[Chemical Engineering Laboratory 2]

ORIFICE DISCHARGE
Candidates Name: Cheah Ying Hue
Student ID: SCM-022943
Group Members Name: Tan Syee Jia
Teng Yong Kang
Lim Yew Soon
Muhammad Fahmy bin Abdullah
Nurulshimira Abdullah

Lecturer/ Supervisor: Mrs Chan
Date of Submission: 17-3-2014
SEGi University
Abstract:
The aim of this experiment is determination of the contraction and velocity
coefficient. Besides that, the calculation of the discharge coefficient will be determined.
During the experiment, students can obtain the reading of pressure drop, diameter and
timing of the water level is raising 10L in the volumetric tank to calculate flow rate when
a fluid pass through an orifice constriction that diameter is 12mm. This experiment will
detect the effect of friction on the water flow. Therefore, three coefficient are calculated
that are C
C
,

C
D
, C
V
to determine in-depth the effect of friction of performance on the
water flow. To calculate coefficient is using the ratio of actual to ideal performance.
Through this experiment, student can understand the energy loss is presence if the actual
performance is less than the ideal performance. Thus each coefficient is less than 1.
Lastly, the relationship between vena contracta and flow rate will be identified.













Introduction:
By the application of the Bernoullis equation, quantity of water can be
discharged through an orifice constriction is arrived at in a simple and straight forward
manner. Although this experiment will produce a result that is 65% of the solution
indicated by the simple analysis, it is needed for a semi-empirical approach which is
required commonly for mechanics of fluid.
For the mechanics of fluid, a fluid passing through an orifice constriction will
experience a drop in pressure across the orifice. This change can be used to measure the
flow rate of fluid. An orifice plate is device used for measuring flow rate and reducing
the pressure.

Figure 1
As long as the fluid speed is sufficiently subsonic (V < mach 0.3), the
incompressible Bernoullis equation describes the flow reasonably well. Applying this
equation to a streamline travelling down the axis of the horizontal tube gives,
2
1
2
2 2 1
2
1
2
1
V V p p p = = A
where location 1 is upstream of the orifice, and location 2 is slightly behind the orifice. It
is recommended that location 1 be positioned one pipe diameter upstream of the orifice,
and location 2 be positioned one-half pipe diameter downstream of the orifice. Since the
pressure at 1 will be higher than the pressure at 2 during the water flow is moving from 1
to 2, the pressure difference as defined will be a positive quantity.

From continuity, the velocities can be replaced by cross-sectional areas of the flow
and the volumetric flow rate Q,
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
= A
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
A
A
A
Q p
Solving for the volumetric flow rate Q gives,
2
1
2
2
1
2
|
|
.
|

\
|

A
=
A
A
A p
Q

The above equation applies only to perfectly laminar, inviscid flows. For real flows
(such as water or air), viscosity and turbulence are present and act to convert kinetic flow
energy into heat. To account for this effect, a discharge coefficient C
D
is introduced into
the above equation to marginally reduce the flow rate Q,
2
1
2
2
1
2
|
|
.
|

\
|

A
=
A
A
A p
C Q
D

Since the actual flow profile at location 2 downstream of the orifice is quite complex,
thereby making the effective value of A
2
uncertain, the following substitution introducing
a flow coefficient C
f
is made,
2
1
2
2
1
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
A
A
A
C A C
D O f

where A
o
is the area of the orifice. As a result, the volumetric flowrate Q for real flows is
given by the equation,

p
A C Q
O f
A
=
2


The meter coefficient C
f
is found from experiments and is tabulated in reference
books; it ranges from 0.6 to 0.9 for most orifices. Since it depends on the orifice and pipe
diameters (as well as the Reynolds Number), one will often find C
f
tabulated versus the
ratio of orifice diameter to inlet diameter, sometimes defined as | ,
inlet
O
A
A
= |
The mass flow rate can be found by multiplying Q with the fluid density,
Q Q
mass
=
This experiment allows us to detect the effect of friction on water flow. There are
three coefficients that are useful in determining the performance of water through a jet
and the effect of friction on that performance. C
D
, C
V
, and C
C
give us insight into the
effects of friction on water flow. Each of these coefficients is ratio of the actual
performance to ideal performance as related to discharge, velocity, and contraction.
Without friction, each of these coefficients would be 1. With the presence of friction, the
actual performance is less than the ideal performance and therefore, each coefficient is
less than 1.

The coefficient of discharge is heavily related to the volumetric flow rate of the fluid
flow and the cross sectional area of the orifice. It is also related to the gravitational
constant and the head pressure. The coefficient of discharge is a ratio of the actual
discharge divided by the ideal discharge. The actual discharge is the discharge that occurs
and which is affected by friction as the jet passes through the orifice. The ideal discharge
would be the discharge achieved without friction. Thus,
Coefficient of discharge, C
D

Where,

= actual volumetric flow rate

= ideal volumetric flow rate

Since the formula of flow rate, Q is Q= Area, A x Velocity, V
Thus,

Actual velocity,

Ideal velocity,

=
C
gH 2

=
O
gH 2
Cross sections, A

Theoretical discharge, Q = Ideal Velocity x Orifice Area

Q
O
= V
0
A
o
Actual discharge, Q
C

Q
C
=

Where,
Unit of volume, V is L and the unit conversion 1L equal to 0.001 m
3
.
Coefficient of velocity, C
V
C
V =

Coefficient of contracta, C
C
C
C1 =

; C
C2 =

Where,
D
O
= Orifice Diameter
D
C
= contraction diameter
Three coefficient are measure of energy loss that can be directly related to the
difference in head levels between ideal and actual conditions.
The Coefficient of Contraction is a ratio of the actual diameter to ideal diameter.
The actual diameter is the diameter that occurs and which is affected by friction as the jet
passes through the orifice. The ideal diameter would be the diameter of the orifice. An
orifice plate is a thin plate with a hole in the middle when the water flow through it will
produce a force to convergence. Actually occurs shortly downstream of the physical
orifice, at the so called vena contracta point.

The vena contracta that occur at a distance downstream from the orifice equal to one
half the diameter of the orifice. The Coefficient of Contraction can be derived from a
relationship with the Coefficients of Discharge and Velocity.
Variation coefficient, C
C

The Coefficient of Contraction can also be derived from direct measurement if
adequately precise tools are available. This can be done using the blade attachment as
described in the experimental procedures section.

Apparatus:
The apparatus used in this experiment include manometers, orifice unit, pressure
transmitter, adjustable feet, water tank, control panel, pump, pitot tubeand stopwatch.

Manometer








ththe









Figure 1: Parts of Identification

1. Manometer
2. Pressure Transmitter
3. Water Inlet
4. Overflow
5. Traverse Total Head Tube
6. Orifice
7. Adjustable Feet
8. Control Panel

Procedure:
General start-up procedure
- Ensure that the unit was placed on top of the Hydraulic Bench and equipment was
set up properly, then the unit was levelled by using adjustable feet.
- Water was filled into the sump tank of the Hydraulic Bench until approximately
90% full.
- The water supply was connected from Hydraulic Bench to the water inlet using a
flexible hose.
- A flexible hose was connected to the overflow outlet and make sure that it was
directed into the sump tank.
- An orifice provided was installed at the discharge opening of the cylindrical tank
which located at the bottom of the tank.
- The bench flow control valve was fully close.
- The main power supply was connected and then switch on the pump.
- The flow control valve was opened gradually for inlet flow and the piping was
allowed and the cylindrical tank fill with water until all air has been expelled from
the system.
Flow through orifice study
- The hydraulic bench was turn on and allowed water flow to enter the cylindrical
tank. The flow was adjusted until the water level in the tank was just above the
overflow.
- Using the adjustable inlet pipe, the level of diffuser was raised till it was just
below water level. For the best result, the level should always be adjusted to meet
this condition.
- The water level

in the tube connected to the bottom of the cylindrical tank was

recorded. Make sure there were no bubbles in the tube.
- The pitot tube was moved onto position directly underneath the exiting water jet.
Once equilibrium was reached, the water level

in the tube connected to the

pitot tube was recorded.
- Make sure that there was no bubbles in the tube. The level

should be less than

the level

. It may be a very small difference, but it was important to make this

distinction.
- The diameter of the exiting water jet using the wire was recorded.
- The wire was move though the water jet until it passes completely through the
water jet and was barely touching the water jet. The distance traversed by the wire
to determine the diameter of the vena contracta was recorded.
- This experiment was repeated by three set of the runs.

Results:

SET H
o
(m)
H
c

(m)
P
(m)
V
(L)
T
(s)
D
o

(m)
D
c

(m)
1 0.358 0.337 0.021 10 43 0.012 0.01016
2 0.357 0.335 0.022 10 37 0.012 0.00810
3 0.357 0.330 0.027 10 52 0.012 0.01088


Ideal
velocity,
V
O
(m/s)
Actual
velocity,
V
C
(m/s)
Orifice
cross-
section,
A
O
(10
-4

m
2
)
Contractile
cross-
section,
A
C
(10
-5

m
2
)
Ideal
flowrate,
Q
O
(10
-4

m
3
/s)
Actual
flowrate,
Q
C
(10
-4

m
3
/s)
Velocity
coefficient,
C
V
(-)
Discharge
coefficient,
C
D
(-)
Variation
coefficient,
C
C
(-)
Cross-
section
area
coefficient,
C
A
(-)
2.6503 2.5714 1.1310 8.1073 2.9975 2.3256 0.9702 0.7758 0.7996 0.7168
2.6466 2.5637 1.1310 5.1530 2.9933 2.7027 0.9687 0.9029 0.9321 0.4556
2.6466 2.5445 1.1310 9.2971 2.9933 1.9231 0.9614 0.6425 0.6683 0.8220



Discussion:
The flow rate of fluid flow through an orifice constriction increases as the
diameter and area of vena contracta reduced when the pressure drop across the orifice
occur suddenly. Besides that, ensure the pressure downstream should be lower than
pressure upstream. Through this experiment, student can obtain set 2 had a higher actual
flow and smaller contraction diameter so the relationship between vena contracta and
flow area can be determined.
In the theory, each coefficient must less than 1 that means the energy loss occurs
during the water flow. The ranges of three runs that discharge coefficient, C
D
are range
from 0.6425 to 0.9029 in the result has been calculated. The higher discharge coefficient
is set 2 and lower that is set 3.
Coefficient of discharge, C
D

The coefficient of discharge is a ratio of the actual discharge,

divided by the
ideal discharge,

. The actual discharge is the discharge that occurs and which is

affected by friction as the jet passes through the orifice. The ideal discharge would be the
discharge achieved without friction. Hence, the actual discharge will be lower when it
was compared with ideal discharge. Set 3 obtain the lower value of discharge coefficient
that is because actual discharge of set 3 affect by higher friction compare with another 2
set of runs. On the other hand, the flow rate increase as the friction of the water flow
decrease.
For the more accurate reading, make sure the eye keep it directly proportional in
level with the liquid surface while taking the manometer reading and volumetric tank to
avoid parallax error. Ensure water was filled into the sump tank of the Hydraulic Bench
until approximately 90% full. Make sure that there was no bubble in the tube.


Conclusion:
As the result, the flow rate of the fluid flow will affect the vena contracta. Since,
the contraction coefficient is directly related with the coefficient discharge and velocity.
Besides, the coefficient of discharge is a ratio of the actual discharge,

divided by the
ideal discharge,

. Thus, area of vena contracta decreases when the flow rate increases
as the velocity increase at the same time.

Reference:
R.K. Bansal 1983, A Textbook of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines, 1
st

Edition, Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd, India.

Rama Durgaiah, 2002, Fluid Mechanics and Machinery, 1
st
Edition, New Age
International (P) Ltd, India.

Part 4. Flow Through Orifices. 2014. Part 4. Flow Through Orifices.
http://www.cussons.myzen.co.uk/SOFTWARE/Part4/PART4.HTM

Orifice plate - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 2014. Orifice plate - Wikipedia,
the free encyclopedia.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orifice_plate

http://solve.nitk.ac.in/dmdocuments/Chemical/theory_orifice.pdf