or portfolio thereof, %ill sol/e ?the problem.@ 8hether the call is for re/i/ing nuclear po%er, boosting the installation of %ind turbines, using a /ariet' of rene%able energ' sources, increasing the efficienc' of fossil-fuel use, de/eloping carbon-seAuestering technologies, or placing mirrors in space to deflect the sun5s ra's, the narro% character of such proposals is e/identI confront the problem of greenhouse gas emissions b' technologicall' phasing them out, superseding them, capturing them, or mitigating their heating effects. In his 4he Re/enge of >aia, for e<ample, Lo/eloc= briefl' mentions the need to face climate change b' ?changing our %hole st'le of li/ing.@*D ut the thrust of this %or=, %hat readers and polic'-ma=ers come a%a' %ith, is his repeated and strident call for in/esting in nuclear energ' as, in his %ords, ?the one lifeline %e can use immediatel'.@*: In the polic'
realm, the first step to%ard the technological fi< for global %arming is often identified %ith implementing the J'oto protocol. iologist 4im 3lanner' agitates for the treat', comparing the need for its successful endorsement to that of the &ontreal protocol that phased out the o#one-depleting C3Cs. ?4he &ontreal protocol,@ he submits, ?mar=s a signal moment in human societal de/elopment, representing the first e/er /ictor' b' humanit' o/er a global pollution problem.@*E .e hopes for a similar /ictor' for the global climate-change problem. Met the deepening reali#ation of the threat of climate change, /irtuall' in the %a=e of stratospheric o#one depletion, also suggests that dealing %ith

global problems treat'-b'-treat' is no solution to the planet5s predicament. Just as the ris=s of unanticipated o#one depletion ha/e been follo%ed b' the dangers of a long
underappreciated climate crisis, so it %ould be na[/e not to anticipate another (perhaps e/en entirel' unforeseeable- catastrophe arising after the (hopedfor- resolution of the abo/e t%o. 3urthermore, if greenhouse gases %ere restricted successfull' b' means of technological

shifts and inno/ations, the root cause of the ecological crisis as a %hole %ould remain unaddressed . 4he destructi/e patterns of production, trade, e<traction, land-use, %aste proliferation, and consumption, coupled %ith population gro%th, %ould go unchallenged, continuing to run do%n the integrit', beaut', and biological richness of the Farth. Industrial-consumer ci/ili#ation has entrenched a form of life that admits /irtuall' no limits to its e<pansi/eness %ithin,
and percei/ed entitlement to, the entire planet.*9 ut Auestioning this ci/ili#ation is b' and large sidestepped in climate-change discourse, %ith its single-minded Auest for a global-%arming techno-fi<.() Instead of confronting the forms of social organi#ation that are causing the climate crisisN among numerous other catastrophesNclimate-change literature often focuses on ho% global %arming is endangering the culprit, and agoni#es o/er %hat technological means can sa/e it from impending tipping points.(* 4he dominant frame of climate change funnels cogniti/e and pragmatic %or= to%ard specificall' addressing global %arming, %hile muting a host of eAuall' monumental issues. Climate change looms so huge e/er *9DC %or=, an entire socio-cultural-economic lifeNfrom (actual or aspired to- %a's of eating and lodging, transportation, entertainment, or emoting and thin=ingN?binds the consumers more or less pleasantl' to the producers and, through the latter, to the %hole.@ .erbert &arcuse, 1ne-Dimensional &anI $tudies in the Ideolog' of Ad/anced Industrial $ociet' ( ostonI eacon, *99*-, p. *(. .or=heimer and Adorno traced the origins of the collecti/e5s participation in its o%n domination to the ?historical@ moment that magical control o/er nature (and o/er the deities of nature- %as relinAuished to a specific elite or cliAue in e<change for self and social preser/ation. &a< .or=heimer and 4heodor Adorno, Dialectic of Fnlightenment, trans. John Cumming ("e% Mor=I Continuum, *9:(-, pp. (*Q((. After the decisi/e turn %hen the social bod' became implicated in its o%n domination, ?%hat is done to all b' the fe%, al%a's occurs as the sub!ection of indi/iduals b' the man'I social repression al%a's e<hibits the mas=s of repression b' a collecti/e@ (ibid.-. And else%hereI ?4he misplaced lo/e of the common people for the %rong %hich is done them is a greater force than the cunning of the authorities@ (ibid., p. *BC-. In light of such astute obser/ations offered b' critical theorists, neo-&ar<ist and anarchist anal'ses that indict corporate and/or state po%er for the troubled natural and social %orlds are, at best, onl' partiall' true. (). &ore than thirt' 'ears ago, en/ironmental philosopher Arne "aess articulated the influential distinction bet%een ?shallo%@ and ?deep@ ecolog', characteri#ed b' the focus on s'mptoms of the en/ironmental crisis, on the one hand, /ersus critical attention to underl'ing causes of problems, on the other. "ot%ithstanding its unfortunate elitist o/ertonesNimpl'ing that some en/ironmental thin=ers are capable of reflecting deepl', %hile others flounder %ith superficialitiesNthe shallo%-deep distinction has been significant for t%o compelling reasons. 1ne, it clarified ho% ?s'mptomolog'@ leads merel' to technical piecemeal solutions+ and t%o, it sho%ed ho% underl'ing causes, left unaddressed, e/entuall' generate more nast' s'mptoms. In other %ords, shallo% ecological thin=ing is technical and narro%I %hen %e thin= about climate change as ?the problem@Nas opposed to confronting the limitless e<pansionism of the capitalist enterprise as the problemN%e arguabl' become shallo% in our thin=ing. Arne "aess, ?4he $hallo% and the Deep, Long- Range Fcolog' &o/ements,@ in >eorge $essions, ed., Deep Fcolog' for the 4%ent'-3irst Centur' (*9:B+ ostonI $hambhala, *99,-, pp. *,*Q,,. on the en/ironmental and political agenda toda' that it has contributed to do%npla'ing other facets of the ecological crisisI mass e<tinction of species, the de/astation of the oceans b' industrial fishing, continued old-gro%th deforestation, topsoil losses and desertification, endocrine disruption, incessant de/elopment, and so on, are made to appear secondar' and more forgi/ing b' comparison %ith ?dangerous anthropogenic interference@ %ith the climate s'stem. In %hat follo%s, I %ill focus specificall' on ho% climate-change discourse encourages the continued marginali#ation of the biodi/ersit' crisis Na crisis that has been soberl' described as a holocaust,(( and %hich despite decades of scientific and en/ironmentalist pleas remains a /irtual non-topic in societ', the mass media, and humanistic and other academic literatures. $e/eral %or=s on climate change (though b' no means all- e<tensi/el' e<amine the conseAuences of global %arming for biodi/ersit', (B but rarel' is it mentioned that biodepletion predates dangerous greenhouse-gas buildup b' decades, centuries, or longer, and %ill not be stopped b' a technological resolution of global %arming. Climate change is poised to e<acerbate species and

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 187/283 ecos'stem lossesNindeed, is doing so alread'. ut %hile technologicall' preempting the %orst of climate change ma' temporaril' a/ert some of those losses, such a resolution of the climate Auandar' %ill not put an end toN%ill barel' addressNthe ongoing destruction of life on Farth.

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$isa$s

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#ilateral forum s'oul$ 'a)e triggere$ t'e link (S:C;/ 12 (0.$. Immigrations and Customs Fnforcement, :/*B/*(, ?0.$., &e<ico con/ene binational summit on human traffic=ing@, httpI//%%%.ice.go//ne%s/releases/*():/*():*Blosangeles.htm-//F& L1$ A">FLF$ Q &ore than *)) representati/es from the go/ernment and pri/ate sectors, including high-le/el la% enforcement representati/es from the 0.$. and &e<ico, con/ened in Los Angeles 4hursda' for a binational summit to strategi#e on %a's to enhance e<isting efforts to combat human traffic=ing in both countries. 4he da'long conference, organi#ed b' 0.$. Immigration and Custom FnforcementPs (ICF- .omeland $ecurit' In/estigations (.$I- and the &e<ican Consul >eneral in Los Angeles, focused on %a's the 0.$. and &e<ico can %or= more closel' together to detect traffic=ing acti/it' and prosecute suspected
perpetrators. 3eatured spea=ers included "ell' &ontealegre Dia#, %ho o/ersees the &e<ican Attorne' >eneralPs special prosecutions unit in/ol/ing crimes of /iolence against %omen and human traffic=ing. L3or e/er'one at this %ee=Ps meeting, combatting human traffic=ing

is a top priorit', but despite that, %e belie/e a significant number of traffic=ing cases continue to go undetected,L said Claude Arnold, special agent
in charge for .$I Los Angeles. L4he goal of the summit %as to share ideas on further steps %e can ta=e together to bolster efforts to pre/ent this reprehensible crime.L

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1A23A 2011 (Rocio, Candidate for Juris Doctor,
en!amin ". Cardo#o $chool of La%, &a' ()**+ A. . (()),- .ar/ard 0ni/ersit', CARD121 J. 13 I"45L 6 C1&7. LA8, &arch, %%%.c!icl.com/uploads/(/9/,/9/(9,9:9*/c!icl;*9.(;gar#a;note.pdf-

1ne obstacle that %ould be faced in creating a bilateral partnership is the amount of %or= and resources necessar' for its organi#ation and implementation. .o%e/er, a model of a partnership alread' e<ists and could be altered to accommodate a number

of anti-traffic=ing efforts. 4he 0.$. go/ernment, pursuant to the 4G7A, established the ?7resident5s Initiati/e to Combat 4raffic=ing in 7ersons@ and allocated fift' million dollars to fund coordinated efforts %ith eight countries. (,, &e<ico %as one of the eight countries selected for the program and the 0nited $tates designated SE.( million dollars
to%ards anti-traffic=ing efforts %ith &e<ico.(,D 4he funds %ere distributed among the ?0.$. Agenc' for International De/elopment (0$AID-+ the Department of Justice (D1J-+ the Department of .omeland $ecurit' (D.$-+ the Department of Labor (D1L-+ the Department of $tate5s 1ffice of 7opulation, Refugees and &igration (D1$/7R&-+ and the Department of .ealth and .uman $er/ices (..$-.@(,: 4hese entities, along %ith the 0.$. Fmbass' in &e<ico, !oined efforts %ith the &e<ican go/ernment and ci/il societ' to (*- raise public a%areness+ ((- pursue anti-traffic=ing legislation+ (Bstrengthen local shelters+ and (C- de/elop and pro/ide technical assistance to anti-traffic=ing net%or=s.(,E 4he three-'ear program %as named

7R14FC4 Q 7ro!ect to $upport $helters for Gictims of 4raffic=ing in &e<ico (7R14FJA Q 7ro'ecto de Apo'o a Refugios para Gictimas de 4rata de 7ersonas en &e<ico- and %as in e<istence from &a' ())D to &arch ())9.(,9 7R14FC4 %as /er' effecti/e and its efforts informed the enactment of the &e<ican Anti-4raffic=ing La%. (D) If the 0nited $tates and &e<ico %anted to create a bilateral partnership,
the' could begin b' follo%ing the 7R14FC4 model. Although the program ended in &arch ())9, a %ebsite %ith a record of all the efforts %ill remain a/ailable for the public until &arch ()** (D* and %ill be accessible be'ond that date. 4he 0nited $tates and &e<ico could minimi#e start-

up costs and resources b' utili#ing this model.

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<oreign ai$ to Me,ico is &o&ular in *ot' t'e House an$ Senate Seelke 1/27 specialist in Latin American Affairs at CR$, co/ers ra#il, oli/ia, Fcuador, and &e<ico, as %ell as issues such as gangs and traffic=ing
in persons. .olds a &aster of 7ublic Affairs and &aster of Arts in Latin American $tudies (Clare Ribando, */(9/*B, Congressional Research $er/ice, L&e<ico and the **(th Congress,L K httpI//%%%.fas.org/sgp/crs/ro%/RLB(:(C.pdf-//A&

4here appears to be strong support in both the $enate and .ouse for maintaining 0.$. support to K &e<ico pro/ided through &orida Initiati/e accounts. 4he Administration5s 3M()*B budget K reAuest as=ed for S(BC million in &orida assistance for &e<icoI S*99 million in the International K "arcotics and La% Fnforcement (I"CLFaccount and SB, million in the Fconomic $upport 3und (F$3- account. 4he $enate Appropriations Committee5s /ersion of the 3M()*B foreign K operations appropriations measure, $. B(C* ($.Rept. **(-*:(-, %ould ha/e met the reAuest for K I"CLF and pro/ided S*) million in additional F$3 for economic de/elopment pro!ects in the K border region. $. B(C* included restrictions on aid to the &e<ican militar' and police. 4he .ouse K Appropriations Committee5s /ersion of the bill, ..R. ,E,: (..Rept. **(-C9C-, %ould ha/e K increased I"CLF funding b' SC9 million to match the 3M()*( enacted le/el for that account and K met the reAuest for F$3.K ?lan is *i&artisan0onl" fi)e senators +oul$ e)en $are o&&ose :srael/ 13 A in politics from randeis, senior in/estigati/e reporter for the Center for American 7rogress Action 3und (Josh Israel, (/*(/*B, ?3i/e Republicans 1ppose ipartisan &easure 4o Combat .uman 4raffic=ing@, httpI//thin=progress.org/health/()*B/)(/*(/*,E))D*/republicans-human-traffic=ing/H mobileYnc-//F& %ith the ma!orit' of their o%n caucus and opposed the bipartisan amendment. Congress su&&orts ai$ to Me,ico 8 inclu$ing ne+ &rograms Seelke 1/27 specialist in Latin American Affairs at CR$, co/ers ra#il, oli/ia, Fcuador, and &e<ico, as %ell as issues such as gangs and traffic=ing
in persons. .olds a &aster of 7ublic Affairs and &aster of Arts in Latin American $tudies (Clare Ribando, */(9/*B, Congressional Research $er/ice, L&e<ico and the **(th Congress,L K httpI//%%%.fas.org/sgp/crs/ro%/RLB(:(C.pdf-//A&

As the $enate mo/es to a final /ote on the Giolence Against 8omen Act (GA8A-, toda' 9B $enators endorsed an amendment to combat human traffic=ing. 8hile opposing human traffic=ing is a fairl' non-contro/ersial sub!ect, fi/e far-right Republicans bro=e

4he **Bth Congress is li=el' to continue funding and o/erseeing the &orida Initiati/e and related domestic initiati/es, but ma' also consider supporting ne% programs . 3rom 3M())E to 3M()*(, K Congress appropriated S*.9 billion in &orida assistance for &e<ico, roughl' S*.( billion of %hich K had been deli/ered as of April ()*B. 4he
1bama Administration as=ed for S(BC.) million for K &orida programs in in its 3M()*B budget reAuest and S*EB million in its 3M()*C reAuest.

T'e &lan 'as em&iricall" *een &o&ular C'acon . (Jennifer &., L&iser' and &'poiaI 0nderstanding the 3ailures of 0.$. Ffforts to $top .uman 4raffic=ing,L L. Re/. (9:E,
httpI//ir.la%net.fordham.edu/cgi//ie%content.cgiHarticleYC*:B6conte<tYflr6sei-redirY*6refererYhttpUBAU(3U(3scholar.google.comU(3scholar;url UB3hlUBDenU(DAUBDhttpUBAU(3U(3ir.la%net.fordham.eduU(3cgiU(3/ie%content.cgiU(,B3articleU(,BDC*:BU(,(Dconte<tU(,BDflrU(Dsa UBDTU(DscisigUBDAA> fm(oehF*R#,Lm%0,&&/.A<':!)L/:%U(DoiUBDscholarr]searchYU((httpUBAU(3U(3ir.la%net.fordham.eduU(3cgi U(3/ie%content.cgiUB3articleUBDC*:BU(Dconte<tUBDflrU((-//A& Congressional action on the traffic=ing issue met %ith enthusiastic support from the F<ecuti/e ranch . 7resident

Clinton signaled his supportK of the Act upon its passage.D: Although the measure %as passed during the K final 'ear of the Clinton Administration, 7resident >eorge 8. ush has been a /ocal supporter of the goals of the Act in both terms of hisK presidenc'. &an' high-ran=ing officials in the ush administration ha/e lauded current anti-traffic=ing efforts .DE Anti-traffic=ing efforts ha/e e/en been lin=ed %ith the campaign against terrorism that has been the centerpiece of the current AdministrationPs foreign polic' agenda afterK $eptember **, ())*. In a speech before the 0nited "ations on $eptemberK (B, ())B, 7resident ush dedicated a substantial portion of a speechK other%ise dedicated to discussions of international terrorism, the %ars inK IraA and Afghanistan, and the proliferation of %eapons of mass destruction K to a Lhumanitarian crisis spreading, 'et hidden from /ie%,L b' %hich heK %as referring to the issue of human traffic=ing, particularl' the forcedK prostitution of %omen and children.D9 In =eeping %ith the tone of the rest K of his speech, %hich %as aimed at the
global threat of terrorism, ushK referred to the phenomenon as La special e/il.LP:

TC?A &ro)es 8 'uman trafficking legislation is &o&ular an$ 'as ke" 2e&u*lican su&&ort

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 17 /283 A*ramo+it6/ 3/8/13 Q Director, Alliance to Fnd $la/er' and 4raffic=ing (Da/id, &arch E, ()*B, ?7assage of human traffic=ing bill sends clear message,@ 4he .ill, httpI//thehill.com/blogs/congress-blog/foreignpolic'/(E:)E:-passage-of-human-trafficing-bill-sends-clear-message, .enselMesterda', hundreds of ad/ocates, sur/i/ors, la% enforcement officials and la%ma=ers gathered to %itness 7resident 1bama sign legislation that %ill strengthen protection for %omen threatened b' domestic /iolence , as %ell as rene% the nation5s most important tool to fight modern da' sla/er' , the 4raffic=ing Gictims 7rotection Act (4G7A-.K ut this moment didn5t come %ithout political drama. In earl' 3ebruar', $en. Leah' of Germont, %ith the support of $en. Rubio of 3lorida, added the 4G7A reauthori#ation to the Giolence Against 8omen Reauthori#ation Act (GA8A-, %ith the amendment passing b' a resoun$ingl" *i&artisan /ote of 9B-,. And !ust last %ee=, the .ouse relented and appro/ed the $enate-passed GA8A, including the 4G7A reauthori#ation. T'e &lan4s em&iricall" *i&artisan/ e)en in t'e House Seelke/ 07 Q $pecialist in Latin American Affairs, Congressional Research $er/ice (Claire Ribando, August (*, ())9, ?&orida Initiati/e for &e<ico and Central AmericaI 3unding and 7olic' Issues,@ Congressional Research $er/ice, httpI//assets.opencrs.com/rpts/RC)*B,;())9)E(*.pdf, .ensel8hile &embers of the **)th Congress initiall' e<pressed concern that the' %ere not adeAuatel' K consulted during the de/elopment of the &orida Initiati/e, a ma!orit' of .ouse &embers seemed K supporti/e of the aid pac=age. 1n 3ebruar' :, ())E, the .ouse 3oreign Affairs Committee held a K hearing on &orida, and on &a' *C, ())E the Committee passed legislation introduced b' K Chairman erman to fund the Initiati/e. 1n June **, ())E, the .ouse appro/ed that legislation, K ..R. D)(E, the &orida Initiati/e to Combat Illicit "arcotics and Reduce 1rgani#ed Crime K Authori#ation Act of ())E, b' a /ote of B** to *)D, demonstrating *i&artisan su&&ort in the .ouse K for the proposed aid. Among the bill5s /arious
conditions on pro/iding the assistance, the measure K %ould ha/e reAuired that /etting procedures to ensure that members or units of militar' or police agencies recei/ing assistance %ere not in/ol/ed in human rights /iolations. 4he $enate, ho%e/er, K did not ta=e an' action on the .ouse legislation, so the measure %as ne/er enacted.
K

2u*io su&&orts t'e &lan 8 'e4s a Senate lea$er Smit'/ 11 Q 0.$. Representati/e, Cth District, "e% Jerse' (Chris, "o/ember (, ()**, ?.earing F<amines Lin=s et%een .uman 4raffic=ing 6 1rgani#ed Crime,@ httpI//chrissmith.house.go//ne%s/documentsingle.asp<H DocumentIDY(D:B,(, .ensel4he ne<us bet%een transnational organi#ed crime and human traffic=ing %as e<amined b' the Commission on $ecurit' and Cooperation in Furope (4he .elsin=i Commission- at a hearing chaired b' Congressman Chris $mith toda'. K L8e =no% that human traffic=ingNmodern da' sla/er'Nis the

third most lucrati/e criminal acti/it' in the %orld,@ said $mith. ?According to the International Labor 1rgani#ation (IL1- human traffic=ers ma=e profits in e<cess of SB* billion a 'ear . $o it is not surprising that more and more organi#ed criminal groups are engaging in human traffic=ing. And of course %hile drug and arms traffic=ers ha/e a commodit' that can onl' be sold once, a human traffic=er can purchase a sla/e and continuall' e<ploit them until he5s made his mone' bac=. After that it5s all profit.@ Clic= here to read Chairman $mith5s opening statement.K 1rgani#ed Crime has e/ol/ed to meet the challenges of
globali#ation and modern technolog'. In this e/olution ma!or international criminal organi#ations and smaller highl' speciali#ed groups of criminal entrepreneurs ha/e found ne% %a's to e<pand their operations and e<ploit human beings into sla/er'. 4o meet these challenges ne% national and international strategies ha/e been placed into action, but their results remain to be seen. 4his hearing, entitled ?.uman 4raffic=ing and 4ransnational 1rgani#ed CrimeI Assessing 4rends and Combat $trategies,@ continues the .elsin=i Commission5s hearing series on ne% fronts in human traffic=ing. K 0.$. $enator &arco Rubio, a member of the .elsin=i Commission and a leader in the $enate on human traffic=ing issues , said

members of Congress must !oin together to %or= against the e<ploitation of traffic=ed /ictims .K ?8e must ne/er lose sight of our dut' to defend human rights, particularl' for people e<ploited b' the human traffic=ing trade,@ said Rubio. ?4oo man' people are being abused in this modern da' sla/er'. 4his is an issue that both parties can %or= together on to raise a%areness and reauthori#e a la% that %ill help stop this horrendous crime.@ ?lan &o&ular an$ o)ercomes t'e gri$lock of t'e status Huo Cicero59omTngue6/ % ($al/ador A. Cicero-Domkngue#, graduate of the &atkas Romero Institute for Diplomatic $tudies in &e<ico Cit' and holds a Juris Doctor from 4he 1hio $tate 0ni/ersit' &orit# College of La%. .e currentl' ser/es as Director of the American ar Association/ American ar 3oundation5s 7ro!ect to Combat 4raffic=ing in 7ersons in Fcuador, 8inter ()), ?Assessing the 0.$.-&e<ico 3ight Against .uman 4raffic=ing and $mugglingI 0nintended Results of 0.$. Immigration 7olic'@ "orth%estern Journal of International .uman Rights, httpI//scholarl'commons.la%.north%estern.edu/cgi//ie%content.cgiH articleY*)BD6conte<tYn!ihr-//F&
needed coordination. 0nfortunatel', in

3or both countries, it is essential that the e<ecuti/e, legislati/e and ! udicial branches interact efficientl', creating the essential a/enues of communication to arri/e to much

recent 'ears both nations ha/e e<perienced great political gridloc= and e<ecuti/e -

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 17%/283 legislati/e relations ha/e suffered as a result. &e<ico currentl' e<periences a serious problem in this regard, lac=ing national consensus on man' issues. Ne)ert'eless/ t'e &olitical atmos&'ere in both &e<ico and the 0.$. still fa)ors efforts to+ar$ re$ucing t'e trafficking of 'uman *eings an$ t'e international smuggling of &eo&le . K99 oth nations must capitali#e on the current momentum and !ointl' resol/e this important human rights issue , %hich affects both societies eAuall'. 4heir
destinies ha/e long been lin=ed b' much more than a free - trade partnership. As economic and social integration continue to ad/ance, so must go/ernment policies, allo%ing efficient cooperation and achie/ing palpable results that benefit the American and &e<ican people. 1nl' then can %e hope to achie/e soli d footing in the fight against organi#ed crime and the eradication of the practice of traffic=ing in human beings.

?lan is immune from &artisans'i&0no*o$" +ants to *e &ortra"e$ as a su&&orter of trafficking So$erlun$/ % Assistant Director of the Center for the $tud' of Communication and $ociet' and Lecturer in $ociolog' at the 0ni/ersit' of Chicago (>retchen $oderlund, Autumn ()), ?Running from the RescuersI "e% 0.$. Crusades against $e< 4raffic=ing and the Rhetoric of Abolition@, httpI//%%%.!stor.org/stable/CB*:*,E-//F& >lobal se< traffic=ing, con/e'ed through a &anichean lens, has become a non&artisan issue in part because the demarcation bet%een /ictims and /illains seems clear and the offense ghastl', particularl' %hen perpetrated on the 'oung. Met innocence carries a particularl' hea/' burden in the realm of se<ualit'. In the 0nited $tates it has been a consistent trope in
!ournalistic accounts of se<ual crimes and, in the case of rape, prostitution, ga' hate crimes, and AID$/.IG, a criterion for public s'mpath' ( enedict *99(+ &iller and Gance ())C-. ut it is a nearl' impossible standard against %hich to hold li/ing, breathing human beings, e<cept perhaps children. Indeed, in their pamphlets and on their %ebsites, neoabolitionist organi#ations tend to emphasi#e those raids that in/ol/ed the rescue of children. 7resident ush has remar=ed that Lthe /ictims of the se< trade see little of life before the' see the /er' %orst of lifeL (())B- and man' anti-traffic=ing acti/ists see it as their calling to restore childhoods to 'oung children e<ploited b' se< traders. Linda $mith, a former Republican congress%oman %ho no% directs $hared .ope International, created a humanitarian spectacle in ())* %hen she too= one rescued Indian girl to Disne' 8orld. ut in more than a fe% cases, innocence is an adult fantas', a ficti/e state of being pro!ected onto %omen and 'outh b' (*st centur', anti-traffic=ing crusaders.

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A2Q secure t'e *or$er c& Tiano et al/ % ($usan 4iano, 7rofessor of $ociolog', and Director of the Latin American and Iberian Institute at the 0ni/ersit' of "e% &e<ico (0$A-. A"D ill' 0libarri, doctoral student at the 0ni/ersit' of "e% &e<ico A"D Carolina Ramos, Juris Doctorate Candidate at the 0ni/ersit' of "e% &e<ico $chool of La% 6 an &A Candidate in Latin American $tudies, 0ni/ersit' of "e% &e<ico, cites another article published in ()),, ?.uman 4raffic=ing on the 0$-&e<ico order@, httpI//%%%.freedomfromfearmaga#ine.org/inde<.phpH optionYcom;content6/ie%Yarticle6idY9(Ihuman-traffic=ing-on-the-us-me<ico-border6catidYB:Iissue*6ItemidY*,9-//F& A thorough understanding of the economic conditions that s%ell the ran=s of border crossers could contribute to de/eloping a /iable solution. 1ften, the implicit eAuation of migrant smuggling %ith labour traffic=ing can lead to misguided attempts to combat the latter b' attac=ing the former (7i#arro, ())(-. And since labour traffic=ing net%or=s often merge %ith organi#ed crime net%or=s that traffic in drugs, %eapons, pornograph', and other contraband, restricti)e immigration &olicies ma" &ara$o,icall" &romote t'e rise of gang )iolence/ la+lessness/ an$ femici$e in Juare#, 4i!uana, and other border cities, %hich threatens to spill o/er into the 0nited $tates. If, %ithout efforts to lessen the economic imbalances bet%een the 0nited $tates and &e<ico, restricti/e immigration policies can be said to ha/e the unintended conseAuence of promoting labour traffic=ing, then anti-traffic=ing policies must go be'ond a strictl' la%-and-order approach to address the root causes of the
problem. $ome obser/ations ha/e suggested that a puniti/e approach to undocumented migration ma' do more harm than good. A more effecti/e approach %ould be guest %or=er programs and other initiati/es that allo% for regulated cross-border mo/ements, particularl' if the' are closel' monitored to ensure that emplo'ers respect %or=ers5 rights and a/oid labour e<ploitation. $uch a strateg' could contribute to minimi#ing the conditions that allo% labour traffic=ing to flourish along the 0.$.-&e<ico border than policies that aim onl' to pre/ent irregular immigration at an' cost.

makes it +orse <;:N1@=9 200% (Da/id, Director, 1phidian Research Institute+ International Coordinator, .IG/AID$ and 4raffic=ing 7ro!ects, 0"F$C1 ang=o=, August B), ()),, ?4hin= AgainI .uman 4raffic=ing,@ 3oreign 7olic', httpI//%%%.foreignpolic'.com/articles/()),/)E/B)/thin=;again;human;traffic=ingHpageYfull, .enselL4ightening orders 8ill $top 4raffic=ingL 8rong. 4he traffic=ing issue is often used -- some %ould sa' hi!ac=ed -- to support policies limiting immigration. In fact, the recent global tightening of as'lum admissions has increased traffic=ing b' forcing man' desperate people to turn to smugglers . In southeast Furope, a >42 stud' found that more stringent border controls ha/e led to an increase in traffic=ing , as people turned to third parties to smuggle them out of the countr'. $imilarl', other legal efforts to protect %omen from traffic=ing ha/e had the per/erse effect of ma=ing them more /ulnerable. 3or e<ample, urmese la% precludes %omen under the age of (D from /isiting border areas unless accompanied b' a husband or parent. Although urmese officials sa' the la% demonstrates the go/ernmentPs concern %ith the issue, man' %omen belie/e it onl' increases the cost of tra/el (particularl' from bribe-see=ing police- and decreases their safet' b' ma=ing them dependent on LfacilitatorsL to mo/e them across the border . 4hese %omen incur greater debt for their passage, thus ma=ing them e/en more /ulnerable to e<ploitation along the %a' .

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2ac atQ &rosecution c&


a2 &rosecution sol)es <;:N1@=9 200% (Da/id, Director, 1phidian Research Institute+ International Coordinator, .IG/AID$ and 4raffic=ing 7ro!ects, 0"F$C1 ang=o=, August B), ()),, ?4hin= AgainI .uman 4raffic=ing,@ 3oreign 7olic', httpI//%%%.foreignpolic'.com/articles/()),/)E/B)/thin=;again;human;traffic=ingHpageYfull, .enselL7rosecution 8ill $top 4raffic=ersL "ot li=el' . In the 0nited $tates, an odd but effecti/e coalition of liberal Democrats, conser/ati/e Republicans, committed feminists, and e/angelical Christians pushed a la% through congress in ())) that aimed to prosecute traffic=ers and protect /ictims at home , %hile pressuring other countries to ta=e action abroad. 4he Gictims of 4raffic=ing and Giolence 7rotection Act recogni#ed traffic=ing as a federal crime for the first time and pro/ided a definition of /ictims in need of protection and ser/ices. Despite the political energies e<pended on human traffic=ing, there is little e/idence that prosecutions ha/e an' significant impact on aggregate le/els of traffic=ing. 3or e<ample, 0.$. go/ernment figures indicate the presence of some ()),))) traffic=ed /ictims in the 0nited $tates. ut e/en %ith a %ell-trained la% enforcement and prosecutorial s'stem, less than ,)) people ha/e been a%arded 4 /isas, the special /isas gi/en to /ictims in return for cooperation %ith federal prosecutors. In fact, bet%een ())* and ())B, onl' **) traffic=ers %ere prosecuted b' the Justice Department. 1f these, :: %ere con/icted or pled guilt'. >i/en the nature of the traffic=ing business, so fe% con/ictions %ill ha/e little effect. Con/icting a local recruiter or transporter has no significant impact on the o/erall scale of traffic=ing . If the incenti/es are right, he or she is instantl' replaced, and the flo% of people is hardl' interrupted.

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a2 sanctions sol)e 555 sanctions fail an$ incenti)es are *etter E&ossi*le generic aff a$)ocateYF <;:N1@=9 200% (Da/id, Director, 1phidian Research Institute+ International Coordinator, .IG/AID$ and 4raffic=ing 7ro!ects, 0"F$C1 ang=o=, August B), ()),, ?4hin= AgainI .uman 4raffic=ing,@ 3oreign 7olic', httpI//%%%.foreignpolic'.com/articles/()),/)E/B)/thin=;again;human;traffic=ingHpageYfull, .enselL$anctions 8ill $top 4raffic=ingL 8rong. 4he same 0.$. la% that made traffic=ing a federal crime also ga/e the 0nited $tates the right to
punish other states that do not crac= do%n on human traffic=ing. 4he $tate Department is reAuired to send a report to congress each 'ear ran=ing countries according to their success in combating traffic=ing and threatening sanctions for those %ith the %orst records. ut international

humanitarian agencies see the threat of 0.$. sanctions against foreign go/ernments as largel' counterproducti/e. 7racticall' spea=ing, sanctions %ill li=el' be applied onl' against countries alread' sub!ect to sanctions, such as urma or "orth Jorea. 4hreatening moderatel' unresponsi/e countries -- such as China, "igeria, or $audi Arabia -- %ould li=el' bac=fire, causing these countries to become less open to dialogue and limiting the flo% of information necessar' for effecti/e cooperation . Although some countries certainl' lac= candor and create false fronts of acti/it', others acti/el' see= 0ncle $amPs seal of appro/al (and the resources that often follo%- %ith genuine efforts to combat traffic=ing. angladesh, for e<ample, recei/ed higher mar=s from the $tate Department this 'ear b' ta=ing significant steps against traffic=ing, despite the countr'Ps po/ert' and limited resources. Incenti/es, instead of sanctions, might encourage others to do the same .

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2ac atQ &rocess c&


@nl" an imme$iate an$ concerte$ res&onse sol)es Ac'ar"a/ 7 Instituto de In/estigaciones $ociales, 0ni/ersidad Autmnoma de "ue/o Lemn (Arun Jumar Achar'a, ())9, ?4he D'namic of Internal displacement, 3orced &igration and Gulnerable to 4raffic=ing in &e<ico@, httpI//%%%.=republishers.com/)(-Journals/J.F/J.F-(:-)-)))-)9-8eb/J.F-(:-B-)))-)9-Abst7D3/J.F-(:-)B-*D*-)9-*:9E-Achar'a-A-J/J.F-(:-)B-*D*-)9-*:9E-Achar'a-A-J-4t.pdf-//F& 4oda', traffic=ing of displaced %omen cuts across social and economic situations and is deepl' embedded in cultures around the %orld, %here millions of %omen consider this illicit trade a %a' of life. Although the go/ernment of &e<ico is tr'ing to rehabilita te and rehouse displaced persons and is tr'ing to pro/ide a ne% home for affected communities, displaced %omen are still as /ulnerable from traffic=ing. 4his %hole issue is no% of global importance, one %hich reHuires an urgent an$ concerte$ res&onse- A com&re'ensi)e a&&roac' is essential to address the economic, social, political aspects of %omen traffic=ing. It is necessar' to deal %ith the perpetrators, as %ell as assist the /ictims of traffic=ing in &e<ico.

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2ac atQ russia/c'ina c&


C'ina an$ 2ussia 'a)e terri*le trafficking recor$s0t'e" +oul$ >ust scre+ u& Hea)e"/ ./17 ($usan .ea/e', Reuters, D/*9/*B, ?0.$. cites Russia, China among %orst in human traffic=ingI report@, httpI//%%%.reuters.com/article/()*B/)D/*9/us-usa-humantraffic=ingid0$ RF9,I*LC()*B)D*9-//F& 8hile the Chinese go/ernment has ta=en some steps to address the problem, such as /o%ing to %or= %ith international organi#ations and increasing public a%areness, it also has continued to perpetuate the problem in hundreds of its o%n institutions , the $tate Department report said. LDespite these modest signs of interest in anti-traffic=ing reforms, the Chinese go/ernment did not demonstrate significant efforts to comprehensi/el' prohibit and punish all forms of traffic=ing and to prosecute traffic=ers,L 0.$. officials %rote. 4he report said ChinaPs one-child polic' and preference for sons has led to fe%er %omen in the countr', thus increasing demand for %omen as brides or prostitutes. In Russia, the go/ernment Lhad not established an' concrete s'stem for the identification or care of traffic=ing /ictims, lac=ing an' formal /ictim identification and referral mechanism,L although there
%ere some Lad hoc efforts,L the report said. 4he citation is li=el' to further strain the complicated relations bet%een the 0nited $tates and the t%o countries, %hich alread' ha/e been strained b' the handling of the ci/il %ar in $'ria and c'bersecurit', among other issues. 8hile it %as not immediatel' clear %hat the 1bama administration might do gi/en the do%ngrade, human rights ad/ocates and some 0.$. la%ma=ers urged strong steps such as imposing sanctions or %ithholding foreign aid. 4he' also called on the Russian and Chinese go/ernments to ta=e action. LC'ina 'as *ecome

t'e se, an$ la*or trafficking ca&ital of t'e +orl$/D said 0.$. Representati/e Chris $mith, a "e% Jerse' Republican. L8ithout serious and sustained action b' ei!ing, it is onl' going to get %orse.L

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2ac atQ AtraffickingB &ic


;t'ics &rece$es $iscursi)e Huestions 8 an$ our $eman$ com*ines $iscourse +it' et'ics to sol)e $iscursi)e )iolence Mo)ano)ic an$ Woo$ $poma and Ro', Communications/Rhetoric 7rofessors at Den/er 0ni/ersit' and 0 "orth Carolina, 7hilosoph' and
Rhetoric Gol B: no C, ())C 4o consider these opening facts of communication

is to concei/e of language or discourse in a %holl' different realm from intentional, predetermined, strategic enterprise %here the other is but an ob!ect in the selfPs plans for master'. Le/inas accentuates this b' un/eiling the properties of communication as ethical encounter , or sa'ing. .1ne can, to be sure, concei/e of language as an act, as a gesture of beha/ior. ut then one omits the essential of languageI the coinciding of the re/ealer and the re/ealed in the face. (*9D9, D:-. 3or Le/inas, ethics precedes discourse in disclosure. 4hat is, before %e e/en concei/e of a freedom that %ould enable us to choose ethics, there is alread' the imperati/e (es) that signals our submission and sacrifice to the other (Le/inas *99Dc-. 8h' are %e pulled to%ard the other as Le/inas suggestsH 0nder %hat conditions can it be, and matter, that ethics precedes discourseH 3or Le/inas, being for the other pro/ides an important insight into ho% our moral obli gation is grounded not in specific altruistic acti/it' , thorough understanding, or adherence to uni/ersal la%s. Alphonso Lingis, a translator of man' of Le/inas.s %or=s, describes the ethical nature of communication succinctl'I .8hat is said is inessential+ %hat is essential is that I be there and spea=. (*99C, <i-. $peech is first and foremost the ac=no%ledgment of socialit' that signifies the importance of the encounter %ith the other. $peech for Le/inas is not, as %e ha/e been conditioned to thin=, the lin= to participation that see=s comprehension of the other (*99Da-. 4his limited reading of speech represents for Le/inas totalit' and closure rather than infinit' and alterit'. Richard Cohen, another of Le/inas.s translators, Auestions in his introduction to Ethics and "nfinity the role of speech altogether. ?Fthics occurs. . . across the hiatus of dialogue, not in the content of discourse, in the continuities or discontinuities of %hat is said, but in the demand for response@ (Le/inas *9E,, *(-. Actuall', Cohen points to the force of communication %ithout naming it as such. 4ranscending dialogue there is ethics, but to instantiate ethics reAuires communication , %hether in the hiatus, the response, or the approach. Fthics e/o=es then, rather than defines, and in so doing defies our propensit' to codif', compare, andcommit to a certain course of action prior to engagement. 3or Le/inas, the face of the other (the other %e recogni#e and the others %e do not- is an interruption that arouses a desire to mo/e to%ard the other, not =no%ing %hat ma' come. 4he desire and its accompan'ing responsibilit' are indicati/e of a turn out%ard to%ard a communal life.

T'eir in)ocation of trafficking is an em&t" signifier t'at $e&olitici6es et'ics resulting in elite mani&ulation )ia $angerous master5signifiers gi)ing t'ese em&t" terms meaning#u$$e an$ 1ro*klaus J10 (David and 8athias, both in graduate political science department W 1reie Universitat >erlin, A)atterns
of )o'er% The 3U9s 3xternal Steering Techni2ues at /or- # The +ase of Democrati;ation )olicies in 8oroccoB KFG working Paper no. !ecem"er QS*I! 4he conceptual fields ?partnership@ and ?commonalit'@ are not onl' used in sub!ecti/ation and categori#ation strategies. 4he Furopean 0nion also ta=es ad/antage of those notions5 ambiguit' to structure &oroccan fields of action. 4he empt' =e'%ord ?common interest@, crucial to Furopean neighborhood polices (Furopean Commission ())Ca, ())Cd+ 7rodi ())(-, is particularl' important hereI 4he hori#ontal actor setting of the Association council and the stated ?common interests, !oint o%nership W\X and mutuall' recogni#ed acceptance of common /alues@ (Furopean Commission ())CaI *- are discursi/el' e<tended

to a shared interest bac=ing e/er' indi/idual polic' measure. 4he use of empt' signifiers li=e ?good go/ernance@, ?moderni#ation@ or ?de/elopment@ as legitimati#ing brac=ets could indeed establish mutual consent in situations %here conflicting interpretations did e<istI 8hile the notion ?democrac'@ carries negati/e connotations in the conte<t of e<ternal influence , the substitution term ?(good- go/ernance@ is used in the same sense (as the
simple renaming of the respecti/e chapter in the "ational Indicati/e 7rogramme sho%sI Furopean Commission ())Ce, ())Dc- but

does not entail the same political e<plosi/eness ( alfour ())CI (*f-.(( 4his purposeful usage of linguistic /agueness resonated in t%o %a'sI 3irst, the o/erarching empt' signifier ?common interest@ %as accepted b' its addressees. 8ithin ci/il societ', technical polic' ad!ustments %ere indeed percei/ed as a result of con/erging interests ($en'wcel et al. ())DI *D-+ e/en Islamic actors stressed common (strategic- goals in democrati#ation polic' (&artine# et al. ())EI *(f-. $econd, the use of /ague notions li=e ?go/ernance@ and ?moderni#ation@ %ere accepted on the go/ernmental le/el but re!ected b' ci/il societ' actors (F&.R" ()):I B9f+ 3riedrich Fbert $tiftung ()):a-. Goiced criticism e<plicitl' concerned the F0 /ocabular'5s /agueness allegedl' allo%ing state elites to legitimi#e superficial reforms (Jausch ())9I *D9+ Moungs ()*)-. As a result, most non-go/ernmental organi#ations tried to establish o%n,

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 20 /283 uneAui/ocal interpretations tr'ing to substantiate the go/ernment5s lipser/ice to /ague slogans (F&.R" ()):I
B9f-.

<ocus on *ureaucratic &olic" $etails o*scures t'e et'ical $imension of &olic" making +'ic' $estro"s in$i)i$ual action an$ makes genoci$e &ossi*le <asc'ing 1773 (Darrell J., 7rofessor of Religious $tudies at 0ni/ersit' of $outh 3lorida, The Ethical $hallenge of *uschwit+ and
'iroshima ,7p.(C*-(CB-

4he heart of the problem lies in the transformation that occurs %hen modern technological consciousness is subsumed b' bureaucratic consciousness and generali#ed to the %hole of societ'. 3or inherent limits in technological
consciousness are remo/ed %hen it enters the bureaucratic en/ironment. In areas of genuine technological production, the materials one is %or=ing %ith and the ob!ecti/es one is tr'ing to reali#e are specific. 4he' impose discipline, limits, and measurable goals on the technological process. All of these are absent %hen technical attitudes are carried o/er into bureaucratic processes. LIn political bureaucrac' there is less pressure from the logic of technolog' and therefore more of a chance for the peculiar PgeniusP of bureaucrac' to unfold.L As *ureaucrac" o/erta=es technolog' and engulfs societ", the means are no longer related to and

disciplined b' ends be'ond themsel/es. T'e +'ole of societ" *ecomes $i)i$e$ into areas of bureaucratic e,&ertise to be regulated b' the appropriate e<perts according to established anon'mous and impartial procedures. 1rgani#ation and orderliness become ends in themsel/es. ureaucrac' is not onl' orderl' but orderl' in an imperialistic

mode. 4here is a bureaucratic demiurge %ho /ie%s the uni/erse as dumb chaos %aiting to be brought into the redeeming order of bureaucratic administration. . . . 4he engineer puts phenomena into little categorial bo<es in order to ta=e them apart further or to put them together in larger %holes. ' contrast, the bureaucrat is t'picall' satisfied once e/er'thing has been put in its proper bo<. 4hus bureaucrac' leads to a t'pe of problem-sol/ing different from that for technological production. It is less conduci/e to creati/e fantas', and it is fi<ating rather than inno/ating. . . . In the technological sphere, social organi#ation is largel' heteronomous, that is , it must be so shaped as to conform to the non-bureaucratic reAuirements of production. 4his imposes certain limits on organi#ation. . . . In the political sphere, %hich is the bureaucratic sphere par e<cellence, these limits are much less in e/idence. .ere, organi#ation can be set up autonomousl', that is, as follo%ing no logic but its o%n. . . . 7aper does not resist the bureaucrat in the %a' that steel parts resist the engineer. 4hus there is nothing that intrinsicall' prohibits the passport agenc' from deciding that ten rather than three bureaucrats must

a technobureaucrat societ' all of life is compartmentali#ed and in$i)i$uals are e,&ecte$ to unHuestioningl" follo+ &roce$ures +it'out necessaril' un$erstan$ing the larger goals to +'ic' t'eir actions contri*ute- 3or, on the one hand, the intelligibilit' of reAuired procedures is opaAue because the problem it sol/es is not a genuine technical problem. 1n the other hand, one is e,&ecte$ to a*i$e *" regulations and procedures t'at are Dtoo tec'nicalD for t'e a)erage &erson to un$erstan$, on the assumption that the appropriate e<perts understand and legitimate these ends, pro/iding the reasons %h' things must be done in a certain %a'. Albert $peer, reflecting on ho% he came to be in/ol/ed in .itlerPs 4hird Reich emphasi#es !ust these tendencies of technobureaucratic order. 4hus, he tells usI 4he ordinar' part' member %as being taught that grand-polic' %as much too comple< for him to !udge it. ConseAuentl', one felt one %as being represented, ne/er called upon to ta=e per sonal responsibilit'. 4he %hole structure of the s'stem %as aimed at pre/enting conflicts of conscience from e/en arising. . . . 8orse still %as the restriction of responsibilit' to onePs o%n field. . . . F/er'one =ept to his o%n groupNof architects, ph'sicians, !urists, technicians, soldiers, or farmers. 4he professional organi#ations to %hich e/er'one had to belong %ere called chambers . . . and this term aptl' described the %a' people %ere immured in isolated, closed-off areas of life. 4he longer .itlerPs s'stem lasted, the more peoplePs minds mo/ed %ithin such isolated chambers. . . . 8hat e/entuall' de/eloped %as a societ' of totall' isolated indi/iduals.DD $uch a technobureaucratic societ' forces a doubling and Auadrupling of sel/es. It forces indi/iduals to generate a pluralit' of sel/es appropriate to each compartmentali#ed area of human life, sel/es that are , at best, amoral,
appro/e e/er' passport application.D , In ha/ing surrendered the option of ethical reflection and !udgment to the e<perts. 4hese sel/es, denuded of e/er'thing that ma=es them trul' indi/iduals (i.e., their personal and communal histories and /alues- become finall' dehumani#ed interchangeable and replaceable parts in a /ast bureaucratic machine. 4hus %hereas technological production gi/es persons a sense of creati/it' and potenc' and e/en self-transcendence as one o/ercomes obstacles and reali#es a goal, bureaucrac' creates !ust the opposite+ namel', a sense of impotenc', helplessness, and the necessit' to conform to a realit' so real, massi/e, and all per/asi/e that Lnothing can be changed.L 4he result is a social structure that separates ends from means and

deciders from actors, relegating all decisions to Lhigher le/els.L $uch a social structure prepares the %a' for the demonic, &re)enting et'ical Huestions from e)er arising e)en as it creates *ureaucratic in$i)i$uals +'o feel no &ersonal res&onsi*ilit" for t'eir actions.

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Human Trafficking Aff 20./283

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@t'er

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Me,ican 2elations 2esilient


(S5Me,ican relations are resilient Seelke 1/27 specialist in Latin American Affairs at CR$, co/ers
ra#il, oli/ia, Fcuador, and &e<ico, as %ell as issues such as gangs and traffic=ing in persons. .olds a &aster of 7ublic Affairs and &aster of Arts in Latin American $tudies (Clare Ribando, */(9/*B, Congressional Research $er/ice, L&e<ico and the **(th Congress,L K httpI//%%%.fas.org/sgp/crs/ro%/RLB(:(C.pdf-//A& 1/er the last fi/e 'ears, 0.$.-&e<ican securit' cooperation has intensified significantl' as a K result of the &orida

Initiati/e. 0.$.-&e<ican cooperation has e/ol/ed to the point %here it is a*le K to continue e)en ami$st serious strain cause$ *" sometimes unforeseen e)ents . 3or e<ample, K bilateral efforts against %eapons traffic=ing continued e/en after the failed ureau of Alcohol, K 4obacco, 3irearms, and F<plosi/es (A43- operation dubbed ?3ast and 3urious@ resulted in K firearms being traffic=ed into &e<ico.C: 0.$. training and la% enforcement support efforts ha/e K ad/anced e/en as 0.$. personnel ha/e been in!ured and e/en =illed %hile %or=ing in &e<ico. K

4he 0.$. go/ernment has helped &e<ican go/ernment in/estigate the circumstances under %hich K t%o 0.$. Central Intelligence Agenc' (CIA- emplo'ees %ere %ounded on August (C, ()*(, as K their /ehicle came under hea/' fire from &e<ican 3ederal 7olice.

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Cu*a Coo&eration
Human trafficking is an area t'e (S an$ Cu*a can coo&erate in 8 sol)es relations #ur*ac' 7 director of the Centre for the $tud' of the Americas, based in er=ele', California, speciali#ing in Latin American politics (Roger, L0.$.Cuba 7olitics 7la' 1ut at 1A$ >athering,L June ())9, httpI//globalalternati/es.org/node/*)C-//A& 0.$.-Cuba relations are once again front and center as the meeting of the 1rgani#ation of American $tates (1A$- in 4egucigalpa, .onduras, begins toda'.K Cuba, e<pelled from the 1A$ in *9D( at the height of the Cold 8ar, %ill not be present at the gathering. ut the 0nited $tates is facing a /irtuall' united front of Latin American nations demanding that Cuba be readmitted. Chilean Jose &iguel Insul#a, the secretar' general of the organi#ation, declares, ?I %ant to be clearI I %ant Cuba bac= in the Inter-American s'stem\Cuba is a member of the 1A$. Its flag is there.@ K 4he 1bama Administration is sending contradictor' signals about %hat it is up to. 1n April (), $ecretar' of $tate .illar' Clinton, %ho %ill be leading the 0.$. delegation to 4egucigalpa, told the $enate 3oreign Relations Committee, ?An' effort to admit Cuba into the 1A$ is reall' in Cuba5s hands,@ referring to past 0.$. demands that Cuba change its political s'stem. K 4%o da's later, ho%e/er, the 0nited $tates proposed reopening discussions on immigration issues that had been suspended earl' in the ush Administration. Cuba responded positi/el' to this o/erture, sa'ing it also %ants to tal= about regular postal ser/ices and to discuss drug interdiction and disaster relief along %ith immigration concerns. F/en before this announcement, 3idel Castro, the retired leader %ho

still e<erts considerable influence in the go/ernment no% headed b' his brother, Raul Castro, stated Cuba is %illing to dialogue on ?narcotraffic=ing, organi#ed crime, human traffic=ing, and to e<pand other forms of cooperation such as fighting epidemics and natural catastrophes.@ Cu*a is +illing to coo&erate on trafficking :tur*e 13 one of the Cuban Communist 7art'5s leading academics and e<perts on foreign affairs ("estor >arcia, LCuba in the foreign polic' of the
0nited $tates of America,L (/*E/*B, httpI//cubastudies.org/%hat-should-obama-do-the-/ie%-from-cuba/-//A& ?I also offer to the go/ernment of the 0nited $tates to negotiate agreements for cooperation

in areas of mutual interest, such as fighting drug traffic=ing, terrorism, human traffic=ing and for the full normali#ation of migrator' relations and the mitigation and pre/ention of natural disasters, en/ironmental protection and preser/ation of our common sea%aters. 8e also propose resuming tal=s, unilaterall' suspended b' the counterpart', on migration issues and the restoration of the postal ser/ice. ? T'e (S an$ Cu*a can coo&erate on 'uman trafficking :tur*e 13 one of the Cuban Communist 7art'5s leading academics and e<perts on foreign affairs ("estor >arcia, LCuba in the foreign polic' of the
0nited $tates of America,L (/*E/*B, httpI//cubastudies.org/%hat-should-obama-do-the-/ie%-from-cuba/-//A&

7eople traffic=ingK 4his is a point of mutual interest, in %hich there is a degree of coordination bet%een the authorities of both countries. 1ften 0.$. ships arri/e in Cuban ports to return people %ho ha/e been caught in 0.$. %aters. 4hese people are recei/ed b' the Cuban authorities and sent to their homes. 4hose %ho engage in illegal profit from this traffic=ing, %ho are captured either in one countr' or the other, recei/e hea/' penalties, fines and their /essels are sei#ed. 4he e<change of information on this issue and illegal departures from Cuba can be /er' useful to the 0.$. authorities. 4he %ritten form of this tacit agreement bet%een the t%o countries %ould ha/e the effect of neutrali#ing
this trade.

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@rgan Trafficking
;,&an$ing t'e legal in$ustr" sol)es E: t'ink +'at t'is means is +e can 'a)e an aff to +ork +it' Me,ico to e,&an$ t'e legal in$ustr" to sol)e t'e su&&l" as&ect of t'e organ in$ustr" 8 making more of t'e in$ustr" legal +oul$ make t'em su*>ect to regulations +'ic' +oul$ likel" sol)e all t'e a$)antagesF RR'ig'lig'te$ &art is potentiall' a different card if I am reading it right Q process cp idea or defense of international $atel and .a=im, )E Q &D, Resident $cholar, American Fnterprise Institute, A"D &D, 4ransplant $urgeon, 3ormer 7resident, International College of $urgeons ($all' A"D "ade', June (), ())E, ?8hatPs 8rong %ith $elling Jidne'sH,@ American Fnterprise Institute, httpI//%%%.aei.org/article/health/%hats-%rong-%ithselling-=idne's/, .ensel4his %as the Auestion recentl' posed in the prestigious ritish &edical Journal. An American transplant surgeon (in fa/or of selling =idne's- sAuared off against an Australian nephrologist (against-. In an accompan'ing article, a leading ritish transplant surgeon called for legali#ing organ sales. Co/erage in the ritish press had a positi/e spin. L$urgeonI 1rgan trade should be legali#edL %as 4he IndependentPs headline+ LLegali#e trade in donor organs, pleads surgeonL %as 4he F/ening $tandardPs. 8e cheer these headlines. 4he more attention is paid to the %orld%ide organ shortage and the rapacious underground mar=et it has spa%ned, the more people, %e hope, %ill support the idea of selling =idne's legall'. 4here is nothing %rong %ith

selling =idne's. And until %e do so, the fates of third-%orld donors and the patients %ho need their organs to sur/i/e %ill remain morbidl' ent%ined. 8e do. 1ne of us is a ritish transplant surgeon %ho has seen too man' patients die for %ant of a
=idne'. 4he other is an American recipient of a =idne' %ho %as once desperate enough to contemplate obtaining a =idne' in the o/erseas organ ba#aar.

8e belie/e in compensating health' indi/iduals %ho are %illing to relinAuish one of their =idne's to sa/e the life of a d'ing stranger. 4here reall' is no other option. As the %orld has seen, altruistic appeals to organ donation ha/e not 'ielded enough organs for transplantation . An estimated C),))) patients are %aiting for a transplant in 8estern Furope, more than D,))) of them in ritain. 3ifteen to B) percent %ill die on the %aiting list. >ranted, not all countries
ha/e made the most use of posthumous donation and the' should. ut e/en in $pain, %hich is famousl' successful at retrie/ing organs from the ne%l' deceased because of its robust procurement infrastructure, there are deaths on the %aiting list. 8e face a dual traged'I 1n one side,

thousands of patients %ho die each 'ear for %ant of a =idne'+ on the other a human-rights fiasco in %hich corrupt bro=ers decei/e indigent donors about the nature of surger', cheat them out of pa'ment and ignore their post-surgical needs. 4he 8orld .ealth 1rgani#ation estimates that , to *) percent of all transplants performed annuall'--perhaps DB,))) in all--ta=e place in the clinical nether%orlds of China, 7a=istan, Fg'pt, Colombia, and the 7hilippines. 0nfortunatel', much of the %orld transplant establishment--including the 8.1, the international 4ransplantation $ociet' and the 8orld &edical Association-- ad/ocate remedies that do not go far enough. 4he' insist on obliterating organ traffic=ing but ignore the time-tested fact that tr'ing to stamp out underground mar=ets either dri/es corruption further underground or causes it to flourish else%here. 4he truth is that traffic=ing %ill onl' recede %hen the cr'ing need for organs disappears. 1pponents also allege that a legal s'stem of e<change %ill ine/itabl' replicate the sins of the blac= mar=et. 4his is utterl' bac=%ard. 4he remed' to this corrupt and unregulated s'stem of e<change is its mirror imageI a regulated and transparent regime de/oted to donor protection. 8e suggest a s'stem in %hich compensation is pro/ided b' a third part' (go/ernment, a charit' or insurance- and o/erseen b' the go/ernment. ecause bidding and pri/ate bu'ing %ill not be permitted, a/ailable organs %ill be distributed to the ne<t in line--not !ust to the %ealth'. 3inall', %e suggest that lump-sum cash pa'ments not be offered. ' pro/iding in-=ind re%ards--such as a do%n pa'ment on a house, a contribution to a retirement fund or lifetime health insurance--the program %ould not be attracti/e to people %ho might other%ise rush to donate on the promise of a large sum of instant cash. 4he onl' %a' to stop illicit mar=ets is to create legal ones . Indeed, there is no better !ustification for testing legal modes of e<change than the /er' depredations of the underground mar=et. rele)ance E*ut it4s goo$FY Oe)en in familiesP gifting of t'e *o$" is false altruism an$ turns $onors into sla)es of t'e reci&ients Sc'e&er5Hug'es/ 07 Q 7rofessor of Anthropolog', 0ni/ersit' of CaliforniaN er=ele'+ Director of the program in &edical Anthropolog', 0ni/ersit' of CaliforniaN er=ele' ("anc', Januar' ((, ()):, American Journal of 4ransplantation Golume : Issue B, ?4he 4'rann' of the >iftI $acrificial Giolence in Li/ing Donor 4ransplants,@ 8ile' 1nline Librar', .enselK 3amil' onds or 3amil' ondageH K K In a chilling essa' (B- follo%ed b' an boo= length memoir (C- of his encounter %ith 7aro<'smal "octurnal .emoglobinuria (7".-, a rare blood disease destro'ing his blood cells, Da/id iro e<plained %h' he felt that an' one of his sisters should unhesitatingl' offer themsel/es as blood marro% donors . Z4hat is %hat families are supposed to

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 210/283 do 5, the 'oung doctor stated, e/en mildl' d'sfunctional families li=e his in %hich the older brother and his bab' sister %ere, before and after the donor
transfer, /irtual strangers to each other. iro describes his 'ounger sister, his future donorI Z&' da' to da' =no%ledge of &ichele %as curiousl' incomplete ... 8e rarel' tal= about an'thing deeper than a mo/ie or a meal ... I lo/ed her in the distracted %a' 'ou lo/e a person %hose e<ternal data are familiar but %hose internal %or=ings are a pleasant m'ster' ... WbutX no% I needed her.5 (All Auotes are from Z$ilent ond5, *99EI9C.- K K iro felt

!ustified in putting his 'ounger sister5s lifeNthe one %hose near perfect genetic match turned out to be Da/id5s Z!ac=pot5 numberN and her mobilit' on hold indefinitel'. A free spirit %ho had tre==ed across the Mu=on and %or=ed %ith disabled children in rural >uatemala, &ichelle interrupted her life and her tra/els to ser/e her brother5s medical needs . Although a /egetarian, she agreed to eat plent' of red meat and sing the praises of a slab of Canadian bacon . 4he possible ris=s to the donor (,-Ne<cessi/e pain, dela'ed or prolonged reco/er', anesthesia reactions, in!ur' to tissue, bone or ner/es %ere ne/er mentioned.K K 4his scenario fits the normati/e transplant discourse in %hich gifting and altruism are assumed among close friends and =in. It is %hat an' one of us %ould hope for oursel/es %ere %e in the same predicament, either as donor or recipient. ut &ichelle5s donor role %as not o/er after the transplant . "o% that Zshe had literall' become a part of me5, iro %rote that he %anted to =eep her close b' him in the e/ent he might suffer a relapse that %ould reAuire more of her marro%. .e admitted to feeling resentment %hene/er his sister spo=e of plans for far-flung !ourne's and he demanded that she cancel a trip to Alas=a. &ichelle, the silent and in/isible ob!ect lesson in this medical parable, Auietl' acAuiesced, or so %e assume. iro sa% his medical needs as an automatic future claim o/er his sister5s bod', %hich sustained him ph'sicall' and ps'chologicall' . .egel might ha/e referred to this arrangement as a masterQsla/e dialectic, mar=ed b' mutual dependencies and in/isible /iolence and sacrifice .K K At the close of his essa' iro boasts that he ne/er than=ed his sister because Zto do so %ould ha/e /iolated the pact of silence that brothers and sisters feel compelled to uphold5. 4his Zpact of silence5 is %hat anthropologists call a Zpublic secret5, something =no%n b' all but unstated
because of the e<treme fragilit' of the social situation. .ere the Zsecret5 concerns fairl' primiti/e blood claim b' one sibling on the other. A li/ing donor in ra#il said that her surgeon had e<tracted a similar promise that she ne/er spea= of her gift %ithin the famil' as it %ould be unfair to the recipient. 4he gift must be in/isible, thus maintaining a Zfamil' m'th5 capable of erupting later on. K K iro5s memoir %as highl' praised as Zthe %or= of a doctor %ho has the soul of a ?poet@5. 4here

is no mention in the re/ie%s of Da/id5s donor, illustrating m' point that li/ing donors are almost as in/isible as deceased ones. oth are faceless Zsuppliers5 of a scarce commodit' . 1/er time the transplant e<perience %as reduced Zto a %isp of memor'5 as each mo/ed on in their li/es. iro %ent bac= to Znot =no%ing &ichelle and she to not =no%ing me5. 4his narrati/e spea=s less to famil' bonds than to famil' bondage, less to gifting than to poaching.

a2 legal organ tra$e goo$ Sc'e&er5Hug'es/ 02 Q 7rofessor of Anthropolog', 0ni/ersit' of CaliforniaN er=ele'+ Director of the program in &edical Anthropolog', 0ni/ersit' of CaliforniaN er=ele' ("anc', April E, ())(, "ational 7ost, ?1rgan mar=ets must be shut, not legali#ed,@ Le<is"e<is, .enselGarious commentators, including the "ational 7ostPs editorial board, ha/e argued that the problems accompan'ing the illegal trade in human organs ma' be better addressed through regulation than prohibition . According to this theor', the organ trade should be legal and the ethical dilemmas subsumed to suppl' and demand. oth bu'er and seller %ould benefit from a legal organ mar=et, the 7ost argues. ut there are man' problems %ith this approach. 4o date, onl' =idne's, bone marro% and li/er lobes can be ta=en from li/ing donors and transplanted into ailing patients . Li/ing donation is ris=' and ob/iousl' cannot suppl' hearts, lungs and other irreplaceable bod' parts. &oreo/er, nephrectom' (=idne' remo/al- and partial remo/al of the li/er for transplant, e/en under fa/orable surgical conditions, are hardl' ris=-free. In the 0nited $tates, at least t%o =idne' donors ha/e died during the past *E months and another is in a persistent /egetati/e state as a result of li/ing donation. 4he problems multipl' %hen the sellers are poor and trapped in unhealth' li/ing en/ironments. In such cases, there is a greater ris= that an infectious disease %ill compromise the donorPs remaining =idne'. And %hile poor people in particular cannot do %ithout their Le<traL organs and tissue, e/en affluent people often
need that e<tra organ as the' age. 1ne health' =idne' can compensate for a failing or %ea=er =idne'. 4he fe% a/ailable, longitudinal studies of the effects of nephrectom' on =idne' sellers in India and Iran are unambiguousI F/en under regulated s'stems in %hich Lcompensated

giftingL is used to reimburse donors, =idne' sellers suffer from chronic pain, unemplo'ment and social stigma . Researchers %or=ing in nine countries ha/e found that =idne' sellers freAuentl' face medical problems including h'pertension and =idne' insufficienc'. 1n returning to their rural /illages or urban shant'to%ns in $outh America, $outh or $outheast Asia, or Fastern Furope, =idne' sellers often find themsel/es unable to sustain hea/' agricultural or construction %or= , %hich is t'picall' the onl' %or= a/ailable to them. Jidne' sellers e<perience deep shame. 4he' are often stigmati#ed as Lprostitutes,L e<communicated from churches, alienated from families and, if single, e<cluded from marriage. 4he children of =idne' sellers are ridiculed as Lone-=idne's.L .o% can a regulated s'stem set a LfairL price on a human bod' partH 4he global mar=et sets /alues largel' based on consumer pre!udices . In toda'Ps
=idne' mar=et, an Indian =idne' fetches as little as S*,))), a 3ilipino =idne' S*,B)), a &oldo/an or Romanian =idne' 'ields S(,:)), %hile an urban

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7eru/ian can recei/e as much as SB),))). 4he circulation of =idne's transcends borders. 4hus, shad'

7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 international mar=ets %ould co-

e<ist and compete aggressi/el' %ith national, regulated s'stems. k im&acts/a2 util in conte,t of organ trafficking Sc'e&er5Hug'es/ 02 Q 7rofessor of Anthropolog', 0ni/ersit' of CaliforniaN er=ele'+ Director of the program in &edical Anthropolog', 0ni/ersit' of CaliforniaN er=ele' ("anc', April E, ())(, "ational 7ost, ?1rgan mar=ets must be shut, not legali#ed,@ Le<is"e<is, .ensel4he ne% consumerist, mar=et-oriented medical ethics that is gaining acceptabilit' creates the semblance of ethical choice -- the right to bu' a =idne', for instance -- in an intrinsicall' unethical conte<t. ioethical arguments about the right to sell an organ or other bod' part are often based on cherished notions of contract and indi/idual Lchoice.L ut the social and economic conte<ts at %or= in an urban slum of Calcutta render the LchoiceL to sell a =idne' an'thing but LfreeL or Lautonomous.L 4he idea of consent is problematic %hen a seller has no other option left but to sell an organ. 7utting a mar=et price on bod' parts -- e/en a fair one -- e<ploits the desperation of the poor, turning their suffering into an opportunit'. And the surgical remo/al of non-rene%able organs is an act in %hich medical practitioners should not be as=ed to participate . $urgeons %hose primar' responsibilit' is to pro/ide care should not be ad/ocates of paid self-mutilation e/en in the interest of sa/ing li/es. &ossi*le a$) c& to increase organ su&&l" Sc'e&er5Hug'es/ 02 Q 7rofessor of Anthropolog', 0ni/ersit' of CaliforniaN er=ele'+ Director of the program in &edical Anthropolog', 0ni/ersit' of CaliforniaN er=ele' ("anc', April E, ())(, "ational 7ost, ?1rgan mar=ets must be shut, not legali#ed,@ Le<is"e<is, .ensel4he demand side of the organs scarcit' problem also needs to be confronted I - 7art of the current scarcit' deri/es from
e<pansions of organ %aiting lists to include small infants and patients o/er age :), a practice that needs to be Auestioned. - Li/er and =idne' failure often originate in public health problems that could be treated more aggressi/el' pre/enti/el'. - Fthical solutions to the chronic scarcit' of

human organs are not al%a's palatable to the public, but also need to be considered. 3oremost among these are s'stems of informed Lpresumed consentL -- in %hich all citi#ens are assumed to be organ donors at brain death unless the' ha/e stipulated their refusal beforehand. 4his practice, %idespread in Furope, preser/es the /alue of organ transplant as a social good based on a social contract in %hich no one is e<cluded based on their abilit' to pa' . gen$er angle on t'e k of organ traffickingL k of fake altruism Sc'e&er5Hug'es/ 07 Q 7rofessor of Anthropolog', 0ni/ersit' of CaliforniaN er=ele'+ Director of the program in &edical Anthropolog', 0ni/ersit' of CaliforniaN er=ele' ("anc', Januar' ((, ()):, American Journal of 4ransplantation Golume : Issue B, ?4he 4'rann' of the >iftI $acrificial Giolence in Li/ing Donor 4ransplants,@ 8ile' 1nline Librar', .ensel4he >ender of the >iftK If iro5s sister had been the patient, %ould Da/id ha/e interrupted his acti/e life and put his bod' on the line to ser/e her needsH International data indicate a gender bias in li/ing donation, %ith females the more li=el' donors (DQ*)-. 4he 1rgans 7rocurement and 4ransplantation "et%or= (174"- lists

((99 (li/ing- females and *DB: males %ho ha/e donated organs in ())D+ the gender gap is greater for other 'ears. 8i/es are far more li=el' than husbands (BDQD.,U in one sur/e'- to donate a =idne' to a spouse (E, *)-. In Iran under a go/ernment regulated s'stem of paid donation, %omen are the primar' paid donors and men the primar' recei/ers of those purchased organs (:-. K Rather than celebrate the Zaltruism5 of %omen %orld%ide , %e ought to be pa'ing attention to the social pressures e<erted on them to be li/ing donors. A pediatric transplant surgeon in ra#il
e<plained the e<cess of female donors in his clinicI ZIt is onl' natural that mothers are the donors %ithin families. I tell WfathersX that the mother has alread' gi/en life to the child, and no% it is his turn. ut most men feel that organ donation is a %omanl' thing to do5. * A transplant surgeon in Recife, ra#il, stated that mothers %ere the preferred famil' =idne' donors on the grounds of tissue compatibilit'. Mou al%a's =ne% %ho the biological mother %as, %hile biological fathers %ere uncertain. K Anthropologists entertain different assumptions than ph'sicians about the nature of families, altruism, gifting, and human sacrifice. 3amilies are often /iolent and predator', as inclined to abuse and e<ploit as to protect and

nurture their members. >ifts are ne/er Zfree5+ the' ine/itabl' come %ith strings, ma=ing the recipient beholden in crucial %a's (**-. F/er' gift is both altruistic and indebting, spontaneous and calculated. >ifts demand counter-gifts, e/en though time ma' elapse and the return gift ma' or ma' not be in =ind . 7ure altruism does not e<ist, e<cept perhaps to%ard one5s children, and bio-e/olutionists %ould point out that parental sacrifice hides another sort of (geneticselfinterest.K 1rgan capture %ithin families in/ol/es an intensel' pri/ate d'namic that often escapes the most careful medical professionals. In societies characteri#ed b' a high degree of male dominance pressure is freAuentl' e<erted on lo%er status, poorer, female relati/es to Z/olunteer5 as donors. 4he tendenc' is to choose the least /aluable, least producti/e famil' member, the unemplo'ed single maiden aunt, for e<ample. A spinster teacher from a small to%n in ra#il %as Znominated5 b' her siblings to be a =idne' donor to her 'ounger brother . Z2ulaide5 agreed but she resented the imposition. 4o ma=e matters %orse the transplant failed+ her =idne' %as re!ected and her brother died. 8hen 2ulaide suffered

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 212/283 from /ague s'mptoms attributed to her nephrectom', her complaints %ere dismissed b' the transplant surgeon as Zneurotic5, as Zdonor regret5, as a =ind of Zcompensator' neurosis suffered b' a childless %oman %ho ne/er succeeded in an'thing in life, not e/en in being a donor5 . 4he remar= re/ealed the ph'sician5s barel' concealed contempt for this lo% status female. During a meeting of the ellagio 4as= 3orce on organs traffic=ing (*(- Abdullah Daar argued that
=idne' selling %ould actuall' protect lo% status %omen in the &iddle Fast from being coerced to ser/e as altruistic famil' donors.

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RRRNeg

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@ffcase Arguments

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1nc to&icalit"
N;1 8 T 8 e,tra5t 8 engages ot'er countries 4ena, *) (&aria, 4rans- order Institute, 0ni/ersit' of $an Diego, $eptember B), ()*), ?&odern Da' $la/er' in 0.$.Q&e<ican 4erritor'I .uman 4raffic=ing at the order,@ order rief, 4rans- order Institute, 0ni/ersit' of $an Diego, httpI//catcher.sandiego.edu/items/peacestudies/ order; rief;3I"AL; 8;octC;*).pdf, .enselAs neighboring countries that share a highl' /olatile border %ith high rates of human traffic=ing, smuggling, and drug traffic=ing, &e<ico and the 0.$. ha/e also ac=no%ledged that transnational cooperation bet%een them is essential. 3or this reason, in ()), the 0nited $tates and &e<ico launched the 1A$I$$ bi-national program (1peration against $mugglers Initiati/e on $afet' and $ecurit'-, %hich has successfull' aided in the prosecution of traffic=ers and in the dismantling of smuggling and traffic=ing net%or=s (Department of .omeland $ecurit', ()),-. In ()):, the &orida

Initiati/e %as also established to assist &e<ico and Central America in battling organi#ed crime, including their human traffic=ing operations (0.$. Department of $tate, ())9+ Ari#ona Attorne' >eneral, ())9-. Additionall', state-le/el initiati/es along the
0.$.-&e<ico border continue to pla' a critical role in effecti/el' tac=ling the comple< issue of human traffic=ing. .o%e/er, the 0nited $tates and &e<ico still ha/e a long %a' to go in the fight against human traffic=ing, as both countries unco/er the hidden nature and %ide scope of the crime and strengthen their cooperation mechanisms so as to increase the number of prosecutions and rescued /ictims.

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1nc neoli* link


T'e aff is neoli*eral 1ulati/ 10 Q 7hD, Associate 7rofessor of 7olitical $cience at entle' 0ni/ersit', &ember of the Regional 8or=ing >roup on &odern-Da' $la/er' and .uman 4raffic=ing, Carr Center for .uman Rights, Jenned' $chool of >o/ernment, .ar/ard 0ni/ersit' (>irish J. >ulati, Jul' *, ()*), ?&edia Representation of .uman 4raffic=ing in the 0nited $tates, >reat ritain, and Canada,@ entle' 0ni/ersit', pdf, .ensel1thers see the anti-traffic=ing efforts as a form of cultural imperialism, a defense of neo-liberal economic interests, and an e<cuse to restrict the mo/ement and economic opportunities of %omen and other marginali#ed people. 4he' point to information campaigns funded b' the 0.$. to %arn potential /ictims about traffic=ers5 methods and moti/es, but %hich reall' are subtle attempts to discourage migration to %estern countries. In terms of solutions, these alternati/e /oices propose legali#ing prostitution, treating prostitutes as %or=ers rather than /ictims, and
helping them obtain safer %or=ing conditions and health care. 4he' also call for more liberali#ed immigration la%s in the 0nited $tates and 8estern Furope (Andri!ase/ic ()):+ Chap=is ())B+ Jempadoo ()),+ Jinne' ())D-.

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1nc &olitics link


S&ecificall"/ e,&an$ing anti5trafficking ai$ to Me,ico +ill cause *acklas' 5 our link is uniHue Seelke 1/27 specialist in Latin American Affairs at CR$, co/ers ra#il, oli/ia, Fcuador, and &e<ico, as %ell as issues such as gangs and traffic=ing
in persons. .olds a &aster of 7ublic Affairs and &aster of Arts in Latin American $tudies (Clare Ribando, */(9/*B, Congressional Research $er/ice, L&e<ico and the **(th Congress,L K httpI//%%%.fas.org/sgp/crs/ro%/RLB(:(C.pdf-//A& &an' &e<ican la% enforcement acti/ities %ith respect to combating alien smuggling and human K traffic=ing recei/e

some degree of 0.$. financial support. 1ne %a' to increase &e<icoPs role in K migration enforcement ma' be for Congress to consider additional in/estments in these programs. K 4he 0nited $tates also could include migration control as an e<plicit priorit' %ithin other e<isting K programs, such as the &orida Initiati/e. 1n the other hand, &e<ico is alread' among the largest K recipients of 0.$. anti-4I7 assistance in the 8estern .emisphere, and some &embers of Congress K ma' be reluctant to in/est more resources in such programs.

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1nc general foreign ai$ link


;)en if t'e &lan tra$es off +it'in e,isting *u$gets/ $ecreasing trafficking results in more general $e)elo&ment s&en$ing 9ANA:=@CA5T2A:N@2 AN9 =AC3!@ 2010 (>ergana, 0$ >A1+ and 3ran=, International 1rgani#ation for &igration, International
&igration CEIC, 8ile' 1nline Librar'-

At a national le/el, the

effect of traffic=ing on de/elopment ma' also be /ie%ed in terms of the funds spent to fight this crime, funds, %hich could be used for other de/elopment inter/entions, if human traffic=ing did not e<ist or %ere eradicated .

3or e<ample, according to a >A1 report issued in ()):, the 0$ go/ernment has pro/ided appro<imatel' 0$S CC: million in foreign assistance to nongo/ernmental organi#ations, international organi#ations, and foreign go/ernments to combat and help eliminate human traffic=ing since ())*. In addition, to support 0$ efforts to in/estigate traffic=ing in persons %ithin the 0nited $tates., the 0$ ureau of Justice Assistance has funded a total of C( la% enforcement tas= forces on human traffic=ing and reported a%arding a total of o/er 0$S *: million to them from ())C to ())D (>A1, ()):a-. .o%e/er, this should be /ie%ed as a minimum estimate of the la% enforcement costs of anti-traffic=ing in the 0nited $tates, since resource information on fighting traffic=ing ma' not be distinguishable from other la% enforcement acti/ities. 4o implement their respecti/e plans and carr'

out acti/ities related to the in/estigation and prosecution of traffic=ing in persons, 0$ agencies ha/e generall' dra%n from e<isting resources. 1/erall, if the fight against traffic=ing is successful, funds currentl' used to fight traffic=ing crimes ma' be channelled to%ards alternati/e de/elopment initiati/es. .o%e/er, this scenario ma' not be feasible in the near future.

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1nc $rug tra$eoff $a


T'e aff tra$es off +it' $rug inter$iction efforts 1A23A 2011 (Rocio, Candidate for Juris Doctor, en!amin ". Cardo#o $chool of La%, &a' ()**+ A.
LA8, &arch, %%%.c!icl.com/uploads/(/9/,/9/(9,9:9*/c!icl;*9.(;gar#a;note.pdf. (()),- .ar/ard 0ni/ersit', CARD121 J. 13 I"45L 6 C1&7.

4he three most pre/alent and lucrati/e transnational crimesNdrug traffic=ing, gun traffic=ing, and human traffic=ingNflourish along the 0nited $tates&e<ico border.*)B Drug and arms traffic=ing are closel' lin=ed as described belo%. ?In recent 'ears, /iolence along the &e<ico border W%ith the 0nited $tatesX has escalated dramaticall', due largel' to the &e<ican go/ernment5s efforts to disrupt &e<ican drug traffic=ing organi#ations (D41-.@*)C 4he problem %ith illegal drugs and firearms appears to be a /icious c'cle in %hich 0.$. firearms traffic=ed into &e<ico fuel drug /iolence there, %hile drug operations in &e<ico facilitate illegal firearm acAuisitions from the 0nited $tates.*), Amidst the urgenc' of curbing drug and arms traffic=ingNacti/ities that deepl' affect people on both sides of the borderNefforts to eradicate human traffic=ing ha/e been o/ershado%ed b' these competing priorities.*)D 4he lac= of attention to anti-human traffic=ing efforts ma' be rooted in the fact that these efforts ha/e onl' been

in e<istence for a decade %hile efforts to combat drugs and arms traffic=ing ha/e been e/ol/ing for a longer period of time. As a result, militar' and la% enforcement officials on both sides of the border ma' ha/e de/eloped a more e<tensi/e infrastructure to combat drugs and arms traffic=ing than to detect, discourage, and combat human traffic=ing. In order to adeAuatel' address human traffic=ing along its border, the 0nited $tates and &e<ico must both commit to e<panding resources, %hich ma' mean reshuffling these priorities.

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states sol)e Tena/ 10 (&aria, 4rans- order Institute, 0ni/ersit' of $an Diego, $eptember B), ()*), ?&odern Da' $la/er' in 0.$.Q&e<ican 4erritor'I .uman 4raffic=ing at the order,@ order rief, 4rans- order Institute, 0ni/ersit' of $an Diego, httpI//catcher.sandiego.edu/items/peacestudies/ order; rief;3I"AL; 8;octC;*).pdf, .enselAs neighboring countries that share a highl' /olatile border %ith high rates of human traffic=ing, smuggling, and drug traffic=ing, &e<ico and the 0.$. ha/e also ac=no%ledged that transnational cooperation bet%een them is essential. 3or this reason, in ()), the 0nited $tates and &e<ico launched the 1A$I$$ bi-national program (1peration against $mugglers Initiati/e on $afet' and $ecurit'-, %hich has successfull' aided in the prosecution of traffic=ers and in the dismantling of smuggling and traffic=ing net%or=s (Department of .omeland $ecurit', ()),-. In ()):, the &orida Initiati/e %as also established to assist &e<ico and Central America in battling organi#ed crime, including their human traffic=ing operations (0.$. Department of $tate, ())9+ Ari#ona Attorne' >eneral, ())9-. Additionall', state-le/el initiati/es along the 0.$.-&e<ico border continue to pla'

a critical role in effecti/el' tac=ling the comple< issue of human traffic=ing. .o%e/er, the 0nited $tates and &e<ico still ha/e
a long %a' to go in the fight against human traffic=ing, as both countries unco/er the hidden nature and %ide scope of the crime and strengthen their cooperation mechanisms so as to increase the number of prosecutions and rescued /ictims.

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1nc un c&
(N can $o t'e &lan Cicero59omTngue6/ % ($al/ador A. Cicero-Domkngue#, graduate of the &atkas Romero Institute for Diplomatic $tudies in &e<ico Cit' and holds a Juris Doctor from 4he 1hio $tate 0ni/ersit' &orit# College of La%. .e currentl' ser/es as Director of the American ar Association/ American ar 3oundation5s 7ro!ect to Combat 4raffic=ing in 7ersons in Fcuador, 8inter ()), ?Assessing the 0.$.-&e<ico 3ight Against .uman 4raffic=ing and $mugglingI 0nintended Results of 0.$. Immigration 7olic'@ "orth%estern Journal of International .uman Rights, httpI//scholarl'commons.la%.north%estern.edu/cgi//ie%content.cgiH articleY*)BD6conte<tYn!ihr-//F& 4he primar' international la% instrument dealing %ith organi#ed crime and subset issues, such as smuggling and traffic=ing in human beings, is the 0nited "ations Con/ention Against 4ransnational 1rgani#ed Crime. (B 4he 7alermo
Con/ention (as the 0" Con/ention Against 4ransnational 1rgani#ed Crime is commonl' =no%n- has three accompan'ing 7rotocolsI the ? 7rotocol to 7re/ent, $uppress and 7unish 4ra ffic=ing in 7ersons, Fspeciall' 8omen and Children, supplementing the 0nited "ations Con/ention Against 4ransnational 1rgani#ed Crime+@ (C the ?7rotocol Against the $muggling of &igrants b' Land, $ea and Air, supplementing the 0nited "ations Con/ention Again st 4ransnational 1rgani#ed Crime+@ (, and the ?7rotocol Against the Illicit &anufacturing, and 4raffic=ing in 3irearms, 4heir 7arts and Components and Ammunition, supplementing the 0nited "ations Con/ention Against 4ransnational 1rgani#ed Crime.@

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1nc a$) c&


a$) c& #ran$t et al/ 12 Q $chool of International $er/ice, American 0ni/ersit' (Jon randt, "icole Adams, Christina Dinh, De/in Jleinfield-.a'es, Andre% 4uc=, Dere= .ottle, "a/ Au!la, Jirsten Jaufman, 8anlin Ren, December ()*(, ?Chinese Fngagement in Latin America and the CaribbeanI Implications for 0$ 3oreign 7olic',@ $chool of International $er/ice, httpI//%%%.american.edu/sis/usfp/upload/Chinese-Fngagement-inLAC-A0;0$-Congress-3I"AL.pdf, .ensel*c. .uman 4raffic=ing As has been broadl' reported, human traffic=ing in the 8estern .emisphere in/ol/es China, Latin America and the 0nited $tates. DD 4he 0$ should %or= trilaterall' to offer technical assistance and training to Chinese internal securit' and Latin American police forces through %or=shops and training e<ercises . ringing together police and tactical units from all three countries for training and information e<change %ould impro/e relations among all three partners, creating the li=elihood of impro/ed communication among these agencies and disruption of the transpacific traffic=ing that affects all parties .

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A$) C? to $o t'e ;T1CA an$ TC?A NZT/ 12 ("e% Mor= 4imes, 1ctober (, ()*(, ?4o Combat P&odern $la/er'5,@ "e% Mor= 4imes, httpI//%%%.n'times.com/()*(/*)/)(/opinion/to-combat-modern-sla/er'.htmlH ;rY)6g%hY,)BD:AC9*:D9AF ,D,3:BF9A))(DCCA , .enselK 4hough much remains to be done, the 1bama administration has begun meaningful ne% initiati/es against human traffic=ing -- a %orld%ide in!ustice that e<poses more than () million poor and /ulnerable indi/iduals , especiall' %omen and children, to e<ploitation and degradation . 4he most notable of these is a strong e<ecuti/e order aimed at ending human
traffic=ing acti/ities b' go/ernment contractors and subcontractors. K K 4he order, signed b' &r. 7resident 1bama on $ept. (,, contains an arra' of simple but potentiall' game-changing pro/isions that %ill help enforce the go/ernmentPs e<isting #ero-tolerance polic'. 4hese ne% rules forbid all contractors from charging ne% emplo'ees recruitment fees that often lead to indebtedness to loan shar=s, misleading emplo'ees about li/ing conditions and housing, den'ing access to passports or failing to pa' transportation costs so emplo'ees can return home. K K 4his should be the first of se/eral steps to bolster the attac= on a scourge that &r. 1bama described as Lmodern sla/er'L in a passionate address on the issue last %ee= at the Clinton >lobal Initiati/e. Among other things, &r. 1bama should put the %eight of his office behind a bipartisan bill in Congress , the

Fnd 4raffic=ing in >o/ernment Contracting Act. 4he bill %ould strengthen the administrationPs e<ecuti/e initiati/e b' embedding into la% safeguards against substandard %ages, abusi/e %or=ing conditions and se<ual and labor e<ploitation. It %ould also impose criminal penalties and create other enforcement tools be'ond the scope of an e<ecuti/e order.K K 4he legislation en!o's broad support among Republicans and Democrats in both the .ouse and the $enate, and its appro/al should be on the must-do list for the lame-duc= session follo%ing the election. K K 4hat list should also include another critical measure to fight traffic=ing, the 4raffic=ing Gictims 7rotection Act. 4his statute, %hich also has significant bipartisan support, %as enacted in ())) and reauthori#ed in ())B, ()), and ())E. Central to the nationPs anti-traffic=ing efforts, it aids in the prosecution of traffic=ers, imposing stiff penalties. It also offers important ser/ices and benefits to help /ictims rebuild their li/es.K K Regrettabl', the billPs reauthori#ation has been stalled in the .ouse b' political %rangling o/er a separate issue of /ictimsP reproducti/e rights. Continued dela' on this bill %ould hurt /ictims and send a terrible message to the %orld. If he is re-elected, 7resident 1bama %ill ha/e the enhanced political muscle he %ill need to brea= the log!am.

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A$) c& Martins/ 13 (Flisa &artins, *)/,/*B ?.uman traffic=ing challenges &e<ico and Central America@, httpI//infosurho'.com/cocoon/saii/<html/en;> /features/saii/features/main/()*B/),/*)/feature-)*-//F& ?4here is a need for a unified database on human traffic=ing that addresses not onl' the in/estigation of the offense but also allegations and =no%n /ictims,@ he said. ?$tate go/erning bodies and ci/il organi#ations ha/e numbers that do not match, %hich ma=es it more difficult to scale the phenomenon.@ 0"1DC5s ()*( ?>lobal Report on
4raffic=ing in 7ersons@ sho%s that *, countries in the Americas reported D,))) cases of human traffic=ing bet%een ()): and ()*), including *,D)) cases in/ol/ing children. .uman traffic=ing generated 0$SB( billion %orld%ide in ()*(. ? 4he go/ernment does not ha/e the abilit' to

identif' all situations, and the /ictims are afraid to ma=e a report,@ de La 4orre said. ;,&erts sa" it4s crucial to in)est in &re)enting ne+ cases-

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1nc AtraffickingB &ic


2emo)ing t'e +or$ AtraffickingB from our $iscourse sol)es 8 refocuses us to+ar$ real reforms !im an$ C'ang 7 professor of la% at Lo'ola La% $chool, Los Angeles, teaches 4orts, Immigration La% and .uman 4raffic=ing ,
A"D Associate 7rofessor of 3eminist $tudies at 0ni/ersit' of California, $anta arbara. (Jathleen and >race, Lo'ola La% $chool Legal $tudies 7aper "o. ()):-C:, December ()):, LReconceptuali#ing Approaches to .uman 4raffic=ingI "e% Directions and 7erspecti/es from the 3ield(s-,L httpI//%%%.sacramentosect.org/uploads/,/)/9/,/,)9,)9E/reconceptuali#ing;approaches;to;ht.pdf K -//A& L4raffic=ing,L connoting onl' Lse<,L has polluted the efforts of man' ad/ocates in accessing K protection for their clients traffic=ed into non-se< related industries. 4he disposal of the term Ltraffic=ingL altogether could re/itali#e anti-traffic=ing ad/ocac' to ad/ance

the rights of traffic=ed %or=ers WpBCCX in all industries b' refocusing anti-traffic=ing %or= on reforming the underl'ing K migration and labor policies that perpetuate the e<ploitation of all migrant %or=ers. Anti-traffic=ing K ad/ocates ha/e begun this process through public education efforts and interactions %ith the media. K ' using alternate language to describe traffic=ing, such as forced or coerced migrant labor, the K reconceptuali#ation of traffic=ing as a migrant labor rights issue can e/ol/e. (sing t'e term AtraffickingB $etracts from un$erstan$ing t'e full sco&e of t'e atrocities in)ol)e$ in t'e in$ustr" 2ic'ter an$ 2ic'ter 3 professors of political science and &7A facult' at Jansas $tate 0ni/ersit' (8illiam and Linda, L.uman 4raffic=ing,
>lobali#ation, and Fthics,L httpI//%%%.aspaonline.org/ethicscommunit'/documents/.umanU()4raffic=ing,U()>lobali#ationU()and U()Fthics.pdf-//A& If the outrage that toppled 4rent Lott from the position of $enate &a!orit' Leader could be K summoned to confront the real and gro%ing humanitarian crisis that is traffic=ing, perhaps results %ould K match rhetoric. As it is, too often traffic=ing simpl' does not ma=e it to C-$7A" or the tal= sho%s.K $ome of the ethical issues in/ol/ed in human traffic=ing are ob/ious. $la/er' is as odious toda' as at K an'

time, though perhaps the term ?traffic=ing@ obscures %hat is reall' happening. 8e tend to thin= of K sla/er' as a practice of the past and are not a%are that there are actuall' more sla/es toda' than at an' K earlier time. ATraffickingB 'as *ecome t'e ?politicall' correct@ phrase and is detached from the issue 2ea$ing 12 ("i=i, L$enate introduces bills aimed at reducing human traffic=ing,L 4he Capitol Record, */*D/*(,
httpI//capitolrecord.t/%.org/()*(/)*/senate-introduces-bills-aimed-at-reducing-human-traffic=ing/].0d&t(7nGDAI-//A&

A bipartisan group of la%ma=ers in the $enate is announcing a pac=age of bills to combat human traffic=ing . $en
Jeanne Johl-8elles said she and others ha/e been %or=ing on the issue for a decade. $he said at first, man' people reacted %ith disbelief N no one %anted to recogni#e that traffic=ing occurred in the 0.$. or this state, she said. $he said toda'5s bills ?recogni#e that %e5/e come a long

%a' but %e still ha/e a long %a' to go.@K ?8e ha/e a significant pac=age of anti-traffic=ing legislation to introduce toda',@ said $en. Jaren 3raser. ?$ome people %ould sa' the term traffic=ing is a polite term for %hat is going on. 4he real term is sla/er',@ she
said. .er bill in the pac=age %ould allo% a minor to petition the court to ha/e a prostitution con/iction ta=en off their record if the minor %as forced into prostitution.

T'e $iscourse of t'e 1AC *ase$ aroun$ AtraffickingB is mislea$ing an$ s'oul$ *e re>ecte$ Wals' 12 7ro!ect 1fficer for I"4FRAC4 7oint 4ur=u, a pro!ect that has been set up for supporting cooperation programmes along F0 e<ternal
borders %hich are funded b' the Furopean "eighbourhood and 7artnership Instrument (Aisling, LInclusi/e gro%thPs Auest to e<clude human traffic=ing,L $pring ()*(, httpI//%%%.interact-eu.net/do%nloads/C9D,/I"4FRAC4U(,()"e%sletterU(,()U(,:CU(,()$pring()*(U(,()U(,:C U(,())9U(,()inclusi/eU(,()gro%thU(,F(U(,E)U(,99sU(,()AuestU(,()toU(,()e<cludeU(,()humanU(,()traffic=ing.pdf-//A&

4he term ?traffic=ing in persons@ can be misleading as itK places emphasis on the transaction aspects of a crime thatK is more accuratel' described as ensla/ement*K as CeciliaK &almstrdm, the F0 Commissioner for .ome Affairs pointsK out, ?4raffic=ing in human beings is an e<tremel' serious K crime and a gross /iolation of human rights, %hich can beK classified as a modern form of sla/er'.@K

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2nc $iscourse first


T'is intellectual stance takes t'e *lin$ers off of &olic"5makers to 'a)e a more et'ical a&&roac' to t'e +orl$0fi,ing linguistic )iolence is a necessar" &re5reHuisite to &re)enting structural )iolence #"les 03 (Joanna, 7rofessor of Fnglish at the 0ni/ersit' of C'prus, ?$ha=espeare and 7s'choanal'sisI 4ragic Alternati/esI Fros and
$uperego Re/enge in .amlet@, %%%.clas.ufl.edu/ipsa/!ournal/())C;b'les)*.shtml W$>XIt is here of course that language

pla's an important role in imagining the other, the other %ithin the self, and the other as self, as %ell as the enormousl' influential /isual images each group can ha/e of the other . In the need to emphasi#e similarit' in difference, both /erbal and /isual metaphor can pla' a meaningful role in creating a climate for peaceful understanding, and this is %here literature, especiall' the social %orld of the drama and of film, but also the more pri/ate %orld of poetr', can be

immensel' significant. 1f course not all literature is eAuall' transparent. In conclusion, %ar, in all its manifestations, is a phenomenon put into action b' indi/iduals %ho ha/e been politici#ed as a group to gi/e and recei/e /iolent death, to appropriate the enem'Ps land, homes, %omen, children, and goods, and perhaps to lose their o%n. As %e ha/e seen, in %artime the splitting of the self and other into friend and enem' enormousl' relie/es the normal ps'chic tension caused b' human ambi/alence %hen lo/e and hate find t%o separate ob!ects of attention. .ence the .soldierPs and terroristPs %illingness to sacrifice her/his life for La !ust cause,L %hich ma' be a "ation, a >roup, or a Leader %ith %hom he has close emotional ties and identit'. I n this %a' s/he does not feel guilt'I the destructi/e impulses, mobilised b' her/his o%n superego, together %ith that of the social superego, ha/e pro!ected the guilt s/he might feel at =illing strangers onto the enem'. In other %ords, the charging of the enem' %ith guilt b' %hich the superego of the $tate mobili#es the indi/idualPs superego seems to be of fundamental importance in escaping the sense of guilt %hich %ar pro/o=es in those engaged in the =illing+ 'et the mobili#ation of superego acti/ities can still in/ol/e the indi/idualPs self-puniti/e mechanisms, e/en though most of his/her guilt has been pro!ected onto the enem' in the name of his o%n ci/ili#ation and culture. As %e all =no%, this guilt can become a problem at the end of a %ar, leading to /ar'ing degrees of miser' and mental illness. 3or some, the =illing of an enem' and a stranger cannot be trul' mourned, and there remains a blan= space, an irretrie/able act or e/ent to be li/ed through o/er and o/er again. 4his dilemma is poignantl' e<pressed in 8ilfred 1%enPs 8orld 8ar 1ne poem L$trange &eetingL the final lines of %hich read as follo%sI I am the enem' 'ou =illed, m' friend. I =ne% 'ou in this dar=I for so 'ou fro%ned Mesterda' through me as 'ou !abbed and =illed. I parried+ but m' hands %ere loath and cold. Let us sleep no%. ... (1%en *(D- 4he problem for us toda'

is ho% to create the ps'chological climate of opinion, a mentalit', that %ill re!ect %ar, genocide , and terrorism as /iable solutions to internal and e<ternal situations of conflict+ to recogni#e our pro!ections for %hat the' are dangerousl' irresponsible ps'chic acts based on superego hatred and /iolence . 8e must challenge the %a' in %hich the $tate superego can

manipulate our responses in its o%n interests, e/en ta=e a%a' our sub!ecti/ities. 8e should ac=no%ledge and learn to displace the /io lence in oursel/es in sociall' harmless %a's, getting rid of our fears and an<ieties of the other and of difference b' relating and identif'ing %ith the other and thus creating the serious desire to li/e together in a peaceful %orld. 8hat seems to be needed is for the superego to regain its de/elopmental role of mitigating omniscient protecti/e identification b' ensuring an intact, integrated ob!ect %orld, a %orld that %ill be able to contain unconscious fears, hatred, and an<ieties %ithout the need for splitting and pro!ection. As ion has pointed out, omnipotence replaces thin=ing and omniscience

replaces learning. 8e must learn to lin= our internal and e<ternal %orlds so as to

act as a container of the otherPs fears and an<ieties, and thus in turn to encourage the other to reciprocate as a container of our hatreds and fears. If %ar represents cultural formations that in turn represent ob!ectifications of the ps'che /ia the super-ego of the indi/idual and of the $tate, then perhaps %e can reformulate these ps'chic social mechanisms of pro!ection and superego aggression. .ere, that old peace-time ego and the reparati/e component of the indi/idual and $tate superego %ill ha/e to pla' a large part. 4he greater the clash of cultural formations for e<ample, 8estern &odernism and Islamic 3undamentalismthe more urgent the need. L4he =no%ledge no% most %orth ha/ingL is an authentic %a' of internali#ing %hat it is %e understand about %ar and international terrorism that %ill liberate us from the histor' of our collecti/e traumatic past and the imperati/es it has imposed on us. 4he inner ps'chic %orld of the indi/idual

has an enormousl' important adapti/e role to pla' here in de/eloping mechanisms of protecti/e identification not as a means of damaging and destro'ing the other, but as a means of empath' , of containing the other, and in turn
being contained. 4hese changes ma' be e/olutionar' rather than re/olutionar', gradual ratherthan speed'. 7eace and dare I sa' it contentment are not !ust an absence of %ar, but a state of mind. 3urthermore , %e should learn not to pro!ect too much into our group, and our

nation, for this allo%s the group to t'ranni#e us, so that %e follo% li=e lost sheep . an absence of %ar, but a state of mind and, most importantl', a %a' of thin=ing.

ut spea=ing our minds ta=es courage because groups do not li=e open dissenters. 4hese radical ps'chic changes ma' be e/olutionar' rather than re/olutionar', gradual rather than speed'+ ho%e/er, m' proposition that understanding the other so that %e can reduce her/his moti/ation to =ill reAuires urgent action. 7eace is not !ust

T'e +orl$ is sociall" constructe$/ $iscourse s'a&es realit" <asc'ing *973 (Darrell J., 7rofessor of Religious $tudies at 0ni/ersit' of $outh 3lorida, 4he Fthical Challenge of Ausch%it# and .iroshima, 7p.
*BC-*B,- an=e'

1ur %orld, sa.s )eter >erger, is sociall' constructed through con/ersation, through 'hich Tman not onl. produces a 'orld, but he also. . . . produces himself in a 'orld.T (ndeed, T%hat appears at an. particular historical moment as Phuman natureP is itself a product of manKs Whumanit'5sX %orld-building acti/it'.T4 The modern self, therefore, is existential or
technological. <s *abriel Xahanian has argued, the techno logical self Tfar from being a robot . . . is the man 'ho ma-es him# self.T10 <nd the modern managerial understanding of societ. is its sociological correlate . 4o li/e self-consciousl' in the 'orld of culture is to reali#e that the primar' milieu in %hich %e d%ell is not nature but language, the 'orld of mediated meaning.T ,ur capacit. for language, for culture, and for technolog. is one and the same. 1or through language humans alter the %orld of nature. T)oeticall. d'ells man upon this earth,T sa.s ?olderlin. (ndeed, the *ree- root of poeisis suggests the po'er Tto ma-e, or do, or bring forth,T 'hich expresses the s-ill or techne of the human.12 The ritual tellings and

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enactings of the earliest creation m.ths are poetic acts of primal technological s-illRtransforming chaos into cosmos. The metatechnological act, 'hich provides the foundation for all other techni2ues, is the creation of a s.mbolic universe in 'hich to d'ell, a cultural 'orld of mediated meaning. (n the ver. m.thological mimesis of nature, human beings 'ere unconsciousl. creating an artificial 'orld in 'hich to d'ell. T8.th has not brought man bac- to nature,T sa.s *abriel Xahanian, Tso much as it has sought to settle him in culture. . . . The m.thi2ue of man has al'a.s included a techni2ue of the human.T15

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1nc *or$ers k
#@29;2S N;1 CA29Q T'e militari6ation of t'e (-S-5Me,ico is t'e root cause of trafficking4s se,uali6e$ )iolence

<alcon 401 ($'l/anna, 7rofessor of Latin America $tudies at the 0ni/ersit' of California $anta Cru#, ?Rape as a 8eapon of 8arI
Ad/ancing .uman Rights for 8omen at the 0.$.-&e<ico order@, $ocial Justice, Gol. (E, "o. (, pg. B*-B(, accessed /ia J$41RF, W$>X-

3rom the ConAuest to the present, %omen ha/e been targeted in gender specific %a's during militari#ed conflict. In e/er' militari#ed conflict, %omen are s'stematicall' raped or se<uall' assaulted. $ome feminist scholars and ad/ocates contend that rape is not about se<, but rather about po%er and the dehumani#ation of %omen (8oodhull, *9EE-. ' international standards, rape is a %ar crime, a form of torture, and a lin= to genocide. 4adeus# &a#o%iec=i, the former $pecial
Rapporteur for the 0nited "ations (0.".- Commission on .uman Rights, released a document on the former Mugosla/ia that classified rape as Lan abuse of po%er and control in %hich the rapist see=s to humiliate, shame, embarrass, degrade, and terrif' the /ictim. 4he primar' ob!ecti/e

is to e<ercise po%er and control o/er another personL (0.". Fconomic and $ocial Council, *99BaI :*-. In this article, I argue that rape is one outcome of militari#ation along the 0.$.-&e<ico border. I e<amine specific cases of militari#ed border rape
using data from nongo/ernmental organi#ations, go/ernment committees, and 0.$. ne%spapers.* I also anal'#e the factors that facilitate militari#ed border rape and emphasi#e the need to ad/ance human rights for %omen in the border region. Fach of the %omen in the case studies too= some form of action against the Immigration and "aturali#ation $er/ice (L"$-. $ome e/en used an ad/ocate to mo/e their cases for%ard through an in/estigation. All of the cases in/ol/ed I"$ officials or order 7atrol agents. 4hough the cases highlighted do not include 0.$. militar' or paramilitar' forces, the influence of militar' culture on order 7atrol agents has affected that agenc'. Rape is a %eapon of %ar and militari#ation at the border indicates that a form of %ar e<ists. Data indicate that some men ha/e reported being raped at the border (Amnest' International, *99E-, but most rapes /iolate %omen, %hether at the border or throughout the %orld. &oti/ations for raping %omen differ in a %ar-torn countr' from those

committed along the 0.$.-&e<ico border. .o%e/er, the outcome remains the sameI the s'stematic degradation of %omen. "ational concern o/er the border has led to broad public support for militaristic tactics in this region. 4he militari#ation of the 0.$.-&e<ico border in/ol/es t%o =e' elementsI the introduction and integration of militar' units in the border region (the 8ar on Drugs is the primar' moti/ator for in/ol/ing militar' units- and the modification of the order 7atrol to resemble the militar' /ia its eAuipment, structure, and tactics. C'nthia Fnloe (()))I B- contends
that militari#ation in/ol/es cultural, institutional, ideological, and economic transformations. 4he I"$ has undergone these transformations. 3or e<ample, transferring the I"$ from the Department of Labor to the !urisdiction of the Department of Justice (D1J- in *9C) resulted in institutional and ideological shifts (Dunn, *99DI *B-. Garious Department of Defense (D1D- Authori#ation Acts loosened the restrictions placed on the militar'Ps domestic enforcement roles. 4he D1D Authori#ation Act of *9E( started the process of altering a *))-'ear-old statute that prohibited cooperation bet%een the arm' and ci/ilian la% enforcement. 4his had a ma!or impact on the role of the militar' in domestic affairs and

encouraged an alliance bet%een ci/ilian la% enforcement and the militar'. 1ther D1D AuthoriH

#ation Acts ad/anced and e<panded this cooperation. In addition, other national actions, such as 1peration Alliance and Joint 4as= 3orce D ad/anced the militari#ation of the border, especiall' after *9ED %hen 7resident Reagan declared drug traffic=ing to be a national securit' threat (Ibid.-. &ilitari#ed antidrug

strategies influence the policies for undocumented border crossers %ho are not in/ol/ed in drug traffic=ing. 3or
e<ample, 1peration .old the Line and 1peration >ate=eeper focus on the points of entr' freAuented b' undocumented people in Fl 7aso, 4e<as, and $an Diego, California. oth of these border enforcement efforts contain militaristic characteristics. 4imoth' Dunn emplo's lo%-intensit' conflict (LICmilitar' doctrine to conte<tuali#e the militari#ation of the 0.$.-&e<ico border. LIC doctrine ad/oH cates Luncon/entional, multifaceted, and relati/el' subtle forms of militari#ationL and emphasi#es Lcontrolling targeted ci/ilian populations.L LIC doctrine, conH structed b' the 0.$. militar'-securit' establishment to target 4hird 8orld uprisH ings and re/olutions, particularl' in Central America, contains the follo%ing three aspectsI (*- an emphasis on the internal defense of a nation, ((- an emphasis on controlling targeted ci/ilian populations rather than territor', and (B- the assumption b' the militar' of police-li=e and other uncon/entional, t'picall' nonmilitar' roles, along %ith the adoption b' the police of militar' characteristics (Dunn, *99DI (*-.

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Zes +ar 8 &o+er $"namics an$ em&irics Contreras/ 12 Q 3ello%, elfer Center for $cience and International Affairs, .ar/ard 0ni/ersit' (Dominic, citing &onica Duff' 4oft, associate professor of public polic' at the Jenned' $chool of 7olitical $cience at .ar/ard and director of the elfer Center5s Initiati/e on Religion in International Affairs, citing $tephen &. 8alt, the Robert and Renee elfer professor of international affairs and facult' chair of the elfer Center5s International $ecurit' 7rogram, 3ebruar' *, ()*(, ?8inning the 8ar on 8arH@, elfer Center for $cience and International Affairs, .ar/ard 0ni/ersit', httpI//belfercenter.=sg.har/ard.edu/publication/(*:):/%inning;the;%ar;on;%ar.htmlHbreadcrumbY U(3pro!ectU(3,(U(3intrastate;conflict;program, .enselIn a !ointl' authored December ()** op-ed in the "e% Mor= 4imes, 7in=er and >oldstein %rote that ?the departure of the last American troops from IraA brings relief to a nation that has endured its most painful %ar since Gietnam. ut the e/ent is momentous for another reason. 4he in/asion of IraA %as the most recent e<ample of an all-out %ar bet%een t%o national armies. And it could /er' %ell be the last one.@ $pea=ing at the forum, both echoed their assessment that %ar is less and less often being used as a tool for societies and states to resol/e conflicts, but the' differed in their /ie%s of %hat brought about this change. $pea=ing to the main argument of his boo= ?8inning the 8ar on 8arI the Decline of Armed Conflict 8orld%ide,@ >oldstein, professor emeritus of international relations at American 0ni/ersit', largel' credited international institutions for the pacification of the international communit', stating that ?After 8orld 8ar II %e did something ne%\%e founded the 0nited "ations\and %e5/e de/eloped this tool, peace=eeping\that has successi/el', progressi/el', o/er a number of 'ears, made it possible to resol/e more conflicts %ithout /iolence, to reduce /iolence %hen it has alread' occurred, and to sustain peace %hen 'ou5re able to negotiate a peace agreement.@ ?4he international communit' is not an o<'moron,@ >oldstein said, ?it actuall' %or=s.@ 7in=er, the Johnstone famil' professor of ps'cholog' at .ar/ard and author of the much heralded boo= ?4he etter Angels of 1ur "atureI 8h' Giolence .as Declined,@ concurred %ith >oldstein5s assessment of a ne% peace ta=ing hold. ut he %ent a step further, arguing that in addition to the international communit' promoting peace, interpersonal norms and the de/elopment of social restraints ha/e fostered a shift a%a' from /iolence. 7in=er cited ?ps'chological changes through cosmopolitanism and literac'\ Wand theX e<pansion of empath' and the consideration of others,@ as dri/ing forces in the societal tilt a%a' from %ar. .e also pointed to changing attitudes to%ards /iolence as e<plaining this shift. ?Giolence is seen as something to be sol/ed and something %e can thro% our %its against\ societ' sees it as a problem, not a solution,@ 7in=er said. 7in=er and >oldstein both declared that the' are not optimists and had approached trends in %arfare as pessimists, onl' reaching their conclusions through rigorous scholarl' anal'sis. 4oft and 8alt, ho%e/er, %ere not so easil' con/inced that the data bear out the hopeful /ie% . 4oft, an associate professor of public polic' at the Jenned' $chool and director of the elfer Center5s Initiati/e on Religion in International Affairs, praised both authors and their boo=s, but pointed to %hat she percei/ed as a ;urocentric tilt in their data pools. $he also cited c'anging

glo*al &o+er $"namics, and %ondered if the trend %ould hold. Responding to 7in=er5s argument that societies ha/e become more ci/ili#ed 8alt, the Robert and Renee elfer professor of international affairs and facult' chair of the elfer Center5s International $ecurit' 7rogram, said, ?It5s not ob/ious to me that the ci/ili#ing instinct at the interpersonal le/el translates to more ci/ili#ed beha/ior bet%een states or bet%een states and other people .@ 8alt pointed to #osnia an$ :raH as e<amples of cases in %hich *oun$ar" con$itions c'ange and )iolence Huickl" emerges from seemingl' peaceful societies. De/oid of a strong central state, both Mugosla/ia after the fall of 4ito, and IraA after the toppling of $addam both descended into ci/il %ar as competing groups /ied for control and po%er . 3urthermore, 8alt pointed to the post-Cold 8ar 0.$. that has gone to %ar four times through democratic processes and has chosen %arfare as a rational and preferred option . 4he panel largel' agreed that global %ar on the scale of 8orld 8ar I and II is
unli=el' to occur again, because, according to >oldstein, ?trade is no% basis of prosperit' W%hereasX conAuering land used to be.@ .o%e/er, the' agreed, modern e<ceptions abound+ in some cases the 0nited "ations, %hich is charged %ith upholding peace, can sanction %ar, and in others, states can decide that %ar is in their interest. 8hether or not %ar is on the %a' out in the long-term is up for debate, but according to 7in=er, ?'ou can5t miss the trend line.@

9eterrence onl" &ro)es t'at +ar can 'a&&en S'a+/ 11 Q Assistant Chief of Defence $taff, 0J &ilitar' (Jonathan, $eptember (:, ()**, inter/ie% b' 8orld 7olic' Institute, ?4he 1nce and 3uture 8ar,@ 8orld 7olic' Institute, httpI//%%%.%orldpolic'.org/!ournal/fall()**/con/ersation, .ensel87JI $o do 'ou thin= %e are seeing the end of traditional battlefieldsH Is this going to be the end of the old stand-and-deli/er %arfareH 1r are %e facing more cerebral %arfare, %here s'stems are being attac=ed and not simpl' indi/iduals or peopleH >eneral $ha%I Mou5/e got to be careful if 'ou5re tal=ing about competition bet%een nations or e<istential threats. If 'ou go bac= to 8orld 8ar I, 8orld 8ar II, and the Cold 8ar, the defining feature %as that the' %ere e<istential battles for sur/i/al bet%een nations. And the' %ere

limitless %ars. 8hat 'ou are seeing no% in Afghanistan and IraA are more %ars of choice b' politicians. 4he' are not limitless. Do I feel that %e are seeing the end of force-on-force, total annihilationH Absolutel' not . T'at4s +'" "ou an$ : kee& a nuclear $eterrent. We cannot affor$ to sa" t'at a nuclear attack +ill ne)er 'a&&en . ut as Rupert $mith argues, Auite cogentl', in his boo=,
4he 0tilit' of 3orce, nuclear %eapons ha/e made an escalation and unlimited use of militar' po%er self-defeating. Mou %ind up destro'ing the /er' things 'ou are tr'ing to preser/e.

1reat &o+er +ar is still 'ig'l" likel"

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 232/283 <erguson/ 08 Q D7hil, $enior 3ello%, .oo/er Institute, 7rofessor of .istor', .ar/ard 0ni/ersit' ("iall, Januar' *D, ())E, ?Chill 8ind from *9*C,@ .oo/er Digest "o. *, httpI//%%%.hoo/er.org/publications/hoo/erdigest/article/,DC*, .ensel4he ris= of a ma!or geopolitical crisis in ()): is certainl' lo%er than it %as in *9*C. Met it is not so lo+ as to lie altoget'er *e"on$ t'e realm of &ro*a*ilit". 4he escalation of /iolence in the Mi$$le ;ast as :raH disintegrates and :ran presses on %ith its nuclear program is close to being a certaint' , as are the gro%ing insecurit' of :srael and the impossibilit' of an' meaningful 0.$. e<it from the region. All ma' be harmonious bet%een the 0nited $tates and C'ina toda', 'et the potential for tension o/er trade and e<change rates has unAuestionabl' increased since the Democrats gained control of Congress. "or should %e forget about securit' flashpoints such as the independence of Tai+an, the threat of Nort' !orea, and the nonnuclear status of Ma&an. 4o consign political ris= to the realm of uncertaint' seems almost as rash toda' as it %as in the 'ears leading up the 3irst 8orld 8ar . AngloN>erman economic commercial ties reached a pea= in *9*C, but geo&olitics trum&e$ economics . It often does. ;)en a small risk of nuclear +ar out+eig's 8 an$ mistakes make it more likel" Harrell 7 associate professor of public polic' at .ar/ard Jenned' $chool. Fben .arrell is a research associate %ith the 7ro!ect on &anaging the
Atom at .ar/ard Jenned' $chool and a oston-based stringer for 4I&F. (Fben, L4he "uclear Ris=I .o% Long 8ill 1ur Luc= .old,L (/()/)9, httpI//%%%.time.com/time/%orld/article/),E,99,*EE):)(,)).html-//A& ut to mar/el at the bi#arre coincidence of the collision, or to breathe a sigh of relief that nuclear safet' %as not breached, is to miss the point. 4he seemingl' impossible collision of t%o subs in a large ocean should remind us of the fallac' b' %hich %e assume nuclear %eapons

%ill ne/er be used. ecause the threat of global nuclear %ar is not #ero, e/en a small chance of %ar each 'ear, multiplied o/er a number of 'ears, adds up to the li=elihood that the %eapons %ill be used. Li=e those t%o subs stal=ing through the Atlantic, the odds %ill begin to align. &athematicall', the' are destined to.K 4his is not a mere logic game. If there is a single Lbig ideaL to ha/e emerged in the first decade of the ne% millennium N from the $eptember ** attac=s to the financial crash N it is the notion of the Lblac= s%an,L the danger posed b' difficult to predict, high-impact e/ents. 4he short histor' of nuclear %eapons is alread' scattered %ith unplanned and seemingl' improbable incidents that suggest %e feel more secure than %e should. In *99,, a communication failure %ith the Russian Fmbass' led the Russian militar' to belie/e that a %eather roc=et launched off the coast of "or%a' %as an incoming submarine-launched ballistic missile. In the *9E)s, malfunctioning 0.$. missile defense s'stems rela'ed information to 0.$. officials of a massi/e incoming first stri=e N t%ice. As recentl' as ()):, a 0.$. Air 3orce plane fle% across the American heartland %hile un=no%ingl' carr'ing se/eral li/e %arheads on board. At the time, all of these e/ents %ere described as frea= occurrences. 4he truth is the' %ere frea= occurrences. ut the' happened.(Read the 4op *) underreported stories of ())E.-K A da' after the latest nuclear
accident became public, an anal'st from the 3ederation of American $cientists, a nonproliferation thin= tan=, released 0.$. "a/al intelligence documents obtained through the 3reedom of Information Act that sho%ed that the Russian "a/' undertoo= more under%ater ballistic missile submarine patrols in ())E than it has in a decade. 4he Russian subs are !oined in the %ordPs oceans b' nuclear-armed /essels from 3rance, ritain, and China. 0nder the

plains of the American 8est, and in similar silos in Russia, Air 3orce missile operators =eep constant /igil, launch =e's at the read'. "uclear missiles ha/e no self-destruct button+ once launched, the' cannot be called bac=. 4%ent' 'ears after the end of the cold %ar, humanit' still li/es %ithin B) minutes of its o%n destruction.
4he price %e pa' for maintaining nuclear %eapons is the gamble that the highl' improbable %ill not lead to the unthin=able. 4he Auestion to as= after this latest ner/' episodeI is it %orth itH

Nuclear +ar is &ossi*le 8 con)entional +ars ine)ita*l" escalate =ie*er an$ ?ress 13 Associate 7rofessor, Fdmund A. 8alsh $chool of 3oreign $er/ice, >eorgeto%n 0ni/ersit' A"D Associate 7rofessor of
>o/ernment, Dartmouth College, Coordinator of 8ar and 7eace $tudies at the John $loan, Dic=e' Center (Jeir A. A"D Dar'l >., ?4he "e% Fra of "uclear 8eapons, Deterrence, and Conflict,@ $pring ()*B, httpI//%%%.au.af.mil/au/ssA/digital/pdf/spring;*B/lieber.pdf-//A& 4he 7roblem of Coerci/e FscalationK and 0$ "uclear &oderni#ationK A second set of arguments stems from the problem of nuclear escalation and the future of the 0$ nuclear arsenal. 1ur main claim is that deterring nuclear conflict %ill be much more difficult in the coming

decades K than man' anal'sts reali#e. As nuclear %eapons proliferate, it becomes K increasingl' li=el' that the 0nited $tates %ill find itself in con/entional K conflicts %ith nuclear-armed ad/ersaries. 4hose ad/ersaries understand K the
conseAuences of losing a %ar to the 0nited $tatesNprison or death K t'picall' a%aits enem' leaders.:K Coerci/e nuclear escalation as a means K of creating stalemate and remaining in po%er is one of the onl' trump K cards a/ailable to countries fighting the 0nited $tates. K $ome anal'sts might scoff at the notion that a rational leader %ould K use nuclear %eapons against a superpo%er li=e the 0nited $tates. ut K that retort conflates the logic of peacetime deterrence %ith the logic K of %ar, and it ignores histor'. During peacetime, almost an' course of K action is better than

starting a nuclear %ar against a superpo%er. ut K during %arN%hen that superpo%er5s planes are bombing command and K leadership sites, and %hen its tan=s are sei#ing territor'Nthe greatest K danger ma' be to refrain from escalation and let the %ar run its course. K Leaders of %ea=er statesNthose unli=el' to pre/ail on the con/entional K battlefieldNface life-and-death pressures to compel a stalemate. And K nuclear %eapons pro/ide a better means of coerci/e escalation than K /irtuall' an' other.K 4he notion of countries escalating conflict to a/oid con/entional defeat ma' sound far-fetched, but it is %ell grounded in histor'. 8hen K nuclear-armed states face o/er%helming con/entional threatsNor %orr' K about the possibilit' of catastrophic con/entional

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 233/283 defeatNthe' often K adopt coerci/e escalator' doctrines to deter %ar or stalemate a conflict K that erupts. 7a=istan
openl' intends to use nuclear %eapons to counter K an o/er%helming con/entional Indian in/asion. Russia claims it needs K theater nuclear %eapons to counter "A415s con/entional ad/antages. K Israel e<pects to %in its con/entional %ars but retains the capabilit' for K nuclear escalation to pre/ent conAuest in case its con/entional forces K suffer a catastrophic defeat. K 4he discussion of coerci/e nuclear escalation should sound familiar K to 8estern anal'sts, as it %as "A415s strateg' for three decades. 3rom K the mid *9D)s until the end of the Cold 8ar, "A41 planned to deter K %ar, and stalemate it if necessar', through coerci/e nuclear escalation. K "A41 understood thatNb' the mid *9D)sNit could no longer %in a K nuclear %ar against the $o/iet 0nion, but it still based its national securit' K strateg' on coerci/e escalation because it belie/ed 8arsa% 7act con/entional forces %ere o/er%helming. K In short, the escalator' d'namics that e<isted during the Cold 8ar e<ist K toda'Nand the' are !ust as po%erful.

$tates still face the same critical K national securit' problem the' faced during the Cold 8ar and throughout histor'I namel', ho% to pre/ent stronger countries from conAuering them. 4he high-sta=es po=er game of international politics has not K ended+ the pla'ers and the cards dealt ha/e merel' changed. 4hose %ho K %ere %ea=
during the Cold 8ar are no% strong, and another set of K militaril' ?%ea=@ countriesNsuch as "orth Jorea, Iran, 7a=istan, and K e/en China and RussiaN no% clutch or see= nuclear %eapons to defend K themsel/es from o/er%helming militar' might, !ust as "A41 once did. K 8hat can the 0nited $tates do to mitigate the problem of escalationH K Ideall', it should a/oid %ars against nuclear-armed enemies. ut that K option ma' not be possible gi/en current 0$ foreign polic' and alliances. 8ar ma' erupt on the Jorean 7eninsula, ensnaring the 0nited K $tates in a battle against a desperate nuclear-armed foe. In the future, K 8ashington

ma' fight a nuclear-armed Iran o/er sea lanes in the 7ersian K >ulf. And the 0nited $tates could someda' be dragged into %ar b' a K clash bet%een Chinese and Japanese na/al forces near
disputed islands. K Alternati/el', the 0nited $tates could see= to de/elop con/entional K %ar plans designed to %age limited %ar %ithout triggering enem' escalation. De/elopment of alternati/e plans is sensible, but histor' sho%s K that %ars are difficult to contain, and modern

con/entional %arfare is K inherentl' escalator'. Nuclear +ar can still 'a&&en 8 +e4)e *een luck" too man" times Wittner 7 7rofessor of .istor' at the $tate 0ni/ersit' of "e% Mor=/Alban'. .is latest boo= is Confronting the

ombI A $hort .istor' of the 8orld "uclear Disarmament &o/ement ($tanford 0ni/ersit' 7ress-. (La%rence $., L4he ongoing danger of nuclear %ar,L E/C/)9, httpI//%%%.peoples%orld.org/the-ongoing-danger-of-nuclear-%ar/-//A& 4his August, %hen hundreds of .iroshima Da' /igils and related antinuclear acti/ities occur around the 0nited $tates, man' Americans %ill %onder at their rele/ance. After all, the nuclear danger that characteri#ed the Cold 8ar is no% far behind us, isnPt itH

0nfortunatel', it is not. 4oda' there are nine nuclear-armed nations, %ith o/er (B,))) nuclear %eapons in their arsenals. 4housands of these %eapons are on hair-trigger alert. Admittedl', some nations are decreasing the si#e of their nuclear
arsenals. 4he 0nited $tates and Russia--%hich together possess about 9, percent of the %orldPs nuclear %eapons--plan to sign a treat' this 'ear that %ill cut their number of strategic %eapons significantl'. ut other nations are engaged in a substantial nuclear buildup. India, for e<ample, launched the first of its nuclear submarines this Jul' and is also de/eloping an assortment of land-based nuclear missiles. &ean%hile, 7a=istan has been bus' testing ballistic missiles and cruise missiles that %ill carr' nuclear %arheads, as %ell as constructing t%o ne% reactors to ma=e plutonium for its e<panding nuclear arsenal. Israel, too, is producing material for ne% nuclear %eapons, %hile "orth Jorea is threatening to resume its production. In addition, numerous nations--among them, Iran--are suspected of %or=ing to de/elop a nuclear %eapons capabilit'. ut surel' national go/ernments

are too ci/ili#ed to actuall' use nuclear %eapons, arenPt the'H In fact, one go/ernment (that of the 0nited $tates- has alread' used atomic bombs to annihilate the populations of t%o cities. &oreo/er, nations ha/e come dangerousl' close to full-scale nuclear %ar on a number of occasions. 4he Cuban missile crisis is the best-=no%n e<ample. ut there are numerous others. In 1ctober
*9:B, during a %ar bet%een Israel and Fg'pt that appeared to be spiraling out of control, the $o/iet go/ernment sent a tough message to 8ashington suggesting !oint--or, if necessar', $o/iet--militar' action to bring the conflict to a halt. 8ith 7resident Richard "i<on reeling from the 8atergate scandal and drun= in the 8hite .ouse, his top national securit' ad/isors responded to %hat the' considered a menacing $o/iet

mo/e b' ordering an alert of 0.$. nuclear forces. 3ortunatel', cooler heads pre/ailed in the Jremlin, and the sudden confrontation eased short of nuclear %ar. 1f course, nuclear %ar hasnPt occurred since *9C, . ut this fact has largel' reflected public re/ulsion at the prospect and popular mobili#ation against it. 4oda', ho%e/er, lulled b' the end of the Cold 8ar and the disintegration of the $o/iet 0nion, %e are in a period of relati/e public complacenc'. In this respect, at least, the situation has gro%n more dangerous. 8ithout counter/ailing pressure, go/ernments find it difficult to resist the temptation to deplo' their most po%erful %eapons %hen the' go to %ar. And the' go to %ar freAuentl'. 3urthermore, %hile nuclear %eapons e<ist, there is a serious danger of accidental nuclear %ar . In $eptember *9EB, the $o/iet 0nionPs launch-detection satellites reported that the 0.$. go/ernment had fired its &inuteman intercontinental ballistic missiles, and that a nuclear attac= on the $o/iet 0nion %as under%a' . Luc=il', the officer in charge of the satellites concluded that the' had malfunctioned and, on his o%n authorit', pre/ented a $o/iet nuclear alert . 4he incident %as so fraught %ith an<iet' that he suffered a ner/ous brea=do%n. Another nuclear %ar nearl' erupted t%o months later , %hen the 0nited $tates
and its "A41 allies conducted Able Archer EB, a nuclear training e<ercise that simulated a full-scale nuclear conflict, %ith "A41 nuclear attac=s upon $o/iet nuclear targets. In the tense atmosphere of the time, recalled 1leg >ordie/s=', a top J> official, his agenc' mista=enl'

Pconcluded that American forces had been placed on alert--and might e/en ha/e begun the countdo%n to nuclear %ar.P 4errified that the 0.$. go/ernment %as using this training e<ercise as a co/er behind %hich it %as launching a nuclear attac= upon the $o/iet 0nion, the $o/iet go/ernment alerted its o%n nuclear forces, read'ing them for action. P4he %orld did not Auite reach the edge of the nuclear ab'ss,P >ordie/s=' concluded. ut it came Pfrighteningl' close.P 3urthermore, toda' %e can add the danger of nuclear terrorism. Although it is /er' unli=el' that terrorists %ill be able to de/elop nuclear %eapons on their o%n, the e<istence of tens of thousands of nuclear %eapons and of the materials to build them in national arsenals opens the possibilit' that terrorists %ill acAuire these items through theft or blac= mar=et operations.

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 23 /283 1/erall, then, the situation remains /er' dangerous . Dr. &artin .ellman, a 7rofessor Fmeritus of Fngineering at $tanford 0ni/ersit' %ho
has de/oted man' 'ears to calculating the prospects of nuclear catastrophe, estimates that the ris= of a child born toda' suffering an earl' death through nuclear %ar is at least *) percent. &oreo/er, he cautions that this is a conser/ati/e estimate, for he has not included the danger of nuclear terrorism in his calculations.

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*nc 'es e<tinction


Nuclear +ar can an$ +ill 'a&&en 8 escalation from con)entional conflicts an$ &rolif M"ers 11 8inslo%, author of LLi/ing e'ond 8arI A Citi#enPs >uide,L (?.umanit'5s 3uture .angs b' the Delicate 4hreads of 1ur Resistance,
D/*C/**, httpI//%%%.ne%clear/ision.com/()**/)D/*C/string-theor'/4he horror of the Cuban &issile Crisis of *9D( had not 'et faded. $hort-range tactical nuclear %eapons %ere proliferating on both sides of the Iron Curtain. &ost citi#ens %ere %illing to entertain the notion that not onl' could %e not %in a full-scale nuclear %ar, but there %ere three lesser

le/els of %ar that %e had to pre/entI e/en a limited nuclear %ar could bring on ?nuclear %inter.@ A con/entional %ar could bring in the nuclear po%ers. F/en small ?local@ conflicts could escalate into general con/entional %ar and then up%ard to the nuclear le/el. 8ar, all %ar, %as a potential e<tinction machine. It still is. 4o e/er'one5s
immense surprise, the $o/iet empire imploded fi/e 'ears later. 8hen it did dissol/e, thousands of peace acti/ists assumed their !ob %as done, and loo=ed for%ard to the ?peace di/idend@ sure to ensue. In ()**, the number of nuclear %eapons countries has risen to nine . 7a=istan and India repeat the foll' of the 0.$.-$o/iet ri/alr'. 8ill 7a=istan remain stable enough to =eep its %arheads from falling into the %rong handsH 8ill the generals in charge of them no%, both in 7a=istan and in India, act %ith restraintH Jonathan $chell asserts that the potential of a

nuclear %eapon being used against people is greater than it has been at an' time since *9C,. 4he thread holding up
Jenned'5s $%ord of Damocles has further attenuated. Ma%ns of indifference. "uclear %ar, accidental or deliberate, !ust isn5t a front-burner issue for people. 8hate/er grabs our attention toda' seems far more indefinite than %hat grabbed us in *9EC, %hile the demands for that attention are a hundred times more di/erse. 8e are ?distracted from distraction b' distraction,@ as Fliot %rote D) 'ears before the ad/ent of e-mail. 8hen %e do loo= up from our laptops and i7hones, %e cannot a/oid the interconnection of all our ma!or challenges. 7ull on an' string in the gigantic ball of issues, and the unra/eling re/eals ho% densel' tangled each issue is %ith all the others. 4he ingredients of nuclear %eapons deri/e from the

operation of nuclear po%er plants. 4hese plants are themsel/es potential terrorist targets. At the same time the' hold
out hope for reliable non-C1(-emitting energ', %hen natural disasters or human errors do not o/er%helm their safeguards.

Nuclear +ar causes e,tinction 8 free6ing tem&eratures/ ra$iation/ an$ famine ;'rlic' et al 83 ing 7rofessor of 7opulation $tudies and 7rofessor of iological. $ciences at $tanford 0ni/ersit' (LLong-term biological conseAuences of nuclear %ar,L *(/(B/EB, httpI//%%%.sciencemag.org/content/(((/CDB)/*(9B.short-//A& $ubfree#ing temperatures, lo% light le/els, and high doses of ioni#ing and ultra/iolet radiation e<tending for man' months after a large-scale nuclear %ar could destro' the biological support s'stems of ci/ili#ation , at least in the "orthern .emisphere. 7roducti/it' in natural and agricultural ecos'stems could be se/erel' restricted for a 'ear or more. 7ost%ar sur/i/ors %ould face star/ation as %ell as free#ing conditions in the dar= and be e<posed to nearlethal doses of radiation. If, as no% seems possible, the $outhern .emisphere %ere affected also, global disruption of the biosphere could ensue. In an' e/ent, there %ould be se/ere conseAuences, e/en in the areas not affected directl', because of the interdependence of the %orld econom'. In either case the e<tinction of a large fraction of the FarthPs animals, plants, and microorganisms seems possible. 4he population si#e of .omo sapiens concei/abl' could be reduced to prehistoric le/els or belo%, and e<tinction of the human species itself cannot be e<cluded. An" nuclear e,c'ange +oul$ cause a $e)astating nuclear +inter !ing 7 7eter, Centre for 7eace and Conflict $tudies (L0ndermining 7roliferationI "uclear 8inter and "uclear Renunciation,L 1ctober ())9,
httpI//s'dne'.edu.au/arts/peace;conflict/docs/p=;underminingU();prolif.pdf1f course ?operationall' deplo'ed@ %arheads are the most dangerous =ind, especiall' those assigned or able to be launched on %arning rather than hard e/idence of attac=. 4heir numbers

alone, until drasticall' reduced, %ill continue to pose catastrophic ris=s for human=ind, not least of nuclear %inter. *B 1n this sub!ect alarms %ere first sounded in the earl' *9E)s (most prominentl' b' Carl $agan and Jonathan $chell- that after a largescale nuclear %ar a global free#e %ould ensue from the millions of tons of soot in!ected into the stratosphere as cities and forests burned. *C 4hese alarms prompted mainl' an a/alanche of %illful scepticism, much of it plausibl' orchestrated b' Des all of the Australian "ational 0ni/ersit', %ho remains , apparentl', unrepentant in denial. ut %e no% =no% that the real situation is e/en more dire than %as supposed () 'ears ago. 0sing the ad/anced modelling techniAues de/eloped to forecast climate change, American and Russian teams of independent researchers ha/e come up %ith the persuasi/e conclusion that e/en a ?small@ nuclear e<change (unforgi/able euphemism--for instance bet%een fledgling nuclear states India and 7a=istanNin/ol/ing ?onl' a hundred %eapons in total but targeted mainl' on (highl' inflammable as %ell as populous- cities-- %ould create a disastrous climatic effect. 0p to a billion deaths globall' ha/e been forecast from food crop de/astation in this scenario, a stunningl' larger casualt' figure than the fe% tens of millions of ?prompt deaths@ forecast for the ?combatant populations @. And a ?large@ nuclear %ar in %hich the t%o big nuclear po%ers shot off most of their deplo'ed arsenals %ould put human sur/i/alNat least social sur/i/al--at ris= from global free#ing, independentl' of all the other dire but more familiar effects. *D

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Nuclear +inter means a +ar +oul$ affect t'e entire glo*e 2o*ock an$ Toon 7 Alan, professor in the Department of Fn/ironmental $ciences, Rutgers 0ni/ersit' A"D

rian, professor in the Department of Atmospheric and 1ceanic $ciences, 0ni/ersit' of Colorado (?Climatic Fffects of "uclear Conflict,@ httpI//climate.en/sci.rutgers.edu/nuclear/Roboc=4oon$ummar'.pdf"uclear %inter is a term that describes the climatic effects of nuclear %ar. In the *9E)5s, %or= conducted !ointl' b' 8estern and $o/iet scientists sho%ed that for a full-scale nuclear %ar bet%een the 0nited $tates and the $o/iet 0nion the climatic conseAuences, and indirect effects of the collapse of societ', %ould be so se/ere that the ensuing nuclear %inter %ould produce famine for billions of people far from the target #ones. 4his reali#ation led to the end of arms race and the end of the Cold 8ar. $ince that time, the number of nuclear %eapons in the %orld has no% decreased to */B of the pea= number of more than :),))) in the *9E)5s, and is planned to be onl' DU of that le/el b' ()*:. 4here are se/eral %rong impressions that people

ha/e about nuclear %inter. 1ne is that there %as a fla% in the theor' Q that the large climatic effects %ere dispro/ed. Another is that the problem, e/en if it e<isted, has been sol/ed b' the end of the nuclear arms race. ut these are both %rong. 8hat5s "e%. ased on ne% %or= published since ()): b' some of the pioneers of nuclear %inter research, %e no% can sa' se/eral ne% things about this topic. n "uclear arsenals %ith ,) nuclear %eapons, such as currentl' possessed b' India and 7a=istan and D other nations, threaten more fatalities than in pre/ious %ars to an' nation attac=ed. 8ith global deli/er' s'stems an' such nation is as dangerous as an' of the superpo%ers. n A nuclear %ar bet%een an' t%o countries using ,) .iroshima-si#ed atom bombs, such as India and 7a=istan, could produce climate change unprecedented in recorded human histor'. 4his is less than ).),U of the e<plosi/e po%er of the current global arsenal . ($ee graph belo%.- n "uclear arsenals %ith ,) nuclear %eapons can produce a global pall of smo=e leading to global o#one depletion. 4he smo=e, once in the stratosphere, heats the air, %hich speeds up reactions that destro' o#one, and also lofts reacti/e chemicals b' altering the %inds. n A nuclear %ar bet%een the 0nited $tates and Russia toda', or e/en after reductions planned for ()*: under the "e% $4AR4 treat', could produce nuclear %inter, %ith temperatures plunging belo% free#ing in the summer in ma!or agricultural regions, threatening the food suppl' for most of the planet. n 4he climatic effects of the smo=e from burning cities and industrial areas %ould last for se/eral 'ears, much longer than %e pre/iousl' thought. "e% climate model simulations, %hich ha/e the capabilit' of including the entire atmosphere and oceans, sho% that the smo=e %ould be lofted b' solar heating to the upper stratosphere, %here it %ould remain for 'ears. n 4he spread of nuclear %eapons to ne%l' emerging states threatens not onl' the people of those countries, but the entire planet. Nuclear +ar cause e,tinction t'roug' nuclear +inter CNN Ne+s 0. (C"" "e%s citing a report b' the >eophusical 0nion in $an 3rancisco, *( Dec. ())D. _
httpI//%%%.abcne%s.go.com/4echnolog'/$tor'Hid -(:()*:B6page -*`- //A& 4he decline of the $o/iet 0nion ma' ha/e left man' Americans feeling safer from nuclear %ar, but a disturbing ne% stud' argues that an attac= b' terrorists sponsored b' a small nuclear state could be !ust as lethal. "uclear %asteland $cientists sa' that e/en a small nuclear %ar, bet%een

Lcould generate casualties comparable to those once predicted for a full -scale nuclear e<change in a superpo%er conflict,L sa's the report, presented &onda' during the fall meeting of the American >eoph'sical 0nion in $an 3rancisco. 3urthermore, Americans should not thin= of themsel/es as isolated from potential small -scale, regional nuclear conflicts in such distant areas as the &iddle Fast or Asia. 4he impact of such an encounter %ould be global, probabl' plunging the planet into a Lnuclear %interL and blan=eting %ide areas of the %orld %ith radioacti/e fallout. 4he report, %hich cautions that there are man' uncertainties in its o%n conclusions, %as produced b' a team
small countries or carried out b' terrorists could ha/e global repercussions. $uch an attac= of scientists %ho ha/e been long acti/e in stud'ing the conseAuences of nuclear %ar. 4he stud' assumes that %eapons used b' terrorists, or smaller states, %ould be much smaller than those a/ailable to the superpo%ers, probabl' on the scale of those dropped on Japan during 8orld 8ar II. ut the results %ould be catastrophic because the %eapons %ould most li=el' be targeted at ma!or cities. L4he current combination of nuclear proliferation, political instabilit', and urban demographics forms perhaps the greatest danger to the stabilit' of societ' since the da%n of humanit',L rian 4oon of the 0ni/ersit' of Colorado in oulder told a press conference prior to the presentation. 4he number of countries =no%n to ha/e nuclear %eapons has gro%n to eight, but as man' as C) ha/e some fissionable material and could produce bombs fairl' Auic=l', the scientists said, basing their conclusions partl' on studies b' the "ational Academ' of $ciences, the Department of Defense, and their o%n 'ears -long research. 4oon said Japan, for e<ample, has enough nuclear material on hand to produce (),))) %eapons, and Lmost thin= the' could do it in %ee=s.L &an' of the conclusions are based on the conseAuences of t%o nations, each %ith ,) bombs, deli/ering their full complement of %eapons on each other. 4hatPs not a h'pothetical figure, the' suggested, because both India and 7a=istan are belie/ed to ha/e at least that man' %eapons. $o %hat %ould happen if the' had at itH About () million persons in that area %ould die, the scientists concluded. ut the %eapons %ould send up such a plume of smo=e that the upper atmosphere %ould become opaAue, bloc=ing out so much solar radiation that temperatures around the %orld %ould &lummet. DZou +oul$ 'a)e a glo*al

climate c'ange un&rece$ente$ in 'uman 'istor",L said Alan Roboc=, associated director of the Center for Fn/ironmental 7rediction at Rutgers Coo= College and a member of the research team. D:t +oul$ instantaneousl" *e col$er t'an t'e little ice age.L 4here %ould be shorter gro%ing seasons, less rain, less sun, and star/ation around the %orld.

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(nc atI con/entional onl'


;)en a con)entional +ar +ill escalate an$ go nuclear 8 it4s 'uman nature 2ulon 11 Charles L, Fmeritus, Life 6 .ealth $ciences, Long each Cit' College (LC RulonI Is a "uclear 8ar Ine/itableHL C/*D/**,
httpI//%%%.philosoph'lounge.com/nuclear-%ar-ine/itable/4hroughout recorded histor' humans ha/e used %ar as the ultimate arbiter for acAuiring, defending and e<pandingNsome *C,))) ma!or and minor %ars+ o/er one billion people =illed. ?8ar is one of the constants of histor' and has not diminished %ith ci/ili#ation or democrac'. In the last B,C** 'ears of recorded histor' onl' (DE ha/e seen no %ar.@ N8ill and Ariel Durant, 4he Lessons of .istor' (*9DE- ut D, 'ears ago a Auantum !ump in %arfare too= placeNthe atomic bomb. $oon the nuclear genie %as out of the bottle. &ore and more countries %ere e/entuall' able to build or acAuire nuclear %eapons. "orth Jorea and 7a=istan. $oon IranH 4here is e/en a nuclear blac= mar=et that attracts terrorist groups. Met, a full-scale nuclear %ar

%ould destro' ci/ili#ation and threaten life itself. F/en a ?limited@ nuclear %ar could escalate into a full-scale one, as could a con/entional %ar among the superpo%ers. At some point, if ci/ili#ation is to flourish, lo'alt' to ()) indi/idual nation-states
must be enlarged to include a ne% o/er-riding lo'alt' to humanit' as a %hole. ut, can %e do thisH Does our brain carr' %ithin it the potential to peacefull' resol/e fundamental conflictsH According to historian 8ill Durant, histor' isn5t encouragingI ?$ome conflicts are too fundamental to be resol/ed b' negotiation+ and during the prolonged negotiations (if histor' ma' be our guide- sub/ersion %ould go on. . . $uch interludes of %idespread peace are unnatural and e<ceptional+ the' %ill soon be ended b' changes in the distribution of militar' po%er.@ N8ill and Ariel Durant, 4he Lessons of .istor' (*9DE- 4he %orld5s political and militar' leaders, %e %ould hope, =no% that a nuclear %ar %ould be catastrophic. ut our brainNa brain that e/ol/ed from an ape brainNis

prone to nationalistic pride, distrusting those %ho are different, and obe'ing charismatic authorit' figures (e/en monomaniacal insane ones-. It5s prone to conforming to the beha/ior of the masses li=e good sheep, e/en displa'ing ideological fer/or. "o% mi< in grotesAue global economic disparities. Add o/erpopulation pressures, resource shortages, local ecological collapses and global climate destabili#ation. $tir in %illful ignorance, stupidit', relentless greed, fear, selfishness, indifference, lust for po%er, primal religious conflicts, entrenched racism, and /irulent <enophobia . $prin=le on more fear, plus our brain5s tendenc' for simplistic solutions and paranoid emotional respon ses. 8hip it all together and sho/e it into histor'5s o/en of nightmares. Mes, our political and militar' leaders must =no% that a nuclear %ar %ould be catastrophic, but. . . . "obel 7ri#e-%inning philosopher Arthur Joestler obser/es in the boo=, rain, &ind and eha/iorI ?4he trouble %ith
our species is not an o/erdose of self-asserting aggression but an e<cess of self-transcending de/otion, %hich manifests itself in blind obedience and lo'alt' to the =ing, countr', or cause\1ne of the central features of the human predicament is this o/er%helming

capacit' and need for identification %ith a social group and/or s'stem of beliefs, %hich is indifferent to reason , indifferent to self-interest, and e/en to the claim of self-preser /ation.@ Fmeritus ph'sics professor &ar= 7era=h, author of the boo=,
0nintelligent Design, adds his resigned rageI ?&ost probabl' the (*st centur' %ill see de/astating %ars and enormous e<plosions of barbarism. .umans as a species are the most stupid of all animals. 4here is hardl' an'thing more stupid than a %ar, but humans seem to be unable to li/e %ithout it. 4he struggle bet%een reason and obscurantism\ is !ust a footnote to the idioc' of %ars that humanit' sin=s into %ith an ine/itable regularit'.@ 1ur e<istential dilemma 4he detonation of e/en a small fraction of our nuclear %eapons could li=el' result in the greatest catastrophe in human histor', one that could unra/el much of ci/ili#ation as %e =no% it and nuclear deterrence must ne/er fail. "e/era "e/era "o failure. F/era Met, 'ear

e/en push us to the brin= of e<tinction . 4hus, our policies of after 'ear the roulette %heel of human conflicts continues to spin and the minute hand on the doomsda' cloc= tic=s closer to midnight. Is a nuclear %ar ine/itableH 8ell,
one formidable obstacle to lasting peace is the militar'-industrial comple<, itself. All militar' organi#ations are trained to fight, to =ill. Also, the' must ha/e actual or potential enemies in order to !ustif' their budgets. .ence the' are designed to be /er' ineffecti/e at negotiation and compromise, criticall' important s=ills %e need on this planet toda'. $omeho% %e must catch onto this and recogni#e that one of the greatest conflicts in the %orld toda' is bet%een the militaries of the %orld and the human species. ?0.$. %eapons manufacturers acti/el' promote the sale of their products to foreign nations irrespecti/e of human rights abuses, t'pe of go/ernment, or aggressi/e actions against neighboring states.@ ?\&embers of Congress see militar' spending as a big public %or=s !ob programNand a source of !uic' por= for their states and districts.@ N4he Defense &onitor 6 Center for Defense Information bulletins 3or the first time in human histor' the fate of our entire species is in the hands of a /er' fe% decision ma=ers . Do their e/ol/ed brains reall' ha/e %hat it ta=es to sur/i/e at so dangerous a !uncture, to not, sooner or later, ma=e the fatal decisionH

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(nc 'es accidental use


Acci$ental use is still &ossi*le !rieger 11 - Da/id Jrieger, 7resident of the "uclear Age 7eace 3oundation (L4en $erious 3la%s in "uclear Deterrence 4heor',L "uclear Age 7eace
3oundation, %%%.%agingpeace.org/articles/db;article.phpHarticle;idY()D, (/:/**, accessed *(/()/**D. It does not %or= against an accidental use. "uclear deterrence is useful, if at all, onl'

against the possibilit' of an intentional, premeditated nuclear attac=. Its purpose is to ma=e the leader %ho contemplates the intentional use of a nuclear %eapon decide against doing so. ut nuclear deterrence cannot pre/ent an accidental use of a nuclear %eapon , such as an accidental
launch. 4his point %as made in the mo/ie Dr. $trangelo/e, in %hich a 0$ nuclear attac= %as accidentall' set in motion against the $o/iet 0nion. In the mo/ie, bomber cre%s passed their ?failsafe@ point in a training e<ercise and couldn5t be recalled. 4he president of the 0nited $tates had to get on the phone %ith his $o/iet counterpart and tr' to e<plain that the attac= on &osco% that had been set in motion %as !ust an accident. 4he Americans %ere helpless to stop the accident from occurring, and so %ere the $o/iets. Accidents happena T'ere is no suc' t'ing as a Afool&roofB

s"stem, and %hen nuclear %eapons are in/ol/ed it is e<tremel' dangerous to thin= there is .

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1nc u-s not ke"


(S is not ke" to trafficking ?@=(=ZA!H AN9 2A 200. (Diana 7olul'a=h and $ue Moung Ra are third 'ear students at the 0ni/ersit' of $an 3rancisco $chool of La%, 3all, E J.L. 6
$oc. Challenges *D,-

.uman traffic=ing is a serious, 'et hidden problem that affects all parts of the %orld. 4raffic=ing has been called present-da' sla/er' and in/ol/es the recruitment, transportation, and sale of persons for forced labor. It is estimated that appro<imatel' t%o million men, %omen and children are traffic=ed %orld%ide annuall', *,,))) to *E,))) of %hom are mo/ed into or out of the 0nited $tates. * Gictims of human traffic=ing are forced to %or= in a /ariet' of industriesI agriculture, se<, manufacturing, restaurants, and domestic ser/ice. .uman traffic=ing is a nine billion dollar a 'ear business that operates using /irtuall' free labor and %ith minimal ris= that the illegal acti/it' %ill be detected and punished. ( (S is not ke" to trafficking HA2CA29 =AW 2;C:;W 200. ("oteI Remed'ing 4he In!ustices 1f .uman 4raffic=ing 4hrough 4ort La%, June, **9 .ar/. L. Re/. (,:CF/er' 'ear, appro<imatel' D)),))) to E)),))) /ictims of traffic=ing are bought, sold, or forced across international borders. * 4raffic=ing is the third largest criminal industr' in the %orld, ( %ith re/enues totaling S 9., billion annuall', B and is e<pected to soon surpass the t%o largest criminal industries, narcotics and firearms. C Although tragic stories of %omen and children traffic=ed into commercial se< %or= in other countries ha/e been e<tensi/el' documented, the problem of traffic=ing in the 0nited $tates had recei/ed little publicit' until recentl'. 4he issue finall' attracted the attention of polic'ma=ers and the general public %hen the CIA issued a report in ())) estimating that C,,))) to ,),))) indi/iduals %ere traffic=ed into the 0nited $tates annuall'. , &ore recent reports estimate that *C,,)) to *:,,)) traffic=ing /ictims enter the countr' each 'ear. D In response to se/eral high-profile cases that spar=ed public outrage, : Congress enacted the 4raffic=ing Wp(,:,X Gictims 7rotection Act (4G7A-, E %hich see=s to combat traffic=ing through prosecution of traffic=ers, protection and support for /ictims, and pre/ention of traffic=ing on a global le/el. Recogni#ing that the la% represents a ma!or step for%ard in the global effort to combat traffic=ing, practitioners ha/e nonetheless obser/ed that the current legislati/e frame%or= subordinates protection of /ictims to prosecution of traffic=ers and has thus led to inadeAuate protection for /ictims. 9 8hile man' commentators ha/e continued to press for much-needed reform of the 4G7A, others ha/e begun to de/elop inno/ati/e legal strategies to promote securit' and support for traffic=ing /ictims.

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7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012

1nc trafficking goo$


Trafficking 'el&s $e)elo&ment an$ allo+s &eo&le to esca&e e)en more o&&ressi)e situations at 'ome 9ANA:=@CA5T2A:N@2 AN9 =AC3!@ 2010 (>ergana, 0$ >A1+ and 3ran=, International 1rgani#ation for &igration, International
&igration CEIC, 8ile' 1nline Librar'-

In fact, %hen the impact of traffic=ing on de/elopment is /ie%ed in terms of lost opportunities in the place of origin, research suggests that there might be some possible benefits of traffic=ing for de/elopment. 3or e<ample, a stud' b' AD found that ? 3or man' %omen, traffic=ing episodes,

%hile causing harm, also pro/ide opportunities to remo/e themsel/es from other%ise oppressi/e circumstances.@ &oreo/er, one stud' suggests that some returnees %ere able to bring home %ith them some sa/ings, and ?more e<perience of the %orld@ ( lanchet, ())(-. 4his should not be construed to suggest that traffic=ing is a better alternati/e than regular
migration or a sustainable li/elihood at home. .o%e/er, it is indicati/e of the need for much more anal'sis of data from returned /ictims and those %ith a similar profile %ho ha/e ne/er emigrated from the local communit'.

9ecreasing trafficking massi)el" increases remittance flo+s 9ANA:=@CA5T2A:N@2 AN9 =AC3!@ 2010 (>ergana, 0$ >A1+ and 3ran=, International 1rgani#ation for &igration, International
&igration CEIC, 8ile' 1nline Librar'-

Alternati/el', %hen the impact of traffic=ing on de/elopment is /ie%ed from the stand point of lost benefits from migration %ithout e<ploitation, then the forgone benefits for traffic=ing /ictims ma' be measured in terms of the potentiall' lost remittance flo%s, %hich ha/e been ta=en a%a' from traffic=ing /ictims and ha/e become profits in the hands of traffic=ing net%or=s. 4hese net%or=s participate in the underground econom' and pro/ide no access of /ictims to financial mar=ets. Gictims are unable to send remittances bac= home as the' are t'picall' repa'ing debt to their emplo'ers and are allo%ed to =eep a negligible share of their earnings. 3or e<ample, a Aualitati/e stud' of ()( case records and in-depth inter/ie%s %ith C( %omen and girls %ho %ere traffic=ed in India for se< %or= and had since returned to "epal finds that the traffic=ed %omen earned no mone' for themsel/es until the' had paid their debt to the brothel o%ner. $ome brothels paid for food, clothes and medicine, but in most brothels these costs %ere added to their debt. After the debt %as repaid, the earnings %ere supposedl' di/ided bet%een the brothel o%ner, local ta< collectors and the %oman/girl herself+ ho%e/er fe% %omen/girls e<perienced this di/ision of earnings. &oreo/er, those %ho had been se< traffic=ed b' relati/es %ere also e<pected to use their earnings to support famil' in "epal. A social %or=er inter/ie%ed in "epal stated that male relati/es ma' ma=e periodic trips to India to collect a girl5s earnings. If se/eral %omen from a /illage in "epal %or= in omba' brothels, one communit' member ma' be appointed to tra/el to India to collect the mone' on behalf of famil' members. 4his meant that %omen and girls %ere not onl' under pressure to pa' off their ?debt@ but also to support famil' members through earning tips (.ennin=, ())C-. According to the ())E 4I7 report (0$ Department of $tate, ())EI ((- traffic=ing results in a huge loss of remittances to de/eloping countries, because traffic=ed persons ha/e to pa' off the debt incurred to unscrupulous recruiters. "o one =no%s e<actl' ho% much mone' is lost, but research on labour recruitment practices in some countries suggests that it ma' be as high as () per cent. >i/en that the annual le/el of remittances to de/eloping countries is appro<imatel' 0$S B)) billion, this implies a loss to de/elopment of appro<. 0$S D) billion. Although the latter figure ma' be an o/er-estimate, it does highlight the potential de/elopment gains if more traffic=ed persons %ere able to mo/e into regular emplo'ment. 4he lost remittances for traffic=ing /ictims ha/e contributed to the profits =ept in the hands of traffic=ers. 4otal annual illicit profits from traffic=ing into forced commercial se<ual e<ploitation ha/e been estimated to be about 0$S (:.E billion ( elser, ()),a-. 4he profits are calculated b' multipl'ing the estimated *.B million %orld%ide /ictims (including not onl' cross-border traffic=ing but also domesticall' traffic=ed and underage /ictims- b' an estimate of annual profits per /ictim, bro=en do%n b' region. In industrial countries, annual profits made %ith one /ictim amount to an a/erage of 0$S D:,()), %hile in Asia and Africa annual profits %ere estimated at about 0$S *),))). An alternati/e estimate can be deri/ed based on data from assisted /ictims in I1&5s counter traffic=ing database. 8e found that (:B /ictims of cross-border traffic=ing for se<ual e<ploitation pro/ided information about the a/erage number of customers per da', the a/erage charge, and the amount the /ictim is allo%ed to =eep. 8e calculated that total annual re/enues for the traffic=ing net%or= from these /ictims %ere around 0$S BD million. 4his %ould represent an a/erage of around 0$S *B),))) per /ictim, %hich is about t%ice as high as the estimated profits in industrial countries b' the IL1. 8e should note that no ad!ustment %as made for traffic=ers5 costs for running their operations. .o%e/er, e/en if such an ad hoc

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 2 1/283 ad!ustment %ere made, these results confirm that profits from the e<ploitation of traffic=ing /ictims are /er' high and could be e/en higher than pre/iousl' estimated. 4his anal'sis suggests that not onl' do economic underde/elopment and po/ert' contribute significantl' to causing human traffic=ing, but traffic=ing also undermines de/elopment and depri/es poor communities of the economic benefits of migration (0$ Department of $tate, ())E-.

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<ocus on international trafficking tra$es off +it' &rotection for (S citi6ens force$ into se,ual sla)er" ST2A(SS 2010 (Lindsa', .A., 4he 0ni/ersit' of &ichigan, ()):+ J.D. Candidate, Cornell La% $chool, ()*), $pring, *9 Cornell J. L. 6 7ub. 7olP' C9,Although international traffic=ing has garnered more federal attention than domestic traffic=ing, the similarities bet%een the t%o are startling, and thus reAuire a reframing of the issue of human traffic=ing. 8ith the passage of 4he 8hite $la/e 4raffic Act (&ann Act- in *9*), the phrase Ltraffic in %omen and childrenL %as used to demarcate L%hite sla/er',L or international traffic=ing, from local prostitution. D9 4his demarcation focused attention on international traffic=ing /ictims and di/erted it a%a' from the continuing ensla/ement of American %omen in local prostitution. :) 4he 4G7RA of ()),, ho%e/er, %as amended in part to dra% attention to the fact that, under the 4G7A, foreign traffic=ing /ictims are treated as /ictims %hile American traffic=ing /ictims are treated as criminals. :* ecause of this disparate treatment, American domestic traffic=ing /ictims do not recei/e the ser/ices the' need to free themsel/es from an abusi/e industr'. :( Li=e international traffic=ing /ictims, most of the %omen and children %ho %or= as prostitutes in the 0nited $tates do so against their %ill. :B 3or e<ample, the' are forced into prostitution because of the brutal Wp,):X tactics of their pimps, %ho are responding to the high demand for se<ual ser/ices. :C 7imps, li=e international traffic=ers, often control the /ictimsP identification, mone', and freedom, and use ph'sical and ps'chological abuse to further control their prostitutes. :, 4hrough sleep depri/ation, se<ual and ph'sical /iolence, learned helplessness, false promises, and fa/ors, pimps create a c'cle of abuse and affection, %hich creates a trauma bond bet%een the pimp and the /ictim. :D 7imps acti/el' e<ploit this bond in order to force %omen to prostitute for them. :: &oreo/er, these %omen, li=e foreign /ictims, are often alread' /ulnerable to e<ploitation because of po/ert' or past abuse. :E 3or instance, it is %ell =no%n that %omen in the 0nited $tates and abroad, on a/erage, ma=e less mone' than their male counterparts and ha/e, due to societal norms, fe%er economic alternati/es. :9 In addition, man' of these %omen are homeless, ha/e children to support, or suffer from drug addiction. E) Wp,)EX 4hus, man' %omen enter prostitution and sta' in prostitution due to economic necessit'. In addition, an estimated eight' percent of the prostitutes in America began %or=ing as children, E* and si<t' to se/ent' percent of them ha/e histories of childhood se<ual abuse, E( %hich pimps e<ploit for financial gain. EB 7imps often promise these %omen a ne% life or a ne% !ob to lure them into prostitution, similar to the false promises used b' international traffic=ers. EC 3urthermore, li=e numerous foreign traffic=ing /ictims, man' domestic /ictims come from unstable homes. E, 4heir parents often abandon them, or the' run a%a' due to se<ual or ph'sical abuse. ED Although the parents of domestic traffic=ing /ictims ma' not sell them to pimps outright, as some foreign /ictimsP families do, E: the /ictimsP /ulnerable position on the streets lead about C),))) of the estimated *.D million runa%a' children each 'ear to become in/ol/ed %ith se< traffic=ing. EE 4he similarities bet%een domestic and international traffic=ing /ictims are stri=ing, and it is clear that both groups need to be thought of as /ictims - %orth' of assistance and protection - and not as criminals. @ut+eig's t'e case0300/000 &eo&le are at risk e)er" "ear ST2A(SS 2010 (Lindsa', .A., 4he 0ni/ersit' of &ichigan, ()):+ J.D. Candidate, Cornell La% $chool, ()*), $pring, *9 Cornell J. L. 6 7ub. 7olP' C9,In actualit', domestic traffic=ing is modern-da' sla/er' that occurs %idel' in the 0nited $tates. 4he e<act number of traffic=ed indi/iduals, ho%e/er, is un=no%n and difficult to determine due to the un%illingness and inabilit' of most /ictims to come for%ard. DD At an' gi/en time, bet%een *)),))) to B)),))) children are at ris= of being forced or coerced into commercial se<ual e<ploitation in the 0nited $tates. D: Also, according to one report, ser/ice pro/iders ha/e onl' been able to help a fraction of these /ictims. DE 8hile prostitution ma' represent a chosen profession for a fe%, it is not a choice for the /ast ma!orit'. T'e fe$eral go)ernment 'as >ust *egun to fig't $omestic trafficking0continue$ focus is necessar" ST2A(SS 2010 (Lindsa', .A., 4he 0ni/ersit' of &ichigan, ()):+ J.D. Candidate, Cornell La% $chool, ()*), $pring, *9 Cornell J. L. 6 7ub. 7olP' C9,As long as the federal go/ernment fails to treat adult domestic traffic=ing /ictims as human traffic=ing /ictims, their plight %ill not change. Although it is admirable that states are pro/iding ser/ices and protection to

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 2 3/283 domestic traffic=ing /ictims, these efforts are not enough. 4he problem of human traffic=ing is increasing, and onl' through s%ift federal action can it be dealt %ith effecti/el'. 4he 4G7RA of ())E is a first step to%ard addressing the issue of domestic traffic=ing. 7erhaps %ith future reauthori#ations of the 4G7A, the federal go/ernment %ill finall' send a clear message to pimps that the' can no longer act %ith impunit' and that the' %ill be treated as felons. ' remo/ing the force, fraud, or coercion reAuirement for all traffic=ing prosecutions, the prosecution of traffic=ers %ill be easier and more common. 3urthermore, the %omen that pimps force into prostitution %ill be treated as /ictims, not as criminals, and the' %ill recei/e the ser/ices the' need to lea/e prostitution, if the' so desire. Domestic traffic=ing is a form of human traffic=ing and must be addressed as such in order to protect the human rights of the %omen in/ol/ed. 1nl' b' addressing the needs of both child and adult /ictims of domestic traffic=ing %ill the federal go/ernment achie/e its goal of fighting all human traffic=ing %hile still respecting the autonom' and self-determination of %omen.

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T'ere is no e)i$ence for an" of t'e aff0it is all a construct of anti5&rostitution feminist grou&s +'o ignore &ro&er $ata collection tec'niHues Weit6er/ 12 7rofessor of $ociolog', >eorge 8ashington 0ni/ersit'. 7h.D., 0ni/ersit' of California, er=ele' (Ronald 8eit#er, ()*( ?$e< 4raffic=ing and the $e< Industr'I 4he "eed for F/idence-based 4heor' and Legislation@, httpI//%%%.la%.north%estern.edu/!ournals/!clc/bac=issues//*)*/nC/*)*C;*BB:.8eit#er.pdf-//F& ut there is also a parallel stor' N a robust m'tholog' of traffic=ing. 8hile no one %ould claim that se< traffic=ing is fictional, man' of the claims made about it are +'oll" unsu*stantiate$. 4his Article offers a critiAue of the paradigm responsible for this m'tholog', a perspecti/e that has become increasingl' popular o/er the past decade. 4his oppression paradigm depicts all t'pes of se<ual commerce as institutionali#ed subordination of %omen, regardless of the conditions under %hich it occurs. C 4he perspecti/e does not present domination and e<ploitation as /ariables but instead considers them core ontological features of se<ual commerce. , I %ill contrast this monolithic paradigm %ith an alternati/e N one that is e/idence-based and recogni#es the e<istence of substantial /ariation in se< %or=. 4his &ol"mor&'ous &ara$igm holds that there is a broad constellation of %or= arrangements, po%er relations, and personal e<periences among participants in se<ual commerce. 7ol'morphism is sensiti/e to comple<ities and to the structural conditions shaping the une/en distribution of %or=ers5 agen c' and subordination.
Gictimi#ation, e<ploitation, choice, !ob satisfaction, self - esteem, and other factors differ bet%een t'pes of se< %or=, geographical locations, and other structural conditions. Commercial se<ual e<change and erotic entertainment are not homogeneous phenomen a . D A gro%ing number of researchers ha/e challenged the oppression model5s claims, 'et their criticisms ha/e 'et to gain serious attention from American la%ma=ers. 4his A rticle (*- anal'#es the claims made b' those %ho embrace the oppression model, ((- identifies some legal and polic' implications of this paradigm, and (B- offers an e/idence - based alternati/e. : 4he anal'sis pertains to both se< traffic=ing and to se<ual commerce more generall'. II. 4 .F 1 77RF$$I1" 7 ARADI>& &an' of the leading proponents of the oppression paradigm are affiliated %ith organi#ations committed to

eradicating the entire se< industr', such as 7rostitution Research and Fducation, $tanding Against >lobal F<ploitation ($A>F-, $top 7orn
Culture, and the Coalition Against 4raffic=ing in 8omen (CA48-. E 8hat unites them is their staunch ad/ocac' of the oppression paradigm and political commitment to prohibition of all se<ual commerce and adult entertainment . 1ppression %riters ha/e been roundl' critici#ed for

)iolating stan$ar$ canons of social science inHuir" an$ for )ie+ing se, +ork t'roug' a monoc'romatic lens. 9 Despite this criticism, proponents rigidl' adhere to the central tenets of their paradigm, e/en %hen confronted %ith compelling counter - e/idence. *) &oreo/er, most oppression %riters restrict their citations to %ritings of li=e - minded authors and ignore research findings that contradict the pillars of their paradigm. ** $uch incon/enient findings are plentiful. *( $cientific ad/ancement depends on researchers 5 due diligence in %eighing findings and arguments that challenge their o%nI It is standard practice to situate a stud' %ithin the related scholarl' literature. 1ppression %riters5 neglect of rele)ant researc' is a radical departure from con/entional scho larl' %ritings. And on those rare occasions %hen contrasting %or= is cited, the findings ha/e sometimes been distorted or e/en in/erted b' the author. *B 4he
oppression model is grounded in a particular branch of feminist thin=ingI radical feminism. It dif fers from the religious right5s ob!ections to commercial se<, %hich center on the threat it poses to marriage, the famil', and societ'5s moral fiber. *C 4he oppression paradigm5s central tenet is that se<ual commerce rests on structural ineAualities bet%een men and %omen and that male domination is intrinsic to se<ual commerce. *, 8omen %ould not be compelled to sell se<ual or erotic ser/ices if the' had the same socioeconomic opportunities as men. &oreo/er, the /er' e<istence of prostitution suggests that m en ha/e, according to Carole 7ateman, a ?patriarchal right of access to %omen5s bodies,@ thus perpetuating %omen5s subordination to men. *D Another %riter declares that prostitution ? dehumani#es, commodifies and fetishi#es %omen . . . . In prostitution, th ere is al%a's a po%er imbalance, %here the !ohn has the social and economic po%er to hire her/him to act li=e a se<uali#ed puppet. 7rostitution e<cludes an' mutualit' of pri/ilege or pleasure . . . .@ *: 1ppression theorists argue that these fundamental ha rms %ill endure no matter ho% prostitution, pornograph', or stripping are go/erned+ legali#ing these practices (%here currentl' illegal- in order to reduce harms %ill not lessen the gender ineAualit' that is intrinsic to se<ual commerce. Domination %ill p ersist simpl' b' /irtue of men5s paid access to %omen5s bodies. *E Champions of the oppression paradigm

freAuentl' ma=e e<tra/agant claims about commercial se< as an institution , the participants in paid se< transactions, the nature of se< traffic=ing, and the effects of different =inds of la%s. 4o dri/e home the seriousness of the problem, ad/ocates often lin= prostitution to a host of /iolent crimes N calling it ?domestic /iolence,@ *9 ?torture,@ () and paid rape (* N and
demoni#ing customers as /iolent misog'nistsI x ? $e<ual e<ploitation includes se<ual harassment, rape, incest, battering, pornograph' and prostitution. @ (( x ? 4his naming Was se< predatorsX is important since it places men %ho bu' se< in the same categor' as rapists, pedophiles, and other social undesirabl es. @ (B x ? 4he difference bet%een pimps %ho terrori#e %omen on the street and pimps in business suits %ho terrori#e %omen in gentlemen5s clubs is a difference in class onl', not a difference in %oman hating. @ (C $ome ad/ocates of the oppression paradigm

simpl' ma=e pronouncements, li=e the abo/e, +it'out offering an" em&irical e)i$ence. (, 1ther oppression %riters,
ho%e/er, tr' to support their claims %ith some =ind of e/idence. oth approaches are present in the oppression - based literature on se< traffic=ing. III. $ F T 4 RA33ICJI"> A. 4.F 71LI4IC$ 13 4RA33ICJI"> In order to further discredit the practice of prostitution and delegitimi#e s'stems %here prostitution is legal and regulated b' the go/ernment, oppression %riters ha/e fused prostitution %ith se< traffic=ing. (D

Donna .ughes claims that ?most Zse< %or=ers5 are or originall' started out as traffic=ed %omen and girls.@ (: $he then calls for ?re - lin=ing traffic=ing and prostitution, and combating the commercial se< trade as a %hole.@ (E 4here is no e)i$ence that

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 2 %/283 ?most@ or e/en the ma!orit' of prostitutes ha/e been traffic=ed. It is important to recogni#e that as recentl' as fifteen 'ears ago, traffic=ing %as not a routine part of the discourse regarding prostitution. (9 4oda', se/eral anal'sts argue that prostitution has been sociall' constructed in a particular %a' through the traffic=ing prism and that there is no ob!ecti/e eAui/alence bet%een the t%o. B)
7rostitution in/ol/es a commercial transaction and traffic=ing is a process %hereb' a third part' facilitates an indi/ idual5s in/ol/ement in se<ual commerce. 4here is plent' of prostitution b' independent operators that does not in/ol/e traffic=ing. B* And such independent enterprises ma' be gro%ing %ith the help of i nternet - facilitated connections bet%een se< %or=ers and clients. $ome oppression %riters are Auite candid about their political reasons for lin=ing traffic=ing %ith prostitution. &elissa 3arle' declares , ?A false distinction bet%een prostitution and traffic=ing has hindered efforts to abolish prostitution . . . . $ince prostitution creates the demand for traffic=ing, the se< industr' in its totalit' must be confronted.@ B( 4he first sentence re/eals that the ultimate goal is not the elimination of traffic=ing but rather the elimination of prostitution. Regard ing the second sentence N asserting that ?prostitution creates the demand for traffic=ing@ N there is no compelling reason %h' prostitution %ould necessaril' ?demand@ traffic=ed participants (if traffic=ing is defined as in/ol/ing deception or force- or e/en % illing migrants , and %h' it could not dra% from a local pool of %or=ers instead. In some places the local pool ma' be shallo% and reAuire migrants to meet demand, but this %ould not be sufficient to !ustif' 3arle'5s claim regarding prostitution in general . Despite the problematic %a' in %hich oppression %riters ha/e constructed traffic=ing, the' ha/e been remar=abl' successful in rebranding traffic=ing in a %a' that implicates all se< %or=. As one anal'st %rote, the prohibitionists ha/e ?successfull' tran sformed the Zanti - traffic=ing5 mo/ement into a modern, %orld%ide moral crusade against prostitution.@ BB 4he prostitution Q traffic=ing connection %as full' embraced b' the ush administration, illustrated b' the $tate Department5s %ebpage 4he Lin= et%een 7r ostitution and $e< 4raffic=ing , %hich claimed, inter alia , that prostitution ?fuels traffic=ing in persons@ and ?fuelWsX the gro%th of modern - da' sla/er'.@ BC 4he prohibitionist portra'al of traffic=ing clashes %ith an alternati/e, socioeconomic model that /ie%s traffic=ing as ?a comple< phenomenon dri/en b' deep economic disparities bet%een %ealth' and poor communities and nations, and b' inadeAuate labor and migration frame%or=s to manage their conseAuences.@ B,

1ppression %riters often ignore socioeconomic forces and instead focus on indi/idual actorsI pimps, traffic=ers, clients, and female /ictims. .o% is traffic=ing itself presented in oppression %ritingsH & elodramaticall'. In an article

representati/e of this literature (and published in this Journal - , Iris Men percei/es a ?pandemic of human traffic=ing.@ BD $he %rites that se< traffic=ing is ?appropriatel'@ described as ?se< ual sla/er'@ and that the indi/iduals in/ol/ed are ?essentiall' sla/es,@ B: despite the fact that man' of those %ho are traffic=ed a re not held in sla/e - li=e conditions. BE $he claims, %ithout e/idence, that ? WtX raffic=ers routinel' beat, rape,

star/e, confine, torture, and ps'chologicall' and emotionall' abuse the %omen.@ B9 4he magnitude of the problem is said
to be ?alarming , @ but the figures Men cites N *C,,)) to *)),))) traffic=ed into the 0.$. e/er' 'ear N are incredibl' %ide - ranging and thus rather dubious. C) Men then e<trapolates from traffic=ing to prostitutionI ?4hus, contrar' to the erroneous perception that prostitution is a /icti mless crime . . . too man' /ictims ha/e paid for their crime of po/ert' %ith de/astated li/es.@ C* ias is particularl' e/ident in her emoti/e language , e.g., ?the ugl' truth of the commercial se< industr'@ and ?egregious human rights abuses from the se< tr ade.@ C( 4hese images of prostitution and

traffic=ing abound throughout the %ritings of oppression theorists, but their accurac' is belied b' their s%eeping, uneAui/ocal nature. Fach of the abo/e claims has been challenged b' other anal'sts and b' a bod' of research findings cited throughout this Article . 4he e<periences of traffic=ed persons , in the migration process and in their %or=ing conditions ,
range along a broad continuum. $ome indi/iduals 5 e<periences fit the oppression model %ell, %hile others 5 c luster at the opposite end. &an' of those %ho migrate are responding to push factors such as the lac= of economic opportunities in their home countr ies or the desire to pro/ide a better life for famil' members, rather than the pull factor of nefarious tra ffic=ers. CB

9ata is unrelia*le =e'ti an$ Aromaa/ . (&artti Lehti, researcher in the "ational Research Institute of Legal 7olic' in .elsin=i, 3inland, A"D Jau=o Aromaa, director of the Furopean Institute for Crime 7re/ention and Control affiliated %ith the 0nited "ations, ())D, ?4raffic=ing for $e<ual F<ploitation@, httpI//%%%.!stor.org/stable/*).*)ED/D,)B)D-//F& 4he ma!or problem in stud'ing and combating traffic=ing in persons is the scarcit', unreliabilit', and noncomparabilit' of e<isting national and international data. Accurate information on t'e )olume of t'e crime $oes not e,ist. $ome ma!or reasons are the absence of comparable statistics on reported crimes, indictments, court cases, and /ictims+ the di/erse %a's the crime of traffic=ing in %omen is criminali#ed in the legislation of nation states+ the characteristics of
traffic=ing (as organi#edNin part, transnationalNcrime-, %hich result in a high le/el of uncounted crimes (i.e., because such crime is not readil' reported to the police- and ma=e traffic=ing hard to identif', control, and pre/ent+ the %ea= legal status of /ictims in most

countries, %hich contributes to their reluctance to report crimes or to cooperate %ith in/estigations and court proceedings+ and the inconsistent uses of the concept of traffic=ing in %omen and persons in international and national conte<ts.

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T'eir sources ignore trut' an$ scientific $ata met'o$s0in realit" t'e num*er is $ecreasing Weit6er/ 12 7rofessor of $ociolog', >eorge 8ashington 0ni/ersit'. 7h.D., 0ni/ersit' of California, er=ele' (Ronald 8eit#er, ()*( ?$e< 4raffic=ing and the $e< Industr'I 4he "eed for F/idence-based 4heor' and Legislation@, httpI//%%%.la%.north%estern.edu/!ournals/!clc/bac=issues//*)*/nC/*)*C;*BB:.8eit#er.pdf-//F& . 4.F &A>"I40 DF 13 4.F 7R1 LF&I & M4.ICAL "0& FR$ 8hen it comes to estimating the magnitude of an' illicit /ice ( be it drug sales, illegal gambling, or prostitution-, it is crucial that anal'sts carefull' e<amine the Aualit' of the data sources and the procedures used t o arri/e at figures. ,* 0nfortunatel', man' of those %riting about se< traffic=ing ignore t'is scientific canon an$ reca&itulate &otentiall" *ogus claims regarding the scale of the phenomenon, uncriticall' accepting figures that should be Auestioned. 8ith human traffic=ing , as %ith drug and arms traffic=ing and other illicit global enterprises, ?the numbers are often 'ig'l" sus&ect but ne/ertheless populari#ed and rarel' criticall' scrutini#ed, and . . . there are strong incenti/es We.g., for go/ernments, a cti/ists, and media interestsX to accept and reproduce rather than challenge and critiAue them.@ ,( According to man' oppression %riters and
the go/ernment officials the' influence , ,B se< traffic=ing has reached epidemic le/els %orld%ide, /ictimi#ing ?hundred s of thousands@ or ?millions@ of people e/er' 'ear. ut not onl' is traffic=ing said to be a mammoth problem %orld%ide, its incidence has also s='roc=eted in recent 'ears. In her boo=, $e< 4raffic=ing , Jathr'n 3arr boldl' assertsI ?4he se< traffic=ing in dustr' is /oluminous, and it is e<panding at an e/er - accelerating rate . . . . W 1 X /er * million are traffic=ed into the se< industr', and the /olume !ust =eeps increasing.@ ,C Men agrees that things are onl' getting %orseI $e< traffic=ing is ?mushrooming , @ child prostitution is increasing at ?alarming rates , @ and ?se< traffic=ing /ictims are getting increasingl' 'ounger.@ ,, 4here are reasons %h' the problem ma' ha/e gro%n o/er time in certain regions N for e<ample, due to more porous borders in Furope in the aftermath of the brea=do%n of the $o/iet empire and the gro%ing freedom of mo/ement resulting from the e<pansion of the Furopean 0nion after ())C. ut this does not mean that the problem is actuall' increasing %orld%ide as claimed. 8 riters %ho ma=e such a ssertions pro/ide no solid e/idence to support these grandiose claims. In fact, the numbers and trends asserted are impossible to substantiate, gi/en t%o fundamental

e/identiar' problemsI (*- the clandestine nature of traffic=ing , ,D and ((- the lac= of a baseline from %hich to measure changes o/er time. ,: Data are simpl' not a/ailable for dra%ing macro - le/el conclusions. ,E 8hile some %riters ma=e such claims perhaps na [ /el', simpl' reiterating others5 assertions, other %riters ac=no%ledge their political mo ti/ations . .igh numbers are designed to alarm the public and con/ince go/ernments to commit greater resources to fighting
prostitution, to fund rescue operations, and to enhance penalties against traffic=ers and clients. As t%o critics suggest, the human traffic=ing issue has become ?a battleground for different positions on prostitution, immigration, and the position and status of %omen.@ ,9 Claims regarding a gro%ing %orld%ide epidemic are contradicted b' the 0.$. g o/ernment5s o%n figures. 1/er the past decade, the $tate Department5s annual

4raffic=ing in 7ersons report has stea$il" re$uce$ its figures on t'e magnitu$e of both transnational and domestic trafficking. In ())(, the ma<imum transnational figure %as C million. D) 4he follo%ing 'ear, the figure %as put at E)),))) Q 9)),)))
/ictims, falling to D)),))) Q E)),))) in ())C. D* $ubseAuentl', the estimate has stabili#ed at E)),))) traffic=ed across national borders. D( 4hese figures on traffic=ing bet%een countries are ?in addition to the far larger 'et indet erminate number of people traffic=ed %ithin countries,@ according to the ())C 4raffic=ing in 7ersons Report . DB 3our 'ears later, the $tate Department %as ma=ing a similar claimI the ())E report asserts that ?appro<imatel' E)),))) people are traffic=ed acro ss national borders, %hich does not include millions traffic=ed %ithin their o%n countries.@ DC 4hese claims are remar=able for their (a- fu##' elasticit', (b- shoc= /alue, (c- implication that the bet%een - nations figures are not themsel/es ?indeterminate@ and lac=ing in reliabilit', and (d- failure to recogni#e that if something is ?indeterminate@ it ma' not be ?far larger@ than the (alread' problematicinternational figures. 3urther undermining the 0.$. g o/ernment5s assertions of an ?indeterminate@ but hu ge domestic traffic=ing problem, official domestic 0.$. figures ha/e plummeted o/er the past decade. 4he 4G7A state s that ?Congress finds that . . . W a X ppro<imatel' ,),))) %omen and children are traffic=ed into the 0nited $tates each 'ear.@ D, 4his figure %as repeated in the $tate Department5s 4raffic=ing in 7ersons report for ())( . DD ut !ust one 'ear later , the $tate Department 5s figure fell to *E,))) Q (),))), D: and in ())C the figure %as further reduced to *C,,)) Q *:,,)) per 'ear. DE Apart from the lac= of t ransparenc' in ho% officials arri/ed at these figures, %hen %e compare the ())) figure (,),)))- %ith the lo%er figure for ())C (*C,,))-, %e see an astonishing :* U decrease in the estimate in !ust fi/e 'ears. $uch dramatic do%nscaling should gi/e pause to researchers and polic'ma=ers ali=e. &ore recent reports ha/e substituted /ague language for numerical estimates of the domestic situation. 4he ())E 4raffic=ing in 7ersons report, for instance, simpl' declared that ?thousands@ of people are traffic=ed int o the 0.$. e/er' 'ear. D9 $ome researchers ha/e attempted to ?resol/e@ the numbers problem through a meta - anal'sis of figures from a /ariet' of sources. A recent anal'sis of (): estimates concluded that a figure of ,,*DD annual /ictims of all =inds of traff ic=ing ?pro/ides a more reliable, although still fla%ed, estimate of the minimum number of traffic=ing /ictims in the 0nited $tates.@ :) ut the authors Aualif' this %ith numerous cautions. 4he studies consulted offer estimates that range from *,BC9 to CD, EC9 /ictims of labor traffic=ing and from B,E*: to ((,B() /ictims of se< traffic=ing . . . . W 4 X he highest estimate from a t'pe of source for an' of the identified t'pes of traffic=ing (labor traffic=ing, se< traffic=ing of adults, and se< traffic=ing of children- is greater than the lo%est estimate for that t'pe of traffic=ing b' at least C)) percent, suggesting that there is enormous uncertaint' about the national scope of the problem . . . . :* >i/en these serious problems, one might also Auestion the ,,* DD figure, %hich the authors concede is ?fla%ed.@ As the sa'ing goes, ?bad data are %orse than no

data,@ and I %ould Auestion %hether an' of the (): estimates %ere based on %hat social scientists %ould consider genuine ?data@ to begin %ith. 3or these rea sons, I do not thin= there is an' logic in the anal'st s 5 claim that, ? WdX espite the
limitation of the data, ho%e/er, this research enables us to sa' more about the scope and character of human traffic=ing in the 0nited $tates than is currentl' accepted as fact.@ :( Instead, their report leads to Auite the opposite conclusionI that it is not possible to count the number of

/ictims in/ol/ed in an illicit, clandestine underground econom' at the macro le/el, nationall' or internationall'
. 4 he %ildl' /ar'ing est imates, based on numerous problematic assumptions, testif' to the futilit' of this e<ercise. Fstimating the si#e of the problem is

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onl' possible at the micro le/el (e.g., in a cit' or small region of a countr'- and then onl' insofar as the data pertaining to this limited arena are reliable, %hich is rare.

Trafficking isn4t actuall" on t'e rise 8 fla+e$ $ata 1o6$6iak an$ Collett % Director of Research at the Institute for the $tud' of International &igration at >eorgeto%n 0ni/ersit' and Fditor
of "nternational ,igration, a peer re/ie%ed, scholarl' !ournal de/oted to research and polic' anal'sis of contemporar' issues affecting international migration A"D Director of &igration 7olic' Institute Furope and $enior Ad/isor to &7IPs 4ransatlantic Council on &igration (Fl#bieta A"D Fli#abeth, LResearch on .uman 4raffic=ing in "orth AmericaI A Re/ie% of Literature,@ httpI//publications.iom.int/boo=store/free/data;res;human U, *U,D.pdf]pageY*))-//A& It is interesting that to an' conscientious social scientist, the discrepancies in the most commonl' Auoted estimates

of human traffic=ing %ould be a cause for considerable suspicion of the reliabilit' of the research, 'et %hen it comes to data on traffic=ing, ?fe% e'ebro%s are raised and the figures are easil' bandied about %ithout AuestionB (Jempadoo, *99E-. It is note%orth' that despite theK difficulties in establishing clear and reliable statistics, the traffic=ing phenomenon has often been described as mushrooming or being on the raise globall', %hile in fact these assertions are often based on /er' fe% cases- 8end' Chap=is,K for e<ample, posits that the 4G7A of ())) ma=es a strategic use of an<ieties o/er se<ualit', gender, and immigration and does so through the use of misleading statistics creating a moral panic around se<ual sla/er' (Chap=is, ())B-. Stats a*out 'uman trafficking are unrelia*le 8 *e ske&tical of t'e aff4s numerical claims 1o6$6iak an$ Collett % Director of Research at the Institute for the $tud' of International &igration at >eorgeto%n 0ni/ersit' and Fditor
of "nternational ,igration, a peer re/ie%ed, scholarl' !ournal de/oted to research and polic' anal'sis of contemporar' issues affecting international migration A"D Director of &igration 7olic' Institute Furope and $enior Ad/isor to &7IPs 4ransatlantic Council on &igration (Fl#bieta A"D Fli#abeth, LResearch on .uman 4raffic=ing in "orth AmericaI A Re/ie% of Literature,@ httpI//publications.iom.int/boo=store/free/data;res;human U, *U,D.pdf]pageY*))-//A&

&ess' definitions result in slipper' statistics ridden %ith methodological problems. 3e% go/ernments / including "orth American go/ernments, s'stematicall' collect data on human traffic=ing and %hen the' do pro/ide statistical information the' often mi< data related to traffic=ing, smuggling, and illegal migrationK (Lac#=o, ())(-. In some accounts all undocumented migrants assisted inK crossing/ for e<ample/ the 0$ border, are counted as ha/ing been traffic=ed *)E >o#d#ia= and CollettK (>ord', ()))-. 1ther reports reser/e the term traffic=ing e<clusi/el' to /ic- K tims of se<ual sla/er' (Chap=is, ())B-. In some instances, all transnational or K migrant se< %or=ers are defined as traffic=ing /ictims regardless of consentK and conditions of labour,K 9K %hile other reports emphasi#e abusi/e conditionsK of emplo'ment or decepti/e recruitment policies used in the se< trade.*) As aK result, a/ailable data is confusing and unreliable. Stu$ies to $etermine t'e si6e of t'e trafficke$ &o&ulation use fla+e$ met'o$olog" 1o6$6iak an$ Collett % Director of Research at the Institute for the $tud' of International &igration at >eorgeto%n 0ni/ersit' and Fditor
of "nternational ,igration, a peer re/ie%ed, scholarl' !ournal de/oted to research and polic' anal'sis of contemporar' issues affecting international migration A"D Director of &igration 7olic' Institute Furope and $enior Ad/isor to &7IPs 4ransatlantic Council on &igration (Fl#bieta A"D Fli#abeth, LResearch on .uman 4raffic=ing in "orth AmericaI A Re/ie% of Literature,@ httpI//publications.iom.int/boo=store/free/data;res;human U, *U,D.pdf]pageY*))-//A& 4he 0$ $tate Department, for e<ample, has produced the oft-Auoted estimatesK of the si#e of the traffic=ed

population %orld%ideI E)),))) to 9)),))) annuall', K %ith *C,,)) to *:,,)) traffic=ed into the 0nited $tates alone-** 4hese figures areK used b' a number of international organi#ations, including the 0" and I1&, as K authoritati/e, 'et there has been no release of information %ith respect to theK methodolog' used to obtain the baseline data. Information pro/ided b' theK 0$ $tate
Department at the conference in Rome %here the papers in this /ol- K ume %ere first presented includes a brief description of the statistical methods K emplo'ed to calculate estimates, but does not e<plain the methodolog' used to K arri/e at the baseline data sources either.K Indeed, the number of

traffic=ing /ictims entering the 0nited $tates has beenK re/ised at least three timesI do%n from C,,))) to ,),))), a figure reached b'K the Central Intelligence Agenc' (CIA- in *999 (15"eill Richard, *999-, to *E,)))K to (),))) /ictims reported in ())B, and e/en further do%n to *C,,)) to *:,,)) N Auoted in the ())C 4I7 report. Fach time an impro/ed methodolog' %as citedN as a reason for these ne% figures. Charles Jeel', 7rofessor of InternationalK &igration and Demograph' at >eorgeto%n 0ni/ersit', comments that an' esti-K mate of traffic=ing in the 0nited $tates (or in an' other countr'- reAuires aK reliable source of data, presumabl' a partial count, and then a !ustified basicK rule %ith %hich to e,tra&olate an$ estimate from this basic data- >i/en thatK Aneither go/ernment nor N1@s ha/e a sufficient o)er)ie+ or a data source forK e<trapolation that allo%s for a national estimateB in the 0nited $tates, he belie/esK that the 0$ $tate Department figures are merel' ?guesstimates.B*(K 4hat there are a plethora of estimates globall' is an ac=no%ledged problemI the K 0nited "ations
Fducational, $cientific and Cultural 1rgani#ation (0"F$C1- has K underta=en a traffic=ing statistics pro!ect attempting to trace the origins and K methodologies of statistics cited and e/aluate their /alidit'. K *B It is li=el' that littleK of this data is accurate. 4he 7rotection 7ro!ect at Johns .op=ins 0ni/ersit' inK 8ashington, DC is also attempting to produce an o/er/ie% of global traffic=ing K trends. As part of this %or=, the pro!ect has produced maps of commonl' usedK traffic=ing routes %orld%ide, 'et there is no referencing of ho% these routes K ha/e been determined. It is difficult to assess %hether the maps are based onK an' documented cases in countries of origin and destination and/or %hether the K maps are based on a handful of cases

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 2 8/283 or on a critical mass of cases. 7erhaps theK researchers at Johns .op=ins utili#e the same threshold of *)) or more cases ofK /ictims that the 0$ $tate Department uses in ma=ing a determination about K %hich countries to include in the annual 4I7 report. 0nfortunatel', %e can onl' K guess because the methodolog' is not discussed.

Trafficking is o)erestimate$0$ata collection is terri*le an$ num*ers are >ust a guess 1-A-@- 200. (.uman 4raffic=ingI etter Data, $trateg', and Reporting "eeded to Fnhance 0.$. Antitraffic=ing Ffforts Abroad, Jul', %%%.gao.go//ne%.items/d)DE(,.pdf4he 0.$. go/ernment estimates that D)),))) to E)),))) persons are traffic=ed across international borders annuall'. .o%e/er, such estimates of global human traffic=ing are Auestionable. 4he accurac' of the estimates is in doubt because of methodological %ea=nesses, gaps in data, and numerical discrepancies. 3or e<ample, the 0.$. go/ernment5s estimate %as de/eloped b' one person %ho did not document all his %or=, so the estimate ma' not be replicable, casting doubt on its reliabilit'. &oreo/er, countr' data are not a/ailable, reliable, or comparable. 4here is also a considerable discrepanc' bet%een the numbers of obser/ed and estimated /ictims of human traffic=ing. 4he 0.$. go/ernment has not 'et established an effecti/e mechanism for estimating the number of /ictims or for conducting ongoing anal'sis of traffic=ing related data that resides %ithin go/ernment entities. Trafficking re&orts aren4t relia*le0o&aHue met'o$olog" 1-A-@- 200. (.uman 4raffic=ingI etter Data, $trateg', and Reporting "eeded to Fnhance 0.$. Antitraffic=ing Ffforts Abroad, Jul', %%%.gao.go//ne%.items/d)DE(,.pdfFstimate not entirel' replicable. 4he 0.$. go/ernment agenc' that prepares the traffic=ing estimate is part of the intelligence communit', %hich ma=es its estimation methodolog' opaAue and inaccessible. During a traffic=ing %or=shop in "o/ember ()),, the go/ernment agenc' pro/ided a one-page o/er/ie% of its methodolog', %hich allo%ed for onl' a /er' limited peer re/ie% b' the %or=shop participants. In addition, the 0.$. go/ernment5s methodolog' in/ol/es interpreting, classif'ing, and anal'#ing data, %hich %as performed b' one person %ho did not document all of his %or=. 4hus the estimate ma' not be replicable, %hich raises doubts about its reliabilit'. Num*er are unrelia*le0t'e"4re *ase$ on aggregates of ot'er *a$ stu$ies 1-A-@- 200. (.uman 4raffic=ingI etter Data, $trateg', and Reporting "eeded to Fnhance 0.$. Antitraffic=ing Ffforts Abroad, Jul', %%%.gao.go//ne%.items/d)DE(,.pdfFstimate based on unreliable estimates of others. 4he biggest methodological challenge in calculating an accurate number of global traffic=ing /ictims is ho% to transition from reported to unreported /ictims. 4he 0.$. go/ernment does not directl' estimate the number of unreported /ictims but relies on the estimates of others, ad!usting them through a comple< statistical process. It essentiall' a/erages the /arious aggregate estimates of reported and unreported traffic=ing /ictims published b' ">1s, go/ernments, and international organi#ations, estimates that themsel/es are not reliable or comparable due to different definitions, methodologies, data sources, and data /alidation procedures. &oreo/er, the methodologies used to de/elop these estimates are generall' not published and a/ailable for professional scrutin'.*( Trafficking estimates cannot anal"6e tren$s 1-A-@- 200. (.uman 4raffic=ingI etter Data, $trateg', and Reporting "eeded to Fnhance 0.$. Antitraffic=ing Ffforts Abroad, Jul', %%%.gao.go//ne%.items/d)DE(,.pdfFstimate not suitable for anal'sis o/er time. 4he 0.$. go/ernment methodolog' pro/ides an estimate of traffic=ing flo%s for a *-'ear period and cannot be used to anal'#e traffic=ing o/er time to determine %hether it is increasing, decreasing, or sta'ing the same. 4herefore, the estimate cannot help in targeting resources and e/aluating program effecti/eness.

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1nc case turn


Anti5trafficking inter)entions are counter&ro$ucti)e an$ tra& )ictims in o&&ressi)e con$itions 9ANA:=@CA5T2A:N@2 AN9 =AC3!@ 2010 (>ergana, 0$ >A1+ and 3ran=, International 1rgani#ation for &igration, International
&igration CEIC, 8ile' 1nline Librar'-

3or e<ample, in a recent paper Dottridge (())E- suggests that ? initiati/es %hich

%ere nominall' supposed to stop traffic=ing actuall' had numerous negati/e effects for people %ho ha/e been traffic=ed , as %ell as other groups of people, such as migrants and se< %or=ers@. 1ne e<ample cited is the follo%ingI ?In the course of obser/ing the impact of our inter/entions, %e
began to be concerned that some of the approaches %e %ere supporting might ha/e unintended negati/e conseAuences. 7re/ention messages that characteri#ed traffic=ing as a definite result of lea/ing a /illage seemed to discourage girls and %omen from e<ercising their suspected traffic=ing /ictims, infringing on their right to migrate Q an important self-protection mechanism, especiall' gi/en the current conflict. 3urthermore increased .IG/AID$ a%areness also resulted in serious stigmatisation of returnees, %ith some

right to migrate in search of a better life. $ome %omen and girls crossing the border to /isit relati/es or !oin legitimate !obs %ere intercepted as neighbours thin=ing all returnees must be infected b' the /irus @ (.ausner, ()),-. De/elopment policies and programmes ma'

also impact on traffic=ing in %a's, %hich are not e<pected. 3or e<ample, it is unclear to %hat e<tent de/elopment inter/entions that target the /er' poor and impro/e their condition from /er' poor to poor are li=el' to reduce traffic=ing or shift traffic=ing from one t'pe to another, for e<ample, from internal to cross-border traffic=ing.E

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1nc organi6e$ crime


$oesn4t fun$ an$ insignificant &rofit source <;:N1@=9 200% (Da/id, Director, 1phidian Research Institute+ International Coordinator, .IG/AID$ and 4raffic=ing 7ro!ects, 0"F$C1 ang=o=, August B), ()),, ?4hin= AgainI .uman 4raffic=ing,@ 3oreign 7olic', httpI//%%%.foreignpolic'.com/articles/()),/)E/B)/thin=;again;human;traffic=ingHpageYfull, .enselL4raffic=ing Is a ig usiness Controlled b' 1rgani#ed Crime L 3alse. 4raffic=ing is big business, but in man' regions of the %orld, such as $outheast Asia, traffic=ing in/ol/es mostl' Ldisorgani#ed crimeLI indi/iduals or small groups lin=ed on an ad hoc basis. 4here is no standard profile of traffic=ers. 4he' range from truc= dri/ers and /illage LauntiesL to labor bro=ers and police officers. 4raffic=ers are as /aried as the circumstances of their /ictims . Although some traffic=ing /ictims are literall' =idnapped, most lea/e their homes /oluntaril' and become traffic=ed on their !ourne'. 4raffic=ing L=ingpins,L along the lines of the late cocaine boss 7ablo Fscobar, are rare. Japanese mafia, or 'a=u#a, do control man' of the /enues in Japan %here traffic=ed girls end up, but the' are more li=el' to purchase people than transport them. Doing research in 4hailand in *99:, I located
the Lu= &oo (L7igletL- net%or=, %hich %as responsible for about ,) percent of the %omen and girls smuggled into 4hailand from urma, China, and Laos to %or= in brothels. 4here %ere also other net%or=s, such as the Jabuan=arn Lo' 3ah (L3loating in the $='L- net%or= that speciali#ed in girls for restaurants and =arao=e bars. .o%e/er, these net%or=s ha/e since faded in importance, o%ing to changes in the structure of

the se< industr'. 4he %orld%ide trade in persons has been estimated b' the 0nited "ations 1ffice on Drugs and Crime at S: billion annuall', and b' the 0nited "ations ChildrenPs 3und at S*) billion -- but, of course, no one reall' =no%s. 4he IL1 estimates the total illicit profits produced b' traffic=ed forced laborers in one 'ear to be !ust short of SB( billion. Although that is hardl' an insignificant amount, it is a small business compared to the more than SB() billion international trade in illicit drugs .

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1nc sol)enc"
Alt cause0corru&tion A#A/ 7 (American ar Association, &arch ())9, ?.0&A" 4RA33ICJI"> A $$F$$&F"4 411L RF71R4 31R &FTIC1@, httpI//apps.americanbar.org/rol/publications/me<ico;())9;htat;en.pdf-//F& 4raffic=ing in persons often occurs %ith the assistance of corrupt go/ernment officials . In fact, corruption is noted as one of the primar' factors t hat facilitate traffic=ing in persons in &e<ico in official as %ell as ci/il societ' seminars. 3or e< ample, the conclusions of an international seminar on human traffic=ing organi#ed b' &3A state that tr affic=ing in persons is benefited b' corruption and mone' laundering and that in order to address t he issue, the national strateg' against human traffic=ing must include effecti/e institutional co ordination to combat corruption and restrict mone' laundering acti/ities. &3A, I "4FR"A4I1"AL $ F&I"AR 1" . 0&A" 4 RA33ICJI"> (())C-, at
httpI//%%%.crms/.org/Conclusiones;$eminario;trata;$ RF;no/)C-&e<ico.doc. 4hus, &e<ico should ensure that anti-corruption pro/isions e<ist and that the' compl' %ith the Con/ention against 4ransnational 1rgani#ed Crime, as %ell as other rele/ant international and regiona l treaties it ratified including the 0.". Con/ention Against Corruption, Inter-American Con/ention Against Corruption, and the Con/ention on Combating riber' of 3oreign 7ublic 1fficials in International usiness 4ransactions adopted b' the 1rgani#ation for Fconomic Cooperation and De/elopment.

Status Huo sol)es A#A/ 7 (American ar Association, &arch ())9, ?.0&A" 4RA33ICJI"> A $$F$$&F"4 411L RF71R4 31R &FTIC1@, httpI//apps.americanbar.org/rol/publications/me<ico;())9;htat;en.pdf-//F& 4he &e<ican and 0.$. go/ernments ha/e also establis hed mechanisms for border cooperation. 4hese includeI the order $afet' Initiati/e (June * 99E-, &emorandum of 0nderstanding on Cooperation against order Giolence (3ebruar' *999- , and 7lan of Action for Cooperation on order $afet' (())*-. 3urthermore, in ())C, &e<ico and the 0.$. signed an Action 7lan for order Cooperation and $afet' Whereinafter 1RDFR A C4I1" 7 LA" X, %hich is oriented to impro/e border safet' and securit' bet%een the 0.$. and &e< ico b' combating human smuggling, traffic=ing, and border /iolence, and
such other ac tions asI coordinating responses to border emergencies+ enhancing e<isting media information a nd pre/ention programs+ intensif'ing public outreach to pre/ent migrant crossings in high-ris= areas+ ensuring secure and orderl' repatriations of &e<ican nationals+ e<ploring mecha nisms, on a bilateral basis to repatriate &e<ican nationals to their places of origin+ streng thening consultation mechanisms bet%een

&e<ican consuls and D.$ authorities+ and strengthen ing the

order Liaison &echanism. $ee ())C 0.$.-&e<ico Action 7lan for

4he order Liaison &echanism is a !oint go/ernmental instrument to further regional bilateral dialogue, in %hich representati/es from both sides of the 0.$.-&e<ico border regions d iscuss matters of mutual interest including public safet', protection of migrants, and la% enfo rcement issues. $ee 7ress Release, Fmbass' of the 0.$. in &e<ico, &eeting of order Liaison &e chanism (Aug. (C, ()),-. In terms of combating human smuggling and traffic=i ng in persons, &e<ico and the 0.$. ha/e agreed to underta=e both intelligence and securit' actions and protection measures . $pecificall', the order Action 7lan calls for the e<pansion of o ngoing bi-national efforts to dismantle alien smuggling and traffic=ing net%or=s b' pro/iding add itional resources to identif' and target these criminal organi#ations+ strengthening bi-national c oordination among la% enforcement agencies to combat human smugglers and traffic=ers on both s ides of the border+ e<pediting and reinforcing the e<change of bilateral information t hat targets migrant smugglers and traffic=ers+ mapping high-ris= areas along the border to ha/e an accurate portrait of ne%
Cooperation and o rder $afet', httpI//%%%.migracioninternacio nal.com/docum/indice.htmlHmundoYusme<planseg())C.ht ml. routes+ implementing pre/enti/e actions to reduce migrant r is=s+ and reinforcing e<isting bilateral training programs on border safet', migrant search, and rescue operations. 3urthermore , &e<ico and the 0.$. ha/e agreed to %or= together to update intelli gence on

human smugglers and traffic=ers, particularl' their profiles and modus operandi (pla ces, routes, procedures, net%or=s-+
mechanisms used to e/ade the action of authorities+ and intelligence about the financial structures of human smuggling and traffic=ing organ i#ations, in order to detect, impede, and dismantle their illicit acti/ities. Lastl', &e<ico has consented toI n $trengthen the presence of

&e<ican la% enforcement authorities along the routes used for human smuggling and traffic=ing in &e<ico+ n $trengthen deterrence measures along the southern border, %ith an emphasis on human smuggling and traffic=ing organi#ations+ n $trengthen permanent inter-institutional mechanism s for sur/eillance in the border region through eta
>roups, %ith the support and inter/en tion of different la% enforcement agencies+ n $trengthen eta >roups in high-ris= areas, especia ll' in $rsabe, "ogales and Agua 7rieta, $onora+ n Intensif' the presence of authorities in land term inals and airports %here the highest flo%s of migrants are detected, in order to

%arn mi grants about the ris=s of crossing through dangerous border areas+ n Intensif' sur/eillance =e' socioeconomic factors that impact the migration problem and implement a de/elopment plan for border communities %hose econo m' is supported b' acti/ities lin=ed to human smuggling and traffic=ing (transpor t, housing, feeding-+ and n Fstablish inspection points %ith the collaboration of different &e<ican
actions on migrants5 routes in high ris= areas+ n Anal'#e

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 2%2/283 la% enforcement authorities in specific areas such as $rsabe, $ono' ta, and Agua 7rieta in the state of $onora to reduce and inhibit the /iolent
acti/ities associated %ith smuggling and human traffic=ing. $ee generall' 1RDFR A C4I1" 7 LA" . In addition to the order Action 7lan, 1A$I$$ in/ol /ing the 0.$. C 7 and &e<ican 1A>, &3A, and &1I, has been on going since ()),. $ee Article *) abo/e. As a result of the abo/e-

mentioned programs, se/eral arrests of smugglers and traffic=ers ha/e been made. 3or e<ample, in April ()):, &e<ican
aut horities notified 0.$. authorities of a case of commercial se<ual e<ploitation in "orth Carolina, b ased on a complaint made in &e<ico b' the sister of the /ictim. 4his operation ended %ith th e arrest of a traffic=er and the rescue of se/eral 'oung %omen. 1A>, A ""0AL A C4IGI4M R F71R4 (()):-.

Status Huo sol)es &erce&tion a$)antage So$erlun$/ % (>retchen $oderlund, "8$A Journal, ()),, ?Running from the RescuersI "e% 0.$. Crusades against $e< 4raffic=ing and the Rhetoric of Abolition@, httpI//%%%.!stor.org/stable/CB*:*,E p. D:-//F& 4he 0nited "ations (0"- is the largest global regulator' institution to declare global se< traffic=ing a /iolation of %omenPs human rights. .o%e/er, in the last three 'ears the 0nited $tates has positioned itself as an eAuall' significant force in t'e anti5 trafficking arena- Combating se< sla/er' has become a =e' ush administration priorit' and its most championed humanitarian cause. 4he Department of Justice under John Ashcroft has spent an a/erage of *)) million dollars a 'ear to fight traffic=ing domesticall' and internationall' , a sum that o/ershado%s an' other indi/idual nationPs contributions to similar efforts.( 4he current administrationPs attem&t to assert glo*al moral lea$ers'i& on this issue b' staging inter/entions in an' countr' it deems %ea= on traffic=ing sets it apart from other countries . In
%hat follo%s I e<plore the genesis and hidden political dimensions of current 0.$.-based anti-se< traffic=ing initiati/es. I trace the process through %hich se< traffic=ing came to occup' its current position in the ush administrationPs pantheon of international causes b' e<amining ho% social mo/ements and protectionist media discourses ha/e produced se< sla/er' as an ob!ect %orth' of go/ernmental inter/ention.

N;1 8 Ai$ fails an$ makes t'e &ro*lem +orse 2isle"/ 10 Q Assistant 7rofessor, International $tudies, Rhodes College+ 7hD in >o/ernment from 0ni/ersit' of 4e<asNAustin, &A in Latin American and Caribbean $tudies, "e% Mor= 0ni/ersit', A in 7olitical $cience and International Relations, 0ni/ersit' of 8isconsinN&adison (Am', &arch *(, ()*), ?$e< 4raffic=ingI 4he ?1ther@ Crisis in &e<icoH,@ 4he Latin Americanist, Golume ,C, Issue *, 8ile' 1nline Librar', .enselAid is another bilateral issue %ith implications for traffic=ing. 4he 0.$. go/ernment persists in its support for &e<icoPs counternarcotics operations, a central component of the suppl'-side approach to the decades-old ?%ar on drugs.@ As stated at the outset, 7resident 1bama has pro/ided funding, eAuipment, and other forms of aid in response to the ongoing /iolence. 7re/iousl', in ()):, the ush Administration announced the &orida Initiati/e, %hich proposed 0$S*.C billion in militar' and police training and eAuipment (such as helicopters, sur/eillance aircraft, and night /ision gear-+ mean%hile, pro!ected funding for drug treatment programs that could curb demand in the 0.$. decreased b' 0$S:B million (3alconer ())E-. >o/ernment officials ha/e insisted that the' are pro/iding human rights training to the countr'Ps militar' and police forces. "e/ertheless, the ?collateral damage@ that has resulted from the 0.$.-sponsored %ar on drugs in recent decades is %ell documented (Carlsen ())EI(*-. 1bser/ers are understandabl' s=eptical that continuous support of the securit' forces %ill impro/e their human rights record or strengthen the rule of la%. 3urthermore, some of the aid and materiel that the 0.$. offered to the &e<ican militar' in the *99)s to counter the drug trade %as reportedl' used in counterinsurgenc' operations against the F2L" (&c$herr' *99E-. 4hat conflict displaced tens of thousands and heightened their
/ulnerabilit' to traffic=ing schemes, as noted pre/iousl'.

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Status Huo sol)es cre$i*ilit"/soft &o+er a$)antage Mc1a'a an$ ;)ans/ 11 (Johnn' F. &c>aha, 7h.D. 7rofessor of Justice $tudies 6 Director, Fsperan#a Anti4raffic=ing 7ro!ect A"D Amanda F/ans, Fd.D. &$8, Assistant 7rofessor of $ocial 8or= 6 7rogram F/aluator , *)/C/**, ?8here are the GictimsH@, httpI//bebopper:D.%ordpress.com/()**/)E/B)/se<-traffic=ing-researchessa'-papers/-//F& 4he focus on human traffic=ing has gro%n considerabl' in the 0.$. since the passage of the 4G7A in ())) and its subseAuent reauthori#ations in ())B, ()),, and ()):. &ore recentl' there has been an interest in research on the topic, spurred in part b' the horrific stories and fueled b' the high estimates of the e<tent of traffic=ing in our countr'. 0nfortunatel' e<isting research on human traffic=ing has 'et to mo/e the field be'ond estimating the scale of the problem and the difficult'
of determining ho% to count human-traffic=ing /ictims. &uch of the e<isting research on traffic=ing attempts to /alidate the e<tent of the crime b' rel'ing on o/er/ie%s, commentaries, and anecdotal information. 4herefore, all sta=eholders in this important issue are called upon to help de/elop measurable and defendable outcomes to !ustif' the use of federal funds %ithin their respecti/e agencies.

TC?A rene+al sol)es t'e aff !or*/ 13 (&elanie Jorb, B/C/*B,?Congress $ends .uman 4raffic=ing ill to 1bama@, httpI//%%%.charismane%s.com/us/BEC99-congress-sends-human-traffic=ing-bill-to-obama-//F& ?Congress5 rene%al of the 4raffic=ing Gictims 7rotection Act re-asserts 0.$. leadership in the effort to eradicate modern-da' sla/er', our greatest global human rights scourge,@ e<plained Da/id Abramo%it#, director of the Alliance 4o Fnd $la/er' 6 4raffic=ing (A4F$4-. ?4his is an important step to%ard freedom for the millions of %omen, men and children around the globe %ho are traffic=ed into forced labor and se< sla/er' each 'ear.

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TC?A is a *a$ mo$el 8 assumes all trafficking )ictims are female se, sla)es nee$ing rescue Srikantia' 7 Associate 7rofessor of La% and Director, Immigrants5 Rights Clinic, $tanford La% (Ja'ashri, ?7erfect Gictims and Real $ur/i/orsI
4he Iconic Gictim In Domestic .uman 4raffic=ing La%,@ oston 0ni/ersit' La% Re/ie% /. *E:, httpI//%%%.bu.edu/la%/central/!d/organi#ations/!ournals/bulr//olumeE:n*/documents/$RIJA"4IA./.(.pdf-//A&

4he regulations and agenc' implementation of the 4G7A en/ision a K protot'pical /ictim %ith se/eral characteristicsI (*- the /ictim is a %oman or K girl traffic=ed for se<+ ((- la% enforcement assesses her to be a good %itness+ K (Bshe cooperates full' %ith la% enforcement in/estigations+ and (C- she is K rescued instead of escaping from the traffic=ing enterprise. 4hese attributes, K ta=en together, contemplate a /ictim of se< traffic=ing %ho passi/el' %aits for K rescue b' la% enforcement, and upon rescue, presents herself as a good %itness K %ho cooperates %ith all la% enforcement reAuests.K At the beginning of the iconic /ictim narrati/e, the /ictim is forced, K defrauded, or coerced into traffic=ing for forced se<, not forced labor . 4he K force, fraud, or coercion must be se/ere enough for an in/estigator or K prosecutor to subseAuentl' deem the /ictim a good %itness for prosecuting the K traffic=er. 1nce in the traffic=ing enterprise, the /ictim must remain passi/e K until rescued b' la% enforcement, as reflected in the regulator' preference for K rescue o/er escape. $he must then full' re/eal her stor' to la% enforcement K upon rescue, gi/en the regulator' reAuirement of the LFA
endorsement.*:)

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A:9S +on4t cause e,tinction 8 $ormant an$ $oesn4t kill $irectl" 9(MS 7 Dartmouth 0ndergraduate Journal of $cience (L.uman F<tinctionI 4he 0ncertaint' of 1ur 3ate,L ,/((/)9,
httpI//du!s.dartmouth.edu/spring-())9/human-e<tinction-the-uncertaint'-of-our-fate].0dRBt/nGDAI-//A& $ome sur/e'ed students mentioned AID$ as a potential pandemic-causing /irus . It is true that scientists ha/e been unable thus far to find a sustainable cure for AID$, mainl' due to .IG5s rapid and constant e/olution. $pecificall', t%o factors account for the /irus5s abnormall' high mutation rateI *. .IG5s use of re/erse transcriptase, %hich does not ha/e a proof-reading mechanism, and (. the lac= of an error-correction mechanism in .IG D"A pol'merase (E-. Luc=il', though, there are certain characteristics of .IG that ma=e it a poor

candidate for a large-scale global infectionI .IG can lie dormant in the human bod' for 'ears %ithout manifesting itself, and AID$ itself does not =ill directl', but rather through the %ea=ening of the immune s'stem.

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Se, Trafficking !ritik

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T'e &lan4s focus on se, trafficking cro+$s out t'e )iolence &er&etuate$ *" la*or trafficking0 t'is is not neutral !im an$ C'ang 7 professor of la% at Lo'ola La% $chool, Los Angeles, teaches 4orts, Immigration La% and .uman 4raffic=ing ,
A"D Associate 7rofessor of 3eminist $tudies at 0ni/ersit' of California, $anta arbara. (Jathleen and >race, Lo'ola La% $chool Legal $tudies 7aper "o. ()):-C:, December ()):, LReconceptuali#ing Approaches to .uman 4raffic=ingI "e% Directions and 7erspecti/es from the 3ield(s-,L httpI//%%%.sacramentosect.org/uploads/,/)/9/,/,)9,)9E/reconceptuali#ing;approaches;to;ht.pdf K -//A& (. Impacts of LFnd DemandL Legislation and 7ractices K 4he conflation of prostitution and traffic=ing has also led to the fault'

idea that ending LdemandL K for commercial se< %ill lead to a reduction in or eradication of traffic=ing. K 4his concept has been incorporated into proposed legislation such as the L ill to Fnd Demand K for $e< 4raffic=ing ActL of ()),. n,( 8hile
this bill failed to pass through Congress b' itself, sections of it %ere included in the 4raffic=ing Gictims 7rotection Reauthori#ation Act (4G7RA- of K ()),. n,B 4he LFnd DemandL section of the 4G7RA ()), di/erts attention and federal funds to K programs aimed at the prosecution, shaming, and LreeducationL of clients of se< %or=ers.K $pecificall', the 4G7RA ()), pro/ides funds to states and local !urisdictions for programs to K Lin/estigate and prosecute persons %ho purchase commercial se< actsL n,C and to Leducate persons K charged %ith, or con/icted of, purchasing or attempting to purchase commercial se< acts.L n,, 4he K latter is to be accomplished largel' through L!ohn schools,L such as those established in *99, in $an K 3rancisco, %here clients of street prostitutes attend courses about the purported negati/e effects of K prostitution on se< %or=ers, their customers, and societ'. n,D Research has re/ealed that !ohn K schools ha/e not been effecti/e in WpBB(X discouraging clients from continuing to purchase commercial se< and ha/e onl' resulted in mo/ing se< %or= from one area to another. n,: K Ad/ocates critiAue the underl'ing premises of Lend demandL

policies as %ell as their negati/e K impacts on both traffic=ed persons and se< %or=ers . 3or e<ample, the $e< 8or=ers 7ro!ect of the K 0rban Justice Center and the "et%or= of $e< 8or= 7ro!ects statesI K LDemandL for se< %or= is not a predominant dri/ing factor for traffic=ing, %hich is dri/en b' K po/ert', race, and gender ineAuities. 4he term LdemandL also refers to the legitimate concerns K raised b' migrants and labor rights ad/ocates %ho address the issues relating to the need in the K global north for e<ploitable labor and ser/ices. .o%e/er, this narro% focus of the term in the conte<t of se< %or= represents a dangerous mo/e to%ards policies that, under the guise of protecting K se< %or=ers, is another %a' of undermining se< %or=ersP autonom' and causing more harm to them. K n,E (S insistence on ArescuingB se, +orkers is merel" a tool to >ustif" Western im&erialism an$ re&ression of +omen !inne" . J.D. Candidate, oalt .all $chool of La%, 7h.D. Candidate, Jurisprudence 6 $ocial 7olic', 0ni/ersit' of California, er=ele' (Fdi C. &.,
())D, er=ele' Journal of >ender, La% 6 Justice, LAppropriations for the AbolitionistsI 0ndermining Fffects of the 0.$. &andator' Anti-7rostitution 7ledge In the 3ight Against .uman 4raffic=ing And .IG/AID$,L httpI//%%%.prostitutionresearch.info/pdfs;all/traffic=ingU()all/$$R"id*C:EDD:.pdf-//A&
Contemporar' acti/ists and politicians

ha/e in/o=ed the s'mbolic po%er of the ?se< sla/e @--and the concomitant e/ils of pedophilia--to gal/ani#e an international mo/ement to end traffic=ing and the se< trade. W3"CCX $imilar K to the 7rogressi/e reformers and prostitution abolitionists %ho fought against the 8hite $la/e trade a centur' ago, K debates decr'ing ?modern da' sla/er'@ are freAuentl' spar=ed b' moral outrage against the ?special e/il in the K abuse and e<ploitation of the most innocent and /ulnerable @ in the se< trade. W3"C,XK 1nce again, the prostitute has become an iconic figure in debates about human traffic=ing, as the ?suffering K third %orld prostitute ser/es %ell to s'mboli#e the e<cesses of the global march of capital, and its negati/e effects on K %omen.@ W3"CDX .o%e/er, policies enacted in the s%a' of moral indignation at the p*D: ?highl' emoti/e intersection of se< %or= and traffic=ing WgenerateX a lot more heat than light@ b' conflating , and confusing, the concepts of K traffic=ing and prostitution. W3"C:X 4he sensationalistic language of rescue in the politics of se<ual protection in K anti-traffic=ing crusades, coupled %ith orientalist conceptions of t'e Enai)e/ &assi)e/ an$ raciali6e$F trafficke$ female migrant *ears t'e strong scent of im&erialism. W3"CEX In/o=ing the s'mbol of the ?suffering third %orld prostitute@ simultaneousl' in/ites and !ustifies %estern inter/ention, %hile operating to legitimi#e repressi/e campaigns to K ?Zprotect5 %omen b' restricting their mo/ement . . . !ustif'ing discrimination against migrants and se< %or=ers, and K limiting their freedom and autonom'.@ W3"C9X 2e>ect t'e affirmati)e as a critical act0as an e$ucator/ "ou 'a)e a res&onsi*ilit" to &ursue t'e &ro*lems unco)ere$ *" trafficking as a +'ole0t'e omission of la*or is not neutral0t'e trafficking stor" must *e a&&roac'e$ t'roug' a frame t'at asserts t'e &rinci&les of social res&onsi*ilit"S'el$on5S'erman 12 !udicial la% cler= for a 0nited $tates District Court Judge, J.D. from $tanford La% $chool N (Jennifer A.L., ()*(, L4he
&issing P7PI 7rosecution, 7re/ention, 7rotection and 7artnership in the 4raffic=ing Gictims 7rotection Act,L **:. 7enn $tate L. Re/. CCB, httpI//%%%.pennstatela%re/ie%.org/**:/(/**:-(-Article;$heldon-$herman.pdf-//A&

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 2%7/283 Critics also argue that prosecutions t'picall' focus on finding and K rescuing ?innocent /ictims,@ meaning those indi/iduals engaged in the =ind of forced labor ?not tainted b' public fears and pre!udices to%ards K certain t'pes of %or= or %or=ers,@K **: such as labor performed b' illegal K immigrants or others %ho appear to /oluntaril' ?choose@ their %or=. K Critics and /ictim ser/ice pro/iders argue that this narro% definition of ?deser/ing@ /ictims results in high prosecution rates for se< traffic=ing K and /irtuall' no enforcement of labor traffic=ing.**E K 7rosecutorial numbers reflect this realit'. et%een ())* and ()),, K the D1J filed t%ice as man' se< traffic=ing cases as labor cases and K prosecuted t'ree times as man' se< traffic=ing defendants,K **9 e/en K though the International Labour 1rgani#ation estimates that forced labor occurs nine times more freAuentl' than se< traffic=ing.*() In ma=ing K moral !udgments about %hich crimes are %orth' of in/estigation and K prosecution and %hich are not, critics maintain that la% enforcement and K prosecutors pla' into public stereot'pes, pre!udices, and fears that K reinforce anti-immigration tendencies and policies.*(*

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T'e $iscourse of trafficking is ske+e$ to+ar$ t'e se, in$ustr" an$ )ictimi6es +omen 8 ot'er forms of trafficking are more &re)alent ?eters 12 &A and 7hD from Columbia 0ni/ersit' and is currentl' Assistant 7rofessor of Anthropolog' at the 0ni/ersit' of "e% Fngland. $he
conducted t%o and half 'ears of ethnographic field%or= on the implementation of the 4raffic=ing Gictims 7rotection Act (Alicia, E/(/*(, ? roadening the Lens on .uman 4raffic=ing,@ httpI//%%%.huffingtonpost.com/american-anthropological-association/broadening-the-lens-onhu;b;*:(EE().html-//A& 0.$. and international la% define human traffic=ing as the process of forced, coerced, or decepti/e mo/ement or recruitment of indi/iduals into e<ploitati/e conditions of labor, %hether for pic=ing tomatoes, cleaning houses, painting nails, or selling commercial se<. Met, the dominant

discourse of traffic=ing is s=e%ed to%ard sensationali#ed stories of Lse< traffic=ing,L and it is this framing that shapes most of the American publicPs perceptions of traffic=ing. K >raphic stories of 'oung girls being forced into prostitution and branded b' pimps attract reader s'mpath', but the' also create a sense of in/isibilit' for other forms of traffic=ing. 3orcing teenagers into commercial se< is a despicable crime, but human traffic=ing is more than !ust se< traffic=ing, as I learned %hile conducting ethnographic research on the phenomenon. 4he most recent 4raffic=ing in 7ersons (4I7- Report , compiled
on a 'earl' basis b' the 0.$. $tate Department, ac=no%ledges this comple<it' and highlights that human traffic=ing in/ol/es %omen and men, children and adults, international and domestic /ictims, and compelled commercial se< and forced labor. F/idence suggests that ,) percent or

more of indi/iduals traffic=ed in the 0.$. ha/e been forced into sectors other than commercial se< and a good number of them are in fact men.K Met, the s=e%ed perception of traffic=ing as Lse< traffic=ingL that dominates the media also permeates the 0.$.Ps response to the issue, particularl' in the realm of la% enforcement . In its assessment of efforts to combat traffic=ing in the 0nited $tates, the ()*( 4I7 Report notes thatI K L3ederal and state human traffic=ing data indicate more in/estigations and prosecutions ha/e ta=en place for se< traffic=ing than labor traffic=ing+ ho%e/er, /ictim ser/ice pro/iders reported assisting significantl' higher numbers of foreign national /ictims in cases of labor traffic=ing than in cases of se< traffic=ing,L K &' o%n research supports this conclusion. .o% do %e e<plain this contradictionH 8hat became clear to me o/er the course of m' research %as that man' la% enforcement agents %ere basing in/estigations on their o%n cultural beliefs about se< and /ictimi#ation as opposed to the actual realit' of traffic=ing. $e/eral la% enforcement agents ac=no%ledged that the' /ie%ed traffic=ing into forced prostitution as a more heinous crime than other forms of forced labor and that this perception influenced their %or=. 1ne federal agent told me, LI donPt see
it Wtraffic=ingX so much as forced labor. 4he cases I belie/e are more important are %omen coming and %or=ing as prostitutes.L K In addition to being inaccurate, framing traffic=ing solel' as an issue of forced prostitution has real repercussions for real people . 8hile most media representations of traffic=ing misinform the public through incompleteness, %hen

these misinterpretations infiltrate the criminal !ustice s'stem the conseAuences are much more dire. 8hen la% enforcement agents direct their attention to identif'ing
cases of traffic=ing solel' in/ol/ing forced prostitution or signing off on paper%or= for those /ictims in particular, so the' can Auic=l' access benefits and protections, it means that other /ictims are being o/erloo=ed. Despite the eAual protections granted under the 0.$.

4raffic=ing Gictims 7rotection Act to all /ictims of traffic=ing, the moral outrage o/er Lse< traffic=ingL has resulted in a stratified response. Trafficking in $omestic +ork is t'e most common an$ t'e least focuse$ on C'ang 11 teaches 3eminist $tudies at the 0ni/ersit' of California $anta arbara and is %or=ing on a boo=, 4raffic=ing b' An' 1ther "ameI
4ransnational 3eminist, Immigrant and $e< 8or=er Rights Responses.(>race, */*(/**, ?8omen and children firstH@ Jir%an Institute for the $tud' of Race and Fthnicit', httpI//%%%.race-tal=.org/%omen-and-children-first/-//A& Recentl' in 0.$. media and public polic' discourses ali=e, the

term ?human traffic=ing@ has become s'non'mous %ith ?traffic=ing into se< %or=,@ and this in turn has been eAuated %ith ?se<ual sla/er'@ and ?prostitution.@ .uman traffic=ing, %hile primaril' an issue of coerced laborQand sometimes coerced mo/ementQis rarel' seen as a labor issue. Instead, it has been framed almost e<clusi/el' as an issue of ?Giolence against 8omen@ or ?$e<ual Giolence.@K Met in traffic=ing cases the labor in/ol/ed is not predominantl' se<ual labor, nor does the /iolence encompassed in traffic=ing al%a's in/ol/e se<ual /iolence. 4he forms of /iolence enacted in human traffic=ing are numerous and /ariedI racial, economic, imperialist, and se<ual (and then, not !ust against %omen-. It5s no %onder that the American public
has missed these ?subtle nuances@ of human traffic=ing, %ith the =inds of stories that ha/e dominated our media. K Also, the federal go/ernment has focused its efforts almost e<clusi/el' on prosecution %ithin the se< industr', e/en though the second clause of 4he 4raffic=ing Gictims 7rotection Act (4G7A- defines ?se/ere forms of traffic=ing@ asI ?the recruitment, harboring, transportation, pro/ision, or obtaining of a person for labor or ser/ices, through the use of force, fraud, or coercion, for the purpose of sub!ecting that person to in/oluntar' ser/itude, peonage, debt bondage, or sla/er'.@K In m' research in the 0nited $tates, I ha/e found that this second clause could be applied to e/er' sector %here immigrant %or=ers are pre/alent, and their race, class, gender, immigration status, and lac= of %or=er rights ma=e them /ulnerable to e<treme labor e<ploitation. Met 0.$. media and the

American public are generall' either una%are or uninterested in an'thing but the sensationali#ed issue of traffic=ing into se< %or=. 4his is despite the fact that anti-traffic=ing ad/ocates across the countr' consistentl'

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 2.1/283 report that in the 0nited $tates the industr' people are most commonl' traffic=ed in and into is domestic %or=, not se< %or=. T'e +a" se, trafficking 'as *een frame$ sto&s ot'er trafficking from *eing mitigate$ #rennan % Associate 7rofessor of Anthropolog' at >eorgeto%n 0ni/ersit' (Denise, International 1rgani#ation for &igration, L&ethodological
Challenges in Research %ith 4raffic=ed 7ersonsI 4ales from the 3ield,L httpI//%%%.iom.int/!ahia/%ebda//site/m'!ahiasite/shared/shared/mainsite/published;docs/boo=s/data;res;human.pdf-//A&

Researchers on traffic=ing find themsel/es %riting on an issue that has K been sensationali#ed, misrepresented, and politici#ed. 8ith the bul= of mediaK treatment onl' sensationali#ing traffic=ing Q especiall' in stories of se<ualK e<ploitationBK Q social scientists must, in contrast, pro/ide carefull' researchedK on-the-ground accounts of life in and after traffic=ing. 8hile the issue of traf-K fic=ing for se<ual e<ploitation has been o/er-e<plored in the media Q includingK their use of
images that e<emplif' %hat Jleinman and Jleinman refer to as the K ?commerciali#ation of suffering@, the ra% spectacle-ma=ing of /iolence, abuse,K and suffering Q other forms of sla/er' ha/e gone ignored (*99:I *9-. 4he ushK Administration, too, not onl' has focused on traffic=ing for se<ual e<ploitation,K but also has conflated /oluntar' prostitution %ith se< traffic=ing.CAnd, perhaps K nothing is more disputed than the numbers of persons %ho are traffic=ed %orld-K %ide and to the 0nited $tates.,

?olicies solel" against se, trafficking marginali6e t'e rig'ts of non5se,5trafficke$ in$i)i$uals !im an$ C'ang 7 professor of la% at Lo'ola La% $chool, Los Angeles, teaches 4orts, Immigration La% and .uman 4raffic=ing ,
A"D Associate 7rofessor of 3eminist $tudies at 0ni/ersit' of California, $anta arbara. (Jathleen and >race, Lo'ola La% $chool Legal $tudies 7aper "o. ()):-C:, December ()):, LReconceptuali#ing Approaches to .uman 4raffic=ingI "e% Directions and 7erspecti/es from the 3ield(s-,L httpI//%%%.sacramentosect.org/uploads/,/)/9/,/,)9,)9E/reconceptuali#ing;approaches;to;ht.pdf K -//A& 4his section discusses the role of labor migration %ithin the 0.$. anti-traffic=ing frame%or=. 0.$. K policies and practices focusing on

se< traffic=ing marginali#e the rights of %or=ers traffic=ed into K non-se<-related industries. 4he emphasis on se< traffic=ing and criminali#ation of prostitution perpetuates the %idespread e<ploitation of migrant %or=ers b' failing to reform restricti/e immigration K policies that den' migrant %or=ers the labor protections afforded to citi#en %or=ers.K Se, trafficking &rosecutions are o)er+'elmingl" a'ea$ of t'e more5&re)alent la*or trafficking 8 'in$ers &re)ention efforts !im an$ C'ang 7 professor of la% at Lo'ola La% $chool, Los Angeles, teaches 4orts, Immigration La% and .uman 4raffic=ing ,
A"D Associate 7rofessor of 3eminist $tudies at 0ni/ersit' of California, $anta arbara. (Jathleen and >race, Lo'ola La% $chool Legal $tudies 7aper "o. ()):-C:, December ()):, LReconceptuali#ing Approaches to .uman 4raffic=ingI "e% Directions and 7erspecti/es from the 3ield(s-,L httpI//%%%.sacramentosect.org/uploads/,/)/9/,/,)9,)9E/reconceptuali#ing;approaches;to;ht.pdf K -//A& Despite the occurrence of these labor traffic=ing prosecutions, ho%e/er, the

Department K of Justice reports that from the 'ears ())*-()),, it pursued a total of onl' t%ent'-three labor traffic=ing cases as compared %ith si<t'-eight se< traffic=ing cases. 4he Department of Justice further K reports that the si<t'-eight se< traffic=ing prosecutions represent an E:* percent increase from fiscal K 'ears *99D-())) %hen onl' se/en se< traffic=ing cases %ere filed. n:D In contrast, the t%ent'-three K labor traffic=ing cases filed bet%een ())*-()), sho% onl' a *)9 percent increase from the ele/en K labor traffic=ing cases filed bet%een *99D-())). n:: K 4hese numbers are disproportionate to estimates from non-go/ernmental organi#ations and academic researchers asserting that appro<imatel' one-half to t%o-thirds of all traffic=ing in the 0.$. K occurs in non-se< related industries. A ())C report from 3ree the $la/es and the .uman Rights K Center at
0ni/ersit' of California er=ele' indicates that CD.C percent of traffic=ing cases are for forced prostitution %hile CD.( percent of traffic=ing cases are for domestic ser/ice, agricultural labor, s%eatshops and food ser/ice. n:E Anecdotal e/idence from anti-traffic=ing ser/ice pro/iders K estimate that onl' one-third of their cases are related to the se< industr', %hile the clear ma!orit' of K their traffic=ing cases occur in non-se< industries. n:9 K $er/ice

pro/iders contend that the 0.$. go/ernmentPs focus on se< traffic=ing results in the re!ection of labor traffic=ing cases for in/estigation and prosecution. 4he 3orced Labor report indicates that ">1s obser/e federal la% enforcement Ldo%npla'ing of the se/erit' of crimes in/ol/ing K forced labor.L nE) 4he go/ernmentPs lac= of attention to
labor traffic=ing cases results in the denial K of la% enforcement protection to traffic=ed %or=ers %ho ma' fear emplo'er retaliation for escaping K the abusi/e %or= en/ironment and reporting the incidents to the authorities. 4he neglect of labor K traffic=ing cases has the additional

conseAuence of condoning emplo'er abuses in non-se< industries, thereb' hindering long-term pre/ention efforts to deter labor e<ploitation in an' industr'. (S &olicies against se, trafficking 'in$er its a*ilit" to &re)ent more common forms of trafficking 9itmore et al 12 %riter and researcher focusing on se< %or=, migration and traffic=ing, holds a doctorate in sociolog' and edited The
Encyclo!aedia of Prostitution and #e- %ork (&elissa, ()*(, L4he Road "orthI 4he role of gender, po/ert' and /iolence in traffic=ing from &e<ico to the

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0$,L httpI//%%%.ccasa.org/%p-content/uploads/()**/)C/4he-Road-"orth-4he-role-of-gender-po/ert'-and-/iolence-in-traffic=ing-from-&e<ico-tothe-0$.pdf-//A& Although it is %idel' ac=no%ledged that there are no concrete figures on the number of K indi/iduals traffic=ed, and additional e/idence

suggests that most traffic=ing /ictims are K not forced to %or= in the se< industr', the 0$ efforts are mostl' focused on se< traffic=ing K (Jo=en ()*)+ 8omen5s Commission for Refugee 8omen and Children ()):-. 4his is partiall' K attributed to ideological perspecti/es on se< and prostitution held historicall' in the 0nited K $tates and furthered b' the religious associations of the ush administration (Ditmore ()*)+ K 8eit#er ()*)+ 2immerman ()*)-. At the same time, the focus on se< traffic=ing pre/ents K focus on other abuses of labor that meet the definition of traffic=ing (8omen5s Commission K for
Refugee 8omen and Children ()):-.K

T'e (S4s focus solel" on se, trafficking 'urts o)erall anti5trafficking measures 9itmore et al 12 %riter and researcher focusing on se< %or=, migration and traffic=ing, holds a doctorate in sociolog' and edited The
Encyclo!aedia of Prostitution and #e- %ork (&elissa, ()*(, L4he Road "orthI 4he role of gender, po/ert' and /iolence in traffic=ing from &e<ico to the 0$,L httpI//%%%.ccasa.org/%p-content/uploads/()**/)C/4he-Road-"orth-4he-role-of-gender-po/ert'-and-/iolence-in-traffic=ing-from-&e<ico-tothe-0$.pdf-//A& et%een Januar' ())E and June ())9 (at time of %riting, the most recent data a/ailable-, K pro/iders offering ser/ices to traffic=ing sur/i/ors through

the 1ffice for Gictims of Crime K reported ser/icing more labor traffic=ing /ictims than an' other 4G7A-defined form of K traffic=ingI DC percent. 4his is compared to (( percent that %ere traffic=ed into the se< K industr' and *) percent that %ere a combination of se< traffic=ing and labor traffic=ing K ( an=s 6 J'c=elhahn ()**-. .o%e/er, la% enforcement and man' ser/ice pro/iders tend K to focus their efforts on commercial se< traffic=ing of %omen and girls, see=ing the ?perfect K /ictim@ (0' ()**-. 1nl' concentrating on commercial se<ual e<ploitation of %omen and girls K produces difficulties and real challenges %hen dealing %ith traffic=ing /ictims %ho do not K fall into this limited scope (0$ FAual Fmplo'ment 1pportunit' Commission ()**+ 0' ()**-. K 4hus, to reflect the actual needs of traffic=ing sur/i/ors, mo/ing a%a' from discourses K focused solel' on the se< industr' is an imperati/e step to ma=e comprehensi/e /ictimcentered care a/ailable. Consistenc" in &rosecuting trafficking is ke" !im an$ C'ang 7 professor of la% at Lo'ola La% $chool, Los Angeles, teaches 4orts, Immigration La% and .uman 4raffic=ing ,
A"D Associate 7rofessor of 3eminist $tudies at 0ni/ersit' of California, $anta arbara. (Jathleen and >race, Lo'ola La% $chool Legal $tudies 7aper "o. ()):-C:, December ()):, LReconceptuali#ing Approaches to .uman 4raffic=ingI "e% Directions and 7erspecti/es from the 3ield(s-,L httpI//%%%.sacramentosect.org/uploads/,/)/9/,/,)9,)9E/reconceptuali#ing;approaches;to;ht.pdf K -//A& 4he 0.$. go/ernmentPs focus on traffic=ing for prostitution+ its assumption that it must be in/oluntar' in all cases+

and the e<plicit, e,clusi)e goal of prosecuting traffic=ing %hen eAuated %ith K prostitution denies protection to e<ploited laborers %ho are consenting adults in se< %or= and man' K other industries. 4hose %ho migrate for %or= ma' participate /oluntaril' in an' industr' 'et still K face unla%ful e<ploitation through labor rights abuses, poor %or=ing conditions and debt bondage. K 0.$. and international anti-traffic=ing policies and practices must recogni#e this e<ploitation consistentl' in the identification and treatment of all /ictims of traffic=ing. =a*or trafficking nee$s to *e a$$resse$ 8 +e4re not e)en targeting %0U of trafficking cases Srikantia' 7 Associate 7rofessor of La% and Director, Immigrants5 Rights Clinic, $tanford La% (Ja'ashri, ?7erfect Gictims and Real $ur/i/orsI
4he Iconic Gictim In Domestic .uman 4raffic=ing La%,@ oston 0ni/ersit' La% Re/ie% /. *E:, httpI//%%%.bu.edu/la%/central/!d/organi#ations/!ournals/bulr//olumeE:n*/documents/$RIJA"4IA./.(.pdf-//A&

A/ailable data and anecdotal accounts from ser/ice pro/iders %ho assist K traffic=ing /ictims suggest that nonse<ual, labor traffic=ing comprises a large K proportion of total traffic=ing cases. According to one recent stud', K sur/e'ing
?*B* reported incidents of human traffic=ing in the 0nited $tates K bet%een *99E and ())BW,X . . . CD percent in/ol/ed forced se<ual e<ploitation, K %hile the remaining ,C percent in/ol/ed forced labor e<ploitation .@ 4heK $tate Department estimates that ?WaXbout half@ of the indi/iduals traffic=ed into K the 0nited $tates annuall' ?are forced into s%eatshop labor and domestic K ser/itude.@ Additional research is reAuired as to the distribution bet%een K se< and labor traffic=ing in unreported cases.*,: Anecdotal reports suggest, K ho%e/er, that labor traffic=ing cases

comprise a significant proportion of K unreported traffic=ing cases as %ell. $ocial ser/ice non-profit agencies that K %or= %ith traffic=ing /ictims report that a large proportion Q if not a ma!orit' Q K of their clients are /ictims of forced labor, not se< traffic=ing .*,EK In m' /ie%, the federal agenc' focus on se< traffic=ing has resulted in the K failure to disco/er /ictims of traffic=ing for forced labor .*,9 A hallmar= of K traffic=er beha/ior is isolation of /ulnerable
/ictims through /iolence and K threats of /iolence.*D) 4raffic=ers place restrictions on freedom of mo/ement, K confiscate passports, limit contact %ith friends, famil', and the outside %orld, K and sub!ect /ictims to ps'chological abuse.*D* Isolation is particularl' acute in K domestic

%or=er cases, %here %or=ers toil alone in the domestic sphere, free K from go/ernment intrusion and inspection.*D( 4he result is that man' /ictims do not ha/e the opportunit' or resources to escape. 8ithout aggressi/e police K in/estigation, these
/ictims ma' ne/er come to light. K 7roacti/e in/estigation is also necessar' to o/ercome the effect of K traffic=ers5 threats to report /ictims to la% enforcement and the immigration K authorities.*DB If /ictims are in the 0nited $tates illegall', the' li/e in constant K fear of the authorities. &an' /ictims are particularl' susceptible to threats of K deportation because the' ha/e e<perience %ith corrupt, unresponsi/e, or K none<istent la% enforcement in their countries of origin.*DC $uch /ictims also K %ould not escape e<ploitation %ithout the acti/e in/estigation of la% K enforcement, particularl' gi/en the

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linguistic and social isolation of man' K traffic=ing /ictims.K F/en

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those /ictims of labor traffic=ing %ho escape their traffic=ers and K approach la% enforcement agents ma' fail to interest la% enforcement in their K cases if the agents ha/e been trained to focus on se< traffic=ing cases. .uman K Rights 8atch has found that e/en %hen a domestic %or=er initiates contact K %ith la% enforcement, ?it is unli=el' that her rights %ill be protected@ because K go/ernment agents ?are not li=el' to enter her %or=place independentl'.@*D, If K agents do not in/estigate such cases, the' ma' ne/er disco/er domestic
%or=ers %ho ha/e suffered from traffic=ing but incorrectl' frame their K complaints as demands for additional %ages, instead of as human traffic=ing K cases.*DD Anecdotal accounts from social ser/ice pro/iders suggest that fe% K labor traffic=ing cases are selected for federal
K

prosecution. 3or instance, K Jennifer $tanger, formerl' of the Coalition to Abolish $la/er' and 4raffic=ing K (CA$4-, the onl' 0.$. agenc' that %or=s
solel' %ith traffic=ing sur/i/ors, K states that ?onl' three or four of the agenc'5s t%ent' or thirt' Wforced laborX K traffic=ing cases ha/e been chosen for federal prosecution.@*D: $tanger K attributes this statistic to prosecutors5 failure to see traffic=ing as a labor K issue.*DE Gictims of traffic=ing for

forced labor are not onl' undisco/ered, but K also go uncounted.*D9 4he D1J5s focus on se< traffic=ing affects the setting of future enforcement prioritiesI if forced labor traffic=ing /ictims are K undercounted, the' are unli=el' to be the focus of future enforcement goals. Cictims of t'e la*or in$ustr" are ignore$ com&are$ to se, )ictims 8 la*or trafficking is 'orren$ous an$ nee$s to *e $ealt +it' Srikantia' 7 Associate 7rofessor of La% and Director, Immigrants5 Rights Clinic, $tanford La% (Ja'ashri, ?7erfect Gictims and Real $ur/i/orsI
4he Iconic Gictim In Domestic .uman 4raffic=ing La%,@ oston 0ni/ersit' La% Re/ie% /. *E:, httpI//%%%.bu.edu/la%/central/!d/organi#ations/!ournals/bulr//olumeE:n*/documents/$RIJA"4IA./.(.pdf-//A&

3ocus on iconic /ictims %ho are completel' helpless /ictims of se< K traffic=ing lea/es little room for /ictims of traffic=ing for forced labor. 4he K iconic /ictim concept also does not contemplate /ictims of se< %or= %ho are K not completel' passi/e, but instead e<ercise agenc' in a /ariet' of %a's e/en K %hile ensla/ed. oth t'pes of traffic=ing /ictims ma' ta=e actions
to protect K their families from harm, to protect other /ictims from further harm, to K pressure the traffic=er for more independence or pa', to as= for phone K pri/ileges, to reAuest a /acation da', or to demand medical care. A /ictim ma' K act %ithin a larger en/ironment of ps'chological and ph'sical coercion but still K e<ercise some limited %ill nonetheless.K A h'pothetical is illustrati/e. Imagine a traffic=ing /ictim %ho is e<ploited
K

for forced labor, made to %or= long hours as a domestic %or=er for almost no K pa', under threat of ph'sical harm to her famil'. .er emplo'er reAuires her to K maintain the garden, care for children, coo=, and clean a large house. 4he K /ictim is not gi/en da's off and must sleep on the floor of the =itchen e/er' K night. .er emplo'er confiscates her passport and deducts rent from the K /ictim5s meager salar', %hich the emplo'er mails directl' to the /ictim5s K famil' abroad. 4he /ictim has no spending mone'. After a 'ear, the /ictim K as=s for, and recei/es, one da' off per %ee=. .er emplo'er also
permits her to K lea/e the house to bu' groceries for the famil'. 4he /ictim also secretl' calls K her famil' abroad+ she is initiall' punished for the call, but her emplo'er K ultimatel' allo%s her to ma=e future calls. $e/eral times, the /ictim %al=s out K of the house, thin=ing she %ill

contact a neighbor for help, but for fear of K retaliation from her emplo'er, she turns around and returns home.

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2nc &atriarc'"
Attem&ting to ArescueB +omen from se, trafficking is ineffecti)e an$ creates gen$ere$ $iscourse !inne" . J.D. Candidate, oalt .all $chool of La%, 7h.D. Candidate, Jurisprudence 6 $ocial 7olic', 0ni/ersit' of California, er=ele' (Fdi C. &.,
())D, er=ele' Journal of >ender, La% 6 Justice, LAppropriations for the AbolitionistsI 0ndermining Fffects of the 0.$. &andator' Anti-7rostitution 7ledge In the 3ight Against .uman 4raffic=ing And .IG/AID$,L httpI//%%%.prostitutionresearch.info/pdfs;all/traffic=ingU()all/$$R"id*C:EDD:.pdf-//A& &igrantsP rights organi#ations and se< %or=er ad/ocates %ere highl' critical of la%s and policies focused on K rescuing

%omen from the se< industr', arguing that the common %isdom that ?men are smuggled+ %omen are traffic=ed@ into se<ual e<ploitation is based on and reproduces a problematic p*E: model of gender difference in traffic=ing discourse. W3"*,EX 8hile male migrants are often cast as economic agents colluding %ith smugglers and K posing threats to national securit', female migrants are percei/ed as passi/e /ictims in need of rescue and ?rehabilitation.@ W3"*,9X "ot onl' do traffic=ing raids on se< establishments place /oluntar' undocumented %or=ers and K ethnic minorities in !eopard' of arrest, fine, and deportation, such inter/entions disregard the di/erse forms of traffic=ing and e<ploitation of men and %omen in %or=places other than the se< sector . W3"*D)X A2escuingB +omen from trafficking kills in$i)i$ual agenc" an$ $oesn4t sol)e 9itmore et al 12 %riter and researcher focusing on se< %or=, migration and traffic=ing, holds a doctorate in sociolog' and edited The
Encyclo!aedia of Prostitution and #e- %ork (&elissa, ()*(, L4he Road "orthI 4he role of gender, po/ert' and /iolence in traffic=ing from &e<ico to the 0$,L httpI//%%%.ccasa.org/%p-content/uploads/()**/)C/4he-Road-"orth-4he-role-of-gender-po/ert'-and-/iolence-in-traffic=ing-from-&e<ico-tothe-0$.pdf-//A& .o%e/er, often efforts to rescue %omen of lesser social status do not ta=e into account K the real-life, multifaceted

challenges these particular %omen face. A rescue approach K also attempts to morali#e %omen engaged in prostitution in order to ?sa/e@ them from K religious condemnation. Discourse around prostitution and traffic=ing has consistentl' K left out concepts of agenc' and personal choice (0' ()**-. 3urther, b' framing the K con/ersation around the need to sa/e this ?uncontro/ersial@ /ictim from a human rights K perspecti/e, it effecti/el' na/igates the discussion a%a' from the interrelated political and K structural issues of labor, migration, and se<ual freedom that often perpetuate actual human K traffic=ing ( ernstein ()*)-. 4he belief that %omen are either forced into prostitution, K or are promiscuous and de/iant, continues to be reflected in current 0$ polic' and la% K enforcement efforts to address human traffic=ing and prostitution. 3or e<ample, under the K 4raffic=ing Gictims 7rotect Act (4G7A-,
ser/ice pro/iders can onl' recei/e federal funding K to ser/e /ictims of human traffic=ing if the' pledge to ?oppose the legali#ation or practice K of prostitution.@ 0nder the ush administration, traffic=ing of persons, most notabl' se< K traffic=ing, became a ma!or focus of 0$ institutional efforts.

T'e i$ea t'at rescuing trafficke$ +omen is t'e (S4s >o* is &atriarc'al an$ s'oul$ *e re>ecte$ Williams 11 (Jimberl', LCrime, Corruption and Chaos,L (/*D/**,
ttpI//%%%.tandfonline.com.pro<'.lib.umich.edu/doi/pdf/*).*)E)/*CD*D:C(.()**.,BCD,9-//A& ut =e' to successfull' substantiating the role of American hero as the K source

of global la% enforcement is the e<istence, as there %as in Russia,K Afghanistan and IraA, of a clearl' identiyable Zrepressi/e5 political s'stem K from %hose Z/illainous5 leaders the 0$A is morall' obligated to Zrescue5K %omen and other marginali#ed peoples. In this %a', the 0$A is able toK assume the role of concerned, bene/olent patriarch+ to be an authorit' K ygure %ielding a big stic= is imperialistic, but to be a concerned father isK understandable. As I ha/e demonstrated in the case of 0$ Russia polic', K ho%e/er, this self-imposed paternal positionalit' can onl' e/er be accomplished geopoliticall' b' the discursi/e creation of Z/ictims5, predominantl' Z%omen and children5 (Mu/al Da/is *99:I (C-, %ho, threatened b' state-sanctioned /iolence, abuse, neglect and/or e<ploitation, need to be Zrescued5.K .ence, through an anal'sis of t%o sets of simultaneous 0$ Congressional K hearings, one
on a proposed anti-trafyc=ing la%, the other on the alleged K Zfailure5 of 0$ Russia polic' during the Clinton administration, I ha/e demonstrated that 0$ Russia polic' at the end of the t%entieth centur', createdK predominantl' b' an o/erlapping cadre of %hite, male legislators, relied onK a

heteropatriarchal anti-trafyc=ing narrati/e that reAuired the Zrescue5 of K Z/ictimi#ed5 Russian %omen from Z/illainous5 Russian men, %ho %ereK corrupt/inefycient and/or part of transnational criminal net%or=s. 0$QK Russian relations during the yrst post-$o/iet decade %ere thus profoundl'K gendered as %ell as raciali#ed, and the anti-trafyc=ing narrati/e5s Zprotection5 K imperati/e ma=es clear that (masculine- states insist upon protecting Z%omenandchildren5 in times of alleged peace as %ell as in times
of %ar. Additionall', m' %or= here ma' %ell ser/e as a methodological model for future K feminist foreign polic' anal'ses in its insistence that such anal'ses must beK done not onl' at the le/el of the nation-state, but also at the le/el of indi/idual K polic'ma=ers operating under speciyc circumstances in speciyc historicalK moments.

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Trafficking !ritik

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1nc
T'eir anti5trafficking $iscourse fuels a s"stem of Aglo*al a&art'ei$B0t'e" attem&t to se&arate t'e ci)ili6e$ AusB from t'e Aoutsi$ersB t'roug' moral fear/ im&osing state control an$ $e&ri)ing +omen of t'eir agenc" S'arma/ % ("andita $harma, Assistant 7rofessor in the $chool of $ocial $ciences, At=inson at Mor= 0ni/ersit' in 4oronto, Autumn ()),, "8$A Journal, Gol. *:, "o. B, ?Anti-4raffic=ing Rhetoric and the &a=ing of a >lobal Apartheid@, httpI//%%%.!stor.org/stable/CB*:*,9-//F& In contemporar' discourses of national securit', it is the eradication of the Ldangerous foreignerL that is paramount to notions of protecting the Lhomeland.L 4his demands of Lus,L the nationPs sub!ects, that L%eL be /igilant against LoutsidersL see=ing increasingl' cle/er %a's to circum/ent national border controls and thereb' usurp the authorit' and integrit' of the nation-state. $uch rhetoric is, of course, readil' apparent in the post-$eptember ** %ar on terror %ith
its %idespread practice of nationali#ed, raciali#ed, and gendered profiling of securit' threats. Met, it is important to remind oursel/es that such national securit' agendas ha/e long been in place. Remembering this ma' allo% us to better understand ho% legitimation for this latest %ar is organi#ed. In this paper I in/estigate ho% national and international go/ernance regimes together shape the e<periences of migrants e<iting, mo/ing in bet%een, and resettling into /arious nationali#ed societies, and ho% increasingl' these regimes rel' on the trope of Lhomeland securit'L to police the bodies of the ma!orit' of the %orldPs migrants ( alibar *99*, 9)-. $uch an in/estigation is crucial in light of the global s'stem of apartheid that is firml' in place-a s'stem that celebrates the mobilit' of capital and some bodies, %hile the bodies of others face e/er-gro%ing restrictions and criminali#ation. 4oda'Ps s'stem of global apartheid has been put together in part through the 0nited "ations (0"-, %hich increasingl' regulates the global mobilities of (some- people, as %ell as through the uni/ersall' legitimate ideological practice of nationalism. 4he underl'ing principleo f Lnationals o/ereignt'Le mbedded% ithin the original0 " mandate enables nation-states to legall', and %ith little, if an', outcr' discriminate against those %ho can be cast as the nationPs Lothers.L 4his article e<amines one increasingl' important, and increasingl' obfuscated aspect of

the national and international securit' agenda-that of anti-traffic=ing campaigns directed, in particular, at controlling the migration of %omen and children. I argue that anti5trafficking &ractices o&erate as a moral &anic that simultaneousl' obscure the /ulnerabilit' of migrant %omen in the ne<us of state and capitalist practices %hile re&resenting t'em as )ictims solel" of traffickers- 4his moral panic ser/es to legitimi6e increasingl" regressi)e state &ractices of immigration control. 4hese controls, in turn, form t'e *asis for t'e construction an$ maintenance of a glo*al a&art'ei$ +'ere*" $ifferential legal regimes are organi6e$ +it'in nationali6e$ s&aceQ one for Dciti6ensD an$ anot'er far more regressi)e one for t'ose, such as people categori6e$ as Dillegal,L %ho are denied a permanent legal status %ithin the nation space. 4he ideological frame of
anti-traffic=ing minimi#es and often ma=es migrants as displaced people completel' in/isible. 4he ideolog' of antitraffic=ing does not recogni#e that migrants ha/e been displaced b' practices that ha/e resulted in the loss of their land and/or li/elihoods through international trade liberali#ation policies, mega-de/elopment pro!ects, the loss of emplo'ment in capitalist labor mar=ets, or %ar. "ot onl' does the frame of anti-traffic=ing

lead to a suspicion of %omenPs (and childrenPs- migrations so that it is onl' e/er seen as crisis-producing instead of life-sa/ing, it further renders as unseeable the reasons %h' migrants are forced to ma=e clandestine mo/ements, usuall' %ith the help of people %ho =no% ho% to get them across national borders undetected. $ince
the problem of displacement and the state-controlled process of illegali#ing migrants are represented as problems of traffic=ing, a particular LsolutionL comes to ma=e common senseI criminali#e those %ho mo/e people clandestinel' and return those %ho ha/e been mo/ed b' traffic=ers to their LhomeL societies as soon as possible. 4his solution fits smoothl' into e<isting national and international securit' agendas, for the discourse of anti-traffic=ing %ith its la%-and-order agenda of Lgetting tough L%ith traffic=ers , di/erts attention from restricti/e immigration practices that ma=e it impossible for most of the %orldPs migrants to mo/e legall' and safel' or to li/e securel' in the places the' mo/e to. ' dra%ing attention to acts of

clandestine migrations, anti-traffic=ing campaigns &a" no real attention to 'o+ *est to ensure safe migration &ractices for +omen (including e<it, transit, and resettlement-. 4his is because the more influential /ersions of anti-traffic=ing campaigns $o not see t'e )ictims of trafficking as +omen e,ercising agenc" (ho%e/er much constrained- in crossing national borders. Instead, anti-traffic=ing campaigns )ie+ +omen solel" as )ictims force$ or $u&e$ into migrating for t'e sole *enefit of t'e &re$ator" trafficker:nstea$/ +e s'oul$ re5center t'e $iscussion of trafficking a+a" from t'e legal s&'ere0onl" t'is &ro)i$es a &ra,is for era$icating t'e )iolent social relations of &atriarc'" S'arma/ % ("andita $harma, Assistant 7rofessor in the $chool of $ocial $ciences, At=inson at Mor= 0ni/ersit' in 4oronto, Autumn ()),, "8$A Journal, Gol. *:, "o. B, ?Anti-4raffic=ing Rhetoric and the &a=ing of a >lobal Apartheid@, httpI//%%%.!stor.org/stable/CB*:*,9-//F&
' m'stif'ing the role of nation-states in the processes of migration, especiall' illegal migration, anti-traffic=ing campaigns and practices %or= to conceal precisel' those situations %here %e should insist on =no%ing %h' there is a lac= of safe migration routes a/ailable to those needing to mo/e a%a' from a

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number of (politicall', economicall', and/or sociall'- /iolent and/or untenable situations. 4he narrati/es of /ictimi#ation and criminalit' %ithin the ideological frame%or= of traffic=ing organi#e a contemporar' moral panic that discloses the diss'mmetr' of po%er relations %ithin a s'stem of global apartheid %here membership in the "orth remains elusi/e for all but a fe% and is especiall' restricti/e for the ma!orit' of people from the $outh. It is for these reasons that anti-traffic=ing campaigns articulate so %ell %ith official anti-migrant agendas. Instead of ob!ectif'ing %omen migrants

as traffic=ed /ictims, %e need to recenter the li/ed e<periences of %omen migrants %ho, through the state practice of illegali#ing them, ha/e been forced to endure dangerous migration routes . 8e need to be a%are of ho% the intersection of criminal la% and immigration la% creates the conditions for the e<ploitation of people %ho need
to earn a li/ing and form ne% homes across borders. Doing so leads to the recognition that onl' b' mobili#ing to end practices of displacement %hile ensuring that people are able to mo/e according to their o%n self-determined, %illful needs and desires %ill feminists be able to contest global practices of e<ploitation and abuse. 3eminists intent on securing social !ustice , therefore, need to ma=e central to their pra<is the

elimination of all immigration controls and the eradication of those sets of social relations organi#ed through global capitalism.

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2nc link 8 &rostitution


T'eir conflation of trafficking an$ &rostitution $e&ri)es +omen of agenc" an$ $e&icts t'e t'ir$ +orl$ an$ unci)ili6e$ C'uang/ 10 Assistant 7rofessor of La%, American 0ni/ersit' (Janie A. Chuang, &a' ()*), ?RF$C0I"> 4RA33ICJI"> 3R1& IDF1L1>ICAL CA740RFI 7R1$4I404I1" RF31R& A"D A"4I-4RA33ICJI"> LA8 A"D 71LICM@, 0ni/ersit' of 7enns'l/ania La% Re/ie% Gol. *,E Issue D, Fbsco-//F& (. C1"3LA4I"> $FT 4RA33ICJI"> A"D 7R1$4I404I1" "eo-abolitionists ha/e capitali#ed on this intense focus on se<sector traffic=ing to conflate se<-sector traffic=ing and prostitution and to pursue abolition of prostitution under the banner of
Ltraffic=ing.L 4heir success is %ell e/idenced b' the direct lin= bet%een traffic=ing and prostitution that "$7D-(( posits and publici#es in the $tate Department 3act $heet, and b' the neo-abolitionist la% and polic' reforms described abo/e. 3ocusing on %omenPs impo/erished bac=grounds, histories of se<ual abuse, and the e<ploitati/e conditions in the se< industr', neo-abolitionists ha/e shaped and fed public s=epticism o/er %hether meaningful consent to prostitution is possible. 4he discursi/e slippage bet%een prostitution and traffic=ing s%eeps an' e<ercise of

agenc' b' the putati/e /ictim under a totali#ing narrati/e of /ictimi#ation that refuses to engage in an' mar=ing of relati/e control or freedom -- Lmen dominate and all prostitute %omen are subordinated, oppressed and unfree.L(3"*:9- Instead, those %omen -- the self-proclaimed Lse< %or=ersL %ho def' the dominant narrati/e -are e<plained a%a' as suffering from a false consciousness and thereb' una%are of their oppression or as de/iant in
desiring abuse. 0nder this construction, 4hird 8orld prostitutes represent the paradigmatic e<ample of prostitution amounting to se<-sector traffic=ing.

4he' are characteri#ed as Lperpetuall' underpri/ileged and marginalisedL b' all-encompassing economic and cultural oppression, such that the /er' possibilit' of choice or agenc' is negated.(3"*E)- L ' eAuating choice %ith %ealth, and coercion %ith
po/ert', no space remains to recogni#e and /alidate the choices that %omen ma=e %hen confronted %ith limited economic opportunities.L(3"*E*- As sociologist Jamala Jempadoo argues, the uni/ersali#ations and generali#ations that the neo-abolitionists adopt and e<port abroad re/eal the

epistemic pri/ilege of a social group that has a raciali#ed po%er to define the %orld and to create ne% meanings about social realities.(3"*E(- 4he reducti/e portra'al of the traffic=ing /ictim sets up a neoimperialist po%er relation that presumes and establishes an essential di/ide bet%een Fast and 8est, $outh and "orth -- e<otic, archaic, and authoritarian /ersus progressi/e and enlightened+ it positions 4hird 8orld %omen as ignorant, tradition bound, poor, and infantili#ed, resembling minors in need of guidance. (3"*EB- In the prostitution conte<t, the neo-abolitionist
narrati/e LdoWesX offer an important critiAue of liberal notions of freedom and consent that presume autonomous indi/iduals abstracted from relations of po%er.L(3"*EC- 4hese liberal notions miss their mar= in the traffic=ing conte<t b' failing to appreciate the nuances of

conte<t -- for e<ample, ho% significant economic, gender, and racial ineAualities se/erel' compromise the e<ercise of choice in man' prostitution conte<ts. As sociologist Laura Agustkn notes, man' migrant prostitutes do not -- contrar' to the /ie% of some 8estern se<-%or=er ad/ocates -- adopt the /ie% that se< %or= is art, therap', or li=e an' other !ob.(3"*E,- 8hile formali#ing the industr' might enable %or=ers to ad/ocate on their o%n behalf, man' migrants do not selfidentif' as se< professionals but rather /ie% se< %or= as a temporar' financial measure.(3"*ED- As Agustkn e<plains, there is an inescapable, fundamental LcontradictionWX of %or=ing in a sector %here illegalit' is the norm.L(3"*E:- "ormali#ing se< %or= through harm-reduction strategies cannot a/oid the practical obstacles to agenc' that most migrant se< %or=ers suffer as a result of their unla%ful migration status.(3"*EE- "onetheless, treating prostitution as possibl' a form of %or= at least focuses attention on the specificities of conte<tI for instance, the fact that certain %or=ing conditions are better for some (e.g., nationals- than others (e.g., migrants-. &oreo/er, as $ulli/an e<plains, the prostitution-as-%or= Ldiscursi/e strateg'... opens up a space for the formation of ne% identities not based on passi/it', or se<ual e<ploitation and se<ual /ictimhood.L(3"*E9- 7erhaps

LWiXt is not se< %or= itself that promotes oppressiWonX... but rather the particular cultural and legal production of a marginali#ed, degraded prostitution that ensures its oppressi/e characteristics %hile acting to limit the sub/ersi/e potential that might attend a decriminali#ed, culturall' legitimi#ed form of se< %or= .L(3"*9)- Indeed,

%hen it comes to the commodification of se<, %hat matters ultimatel' is %ho controls the meaning of the purchase. In this sense, perhaps se<-%or=er unions could be an e<ample of the L/ictims of commodification... appropriatWingX the chains that bind them.L(3"*9*- 4he neo-abolitionist refusal to mar= the differences bet%een rape and se< for mone' has discursi/e and practical perils. It implies that prostitutes are Lpublicl' a/ailable to be raped,L a position held b' man' la% enforcement officials and !udges %ho Lrefuse to acceptL that prostitutes can be raped.(3"*9(- It also perpetuates the &adonna-/ersus-%hore stigma, or the sense that onl' those %ho un%ittingl' ended up in prostitution are deser/ing of protection. ecause all prostitution is traffic=ing, and thus a crime and a human rights abuse, neoabolitionist strategies prioriti#e prohibition and antiproliferation of the prostitution trade rather than the %elfare and empo%erment of prostitutes %ithin the trade. And %hile the neo-abolitionist perspecti/e resonates %ith %idel' held /ie%s that se< should be mar=et inalienable and noncommodified, it cannot, as a practical matter, escape %hat &argaret Radin calls the Lcommodification double bind.L(3"*9B- In other %ords, Lit is unacceptable for societ' to embrace commodification of Wse<X %hen it is in practice the onl' a/enue of sur/i/al for the po%erless, and eAuall' unacceptable for societ' to heap opprobrium and further oppression on those %ho tr' to create and enter such mar=ets under those conditions.L(3"*9C- 8hile in an ideal %orld se< %ould perhaps not be commodified, in our nonideal %orld some %omen face a choice bet%een selling se< and letting themsel/es or their children go hungr'.(3"*9,- 3or the neo-abolitionist, the latter option is an acceptable trade-off in e<change for the ideal %orld of noncommodified se< -- but unacceptable for non-abolitionists fa/oring harm reduction.

critiHue of t'e aff from a Ase,5&ositi)eB feminist &ers&ecti)e EYYF 1ulati/ 10 Q 7hD, Associate 7rofessor of 7olitical $cience at entle' 0ni/ersit', &ember of the Regional 8or=ing >roup on &odern-Da' $la/er' and .uman 4raffic=ing, Carr Center for .uman Rights, Jenned'

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 270/283 $chool of >o/ernment, .ar/ard 0ni/ersit' (>irish J. >ulati, Jul' *, ()*), ?&edia Representation of .uman 4raffic=ing in the 0nited $tates, >reat ritain, and Canada,@ entle' 0ni/ersit', pdf, .enselK An ?Alternati/e@ CritiAueK K Another group of scholars and acti/ists critici#e 0.$. polic' from a ?se<-positi/e@ feminist (e.g., see Agustin ()):+ Andri!ase/ic ()):+ Chap=is ())B+ Doe#ema ()))+ Jinne' ())D+ Juo ())(- or post-colonialism perspecti/e (e.g., see
Jempadoo ()),+ 1utshoorn ()),-. 4hese /ie%s are echoed freAuentl' in the leading progressi/e ne%s maga#ines (e.g., see Coc=burn ())D+ Critchell ())B+ Jones ()):+ Jata'ama ()),+ Lustig ()):+ "athan ()),+ $chafer ()),-. 4hese critics Auestion the estimates made b' the 0.$.

and 0.". of the e<tent of the traffic=ing problem , %hich the' argue are based on fault' methodolog' and e<trapolations. 4he' point to the %idel' /ar'ing estimates in go/ernment reports and the negligible increase in prosecutions and /ictim rescues obser/ed in the 0nited $tates since the ())) Act (8eit#er ()):-. 4he' also challenge the con/entional definition of human traffic=ing, %hich designates all ?se< %or=ers@ %ho ha/e tra/elled across borders in hopes of see=ing a better standard of li/ing as /ictims. In addition, the' do not /ie% undocumented immigrants %ho enter another countr' see=ing %or= as a /ictim simpl' because the' recei/ed assistance entering their destination from another person (Agustin ()):+ Chap=is ())B+ Doe#ema ()))-. K K 4hese scholars and acti/ists also claim that these high and erroneous estimates are ad/anced mostl' b' conser/ati/e Christians %ho are on a moral crusade against all forms of female se<ual liberation, %hich the' see as threatening to the traditional famil' structure. Religious conser/ati/es are !oined b' ?radical@ feminists %ho /ie% prostitution as e<ploitation of %omen and male dominance and a !ustification for continuing /iolence against %omen and gender ineAualit'. Reminiscent of the mo/e against ?%hite sla/er',@ this coalition5s strateg' has been to generate outrage among the American public in order to build support for more draconian solutions to combat prostitution and criminali#e other elements of the se< industr' (Agustin ()):+ Abbot ()):+ Chap=is ())B+ Doe#ema
()))+ 8eit#er ()):-.

T'eir )ictimi6ation of +omen enforces militari6e$ 'umanitarianism t'at ignores in$i)i$uals &references C'uang/ 10 Assistant 7rofessor of La%, American 0ni/ersit' (Janie A. Chuang, &a' ()*), ?RF$C0I"> 4RA33ICJI"> 3R1& IDF1L1>ICAL CA740RFI 7R1$4I404I1" RF31R& A"D A"4I-4RA33ICJI"> LA8 A"D 71LICM@, 0ni/ersit' of 7enns'l/ania La% Re/ie% Gol. *,E Issue D, Fbsco-//F& B. L&ILI4ARI2FD .0&A"I4ARIA"I$&L A"D LCARCFRAL 3F&I"I$&L 4hrough the t%o discursi/e mo/es described abo/e, the neoabolitionist narrati/e delimits and collapses comple< forms of %omenPs migration -- ranging from deception and abuse to informed decisions -- into a simple portra'al of %omen as /ictims of crime . It thus precludes understanding of the comple< structural, social, and economic aspects of %omenPs migration, including the possibilit' that Ltraffic=ed %omenL ma' be migrant se< %or=ers or migrant %omen attempting to meet their o%n needs or responding to labor demands in the 8est. 8hat is called Ltraffic=ingL %hen it in/ol/es se< is often called Linternational labor migrationL %hen it in/ol/es other =inds of %or= . As political scientist JacAueline erman argues, the
neoabolitionist narrati/e LelideWsX and displaceWsX this specific intersection of gender, immigration, economics, and globali#ation.L(3"*9D- 4hus construed, traffic=ing is no longer the product of the disparities of %ealth created b' globali#ation, gendered labor mar=ets, or inadeAuate migration frame%or=s, but rather the result of the se<ual procli/ities of de/iant indi/iduals. 4he logic of this representation suggests that to

resol/e the problem of traffic=ing, %omen should be rescued or deported bac= home, or pre/ented from tra/eling in the first place, and that go/ernments should pass and aggressi/el' enforce la%s to punish these de/iant elements. As ernstein notes, the criminali#ation paradigm recasts Lbig business, the state, and the police... as allies and sa/iors, rather than enemies, of uns=illed migrant %or=ers .L(3"*9:- 4his construct deflects attention from the dependence of big business on cheap and malleable %or=ers %ho populate the unregulated, unprotected labor sectors, and ob/iates an' need to address the structural factors that push indi/iduals to migrate under increasingl' dangerous conditions. Capitali#ing on the Lrec'cledL LtropesL of L/iolated femininit', shattered innocence, and the /ictimi#ation of P%omen and children ,PL(3"*9E- the neo-abolitionist campaign promotes, in ernsteinPs terms, a Lmilitari#ed humanitarianism and carceral feminismL in its pursuit of social remedies .(3"*99- 4he neo-abolitionist approach thus feeds a borderprotection and crime-control agenda b' framing traffic=ing as a humanitarian issue that the Lpri/ilegedL can combat b' supporting efforts to rescue and restore /ictims and punish the depra/ed indi/iduals %ho perpetrate the abuse.(3"())- Fpitomi#ing this approach are the Lrescue and restoreL
campaigns populari#ed b' the International Justice &ission (IJ&-, a faith-based organi#ation that catapulted to prominence for its dramatic LrescuesL of %omen and children from $outh and $outheast Asian brothels. 4hese media-friendl' rescues, Loften conducted in partnership %ith Wand displa'ed onX such press outlets as Dateline, C"", and 31T "e%s,L t'picall' in/ol/e male IJ& emplo'ees %ho Lgo underco/er as potential clients to in/estigate brothels, partnering %ith local la% enforcement to rescue underage and allegedl' un%illing brothel occupants and deli/er them to state-sponsored or faith-based rehabilitation facilities.L(3"()*- "ot%ithstanding multiple reports of failed rescues -- %here surprisingl' high

percentages of in/oluntaril' LrescuedL %omen escaped the shelters in order to return to the brothel s -- the Lrescue
and restoreL model has been enthusiasticall' embraced b' faith-based and anti-prostitution feminist organi#ations ali=e, and lauded and generousl' funded b' the 0.$. go/ernment.(3"()(-

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Neg ! Elike ca& or neoli* or somet'ingF 8 Western &ros&erit" at t'e e,&ense of t'e eastern +orl$ turns t'e aff 1ulati/ 10 Q 7hD, Associate 7rofessor of 7olitical $cience at entle' 0ni/ersit', &ember of the Regional 8or=ing >roup on &odern-Da' $la/er' and .uman 4raffic=ing, Carr Center for .uman Rights, Jenned' $chool of >o/ernment, .ar/ard 0ni/ersit' (>irish J. >ulati, Jul' *, ()*), ?&edia Representation of .uman 4raffic=ing in the 0nited $tates, >reat ritain, and Canada,@ entle' 0ni/ersit', pdf, .enselK K 4he .uman Rights 7erspecti/eK K &ost scholars and acti/ists %ho ha/e been assisting traffic=ing /ictims ha/e praised the 0nited $tates for its international leadership and sincere efforts in combating human traffic=ing. Met the' are critical of the narro% lens %ith %hich 0.$. polic'ma=ers ha/e conceptuali#ed the problem. Almost all of the attention has been placed on the traffic=ing of %omen and children for the purpose of se<ual e<ploitation, %hile other forms of labor sla/er' and traffic=ing in/ol/ing men ha/e been largel' ignored, %hich, in turn, has led to a gross underestimate of the problem (3eingold
()),+ 2immerman ()),-. 3urthermore, these scholars and acti/ists pro/ide a broader /ie% on the reasons that human traffic=ing continues to be an international problem. 8hile the' agree that organi#ed criminal net%or=s contribute greatl' to the problem , the' also

attribute responsibilit' to po/ert', social ineAualit' and lac= of economic opportunities in the de/eloping %orld. In man' ne% democracies, economic liberali#ation has contributed to ne% ineAualities and dislocation . In addition to the economic turmoil, militar' conflicts and political uphea/al, persecution and /iolence across the globe also encourage people to see= refuge and opportunities abroad, ma=ing them particularl' /ulnerable to traffic=ing net%or=s (>ill ()):+ Jing ())C+ Jligman and Limoncelli ())C+ $alt ()))- K K >lobali#ation (and regionali#ation- e<acerbates the problem b' contributing to the economic and political instabilit' in man' of these countries , %hile creating a demand in %estern nations for cheap labor (Jligman and Limoncelli ())C+ $=eldon ()))-. 4echnological inno/ation in transportation and communication further facilitate organi#ed crime5s abilit' to pre' on these /ulnerable populations (3riman and Reich ()):-. In addition, ad/ances in gender eAualit' in the 8est and more %omen %or=ing outside the home ha/e
created a demand for domestic ser/ants and child care pro/iders (Fhrenreich and .ochschild ())C-. 4his, in turn, has created a demand among 8estern men for Fastern Furopean, Asian, and Latin American %omen, %ho fit the stereot'pe of a docile, passi/e, and obedient %ife (Jing ())C-. 8estern

demand not onl' encourages traffic=ing into 8estern countries, but also creates a mar=et for ?se< tours@ of origin countries %here prostitution is either legal or tolerated (Jing ())C+ $ingh and .art ()):-. 4his problem is particularl' acute near 0.$. militar' bases and %here international peace=eepers are stationed (Jligman and Limoncelli ())C-. K K 3or %omen, the impact of globali#ation, economic and political transformation, and increasing social ineAualit', has been e/en more harmful. In man' of the origin countries, there alread' is se/ere gender ineAualit' and limited educational and economic opportunities for %omen,
longstanding societal oppression of %omen, and abusi/e conditions in their o%n homes (>ill ()):+ Jangaspunta ())B+ Jligman and Limoncelli ())C+ $=eldon ()))+ $alt ()))-. >o/ernment officials, the police, border securit' agents, and e/en international peace=eepers ha/e cooperated %ith criminal net%or=s to lure %omen into prostitution b' deceit, coercion or force (&endelson ()),-. 4here also is a high incidence of famil' members selling their children or relati/es to traffic=ers (3riman and Reich ()):-. 8hile man' %omen initiate contact %ith traffic=ers %ith referrals from neighbors, friends and famil', none of these %omen are full' a%are of the life that a%aits them and the terms of their transport (7latt ())*+ 2immerman ()),. ut man' do ha/e hopes of obtaining better opportunities else%here in the se< industr' (Agustin, ()),+ $=eldon ()))- or are simpl' searching for ad/enture and a more e<citing life ($alt ()))-.

T'is $istracts us from true forms of trafficking C'uang/ 10 Assistant 7rofessor of La%, American 0ni/ersit' (Janie A. Chuang, &a' ()*), ?RF$C0I"> 4RA33ICJI"> 3R1& IDF1L1>ICAL CA740RFI 7R1$4I404I1" RF31R& A"D A"4I-4RA33ICJI"> LA8 A"D 71LICM@, 0ni/ersit' of 7enns'l/ania La% Re/ie% Gol. *,E Issue D, Fbsco-//F& *. 7R1&14I"> $4FRF14M7ICAL 7FRCF74I1"$ 4he neo-abolitionist focus on se<-sector traffic=ing of %omen and children feeds gender-biased approaches to anti-traffic=ing inter/entions , to the detriment of men and %omen see=ing to migrate. It has detracted attention from the underreported and underaddressed problems of male traffic=ing and non-se<-sector traffic=ing of %omen. It has also facilitated paternalistic restrictions on %omenPs rights to migrate, rendering %omen e/en more /ulnerable to third-part' offers to facilitate their migration. 4he
focus on %omen and children in traffic=ing discourse is deepl' rooted in assumptions about gender, particularl' %omenPs /ulnerabilit' in the migration stream. "ot%ithstanding the current economic realit' that %omen are increasingl' the primar' income earners for their families, traditional gender roles in the famil' -- men as bread%inners, %omen tied to the home -- render migration more sociall' acceptable for men than it is for %omen, %ho are assumed to be passi/e, naLi/e, and ignorant migrants. ConseAuend', e<ploited %omen are conceptuali#ed as traffic=ed, %hile men

sub!ected to the same abuse are more commonl' seen as irregular migrants. 4his gender bias has negati/e implications for /ictim identification . 4he pre/ailing orthodo<' of traffic=ed persons as %omen and children not onl' causes la% enforcement officials and ser/ice pro/iders to o/erloo= male /ictims of traffic=ing but also leads traffic=ed men not to recogni#e themsel/es as /ictims. 4he po%erlessness and /ulnerabilit' associated %ith the L/ictimL label ma' be at odds %ith the %a'
traffic=ed men (and, indeed, %omen- /ie% themsel/es, if the' pre/iousl' held positi/e self-images as bread%inners and pro/iders.(3"(((- Gictimhood is disempo%ering enough %ithout the additional femini#ing assumption that %omen, not men, are traffic=ed. &oreo/er, lin=ing /ictimhood to

gender can mas= other aspects of an indi/idualPs identit' that contribute to his or her /ulnerabilit' to

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 272/283 traffic=ing -- e.g., ethnicit', age, race, nationalit', religion, class, and other factors that inform onePs status in a particular communit'.(3"((B- 4hat men are thus less LidentifiableL as /ictims has in turn led policies and programs to be constructed around the female /ictim. 3e% traffic=ing inter/entions target and address the needs of male /ictims.(3"((C- 3or instance, to the e<tent shelters are a/ailable
for traffic=ed persons, the' t'picall' house onl' female /ictims and, in an' e/ent, often follo% a closed-shelter model %ith restrictions on mo/ement and outside contact that, some argue, men ma' not be %illing to accept.(3"((,- &oreo/er, social norms that accept %omen as /ulnerable but men as selfsufficient ma' cause ser/ice pro/iders to o/erloo= or e/en affirmati/el' den' the need to assist men. $haring in these perceptions, traffic=ed men ma' be reluctant to accept assistance, as doing so might signal their status as failed migrants.(3"((D- At the same time, the abstract focus on

e<ploitation and on the assumed particular susceptibilit' of %omen and girls to /ictimi#ation leads to proph'lactic solutions that fail to address and ma' e<acerbate the bac=ground migrator' pressures that create /ulnerabilit' to traffic=ers. 4he notion that %omen ma=e for nai/e, passi/e, ignorant migrants ris=s conflating female migration %ith traffic=ing. 7urported concern for /ulnerable %omen pro/ides a con/enient e<cuse for restricting %omenPs migration -- moti/ated at best b' paternalism, at %orst b' a deeper antimigration agenda. 4he la%s of man' de/eloping
countries restrict %omen from tra/eling o/erseas for %or=.(3"((:- 3or e<ample, Indian go/ernment officials can den' permits to females migrating for labor %hen the %or= is deemed against public polic' or public interest+ %omen under the age of thirt' are considered especiall' /ulnerable and are prohibited from %or=ing as domestic %or=ers in %estern Asia and northern Africa.(3"((E-

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2nc link 8 criminal net+orks


T'e so5calle$ trafficking criminals aren4t suc' criminals after all0in fact most of t'em are >ust &oor small *usiness o+ners tr"ing to make a li)ing S'arma/ % ("andita $harma, Assistant 7rofessor in the $chool of $ocial $ciences, At=inson at Mor= 0ni/ersit' in 4oronto, Autumn ()),, "8$A Journal, Gol. *:, "o. B, ?Anti-4raffic=ing Rhetoric and the &a=ing of a >lobal Apartheid@, httpI//%%%.!stor.org/stable/CB*:*,9-//F& &oreo/er, despite the rhetoric of LChinese triads and tongsL being the ringleaders of traffic=ing rings circulated b' the mainstream media, Canadian immigration officials, and e/en some feminist ad/ocates, the %omen I inter/ie%ed re/ealed that the smugglers organi#ing their mo/ement %ere not closel' lin=ed %ith criminal gangs (8ong ())C-. 4he' %ere not part of a po%erful mafia+ rather the smugglers %ere generall" small *usiness o+ners- =ike t'e migrants t'emsel)es/ t'e smugglers +ere moti)ate$ *" &o)ert" . As a
recent "e% Mor= 4imes article put it, LWtXhe smugglers WranX a business built for the poor b' the poorL (4hompson and 1choa ())C, Al-.

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2nc link 8 sa)iors


T'e" $e&ict +omen as t'e )ictims to *e sa)e$ an$ returne$ to t'e 'omeL "et t'e" ignore first5 'an$ accounts in +'ic' t'ese so5calle$ )ictims re)eal t'e" actuall" +is' to *e 'ereS'arma/ % ("andita $harma, Assistant 7rofessor in the $chool of $ocial $ciences, At=inson at Mor= 0ni/ersit' in 4oronto, Autumn ()),, "8$A Journal, Gol. *:, "o. B, ?Anti-4raffic=ing Rhetoric and the &a=ing of a >lobal Apartheid@, httpI//%%%.!stor.org/stable/CB*:*,9-//F&
All (C %omen I inter/ie%ed %ere ultimatel' deported from Canada. 4he last time I spo=e to an' of them, all %ere distraught at being sent to the places %here the' hold citi#enship (Centre for 3eminist Legal Research ())C, (E-. $ignificantl', most of the respondents (*E of (C- declared their

intent to tr' again e/en though their last attempt did in/ol/e /ar'ing degrees of coercion, deceit, and e/en abuse. Angr' at ha/ing been captured before reaching their desired destination of "e% Mor= Cit' and no% o%ing large sums of mone', the' stated that onl' b' hiring another group of smugglers could the' achie/e their goals of being rid of debt and supporting themsel/es and their families . 4hus, contrar' to the idea that %omen %ho e<perience
some form of coercion, abuse, or deception %hile parta=ing in dangerous and illegal migration routes are passi/e /ictims of traffic=ing, man' of these %omen e<pressed their desire to li/e and %or= in the 0nited $tates (or Canada- and sa% the smugglers as the onl' people %ho could help them to achie/e this. 3rom the standpoint of these %omen migrants, then, the smugglers (or traffickersF +ere not t'e source of

t'e e,&loitation t'e" face$ or t'eir greatest $anger- 4hus, %hile the' readil' ac=no%ledged the difficult and dangerous nature of their !ourne's, not one of t'e +omen : inter)ie+e$ sa+ 'erself as a D)ictim of trafficking-D Instead, their self-identit' %as informed largel' through their courage in see=ing ne% homes and ne% li/elihoods across borders. "one articulated the demand to Lend traffic=ingL but %anted cheaper, safer, and more reliable migration routes. 8ithout e<ception, the demands the' most often articulated %ere to sta' in Canada (or, e/en better, the 0nited $tates- %ithout fear of deportation, to %or=, ma=e and sa/e mone', and to be reunited %ith the significant people in their life. 3rom their perspecti/e, the biggest problem the' faced %as the Canadian state, most especiall' its immigration officials, %ho %anted to return them to their point of departure and, thus, force them to start ane% their search for ne% li/elihoods, this time e/en greater in debt. eing rescued from the smugglers/traffic=ers b' the Canadian state-the /er' thing antitraffic=ing campaigns ad/ocate for-%as the last thing these %omen %anted. 4he' %anted to a/oid the Canadian state-not be seen b' it, for this meant the loss of e/er'thing for %hich the' had %or=ed. 4hus, the greater coercion faced b' these %omen in their migration !ourne' %as not being remo/ed from China but being forcibl' returned there. Critical reflection on the e<periences of the %omen I %or=ed %ith ma=es it clear that conceptuali#ing the process of clandestine migration as the cause of peoplePs e<ploitation not onl' denies the agenc' of %omen migrants but creates and legitimates puniti/e state measures aimed at punishing traffic=ers (and smugglers- rather than assisting migrants in their sur/i/al strategies (Crepeau ())B-. In fact, b'

discursi/el' rationali#ing their efforts through the Lrelations of rescue,L anti-traffic=ing campaigns pro/ide %hat is often missing for such state repressi/e measures-the /eneer of humanitarianism (7ascoe *99B-. ' portra'ing migration as the cause of e<ploitation, the notion that %omen are al%a's better off at LhomeL is accepted %ithout Auestion. Acts of deportation are imbued %ith the moral authorit' of helping a /ictim. '
characteri#ing such calls as something that caring people %ould naturall' demand, the' become depolitici#ed %ithin the feminist le<icon. In this regard, Jara >illies argues that, it is of Lgreat concern that ... WrecentX changes to immigration and refugee la% ma=e specific references to the traffic=ing of %omen and children for se<ual purposes as part of the platform for %h' %e need to tighten our borders. It seems to me a /er' $eli*erate

ruse to garner su&&ort from other%ise liberal thin=ing people for an e,tremel" Oraciali6e$P an$ regressi)e immigration &olic"D (in roc= et al. ())), E:-. In this %a', attempts b' feminists %ho use the discursi/e frame of anti-traffic=ing as an attempt to garner s'mpath' for %omen migrants also gain appro/al for anti-immigrant practices. 7redictabl', most resources spent on ending traffic=ing ha/e been put into border control measures aimed at unco/ering clandestine mo/ements of people and prosecuting smugglers/traffic=ers. 4he main result of such practices is to ma=e illegali#ed migrations much more dangerous.
As people smugglers/traffic=ers face greater penalties if disco/ered, migrants are increasingl' being funneled through more precarious routes leading to an unprecedented number of deaths (3e=ete ())B, (+ "e/ins ())(, *(C-.i 4he increased danger of smuggling people also has led to an increase in the cost of hiring smugglers, thereb' placing migrants in greater debt and creating increased financial hardships on the families and communities supporting their migration. &oreo/er, increased puniti/e measures against smuggling/traffic=ing ha/e made the emergence of modern-da' .arriet 4ubmans e/en more unli=el'.

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2nc e&istemolog"
Human trafficking5s&ecific me$ia k/ e&istemolog" in$ict/ t'e aff su&&orts t'e $ominance in re&resentation/ an$ t'at turns sol)enc" 1ulati/ 10 Q 7hD, Associate 7rofessor of 7olitical $cience at entle' 0ni/ersit', &ember of the Regional 8or=ing >roup on &odern-Da' $la/er' and .uman 4raffic=ing, Carr Center for .uman Rights, Jenned' $chool of >o/ernment, .ar/ard 0ni/ersit' (>irish J. >ulati, Jul' *, ()*), ?&edia Representation of .uman 4raffic=ing in the 0nited $tates, >reat ritain, and Canada,@ entle' 0ni/ersit', pdf, .ensel&edia 3raming of 7ublic 7olic'K 4he ne%s media contribute to the democratic process b' gi/ing /oice to a di/erse set of groups and e<posing the public to a range of ideas and arguments. In practice, %hich groups and /ie%points get represented is a result of ne%s organi#ations5 decisions about %hat the' should tr' to co/er from the seemingl' endless number of problems, acti/ities, and e/ents. Among the stories that rise to the agenda, !ournalists can =no% and de/elop an understanding about a limited number of potential stories and onl' a small fraction of these stories appear in print or on tele/ision ne%scasts (>ans ()),+ $chudson *9E)+ 4uchman *9:E-.K In addition to choosing %hat to co/er, !ournalists are routinel'

ma=ing decisions about ho% to logicall' structure their stories in order to ma=e them accessible and intelligible for their audiences. Choices are made about ho% much bac=ground to include in a stor', %hich facts and interpretations to include and e<clude, and %hich sources to use and Auote. 3urther choices are made about ho% much
prominence and significance to gi/e %ithin the narrati/e to the specific ideas and information that are selected for inclusion and to the format of the presentation. Decisions about %hat is selected and gi/en more salience can ha/e a profound influence on ho% a

social problem is discussed in the public sphere and the actions ta=en b' polic'ma=ers . .o% a stor' is framed influences ho% a problem is defined, %hat are determined to be causes of the problem and its conseAuences, and %hat solutions are seen as effecti/e in alle/iating the problem (Fntman *99B-.K K 4he literature on the ne%sgathering process suggests that rather than influencing the nature of the debate , the ne%s media mostl' echo the narrati/es presented b' the ma!or participants in the polic' process and, thus, help support the dominant /ie%s. 1rgani#ational routines (i.e., beat reporting and a reliance on official sources- limit the ideas and information that can get included in a stor' (>ans ()),+ Jlinenberg ())B+ $chudson *9E)+ 4uchman *9:E-. Alternati/e perspecti/es and polic' prescriptions adhered to b' groups that do not intersect %ith established beats are omitted , as are indi/iduals and groups %hose ideas might seem to undermine the legitimac' of established institutions or run counter to the dominant ideolog' and middle-class /alues (Larson ())D-.K 4he need to stri/e for balance and the preference for
presenting stories around a conflict frame %ould suggest that con/entional ne%s organi#ations %ill stri/e to include multiple /ie%points e/en %hen there is clear consensus or a dominant /ie%, and the minorit' /ie%s seem illogical or are shared b' onl' a fe% people or groups on the fringe (>ans ()),+ $chudson *9E)+ 4uchman *9:E-. ut studies of media framing of foreign polic' issues and contro/ersies among 0.$.

ne%s organi#ations suggest that alternati/e /ie%points are co/ered in onl' limited circumstances and rarel' do the media pro/ide critical anal'sis in foreign polic' debates (Fntman ())C-. Alternati/e /ie%s onl' %ill be reported %hen there are disagreements among elites, particularl' if the' are /oiced b' members of Congress or indi/iduals %ithin the foreign polic' establishment (Althaus ())B+ ennett *99*+ ennett et al. *99:+ &ermin *999+ Robinson ())(-. Leaders of foreign go/ernments and prominent international figures often pro/ide criticisms of 0.$. polic' and alternati/e /ie%s, but the 0.$. media has been reluctant to feature these alternati/e /ie%s %hich %ould not seem ob!ecti/e or credible to American readers. ut e/en domestic sources that are /ie%ed as ob!ecti/e or at least credible, such as academics and polic' anal'sts, are rarel' gi/en a /oice %hen there is consensus among la%ma=ers (&ermin *999-.K 4he literature on media framing of public polic' suggests that the media co/erage of human traffic=ing has been framed in a %a' that has marginali#ed alternati/e /ie%s on traffic=ing and criticisms of current polic' and, as a result, legitimi#ed the dominant /ie% on traffic=ing and approach to combating traffic=ing. 8hen e<amining specific aspects of the co/erage of human traffic=ing in recent 'ears, %e should e<pect to see IK (.*- human traffic=ing characteri#ed mostl' as se< traffic=ing and prostitution + K (.(- /ie%points mostl' /oiced b' official and other establishment sources, i.e., foreign polic' elites and acti/ists in the anti-traffic=ing polic' net%or=+ K (.B- the /ie% that organi#ed crime and other criminal acti/it' ha/e been the primar' cause for traffic=ing + andK (.C- that the main %a' to combat traffic=ing is to build on current polic' , i.e., more la% enforcement, protection programs for /ictims, and pre/ention
campaigns.

T'e aff4s me$ia5*ase$ e&istemolog" is fla+e$ 1ulati/ 10 Q 7hD, Associate 7rofessor of 7olitical $cience at entle' 0ni/ersit', &ember of the Regional 8or=ing >roup on &odern-Da' $la/er' and .uman 4raffic=ing, Carr Center for .uman Rights, Jenned'

Human Trafficking Aff 7Wk Seniors ACHM 2012 27./283 $chool of >o/ernment, .ar/ard 0ni/ersit' (>irish J. >ulati, Jul' *, ()*), ?&edia Representation of .uman 4raffic=ing in the 0nited $tates, >reat ritain, and Canada,@ entle' 0ni/ersit', pdf, .enselK 4he traffic=ing of persons across borders for se<ual, labor and other forms of e<ploitation is a sub!ect that has captured the attention of international organi#ations, acti/ists, and polic'ma=ers that range the ideological spectrum. A ())) 0nited "ations 7rotocol established guidelines on ho% nations should combat traffic=ing and assist /ictims. In the same 'ear, the
4raffic=ing Gictims 7rotection Act became la% in the 0nited $tates %ith near unanimous support, establishing the first and most aggressi/e effort to date in the punishment of traffic=ers, protection for /ictims, and pre/ention programs ($tol# ()):+ 8'ler et al. ())9-. $ince then, ne% anti-traffic=ing initiati/es ha/e been adopted in se/eral countries, most notabl' in the >reat ritain and in Canada. 4here also has been increased bi-lateral and regional cooperation, %ith ma!or agreements adopted b' the Council of Furope and the Furopean 0nion. K 4he recent flurr' of go/ernment acti/it' indicates that there is a gro%ing a%areness of the horrors of human traffic=ing and the e<ploitation of people around the globe and in their o%n countries. It also %ould seem that a consensus has emerged on the e<tent of the problem, the reasons %h' the problem e<ists, and the actions that need to be ta=en to put an end to this modern-da' form of sla/er'. Met, there are a significant number of academics, ne%s commentators, and acti/ists %ho ha/e called into Auestion the numbers that are used to describe the problem, the reasons %h' traffic=ing occurs, and ho% it should be addressed. K >i/en these contrasting perspecti/es, ha/e a broad range of ideas ha/e been represented in the ne%s media co/erage of human traffic=ingH 4he ne%s media ser/e an essential purpose in a democratic societ' b' gi/ing /oice to established groups and organi#ations in societ' and ser/ing as a forum, %here ideas about public polic' can be debated and selected on the strength of their arguments. 4he representation of different /ie%points should reflect the true

di/ersit' of groups in societ', ho%e/er, b' gi/ing /oice to the unorgani#ed, presenting the ideas of outsiders and non-elites, and e<posing the public to alternati/e ideas and arguments (Curran, ()),-. 4his role allo%s the media to influence the nature of the debate, b' deciding %hat information is included and e<cluded from the public sphere and ho% man' points of /ie% are represented. 8ithout media co/erage, solutions that might be effecti/e are left off the table
and current polic' might not get a full critiAue. $tudies of foreign polic' issues %here there is consensus %ithin the polic' communit' (&ermin *999ha/e sho%n that the media5s role has been to reflect the go/ernment agenda and frame ne%s stories in a %a' that echo the arguments of the ma!or participations in the polic'ma=ing process (Jones and aumgartner ()),+ Jingdon ())B+ Jacobs and $hapiro ()))-. K &ost of the scholarship

on human traffic=ing to this point has focused on documenting the horrors of traffic=ing (e.g., 3arr ())C+ Jangaspunta ())B+ Jligman and Limoncelli ()),-, measuring the e<tent of the problem (e.g., Ra'mond and .ughes ())*+ 8eit#er ()):+ 2hang ()):-, and anal'#ing the causes of traffic=ing and the actions ta=en to combat it in /arious counties (e.g., 3riman and Reich
()):+ >allagher ())D+ "ieu%enhu's and 7ocoud ()):+ 1utshoorn ())C-. 4here ha/e 'et to be an' studies, ho%e/er, of ho% the media ha/e co/ered human traffic=ing. In this stud' I e<amine ho% %ell ne%s media in the 0nited $tates, >reat ritain, and Canada ha/e performed %ith respect to representing the /arious /ie%points on traffic=ing. I begin b' summari#ing briefl' public polic' to%ards traffic=ing and then re/ie% in some detail the critiAues of recent polic' initiati/es in order to establish a reference point to %hich %e can access the representati/eness of the co/erage. 3rom a content anal'sis of the co/erage of human traffic=ing in si< Aualit' ne%spapers bet%een ())) and ()),, I sho% that onl' a limited range of

/ie%points ha/e been bet%een represented, %hich has ser/ed to legitimi#e the /ie%s and decisions of established polic' ma=ers %hile marginali#ing alternati/e /ie%points and criticism . T'eir *lanket assum&tion t'at trafficking is *a$ is intellectuall" fla+e$ an$ ignores t'e fact t'at some +omen actuall" inten$ get in)ol)e$ in trafficking to im&ro)e t'eir li)es So$erlun$/ % Assistant Director of the Center for the $tud' of Communication and $ociet' and Lecturer in $ociolog' at the 0ni/ersit' of Chicago (>retchen $oderlund, Autumn ()), ?Running from the RescuersI "e% 0.$. Crusades against $e< 4raffic=ing and the Rhetoric of Abolition@, httpI//%%%.!stor.org/stable/CB*:*,E-//F&
Running from Rescue In the current conte<t, no practice or set of relationships is referred to more often as sla/er' than that of se< traffic=ing. It is commonplace to hear traffic=ing referred to as Lmodern da' sla/er'L or L/irtual se<ual sla/er'L b' acti/ists, nongo/ernmental organi#ations (">1s-, and !ournalists. Li=e 7rogressi/e era anti-prostitution social reform mo/ements, earl' (*st centur' anti-traffic=ing mo/ements dra% on the rhetoric of abolition to underscore the urgenc' of their cause. Central to such rhetoric is the construction of capti/it' and freedom as diametricall' opposed states of e<istence. Met in current sites and practices of abolitionist inter/ention the line bet%een rescuers and captors has

become increasingl' blurr'. 8hile the stories abolitionists tell about their inter/entions tend to focus on the moment of the raid and the successful deli/er' of the rescued sla/es to safe houses, e/ents that occur in the aftermath of raids often belie the claim that all of the rescued %omen are se< sla/es held capti/e and against their %ill in brothels. Reports from se< %or=er rights organi#ations and testimonials from indi/iduals %ho manage shelters suggest that rescue
4his content do%nloaded from *C*.(*B.(BD.**) on 4hu, (: Jun ()*B *BIB*IC, 7& All use sub!ect to J$41R 4erms and Conditions DD >RF4C.F" $1DFRL0"D escapes are e<ceedingl' common throughout India and $outheast Asia. It appears that %hile some %omen use brothel raids and closures as an opportunit' to lea/e the se< industr', others percei/e

the rehabilitation process itself as a puniti/e form of imprisonment thereb' complicating the capti/it'/freedom binar' asserted b' abolitionists. Journalist &aggie JonesPs inter/ie%s %ith safe house managers indicate that shelter escapes are commonplace in areas %here anti-traffic=ing
groups are currentl' targeting their efforts (())B-. 4he manager of the 7hnom 7enh home that too= in the B: prostitutes after the Datelineinitiated raids reported to Jones that at least C) percent of the %omen and girls ta=en to his shelter escape and return to %or= in $/a' 7a=Ps brothels. Indeed, si< of the teens ta=en b' &$" C/IJ& had run a%a' from the home %ithin a %ee= of the tele/ised busts. 8hen 7hil &arshall of the 0nited "ations 7ro!ect on .uman 4raffic=ing in $outheast AsiaPs &e=ong Region %as as=ed b' Jones %hat he thought of current rehabilitation strategies, he said he had Lne/er seen an issue %here there is less interest in hearing from those %ho are most affected b' itL (Jones ())B,*-. In ())B, Fmpo%er,P a se< %or=ersP ad/ocac' program, issued a report documenting a brothel raid in Chiang &ai, 4hailand conducted b' International Justice &ission in %hich se/eral of the (E arrested (or Lrescued,L in abolitionist parlance- urmese %omen escaped from a local institution in the first (C hours. According to Fmpo%er, the raidconducted ostensibl' for humanitarian purposes-too= on man' of the same features as a criminal arrestI As soon as the' had their mobile phones

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returned WtheX %omen contacted Fmpo%er4. he' are onl' permittedt o use their phonesf or a shortt ime each e/ening and must hide in the bathroom to ta=e calls outside that time. 4he' reportt hat the' ha/e been sub!ectedt o continuali nterrogationa nd coercion b' 4rafcordWa na nti-traffic=ing" >1 formedi n ())( %ith 0.$. financials upportX. 8 omenu nderstandth at if the' continuet o maintaint hat the' %ant to remain in 4hailand and return to %or= that the' %ill be held in the 7ublic 8elfare o's. omeo r WaXs imilari nstitutionu ntil the' recant.$ imilarl't, he' understandth atr efusingt o be %itnessesa gainstt heirL traffic=ers%Li ll further dela't heir release.( Fmpo%e(r) )B- ' the end of the month, more than half of the %omen had escaped from the shelter. 8hat does it mean that so-called se< sla/es often th%art rescue attemptsH :s it intellectuall" an$ et'icall"

res&onsi*le to call e)er" instance of a &ractice Dsla)er"D +'en man" +omen in)ol)e$ $emonstrati)el" re>ect t'e &rocess of &rotection and rehabilitation, and %hen the' escape from supposed rescuers %ho aim to force them out of a life of prostitution (Lcapti/it'L- and into a life of factor' %or= or emplo'ment in the lo%-pa'ing ser/ice sector (LfreedomL-

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2nc immigration
T'eir anti5trafficking r'etoric +ill *e confuse$ an$ re$irecte$ as anti5immigration/ fueling great o&&ression S'arma/ % ("andita $harma, Assistant 7rofessor in the $chool of $ocial $ciences, At=inson at Mor= 0ni/ersit' in 4oronto, Autumn ()),, "8$A Journal, Gol. *:, "o. B, ?Anti-4raffic=ing Rhetoric and the &a=ing of a >lobal Apartheid@, httpI//%%%.!stor.org/stable/CB*:*,9-//F& 4hus, despite a separate 7rotocol Against the $muggling of &igrants %ithin the ())) 0" Con/ention, the distinction bet%een smugglers and traffic=ers has, for all intents and purposes, been collapsed . In realit', it is usuall' impossible to distinguish the acts of smugglers from the acts of traffic=ers as both smugglers and traffic=ers mo/e people along illegali#ed routes of migration. 4he reframing of these different practices as acts of traffic=ing further ensures that assisting groups of migrants to cross national borders is morall' condemned and criminali#ed . It also results in furt'er acts of $ece&tion an$ e,&loitation-

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2nc securiti6ation
T'eir r'etoric of )ictimi6ation creates a Asecurit" regimeB in +'ic' A&rotectionB $e)ol)es into control all un$er t'e guise of 'umanitarianism So$erlun$/ % Assistant Director of the Center for the $tud' of Communication and $ociet' and Lecturer in $ociolog' at the 0ni/ersit' of Chicago (>retchen $oderlund, Autumn ()), ?Running from the RescuersI "e% 0.$. Crusades against $e< 4raffic=ing and the Rhetoric of Abolition@, httpI//%%%.!stor.org/stable/CB*:*,E-//F& 4oo often 8estern feminists ha/e participated in producing the /ictim sub!ects that state actors step in to protect through the deplo'ment of militar', legal, or la% enforcement strategies. Gictim discourse has been implicated in the creation of feministsP sometimes patroni#ing attitude to%ard non8estern %omen onto %hom /ictim status is pro!ected (&ohant' *99*-. $uch a d'namic Lencourages some feminists in the international arena to propose strategies %hich are reminiscent of imperial inter/entions into the li/es of the nati/e sub!ect and %hich represent the PFasternP %oman as a /ictim of a Pbac=%ardP and Punci/ili#edP cultureL (Japur ())(, D-. Dra%ing on the case of "epal-%hich has recentl' criminali#ed the mo/ement outside the
countr' of %omen under B) %ithout a husband or male-guardianPs permission as a means of combating traffic=ing- Japur suggests that solutions in the realm of la% enforcement are an essential component of such logicI L4he

construction of %omen e<clusi/el' through the lens of /iolence has triggered a spate of domestic and international reforms focused on the criminal la%, %hich are used to !ustif' state restrictions on %omenPs rights-for the protection of %omenL (())(, D-. As %e ha/e seen in the case of 8estern-sponsored brothel raids, the 0nited $tates is using the protection of %omen as a rationale to import its la% enforcement tactics and pro!ect its po%er internationall', %hile con/enientl' merging these interests +it' a crack$o+n on t'e se,ualit" an$ rig'ts of +omen . 4he
moments these representations of

emphasis on /ictimi#ation in the 8est is historicall' lin=ed to the e<igencies of acti/ist publicit' around race and gender issues in the conte<t of a masculinist state that e<alted and protected onl' those /ictims %hose innocence-and distance from state-based oppression-could be established or asserted in s'mpathetic terms. At some historical

innocent /ictims do/etail %ith the territorial interests of political actors, ushering in %hat Iris &arion Moung has recentl' referred to as a Lsecurit' regimeL (())B-, in %hich the state ta=es on the seemingl' bene/olent role of protector. 3ocusing primaril' on abuses li=e /iolence against %omen and organi#ing around them as though the' %ere the onl' distinctl' gendered form of human rights /iolation, ultimatel' casts %omen as /ictims in need of protection from harm rather than as sub!ects deser/ing of positi/e rights. Fmphasi#ing the most
refers, protection is

ab!ect /ictims, %hile often an important and efficacious acti/ist strateg', runs the ris= of mobili#ing media and go/ernmental institutions in protectionist scenarios that o/ershado% demands for other forms of social and economic rights (and, in this case, the creation of la%s that do not construe se< as inherentl' dangerous for %omen-. 4his is not to sa' that states ha/e no dut' to protect their citi#ens from harm and pro/ide other basic forms of securit'. .o%e/er, in the securit' regimes to %hich Moung (())B-

offered selecti/el' and at a costI it onl' stretches to those deemed innocent, %hile it persecutes, 4his content do%nloaded from *C*.(*B.(BD.**) on 4hu, (: Jun ()*B *BIB*IC, 7& All use sub!ect to J$41R 4erms and Conditions R0""I"> 3R1& 4.F RF$C0FR$ EB criminali#es, or ignores those %ho are seen as complicit in their /ictimi#ation. "ot onl' are securit' regimes in the business of offering an illusor" form of securit" to particular sub!ects, but the' often engage in the production and pro/ocation of their o%n enemies to !ustif' their actions. T'is securit" is un$er+ritten *" a $isa)o+al of autonom" or agenc" in fa)or of a c'il$like $e&en$enc" on t"&icall" masculine &rotectors. As Moung emphasi#es, such dependent citi#enship confers fe% pri/ileges other than offering shelter from a scar', threat-filled outside %orld. Re!ecting

Rescue, Reconsidering Liberation 3eminists should see= to understand the effects of anti-traffic=ing legislation %ithin the broader conte<t of ush administration and conser/ati/e religious approaches to dealing %ith gender and se<ualit' on the international scene. It is onl' %hen considered alongside the &e<ico Cit' 7olic' (the L>lobal >ag RuleL- and the >lobal AID$ ill that the material effects of anti-traffic=ing legislation become apparent. 8hile the ush administrationPs sponsorship of the 8ar Against 4raffic=ing functions to gi/e a femini#ed, human face to the 8ar on 4errorism, the politicall' moti/ated 4raffic=ing in 7ersons Report ran=ings suggest that e/en this e<ample of national moral leadership is implicated in the strategic geopolitics of oil procurement and strategic po%er pro!ection. 1n the le/el of strategic inter/ention, it appears %e ma' be %itnessing the introduction of 0.$. policing efforts in poor countries using humanitarianism as both a moti/ating force and rationale. Indeed, anti-traffic=ing initiati/es ha/e historicall' pla'ed a =e' role in e<panding the federal go/ernmentPs legal reach (Langum *99C+ $oderlund ())(-.

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2nc racism
Histor" &ro)es t'at t'e moti)ations of anti5traffickers are roote$ in racism S'arma/ % ("andita $harma, Assistant 7rofessor in the $chool of $ocial $ciences, At=inson at Mor= 0ni/ersit' in 4oronto, Autumn ()),, "8$A Journal, Gol. *:, "o. B, ?Anti-4raffic=ing Rhetoric and the &a=ing of a >lobal Apartheid@, httpI//%%%.!stor.org/stable/CB*:*,9-//F&
In Canada, men identified as Chinese %ere particularl' targeted as the pur/e'ors and benefactors of this unla%ful trade ( ac=house *999-. "ot coincidentall', this %as the period of /irulent anti-Chinese beliefs and practices. 4he simultaneous portra'al of Chinese men as both effeminatenot man enough to be builders of the nation-and as the se<ual predators of 8hite %omen contributed enormousl' to their popular identification as an o/erdetermined threat to the character of the 8hite Canadian nation. Anti-traffic=ing campaigns of this period %ere therefore

/er' much a part of the racist effort of =eeping Canada 8hite (8ard *9:(-. As Ftienne alibar informs us, LraceL and LnationL ha/e Lne/er been /er' far apartL in the ma=ing of nationali#ed societies (*99*, 9)-. A hundred or so 'ears ago, the racism of anti-traffic=ers %as an attempt to both regulate migration into Canada and ensure highl' raciali#ed criteria for membership and belonging %ithin nationali#ed space . In classic orientalist fashion, anti-traffic=ers %ere not
onl' concerned %ith eradicating the supposed threat of the Chinese migrant or rescuing the /ictims of those trading in 8hite sla/es, the' %ere also concerned %ith constructing themsel/es as 8hite and, in contrast to the Chinese, as ci/ili#ed.D As Canadian nationalists struggled to reali#e their fantas' of a 8hite nation, one that %ould center 8hites as the natural go/erning group, a great deal of attention %as paid to ho% to best position people from China in Canada.: $uch nationalist practices %ere not !ust aimed at e<cluding Chinese people from Canada, as is most often reported, but at

differentiall' including them as non-national ob!ects, that is, at subordinating them %ithin the nation (Deleu#e and >uattari *9E:-. ConseAuentl', onl' those able to legitimatel' assert their 8hite-ness %ould be recogni#ed b' the la% and b'
each other as national sub!ects.

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2nc us/t'em
T'eir $iscourse of anti5trafficking $e&icts a +orl$ at +ar against t'e so5calle$ *ar*aric traffickersS'arma/ % ("andita $harma, Assistant 7rofessor in the $chool of $ocial $ciences, At=inson at Mor= 0ni/ersit' in 4oronto, Autumn ()),, "8$A Journal, Gol. *:, "o. B, ?Anti-4raffic=ing Rhetoric and the &a=ing of a >lobal Apartheid@, httpI//%%%.!stor.org/stable/CB*:*,9-//F& In current anti-traffic=ing campaigns , at least in its most influential organi#ations, li=e CA48, the imaginar' of home as a static, fi<ed space of belonging are a part of %hat alibar calls the Lne% racisms L (*99*-. Li=e recent anti-traffic=ing
campaigns, these forms of racism also date to the earl' *9E)s and rel' on calls for cultural modernit', the defense of discrete and separate cultural identities, and the demand for national securit' (4aguieff *999-. 1f course, %ithin the ne% racisms there are man' traces of the old, especiall' in the idea that groups of people are inherentl' different, incapable of communication, and best =ept apart. 4he discourse of anti-traffic=ing, especiall' as mobili#ed b' CA48, contri*utes significantl"

to t'e conce&tuali6ation of t'e +orl$ as one +'ere a D+arD against +estern ci)ili6ation is *eing +age$ t'roug' Dt'e e,&onential gro+t' of t'e glo*al se, tra$eL (Chesler and .ughes ())C, :-. 4his is star=l' e/ident in a recent article in the 8ashington 7ost b' 7h'llis Chesler and Donna .ughes, t%o prominent CA48 spo=espeople. In it the' call for feminists and others to Lacti/el' oppose the traffic=ersL b' framing t'e fig't against trafficking as a fig't for ci)ilit" ( :-. Acti/el' mobili#ing dominant post-9/** tropes, Chesler and .ughes argue
that principles of the Lsecular, Judeo-Christian, modern 8estL need to be set against LtotalitarianL regimes, particularl' those rel'ing on ideologies of Islamic fundamentalism ( :-. In contrast to unspecified (but presumabl' non-&uslim- Lconser/ati/e or faith-based groupsL seen as potentiall' Lbetter allies on some issues Wsuch as anti-traffic=ingX than the liberal left has been,L the' argue that LIslamismL is a Lfascist political mo/ement that aims for %orld dominationL ( :-. 4he lin=s bet%een traffic=ing and Islamic fundamentalism are not clearl' specified (perhaps post-9/** it is simpl' enough to lin= them in the readerPsm ind-.P) ut %hat is clear is that supporting anti-traffic=ing campaigns is tantamount to becomingI WaX force for literate, ci/il democracies. 4he' WLt%ent'-first-centur' feministsLX must oppose dictatorships and totalitarian mo/ements that crush the libert' and rights of people, especiall' %omen and girls. 4he' %ould be %ise to abandon multicultural relati/ism and instead uphold a uni/ersal standard of human rights. 4he' should demand that all girls ha/e the opportunit' to reach their full potential instead of li/ing and d'ing in the gulags of the se< trade. (Cheslera nd. ughes( ))C, :-

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2nc &atriarc'"/*io&o+er
T'e aff +ill $e)ol)e into &olicing t'e +omen in)ol)e$ in se, trafficking su*>ecting t'em to state control S'arma/ % ("andita $harma, Assistant 7rofessor in the $chool of $ocial $ciences, At=inson at Mor= 0ni/ersit' in 4oronto, Autumn ()),, "8$A Journal, Gol. *:, "o. B, ?Anti-4raffic=ing Rhetoric and the &a=ing of a >lobal Apartheid@, httpI//%%%.!stor.org/stable/CB*:*,9-//F& 4his anti-se< %or= bias %as e/ident in the %or= done b' some feminist organi#ations ad/ocating for %omen migrants from China arri/ing in *999. A minorit' of %omen in this group (, out of (C- either had been se< %or=ers in China and/or planned to be in the 0nited $tates belie/ing that this %ould allo% them to earn the highest possible income . In m' inter/ie%s %ith them, the' emphasi#ed that %or=ing in the se< industr' %as a =e' part of their migration strateg'. .o%e/er, man' feminists ad/ocating for these migrants %ere %holl' unable to accept that se< %or= could be a legitimate aspect of a %omanPs migrator' pro!ect . Instead, as in man' antitraffic=ing frames, it %as imagined that the onl' reason %omen migrants %ould %or= in the se< industr' %as out of fear of the traffic=ers .*( T'e DsolutionD t'at emerges out of suc' imaginations is to furt'er criminali6e &rostitution . In this there is again much
historical continuit' %ith past anti-8hite $la/e 4rade efforts. As roc= et al. note, the %a's in %hich a Ptraffic in %omenP discourse %as first deplo'ed b' social reformers during the late nineteenth centur' in Canada, the 0nited $tates and ritain %as through the mobili#ation for an e<pansion of criminal code legislation, particularl' the procuring and ba%d' house pro/isions, allegedl' for the protection of %omen and girls. (())), EE- Legislati/e protections for /ictims of traffic=ing %ere %on. Met feminist sc'olars'i& 'as s'o+n t'at t'ese &rotections

+ere a )ictor" for t'ose intereste$ in &olicing t'e se,ual &ractices of +omen an$ girls rat'er t'an for t'e se, +orkers t'emsel)es (Gal/erde *99(-.

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2nc *io&o+er
T'eir o&&osition to 'uman trafficking is a ruse t'at +ill *e coo&te$ *" t'e state as an e,cuse to im&ose *io&olitical control o)er t'e *or$er S'arma/ % ("andita $harma, Assistant 7rofessor in the $chool of $ocial $ciences, At=inson at Mor= 0ni/ersit' in 4oronto, Autumn ()),, "8$A Journal, Gol. *:, "o. B, ?Anti-4raffic=ing Rhetoric and the &a=ing of a >lobal Apartheid@, httpI//%%%.!stor.org/stable/CB*:*,9-//F&
"ot ha/ing restricted the mo/ement of people, %hat the reformulation of immigration and refugee polic' has accomplished is the denial of permanent status to the /ast ma!orit' of the %orldPs migrants %ithin the places the' come to li/e and %or=. "eoliberal immigration policies ha/e increasingl' relied on the entr' of migrants into the global "orth but ha/e reclassified these migrants as LillegalsL (or as Ltemporar' migrant %or=ersL- to pre/ent the /ast ma!orit' from ma=ing an' claims against the state or emplo'ers. 4he operation of different legal regimes, one to go/ern Lciti#ensL and Lpermanent residentsL and another to go/ern Lillegals,L is part of the regime of global apartheid, a regime %hereb' discrimination against LforeignersL is not onl' accepted but accepted as necessar'. 4he discursi/e and polic' frame%or= of anti-traffic=ing is one of the more nefarious

%a's that such differentiations are organi#ed. 4he assumption of the /iolent nature of traffic=ing or smuggling enables antitraffic=ing
campaigns to put for%ard an agenda calling for measures to combat it through heightened state inter/entions at the border and more puniti/e measures for traffic=ers and/or smugglers. Regardless of the rhetoric of protecting migrants, the emphasis is on controlling

migration. 4ighter control o/er the borders, stricter immigration la%s, and more puniti/e criminal la%s are called upon as indispensable measures to rescue migrants. In this %a', anti-traffic=ing campaigns act as the moral regulator' arm of 8hite nationalist mo/ements b' den'ing migration to those %ho are deemed incapable of deciding for themsel/es if and %hen the' should mo/e. 4his, again, %or=s to reposition non8hites in particular, in
subordinate positions %ithin the nation-states in the global "orth and %ithin global capitalism.

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