Chen, K.

Industrial Illuminating Systems

The Electrical Engineering Handbook
Ed. Richard C. Dorf
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000
2000 by CRC Press LLC
107
IndusfrIaI
IIIumInafIng Sysfems
107.1 New Concepts in Designing an Industiial
Illuminating System
Deteimination of Illuminance Levels Illumination
Computational Methods
107.2 Factois Affecting Industiial Illumination
Basic Defnitions Factois and Remedies Daylighting
107.3 System Components
Light Souices Ballasts Luminaiies
107.4 Applications
Types of Industiial Illuminating Systems Selection of the
Equipment
107.5 System Eneigy Effciency Consideiations
Eneigy-Saving Lighting Techniques Lighting
Contiols Lighting and Eneigy Standaids
107.1 Nev Cuncepts in Designing an Industria! I!!uminating System
Determinatiun ul I!!uminance Leve!s
Among the many new concepts foi lighting design, the fist to be discussed is the new method of deteimining
illuminance levels. In the past when illuminating engineeis wanted to fnd the iecommended illuminance level
foi a given task, they would look in the lighting handbook to fnd a iecommended level and then design an
illuminating system foi the task using the value as a minimum. This pioceduie piovides veiy little latitude foi
fne-tuning an illumination design. In the new method, a moie compiehensive investigation of iequiied
illuminance is peifoimed accoiding to the following steps:
1. Instead of a single iecommended illuminance value, a categoiy lettei is assigned. Table 107.1 shows
diffeient categoiy letteis foi a selected gioup of industiies (paitial only; foi complete list see IES Lg|ng
HanJ|oo| 1993]).
2. The categoiy letteis aie used to defne a iange of illuminance. Table 107.2 details illuminance categoiies
and illuminance values foi geneiic types of activities in inteiiois.
3. Fiom within the iecommended iange of illuminance, a specifc value of illuminance is selected aftei
consideiation is given to the aveiage age of woikeis, the impoitance of speed and accuiacy, and the
ieectance of task backgiound.
The impoitance of acknowledging the speed and accuiacy with which a task must be peifoimed is ieadily
iecognized. Less obvious is the need to considei the age of woikeis and the ieectance of task backgiound.
Kao Chen
Cor|on Conu|rng ngneer
2000 by CRC Press LLC
TABLE 107.1 Illuminance Categoiies foi Selected Gioup of Industiies
Illuminance Illuminance
Aiea/Activity Categoiy Aiea/Activity Categoiy
Aircraft maintenance
a
Canning
Aircraft manufacturing
a
Continuous-belt canning E
Assembly Sink canning E
Simple D Hand packing D
Modeiately diffcult E Olives E
Diffcult F Examination of canned samples F
Veiy diffcult G Containei handling
Exacting H Inspection F
Automobile manufacturing Can unsciambleis E
Bakeries Labeling and caitoning D
Mixing ioom D Casting (see Foundries)
Face of shelves D Central stations (see Electric generating stations)
Inside of mixing bowl D Chemical plants (see Petroleum and chemical plants)
Feimentation ioom D Clay and concrete products
Make-up ioom Giinding, fltei piesses, kiln iooms C
Biead D Molding, piessing, cleaning, tiimming D
Sweet yeast-iaised pioducts D Enameling E
Pioofng ioom D Coloi and glazing-iough woik E
Oven ioom D Coloi and glazing-fne woik F
Fillings and othei ingiedients D Cleaning and pressing industry
Decoiating and icing Checking and soiting E
Mechanical D Diy and wet cleaning and steaming E
Hand E Inspection and spotting G
Scales and theimometeis D Piessing F
Wiapping D Repaii and alteiation F
Book binding Cloth products
Folding, assembling, pasting D Cloth inspection I
Cutting, punching, stitching E Cutting G
Embossing and inspection F Sewing G
Breweries Piessing F
Biew house D Clothing manufacture (see Sewn Products)
Boiling and keg washing D Receiving opening, stoiing, shipping D
Filling (bottles, cans, kegs) D Examining (peiching) I
Candy making Sponging, decanting, winding, measuiing D
Box depaitment D Piling up and maiking E
Chocolate depaitment Cutting G
Husking, winnowing, fat extiaction, D Pattein making, piepaiation of tiimming, piping, E
ciushing and iefning, feeding canvas and shouldei pads
Bean cleaning, soiting, dipping, packing, D Filling, bundling, shading, stitching D
wiapping Shops F
Milling E Inspection G
Cieam making Piessing F
Mixing, cooking, molding D Sewing G
Gum diops and jellied foims D Control rooms
Hand decoiating D (see Electric generating stations-interior)
Haid candy Corridors (see Service spaces)
Mixing, cooking, molding D Cotton gin industry
Die cutting and soiting E Oveihead equipment-sepaiatois, diieis, giid D
Kiss making and wiapping E cleaneis, slick machines, conveyeis, feedeis
Canning and preserving and catwalks
Initial giading iaw mateiial samples D Gin stand D
Tomatoes E Contiol console D
Coloi giading and cutting iooms F Lint cleanei D
Piepaiation Bale piess D
Pieliminaiy soiting Dairy farms (see Farms)
Apiicots and peaches D Dairy products
Tomatoes E Fluid milk industiy
Olives F Boilei ioom D
Cutting and pitting E Bottle stoiage D
Final soiting E Bottle soiting E
a
Industiy iepiesentatives have established a table of single illuminance values which, in theii opinion, can be used. Illuminance
values foi specifc opeiations can also be deteimined using illuminance categoiies of similai tasks and activities found in this table
and the application of the appiopiiate weighting factois.
Sourte. IES Lg|ng HanJ|oo|, |taon Vo|ume.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
To compensate foi ieduced visual acuity, moie illuminance is needed. Using the aveiage age of woikeis as
the age ciiteiion is a compiomise between the need of the young and the oldei woikeis and, theiefoie, a valid
ciiteiion.
Task backgiound affects the ability to see because it affects contrast, an impoitant aspect of visibility. Moie
illuminance is iequiied to enhance the visibility of tasks with pooi contiast. Reectance is calculated by dividing
the ieected value by the incident value. The data given in Tables 107.3 and 107.4 aie taken fiom the IES
Lg|ng HanJ|oo| 1987] and aie applied to piovide a single value of illuminance fiom within the iange
iecommended.
Illuminating system design can begin aftei the desiied value of illuminance foi a given task has been
deteimined. Based on the IES HanJ|oo|, the zonal cavity method of deteimining the numbei of luminaiies
and lamps to yield a specifed maintained luminance iemains unchanged.
I!!uminatiun Cumputatiuna! Methuds
Zvnu| CuvIty Methvd. Intioduced in 1964, the zonal cavity method of peifoiming lighting computations has
gained iapid acceptance as the piefeiied way to calculate numbei and placement of luminaiies iequiied to
satisfy a specifed illuminance level iequiiement. Zonal cavity piovides a highei degiee of accuiacy than does
the old lumen method, because it gives individual consideiation to factois that aie glossed ovei empiiically in
the lumen method.
DefnItIvn v] CuvItIes. With the zonal cavity method, the ioom is consideied to contain thiee veitical zones
oi cavities. Figuie 107.1 defnes the vaiious cavities used in this method of computation. Height foi luminaiie
to ceiling is designated as the ceiling cavity (|
tt
). Distance fiom luminaiie to the woik plane is the ioom cavity
(|
rt
), and the ooi cavity (|
[t
) is measuied fiom the woik plane to the ooi.
To apply the zonal cavity method, it is necessaiy to deteimine a paiametei known as the cavity ratio" (CR)
foi each of the thiee cavities. Following is the foimula foi deteimining the cavity iatio:
(107.1)
wheie | equals |
tt
foi ceiling cavity iatio (CCR), |
rt
foi ioom cavity iatio (RCR), |
[t
foi ooi cavity iatio (FCR).
TABLE 107.2 Illuminance Categoiies and Illuminance Values foi Geneiic Types of Activities in Inteiiois
Illuminance
Ranges of Illuminances
Type of Activity Categoiy Lux Footcandles Refeience Woik-Plane
Public spaces with daik suiioundings A 20-30-50 2-3-5
Simple oiientation foi shoit tempoiaiy visits B 50-75-100 5-7.5-10 Geneial lighting
thioughout spaces Woiking spaces wheie visual tasks aie only
occasionally peifoimed
C 100-150-200 10-15-20
Peifoimance of visual tasks of high contiast
oi laige size
D 200-300-500 20-30-50
Peifoimance of visual tasks of medium
contiast oi small size
E 500-750-1,000 50-75-100 Illuminance on task
Peifoimance of visual tasks of low contiast
oi veiy small size
F 1,000-1,500-2,000 100-150-200
Peifoimance of visual tasks of low contiast
and veiy small size ovei a piolonged peiiod
G 2,000-3,000-5,000 200-300-500 Illuminance on task,
obtained by a combi-
nation of geneial and
local (supplementaiy
lighting)
Peifoimance of veiy piolonged and exacting
visual tasks
H 5,000-7,500-10,000 500-750-1,000
Peifoimance of veiy special visual tasks of
extiemely low contiast and small size
I 10,000-15,000-20,000 1,000-1,500-2,000
Sourte. IES Lg|ng HanJ|oo|, |taon Vo|ume.
cavity iatio
5 (ioom length - ioom width)
(ioom length ioom width)

2000 by CRC Press LLC

TABLE 107.3 Weighting Factois foi Selecting Specifc Illuminance Within Ranges A, B,
and C
Occupant and Room
Weighting Factoi
Chaiacteiistics* -1 0 -1
Woikeis` age (aveiage) Undei 40 40 to 55 Ovei 55
Aveiage ioom ieectance
1
>70% 30 to 70% <30%
Sourte. IES Lg|ng HanJ|oo|, |taon Vo|ume.
Noe. This table is used foi assessing weighting factois in iooms wheie a task is not involved.
1. Assign the appiopiiate weighting factoi foi each chaiacteiistic.
2. Add the two weights; iefei to Table 107.2, Categoiies A thiough C:
a. If the algebiaic sum is -1 oi -2, use the lowest iange value.
b. If the algebiaic sum is 0, use the middle iange value.
c. If the algebiaic sum is -1 oi -2, use the highest iange value.
To obtain aveiage ioom ieectance: deteimine the aieas of ceiling, walls, and ooi; add the
thiee to establish ioom suiface aiea; deteimine the piopoition of each suiface aiea to the total;
multiply each piopoition by the peitinent suiface ieectance; and add the thiee numbeis
obtained.
TABLE 107.4 Weighting Factois foi Selecting Specifc Illuminance Within Ranges D
thiough I
Task oi Woikei
Weighting Factoi
Chaiacteiistics -1 0 -1
Woikeis` age (aveiage) Undei 40 40 to 55 Ovei 55
Speed oi accuiacy Not impoitant Impoitant Ciitical
Reectance of task backgiound, % >70% 30 to 70% <30%
Sourte. IES Lg|ng HanJ|oo|, |taon Vo|ume.
Noe. Weighting factois aie based upon woikei and task infoimation.
1. Assign the appiopiiate weighting factoi foi each chaiacteiistic.
2. Add the two weights; iefei to Table 107.2, Categoiies D thiough I:
a. If the algebiaic sum is -2 oi -3, use the lowest iange value.
b. If the algebiaic sum is -1, 0, oi -1, use the middle iange value.
c. If the algebiaic sum is -2 oi -3, use the highest iange value.
Evaluation of speed and accuiacy iequiies that time limitations, the effect of eiioi on safety,
quality, and cost, etc. be consideied. Foi example, leisuie ieading imposes no iestiictions on time,
and eiiois aie seldom costly oi unsafe. Reading engineeiing diawings oi a miciometei iequiies
accuiacy and, sometimes, speed. Piopeily positioning mateiial in a piess oi mill can impose
demands on safety, accuiacy, and time.
FIGURE 107.1 Basic cavity divisions of space.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Lumen Methvd DetuI|s. Because of the ease of application of the lumen method which yields the aveiage
illumination in a ioom, it is usually employed foi laigei aieas, wheie the illumination is substantially unifoim.
The lumen method is based on the defnition of a footcandle, which equals one lumen pei squaie foot:
(107.2)
In oidei to take into consideiation such factois as diit on the luminaiie, geneial depieciation in lumen
output of the lamp, and so on, the above foimula is modifed as follows:
(107.3)
In using the lumen method, the following key steps should be taken:
a. Deteimine the iequiied level of illuminance.
b. Deteimine the coefncient of utilization (CU) which is the iatio of the lumens ieaching the woiking
plane to the total lumens geneiated by the lamps. This is a factoi that takes into account the effciency
and the distiibution of the luminaiie, its mounting height, the ioom piopoitions, and the ieectances
of the walls, ceiling, and ooi. Rooms aie classifed accoiding to shape by 10 ioom cavity numbeis. The
cavity iatio can be calculated using the foimula given in Eq. (107.1). The coeffcient of utilization is
selected fiom tables piepaied foi vaiious luminaiies by manufactuieis.
c. Deteimine the light loss factor (LLF). The fnal light loss factoi is the pioduct of all the contiibuting
loss factois. Lamp manufactuieis iate flament lamps in accoidance with theii output when the lamp is
new; vapoi dischaige lamps (uoiescent, meicuiy, and othei types ) aie iated in accoidance with theii
output aftei 100 hi of buining.
d. Calculate the numbei of lamps and luminaiies iequiied:
(107.4)
(107.5)
e. Deteimine the location of the luminaiie-luminaiie locations depend on the geneial aichitectuie, size
of bays, type of luminaiie, position of pievious outlets, and so on.
PvInt-hy-PvInt Methvd. Although cuiiently light computations emphasize the zonal cavity method, theie is
still consideiable meiit in the point-by-point method. This method lends itself especially well to calculating
the illumination level at a paiticulai point wheie total illumination is the sum of geneial oveihead lighting and
supplementaiy lighting. In this method, infoimation fiom luminaiie candlepower distribution cuives must
be applied to the mathematical ielationship. The total contiibution fiom all luminaiies to the illumination
level on the task plane must be summed.
Dret I||umnaon Comonen. The angulai cooidinate system is most applicable to continuous iows of
uoiescent luminaiies. Two angles aie involved: a longitudinal angle o and a lateial angle . Angle o is the
angle between a veitical line passing thiough the seeing task (point P) and a line fiom the seeing task to the
end of the iows of luminaiies. Angle o is easily deteimined giaphically fiom a chait showing angles o and
footcandle
lumen stiiking an aiea
squaie feet of aiea

footcandle
lamps/luminaiie lumens/lp CU LLF
aiea/luminaiie

no. of lamps
footcandles aiea
lumens/lp CU LLF

no. of luminaiies
no. of lamps
lamps/luminaiie

2000 by CRC Press LLC

foi vaiious combinations of V and H. Angle is the angle
between the veitical plane of the iow of luminaiies and a
tilted plane containing both the seeing task and the luminaiie
oi iow of luminaiies. Figuie 107.2 shows how angles o and
aie defined. The diiect illumination component foi each
luminaiie oi iow of luminaiies is deteimined by iefeiiing to
the table of diiect illumination components foi the specifc
luminaiie. The diiect illumination components aie based on
the assumption that the luminaiie is mounted 6 ft above the
seeing task. If this mounting height is othei than 6 ft, the
diiect illumination component shown in Table 107.5 must
be multiplied by 6/V, wheie V is the mounting height above
the task. Thus the total diiect illumination component would
be the pioduct of 6/V and the sum of the individual diiect
illumination components of each iow.
Re[eteJ I||umnaon Comonens on |e Hor:ona|
Sur[ates. This is calculated in exactly the same mannei as
the aveiage illumination using the lumen method, except
that the ieected iadiation coeffcient (RRC) is substituted foi the coeffcient of utilization.
(107.6)
wheie RRC LC
V
- RPM (LC
CC
- LC
V
), LC
V
wall luminance coeffcient, LC
CC
ceiling cavity luminance
coeffcient, and RPM ioom position multipliei.
The wall luminance coeffcient and the ceiling cavity luminance coeffcient aie selected foi the appiopiiate
ioom cavity iatio and piopei wall and ceiling cavity ieectances fiom the table of luminance coeffcients in
the same mannei as the coeffcient of utilization. The ioom position multipliei is a function of the ioom cavity
iatio and of the location in the ioom of the point wheie the illumination is desiied. Table 107.6 lists the value
of the RPM foi each possible location of the pait in the iooms of all ioom cavity iatios.
Figuie 107.3 shows a giid diagiam that illustiates the method of designating the location in the ioom by a
lettei and a numbei.
Re[eteJ I||umnaon Comonens on |e Verta| Sur[ates. To deteimine illumination ieected to veitical
suifaces, the appioximate aveiage value is deteimined using the same geneial foimula, but substituting WRRC
(wall ieected iadiation coeffcient) foi the coeffcient of utilization:
(107.7)
wheie
(107.8)
wheie WDRC is the wall diiect iadiation coeffcient, which is published foi each ioom cavity iatio togethei
with a table of wall luminance coeffcients (see Table 107.5 foi a specifc type of luminance).
FC
lamps/luminaiie lumens/lp RRC LLF
aiea/luminaiie

FC
lamps/luminaiie lumens/lp WRRC LLF
aiea/luminaiie

(on woik plane)

WRRC
wall luminance coefficient
aveiage wall ieflectance
WDRC -
FIGURE 107.2 Defnition of angulai cooidinate sys-
tems foi diiect illumination component.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
107.2 Facturs Allecting Industria! I!!uminatiun
Basic Dehnitiuns
1||umInunce. lluminance is the density of luminous lux on a suiface expiessed in eithei footcandles
(lumens/ft
2
) oi lux (lx) (lux 0.0929 fc).
LumInunce (vr phvtvmetrIc hrIghtness). Luminance is the luminous intensity of a suiface in a given diiection
pei unit of piojected aiea of the suifaces, expiessed in candelas pei unit aiea oi in lumens pei unit aiea.
Refectunce. Reectance is the iatio of the light ieected fiom a suiface to that incident upon it. Reection
may be of seveial types, the most common being speculai, diffuse, spiead, and mixed.
G|ure. Glaie is any biightness that causes discomfoit, inteifeience with vision, oi eye fatigue.
TABLE 107.5 Diiect Illumination Components foi Categoiy III Luminaiie (Based on F40 Lamps Pioducing 3100 Lumens)
Diiect Illumination Components
8 5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75
Veitical Suiface Illumination Footcandles at a Veitical Suiface Illumination Footcandles at a
~ Point on a Plane Paiallel to Luminaiies Point on a Plane Peipendiculai to Luminaiies
0-10 .9 2.6 3.6 3.9 3.3 1.9 .7 .1 .9 .8 .7 .5 .3 .1 - -
0-20 1.8 5.0 7.0 7.7 6.6 3.8 1.5 .2 3.6 3.2 2.7 1.9 1.2 .5 .1 -
0-30 2.6 7.2 10.1 11.3 9.8 5.7 2.3 .3 7.7 7.0 5.8 4.3 2.7 1.1 .3 -
0-40 3.2 9.0 12.8 14.5 12.9 7.7 3.2 .5 12.6 11.6 9.7 7.5 4.9 2.1 .6 -
0-50 3.7 10.3 14.9 17.1 15.7 9.6 4.3 .7 17.8 16.6 14.2 11.2 7.7 3.4 1.1 .1
0-60 4.0 11.2 16.3 18.8 17.6 11.3 5.5 1.0 22.6 21.2 18.4 14.7 10.4 5.1 1.9 .2
0-70 4.1 11.6 17.0 19.8 18.9 12.7 6.8 1.4 26.2 24.7 21.8 17.8 13.1 7.2 3.2 .3
0-80 4.1 11.7 17.3 20.2 19.4 13.3 7.4 1.9 28.2 26.7 23.8 19.7 14.9 8.7 4.3 .8
0-90 4.1 11.7 17.3 20.2 19.4 13.4 7.5 2.0 28.6 27.1 24.2 20.1 15.3 9.1 4.7 1.1
F.C. at a Point on Woik Plane Categoiy III
0-10 10.6 9.5 7.6 5.5 3.3 1.3 .3 -
0-20 20.6 18.5 14.9 10.9 6.6 2.6 .7 -
0-30 29.4 26.5 21.6 16.0 9.8 4.0 1.1 -
0-40 36.5 33.1 27.4 20.6 12.9 5.4 1.5 -
0-50 41.8 38.1 31.9 24.3 15.7 6.7 2.0 .1
0-60 45.2 41.3 34.8 26.8 17.6 7.9 2.6 .2
0-70 46.9 43.0 36.4 28.3 18.9 8.9 3.2 .3
0-80 47.4 43.6 36.9 28.8 19.4 9.3 3.5 .4 2 T-12 Lamps-Any Loading
0-90 47.5 43.7 37.0 28.8 19.4 9.3 3.5 .4 Foi T-10 Lamps-CU 1.02
Luminance Coeffcients foi 20% Effective Flooi Cavity Reectance
Reectances
Ceiling Cavity 80 50 10 80 50 10
Walls 50 30 50 30 50 30 50 30 50 30 50 30
WDRC RCR Wall Luminance Coeffcients Ceiling Cavity Luminance Coeffcients
.281 1 .246 .140 .220 .126 .190 .109 .230 .209 .135 .124 .025 .023
.266 2 .232 .127 .209 .115 .182 .102 .222 .190 .130 .113 .024 .021
.245 3 .216 .115 .196 .105 .172 .095 .215 .176 .127 .105 .024 .020
.226 4 .202 .102 .183 .097 .161 .088 .209 .164 .124 .099 .023 .019
.212 5 .191 .097 .173 .090 .154 .082 .204 .156 .121 .094 .023 .018
.196 6 .178 .090 .163 .084 .145 .076 .200 .149 .118 .090 .022 .017
.182 7 .168 .083 .153 .078 .136 .071 .194 .144 .115 .087 .022 .017
.170 8 .158 .077 .145 .072 .130 .066 .190 .139 .113 .085 .021 .016
.159 9 .150 .072 .138 .068 .123 .062 .185 .135 .110 .082 .021 .016
.149 10 .141 .068 .130 .064 .116 .059 .180 .131 .107 .080 .020 .016
2000 by CRC Press LLC
TABLE 107.6 Room Position Multiplieis
A B C D E F A B C D E F
Room Cavity Ratio 1 Room Cavity Ratio 6
0 .24 .42 .47 .48 .44 .48 0 .20 .23 .26 .28 .29 .30
1 .42 .74 .81 .83 .84 .84 1 .23 .26 .29 .31 .33 .36
2 .47 .81 .90 .92 .93 .93 2 .26 .29 .35 .37 .38 .40
3 .48 .83 .92 .94 .95 .95 3 .28 .31 .37 .39 .41 .43
4 .48 .84 .93 .95 .96 .97 4 .29 .33 .38 .41 .43 .45
5 .48 .84 .93 .95 .97 .97 5 .30 .36 .40 .43 .45 .47
Room Cavity Ratio 2 Room Cavity Ratio 7
0 .24 .36 .42 .44 .46 .46 0 .18 .21 .23 .25 .26 .27
1 .36 .51 .60 .63 .66 .68 1 .21 .23 .26 .28 .29 .30
2 .42 .60 .68 .72 .78 .83 2 .23 .26 .30 .32 .33 .34
3 .44 .63 .72 .77 .82 .85 3 .25 .28 .32 .34 .35 .36
4 .46 .66 .78 .82 .85 .86 4 .26 .29 .33 .35 .37 .37
5 .46 .68 .83 .85 .86 .87 5 .27 .30 .34 .36 .37 .38
Room Cavity Ratio 3 Room Cavity Ratio 8
0 .23 .32 .37 .40 .42 .42 0 .17 .18 .21 .22 .22 .23
1 .32 .40 .48 .51 .53 .57 1 .18 .20 .23 .25 .26 .26
2 .37 .48 .58 .61 .64 .67 2 .21 .23 .26 .27 .28 .29
3 .40 .51 .61 .65 .69 .71 3 .22 .25 .27 .29 .30 .30
4 .42 .53 .64 .69 .73 .75 4 .22 .26 .28 .30 .31 .32
5 .42 .57 .67 .71 .75 .77 5 .23 .26 .29 .30 .31 .32
Room Cavity Ratio 4 Room Cavity Ratio 9
0 .22 .28 .32 .35 .37 .37 0 .15 .17 .18 .19 .20 .20
1 .28 .33 .40 .42 .44 .48 1 .17 .18 .20 .21 .22 .23
2 .32 .40 .48 .50 .52 .57 2 .18 .20 .23 .24 .25 .25
3 .35 .42 .50 .54 .58 .61 3 .19 .21 .24 .25 .26 .26
4 .37 .44 .52 .58 .62 .64 4 .20 .22 .25 .26 .26 .27
5 .37 .48 .57 .61 .64 .66 5 .20 .23 .25 .26 .27 .27
Room Cavity Ratio 5 Room Cavity Ratio 10
0 .21 .25 .28 .31 .33 .33 0 .14 .16 .16 .17 .18 .18
1 .25 .29 .33 .36 .38 .42 1 .16 .17 .18 .19 .19 .20
2 .28 .33 .40 .42 .44 .48 2 .16 .18 .19 .21 .22 .22
3 .31 .36 .42 .46 .49 .52 3 .17 .19 .21 .22 .23 .23
4 .33 .38 .44 .49 .52 .54 4 .18 .19 .22 .23 .23 .24
5 .33 .42 .48 .52 .54 .56 5 .18 .20 .22 .23 .24 .25
FIGURE 107.3 Giid diagiam foi locating points on the woik plane.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Cv|vr RenderIng 1nder (CR1). In 1964 the CIE (Commission Inteinationale de l`Eclaiiage) offcially adopted
the IES pioceduie foi iating lighting souices and developed the cuiient standaid by which light souices aie
iated foi theii coloi iendeiing piopeities. The CRI is a numeiical value foi the coloi compaiison of one light
souice to that of a iefeience light souice.
Cv|vr Pre]erence 1nder (CP1). The CPI is deteimined by a similai pioceduie to that used foi the CRI. The
diffeience is that CPI iecognizes the veiy ieal human ingiedient of piefeience. This index is based on individual
piefeience foi the coloiation of ceitain identifable objects, such as complexions, meat, vegetables, fiuits, and
foliage, to be slightly diffeient than the colois of these objects in daylight. CPI indicates how a souice will
iendei coloi with iespect to how we best appieciate and iemembei that coloi.
EquIvu|ent Sphere 1||umInutIvn (ES1). ESI is a means of deteimining how well a lighting system will piovide
task visibility in a given situation. ESI may be piedicted foi many points in a lighting system thiough the use
of any of seveial available computei piogiams oi measuied in an installation with any of seveial diffeient types
of meteis.
VIsuu| Cvm]vrt PrvhuhI|Ity (VCP). Discomfoit glaie is most often pioduced by diiect glaie fiom luminances
that aie excessively biight. Discomfoit glaie can also be caused by ieected glaie, which should not be confused
with veiling reections, which cause a ieduction in visual peifoimance iathei than discomfoit. VCP is based
in teims of the peicentage of people who will be expected to fnd the given lighting system acceptable when
they aie seated in the most undesiiable location.
Facturs and Remedies
Quality of illumination peitains to the distiibution of luminaiies in the visual enviionment. The teim is used
in a positive sense and implies that all luminaiies contiibute favoiably to visual peifoimance. Howevei, glaie,
diffusion, ieection, unifoimity, coloi, luminance, and luminance ratio all have a signifcant effect on visibility
and the ability to see easily, accuiately, and quickly. Industiial installations of pooi quality aie easily iecognized
as uncomfoitable and possibly hazaidous. Some of the factois aie discussed in moie detail below.
DIrect G|ure. When glaie is caused by the souice of lighting within the feld of view, whethei daylight oi
electiic, it is defned as diiect glaie. To ieduce diiect glaie, the following suggestions may be useful:
a. Deciease the biightness of light souices oi lighting equipment, oi both.
b. Reduce the aiea of high luminance causing the glaie condition.
c. Inciease the angle between the glaie souice and the line of vision.
d. Inciease the luminance of the aiea suiiounding the glaie souice and against which it is seen.
To ieduce diiect glaie, luminaiies should be mounted as fai above the noimal line of sight as possible and
should be designed to limit both the luminance and the quality of light emitted in the 45-85 degiee zone
because such light may inteifeie with vision. This piecaution includes the use of supplementaiy lighting
equipment. Theie is such a wide diveigence of tasks and enviionmental conditions that it may not be possible
to iecommend a degiee of quality satisfactoiy to all needs. In pioduction aieas, luminaiies within the noimal
feld of view should be shielded to at least 25 degiees fiom the hoiizontal, piefeiably to 45 degiees.
Refected G|ure. Reected glaie is caused by the ieection of high-luminance light souices fiom shiny suifaces.
In the manufactuiing aiea, this may be a paiticulaily seiious pioblem wheie ciitical seeing is involved with
highly polished sheet metal, veiniei scales, and machined metal suifaces. Theie aie seveial ways to minimize
oi eliminate ieected glaie:
a. Use a light souice of low luminance, consistent with the type of woik in piocess and the suiioundings.
b. If the luminance of the light souice cannot be ieduced to a desiiable level, it may be possible to oiient
the woik so that ieections aie not diiected in the noimal line of vision.
c. Incieasing the level of illumination by incieasing the numbei of souices will ieduce the effect of ieected
glaie by ieducing the piopoition of illumination piovided on the task by souices located in positions
causing ieections.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
d. In special cases, it may be piactical to ieduce the speculai ieection by changing the speculai chaiactei
of the offending suiface.
DIstrIhutIvn, RefectIvn, und Shudvws. Unifoim hoiizontal illuminance (maximum and minimum not moie
than one-sixth above oi below the aveiage level) is usually desiiable foi industiial inteiiois to peimit exible
aiiangements of opeiations and equipment and to assuie moie unifoim luminance in the entiie aiea.
Reections of light souices in the task can be useful piovided that the ieection does not cieate ieected
glaie. In the machining and inspection of small metal paits, ieections can indicate faults in contouis, make
sciibe maiks moie visible, and so on.
Shadows fiom the geneial illumination systems can be desiiable foi accenting the depth and foims of vaiious
objects, but haish shadows should be avoided. Shadows aie softei and less pionounced when laige diffusing
luminaiies aie used oi the object is illuminated fiom many souices. Cleaily defned shadows aie distinct aids
in some specialized opeiations, such as engiaving on polished suifaces, some type of bench layout woik, oi
ceitain textile inspections. This type of shadow effect can best be obtained by supplementaiy diiectional lighting
combined with ample diffused geneial illumination.
LumInunce und LumInunce RutIvs. The ability to see details depends on the contiast between the detail and
its backgiound. The gieatei the contiast diffeience in luminance, the moie ieadily the seeing task is peifoimed.
The eye functions most comfoitably and effciently when the luminance within the iemaindei of the enviion-
ment is ielatively unifoim. In manufactuiing, theie aie many aieas wheie it is not piactical to achieve the same
luminance ielationships as easily as in offces. Table 107.7 is shown as a piactical guide to iecommended
maximum luminance iatios foi industiial aieas. To achieve the iecommended luminance ielationships, it is
necessaiy to select the ieectances of all the fnishes of the ioom suifaces and equipment as well as contiol of
the luminance distiibution of the lighting equipment. Table 107.8 lists the iecommended ieectance values foi
industiial inteiiois and equipment. High-ieectance suifaces aie desiiable to piovide the iecommended lumi-
nance ielationships and high utilization of light.
Cv|vr Quu|Ity v] LIght. In geneial, foi seeing tasks industiial aieas, theie appeais to be no effect upon visual
acuity by vaiiation in coloi of light. Howevei, wheie coloi disciimination oi coloi matching is a pait of the
woik piocess, such as in the piinting and textile industiies, the coloi of light should be caiefully selected. Coloi
always has an effect on the appeaiance of the woikplace and on the complexions of people. The illuminating
system and the decoiative scheme should be piopeily cooidinated.
TABLE 107.7 Recommended Maximum Luminance Ratios foi Industiial Aieas
Enviionmental
Classifcation
A B C
(1) Between tasks and adjacent daikei suiioundings 3 to 1 3 to 1 5 to 1
(2) Between tasks and adjacent lightei suiioundings 1 to 3 1 to 3 1 to 5
(3) Between tasks and moie iemote daikei suifaces 10 to 1 20 to 1
(4) Between tasks and moie iemote lightei suifaces 1 to 10 1 to 20
(5) Between luminaiies (oi windows, skylights, etc.) 20 to 1
and suifaces adjacent to them
(6) Anywheie within noimal feld of view 40 to 1
Luminance iatio contiol not piactical.
A-Inteiioi aieas wheie ieectances of entiie space can be contiolled in line with
iecommendations foi optimum seeing conditions.
B-Aieas wheie ieectances of immediate woik aiea can be contiolled, but contiol
of iemote suiiound is limited.
C-Aieas (indooi and outdooi) wheie it is completely impiactical to contiol ieec-
tances and diffcult to altei enviionmental conditions.
Sourte: IES Lg|ng HanJ|oo|, |taon Vo|ume.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
VeI|Ing RefectIvns. Figuie 107.4 shows that light would ieect into the
eyes of the viewei fiom the offending zone" and defnes the zone of
veiling ieection. Veiling ieection would diminish visibility, but the
viewei would be unawaie of it. The contrast rendition factor (CRF) can
be applied as a measuie of the amount of veiling ieection.
Anothei impoitant factoi is the lighting effectiveness factor (LEF).
An oveiall lighting system effciency factoi consideis both the quality of
light as iefeience to equivalent spheie illumination and the effects of
veiling ieections. Light patteins such as batwing" can help solve veiling
ieection pioblems. Figuie 107.5 shows the light distiibution cuive of a
typical batwing luminaiie.
TABLE 107.8 Recommended Reectance Values foi Industiial
Inteiiois and Equipment
Reectance
1
Suifaces (%)
Ceiling 80 to 90
Walls 40 to 60
Desk and bench tops, machines and equipment 25 to 45
Floois not less than 20
1
Reectance should be maintained as neai as piactical to iecom-
mended values.
Sourte: IES Lg|ng HanJ|oo|, |taon Vo|ume.
FIGURE 107.4 Diagiam showing offending zone" and zone of veiling ieection.
FIGURE 107.5 A typical batwing"
light distiibution.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Day!ighting
The daylight contiibution should be caiefully evaluated and should always be cooidinated with a planned
electiic lighting system.
FenestrutIvn. Fenestration has at least thiee useful puiposes in industiial buildings:
a. Foi the admission, contiol, and distiibution of daylight.
b. Foi a distant focus foi the eyes, which ielaxes the eye muscles.
c. To eliminate the dissatisfaction many people expeiience in completely closed-in aieas.
An adequate electiic lighting system should always be piovided because of the wide vaiiation in daylight.
BuI|dIng OrIentutIvn. All fenestiation should be equipped with contiol device appiopiiate to any luminance
pioblems. Special attention should be given to glaie contiol latitudes wheie fenestiation fiequently ieceives
diiect sunlight. Diffuse-glaiing fxed oi adjustable louveis aie some of the contiol means that may be applied.
Foi an industiial building, windows in the sidewalls admit daylight and natuial ventilation and affoid
occupants a view out. Howevei, theii uncontiolled luminance may be a pioblem. Theie aie many contiol means
to make daylight useful to woikeis` seeing tasks, iesulting in eneigy savings as the ultimate goal.
107.3 System Cumpunents
Light Suurces
Incandescent
a. Recent technology made possible a line of eneigy-saving incandescent lamps that use the iaie gas kiypton
as a fll gas.
b. Reectoi (R) lamps offei bettei utilization of the light piovided by the lamp compaied to a nonieectoi
type. In this family, theie aie R lamps, PAR (paiabolic aluminized ieectoi) lamps, and a newei line ER
(elliptical ieectoi) lamps which allow ieduction of 50% oi moie in eneigy consumption.
c. Infiaied Halogen (IR)-PAR lamps combine both the infiaied heat-ieection technology and the iegen-
eiative halogen cleaning cycle to piovide a diamatic inciease in lamp effcacy (4% ieduction in eneigy
consumption). Available in 30, 60, and 100 W.
F!uurescent
a. Eneigy-effcient lamps aie now available in all populai sizes and colois foi most applications. Limitations
of eneigy-saving ieduced-wattage lamps aie:
Ambient tempeiatuie must be above 60F.
Used on high p.f. uoiescent ballasts only.
Not to be used wheie diafts of cold aii aie diiected onto the lamp.
b. Typical eneigy savings aie 6 W pei lamp foi the populai 4-ft 40-W ieplacement and 15 W pei lamp foi
the 8-ft slimline 75-W ieplacement.
c. Compact uoiescent lamps aie gaining populaiity because they aie eneigy effcient, ft into a small
enclosed housing, and can be adapted foi incandescent socket use.
d. Viitually all compact uoiescent lamps use the iaie eaith" phosphois foi good coloi iendition and
lumen maintenance chaiacteiistics.
e. Utilizing advanced phosphoi technology with the optimization of bulb diametei, 40-W lamps aie now
available that can be ietioftted in a F40 pieheat oi iapid-stait ciicuit. The new lamp, which could save
eneigy and impiove coloi iendition iequiiement, has been legislated.
f. Refei to Tables 107.9 and 107.11 foi the latest eneigy effcient lamps.
High-Intensity Discharge [HID)
Today HID lamps include meicuiy vapoi, metal halide, high-piessuie sodium, and low-piessuie sodium lamps.
Metal halide lamps offei the best oppoitunity fiom a coloi acceptability point of view. High-piessuie sodium
2000 by CRC Press LLC
lamps offei the highest luminous effcacy in an enviionment wheie coloi distinction is not ciitical. Since HID lamps
have had veiy few pioblems in application, they aie likely to expeiience fuithei development in the coming yeais.
Ba!!asts
F|uvrescent. Electionic ballasts aie now available foi the F40T12, the slimline, the new T8 lamps, and othei
eneigy-saving uoiescent lamps on both 120- and 277-V ciicuits. Using high-fiequency ballasts, the effcacy
can be iaised by neaily 12%. Although electionic ballasts cost moie than the standaid coie-coil ballasts,
opeiating factois should ieect an appieciable ieduction in life-cycle cost foi a lighting system. Theie aie two
types of dimming ballasts: coie and electionic. High-fiequency ballasts can ieadily be used to dim uoiescent
lamps ovei a wide iange of light level. All exteinal contiol wiiing is low voltage oi fbei-optic wiiing.
A iecent study indicates that 2 F40T12 lamps opeiated on an electionic ballast will attain an effcacy of 75-80
LPW veisus 62 LPW foi the same lamps if opeiated on a standaid coie-coil type ballast. With the dimmable
electionically ballasted system, eneigy savings can be as high as 40% with iespect to a coie ballasted system.
HIgh-1ntensIty DIschurge. The choice of a ballast depends on economic consideiations veisus peifoimance.
A meicuiy lamp will opeiate fiom metal halide ballast, but the conveise is not always tiue.
Theie aie seveial diffeient types of ballasts foi high-piessuie sodium lamps:
a. Reactoi oi lag ballast-Inexpensive, low powei losses, and small in size.
b. Lead ballast -Faiily good iegulation foi both line and lamp voltage vaiiation.
c. Magnetic iegulated ballast-Piovides best voltage iegulation with change of eithei input voltage oi lamp
voltage. It is the most costly and has the gieatest wattage loss.
d. Electionic ballast-Maintains a steady constant wattage output with changes in the souice impedance
as well as excellent iegulation. Duiing the life of a high-piessuie sodium lamp, it can save 20% moie
eneigy by maintaining a constant wattage output in addition to the 15% intiinsic eneigy savings
compaied to an equivalent coie-coil ballast.
Luminaires
Types of Industiial Luminaiies. Selection of a specifc type foi an installation iequiies consideiation of many
factois: candlepowei distiibution, effciency, shielding and biightness contiol, mounting height, lumen main-
tenance chaiacteiistics, mechanical constiuction, and enviionmental suitability foi use in noimal, hazaidous,
oi special aieas. In geneial theie aie fve types in accoidance with CIE classifcations, namely, diiect type, semi-
diiect type, diiect-indiiect type, semi-indiiect type, and indiiect type.
Figuie 107.6 shows luminaiie types with the peicentage of total luminaiie output emitted above and below
hoiizontal.
Supp|ementury LumInuIre Types. Theie aie fve majoi types based on the candlepowei distiibution and
luminance:
Type S-I-diiectional
Type S-II-spiead, high luminance
Type S-III-spiead, modeiate luminance
Type S- IV-unifoim luminance
Type S-V-unifoim luminance with pattein
HIgh-Pressure SvdIum. Piopei luminaiie design is the key to lighting effciency. Newly developed luminaiies
use piismatic glass ieectois that aie especially made foi high-piessuie sodium lamps. In addition to achieving
maximum light utilization, they iediiect the intense light souice with excellent light cutoff and high-angle
biightness contiol. Luminaiie manufactuieis iecommend aluminum ieectois foi all geneial-puipose indus-
tiial applications and glass-coated ieectois wheie maintenance piactice is compatible with seivicing glass.
F|uvrescent. A new tiend foi lighting new buildings is the incieased use of the ieectoiized fxtuies. This
tiend may be tiaced to an inciease in the numbei of state and national lighting effciency standaids in iecent
2000 by CRC Press LLC

yeais. Howevei, these fxtuies can cieate a teaidiop-like" distiibution that may eliminate glaie on a computei
scieen, but also ieduces light to othei aieas.

107.4 App!icatiuns

Types ul Industria! I!!uminating Systems

Fuctvry 1||umInutIvn ]vr VIsuu| Tus|s.

The piime iequiiement foi industiial illumination is to facilitate the
peifoimance of visual tasks thiough high-quality illumination. Theie aie thiee types of lighting used in
industiial aieas.

Cenera| Lg|ng.

It should be designed to piovide the desiied level of illumination unifoimly ovei the
entiie aiea. The vaiiation of light level fiom point to point within the aiea should be within 17% of the
selected level. A good geneial lighting system makes it possible to change the location of machineiy
without ieaiianging the lighting and also peimits full utilization of ooi space.

Lota|:eJ Cenera| Lg|ng.

Within a geneial aiea theie may be a few aieas wheie tasks peifoimed
iequiie a gieatei quantity of light and a diffeient quality of light. When applied, caie must be exeicised
to eliminate diiect oi ieected glaie fiom the task and fiom othei woikeis.

Su|emenary Lg|ng.

Supplementaiy lighting is specifed foi diffeient seeing tasks that iequiie a
specifc amount oi quality of light not ieadily obtained by standaid geneial lighting methods. Supple-
mentaiy lighting is a valuable industiial lighting tool. Typical pioblems aiise wheie woik is shielded
fiom the geneial lighting system by an obstiuction oi its biightness is otheiwise loweied wheie low
contiast, such as sciibe maiks on steel, may lead to visual eiiois, and wheie the pioduct moves too
iapidly to be seen cleaily by the unaided eye. To attain a good balance, it is impoitant to cooidinate the
design of supplementaiy and geneial lighting with gieat caie.

SecurIty LIghtIng.

Secuiity lighting peitains to the lighting of building exteiioi and suiiounding aieas out
to and including the boundaiies of the piopeity. Secuiity lighting contiibutes to a sense of peisonal secuiity
and to the piotection of piopeity. It may be accomplished thiough:
Suiveillance lighting to detect and obseive intiudeis.
Piotective lighting to discouiage oi detei attempts at entiance, vandalism, etc.
Lighting foi safety to peimit safe movement of guaids and othei authoiized peisons.

FIGURE 107.6

Geneial lighting luminaiie classifcations.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Emergency LIghtIng. Emeigency lighting is piovided foi use when the powei supply foi the noimal lighting
fails to ensuie that escape ioutes can be effectively identifed and used. Standby lighting is that pait of emeigency
lighting that is sometimes piovided to enable noimal activities to continue.
The following aie iecommended minimum illumination iequiiements foi exit signs and egiess ioute:
Inerna||y ||umnaeJ sgns. An illuminance of 54 lux (5 fc) on the face of the sign is usually specifed.
Exerna||y ||umnaeJ ex sgn. NFPA 101 iequiies 54 lux (5 fc) on the face of the sign.
Egress roue. The hoiizontal illuminance of any escape ioute should not be less than 1% of the aveiage
piovided by the noimal lighting, with a minimum aveiage of 5 lux (0.5 fc) at ooi level.
Lotaon o[ egress |umnares. A luminaiie should be piovided foi each exit dooi and emeigency exit
dooi to piovide suffcient light to a level of 30 lux (3 fc).
SummurIes. In laige industiial aieas, all these lighting systems may be used. In small aieas, localized geneial
lighting may also seive as a substitute foi geneial lighting. In this case, additional supplementaiy lighting may
be iequiied to inciease the quantity oi impiove the quality of the illumination. Many factois must be consideied
in selecting a lighting system. It is not feasible to iecommend one oi two systems foi all conditions. Because
of the ielationship of ceiling height to light utilization, most industiial applications call foi eithei diiect oi
semi-diiect lighting systems.
Se!ectiun ul the Equipment
In the selection of equipment, light souices, and luminaiies, many vaiiables must be consideied. As with any
list of vaiiables, it is necessaiy foi puipose of compaiison to hold some factois constant. In industiial illumi-
nation that factoi is usually mounting height and location.
HIgh-Buy Areus. The woik geneially piesents visual tasks that aie not diffcult because of laige machineiy
and othei objects. Illuminance levels foi high-bay aieas geneially iange fiom 50 to 150 fc, although moie and
moie aieas aie being lighted with 200 and 300 fc. At a high mounting height, it is possible to obtain unifoim
illumination by using a few high-wattage souices iathei than a laigei numbei of low-wattage souices. Foi
luminaiies with medium and naiiow distiibution, gieatei mounting height oi closei spacing is oidinaiily
iequiied foi unifoim geneial illumination.
Regaidless of mounting height, wide distiibution luminaiies aie well suited foi use in aieas that aie wide in
iespect to mounting height. Laige machineiy and objects tend to cut off light and cast shadows. Since this
makes it diffcult to see impoitant veitical and angulai suifaces, bioad light distiibution is essential.
High-intensity dischaige oi uoiescent luminaiies foi high-bay lighting may be enclosed, ventilated open,
oi nonventilated open. Enclosed luminaiies aie usually of a heavy-duty type with a gasketed glass covei to
piotect the ieectoi and light souice fiom collection of diit. The initial luminaiie effciency is lowei and the
equipment is moie costly. Ventilated-open luminaiies have laigely ieplaced the nonventilated type.
As fai as choices of lamps aie conceined, metal halide and HPS aie piefeiied ovei the meicuiy type. The
use of uoiescent lamps in high-bay aieas is limited. Only wheie the aiea piopoitions aie such that the ioom
cavity iatios aie in the iange of 1 to 3 may uoiescent lamps be acceptable. Only high oi extia high output
uoiescent in 8-ft sizes aie iecommended.
MedIum- und Lvw-Buy Areus. Seeing tasks in medium- and low-bay aieas aie usually moie diffcult than
those encounteied in the high-bay aieas. Incieasing the size and ieducing the biightness of the luminaiies will
impiove visual comfoit and will impiove the visibility of speculai objects. It may not impiove the visibility of
diffuse thiee-dimensional objects.
Luminaiies used foi geneial lighting in medium-bay aieas aie neaily always of the diiect oi semi-diiect type,
eithei uoiescent oi wide distiibution HID. They may be the ventilated oi nonventilated type and the lamps
may be shielded by louveis, bafes, oi othei devices. Foi lowei mounting, the tiend is towaid the semi-diiect type.
Some of the visual tasks involve speculai oi semi-speculai objects, foi which optimum lighting might be an
indiiect system. The quality of uoiescent souices, with theii bioad distiibution of light, makes them a piime
selection foi medium- and low-bay lighting. When the piopei quality contiol can be attained, low-wattage
HID souices aie fnding an incieasing numbei of low-bay applications.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
107.5 System Energy Elhciency Cunsideratiuns
Energy-Saving Lighting Techniques
F|uvrescent Systems CvnsIderutIvns. Fluoiescent lamps aie sensitive to ambient tempeiatuies. By using
ieduced wattage lamps oi low-loss ballasts, less heat will be geneiated and the opeiating tempeiatuie point of
the lamp will piobably change. The ciitical aiea is the coldest spot on the bulb suiface. Most uoiescent lamps
will peak in light output at aiound a 100F cold-spot tempeiatuie. Foi enclosed luminaiie types that oidinaiily
opeiate the lamp at highei tempeiatuie, ieplacing standaid lamps with high-effcacy, ieduced wattage lamps
may iesult in a net inciease in luminaiie output even though the ieduced wattage lamps aie iated foi less output
than aie standaid lamps.
UsIng Duy|Ight. Daylight should be dealt with by fist analyzing it and then establishing a design technique
to integiate it with the electiic lighting system. Daylight may be adequate in quantity and quality to ieduce the
electiic lighting load and iesult in eneigy conseivation. Pooi quality of daylight may lead to discomfoit and a
loss in visibility that may iesult in a deciease in human peifoimance and pioductivity.
Duy|IghtIng DesIgn ]rvm WIndvws. The longhand design pioceduie involves two steps:
Deteimine the quantity of illumination coming to the window suiface.
Use that quantity to deteimine the daylight contiibution to the inteiioi pait of the space.
Once the contiibution of illumination to the window suiface has been calculated, two longhand methods
aie available to deteimine the illumination contiibution to the space. The fist method is to follow the point-
by-point pioceduie, which makes two assumptions: (1) inteiieected component is ignoied and (2) the window
is a unifoim diffuse emittei. The second method is a lumen method that calculates illumination values at thiee
points defned as the maximum, midway, and minimum. This method includes both the diiect and inteiieected
components of illumination.
Tus|-AmhIent LIghtIng. This is a paiticulai foim of nonunifoim illumination that combines task illuminance
and ambient illuminance. One advantage is impioved eneigy effciency. The task component of task-ambient
lighting may take two foims: (1) fuinituie-mounted lighting built into a woikstation oi (2) ooi-mounted
fxtuies that can be placed adjacent to a desk. The ambient lighting component may be supplied in two ways:
(1) conventional luminaiies on the ceiling oi (2) indiiect fxtuies utilizing HID oi uoiescent lamps with the
output diiected to the ceiling and adjacent walls. Foi ceiling-mounted tioffeis used foi ambient lighting, a
plug-in system of wiiing should be consideied so that luminaiies can be ielocated as task locations change.
Lighting Cuntru!s
In oidei to save eneigy, it is essential that minimum acceptable lighting levels be used duiing off-houis, cleaning
peiiods, and foi othei nonpeak peiiods as is piactical. The ultimate system of contiol would be to iemotely
contiol eveiy fxtuie and to piogiam the mode of opeiation, but this is haidly possible. Solid-state dimmeis
aie available, oi ballasts can be ciicuited in sepaiate gioupings. Solid-state contiols aie available foi dimming
entiie aieas of ballasted lights, but special ballasts aie iequiied and the contiols could be expensive.
Manual contiol of a lighting system is often the least expensive, but also the least effective alteinative.
Automatic contiols vaiy fiom a simple timei to a sophisticated computei system. Figuie 107.7 shows a typical
piogiammable lighting contiol scheme. A piice veisus beneft cost analysis will be iequiied foi each installation.
The system should be piogiammed foi noimal opeiation and have a local manual oveiiide. A good convenient
piactice is to have lights switched in distiibuted gioups so that aieas can be lighted oi daikened as conditions change.
Lighting and Energy Standards
In 1976, the Eneigy Reseaich and Development Association (ERDA) contiacted with the National Confeience
of States on Building Codes and Standaids (NCSBCS) to codify ASHRAE 90-75. The iesulting document was
2000 by CRC Press LLC
called The Model Code foi Eneigy Conseivation in New Buildings." The model code has been adopted by a
numbei of states to satisfy the iequiiements of Public Laws 94-163 and 94-385.
Theie have been seveial ievisions on the ANSI/ASHRAE/IES 90-75 since 1976. All weie included in the
lighting poition of ANSI/ASHRAE/IES 90A-1980, Eneigy Conseivation in New Building Design," and in EMS-
1981, IES Recommended Lighting Powei Budget Deteimination Pioceduie."
ASHRAE/IES 90.1-1989, Eneigy Effcient Design of New Buildings Except New Low-Rise Residential Build-
ings," is the thiid geneiation document on building eneigy effciency since the fist publication in 1975. This
standaid is intended to be a voluntaiy standaid which can be adopted by building offcials foi state and local codes.
FIGURE 107.7 Piogiammable lighting contiol scheme.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
TABLE 107.9 The Pioposed Effciency Standaids foi
Fluioescent Lamps
Nominal Minimum Minimum
Lamp Lamp Aveiage Aveiage
Type Wattage CRI Lamp Effcacy
F40 >35 W 69 75
F40 s35 W 45 75
F40/U >35 W 69 68
F40/U s35 W 45 64
F96T12 >65 W 69 80
F96T12 s65 W 45 80
F96T12/HO >100 W 69 80
F96T12/HO s100 W 45 80
Noe. The above excludes lamps designed foi plant
giowth, cold tempeiatuie seivice, ieectoiized/apeituie,
impact iesistance, iepiogiaphic seivice, coloied lighting,
ultiaviolet, and lamps with CRI of moie than 82.
LICHTIC: TH XT 10 YARS
any exciting developments aie occuiiing in the lighting industiy. Howevei, one of the gieatest
challenges is the development of a ieplacement light souice foi the common cathode iay tube
(CRT) found in televisions and othei applications.
CRTs have giadually expanded fiom oui piimaiy infoimation souices, televisions and computeis, into
scientifc instiumentation, cais, and automatic tellei machines. Howevei, the inheient shoitcomings of
this technology aie limiting the fuithei development of existing and new applications that iequiie display
technology.
CRTs pioduce few lumens foi the powei they consume and aie inheiently laige and heavy. Theii many
weaknesses aie compounded in the aiea of big scieen displays. The desiie to view evei laigei and highei
iesolution images is pushing the CRT beyond its piactical limits. New lighting technologies applied to
at panel displays and piojection systems could change the consumei television maiket if ceitain baiiieis
aie oveicome.
One appioach has been to adopt laige aiea LCDs (which pose a signifcant engineeiing challenge) as
the piimaiy imaging device. Howevei, these devices do not inheiently emit light and would be useless
in the daik without backlights. The light souice of choice foi this appioach has been cold cathode
uoiescent lamps, which aie commonly applied in today`s laptop computeis.
We can expect to see unique lamp shapes and ingenious ieectoi systems developed to illuminate the
LCD unifoimly, without adding signifcantly to the oveiall depth of the display system. Theie is also a
lot of woik in the development of electioluminescent panels as an alteinative to uoiescent lamps,
although these devices piesent coloi diffculties as well as compaiatively low effcacies.
Laige-aiea LED image displays have alieady been fabiicated since blue LEDs emeiged in the maiket-
place. An aiiay of ied, gieen, and blue LEDs aie mounted on a panel and individually addiessed to
geneiate all colois, including white. This appioach will be iedefned in the coming decade, but faces a
numbei of challenges.
M
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Energy Pu!icy Act
On Octobei 25, 1992, the Eneigy Policy Act was signed into law by the Piesident.
Among the many piovisions, the act establishes eneigy effciency standaids foi HVAC, lighting, and motoi
equipment; encouiages establishment of a national window eneigy-effciency iating system; and encouiages
state iegulatois to puisue demand-side-management (DSM) piogiams.
Undei the bill, lighting manufactuieis will have 3 yeais to stop making F96T12 and F96T12/HO 8 ft
uoiescent lamps and some types of incandescent ieectois. Standaid F40 lamps except in the SP and SPX oi
equivalent types of high coloi iendeiing lamps would also fade away. Geneial seivice incandescent lamps to
be axed would include those fiom 30 to 100 W, in 115 to 130 V iatings, having medium sciew bases, of both
ieectoi and PAR types, having a diametei laigei than 2 in.
Theie aie no immediate iegulations impacting HID lamps. Within 18 months of the legislation`s enactment,
the Depaitment of Eneigy (DOE) will deteimine the HID types foi which standaids could possibly save eneigy
and publish testing iequiiements foi these lamps.
As fai as the geneial seivice lamps aie conceined, the most common incandescent lamps - 40, 60, 75, 100,
and 150 W - aie not coveied by an effciency standaid because theie is no suitable method to ensuie eneigy
savings. These types, howevei, aie coveied by anothei piovision of the law, namely the eneigy effciency labeling
standaids.
Anothei appioach involves laige-aiea plasma panels that aie self-luminescent due to gas dischaiges.
With this technology, the biightness impioves consideiably ovei that available fiom a CRT. Biilliant,
high-iesolution images have been achieved in medium scieen sizes, but cost iemains a pioblem and theie
is still the challenge of expanding the technology to even laigei scieen sizes.
The appioach that is most likely to succeed duiing the next decade is the use of piojection technology.
These systems aie fundamentally similai to slide oi movie piojectois wheie the flm has been ieplaced
by eithei a tiansmissive oi ieective imaging device that piovides a continuously vaiiable image illumi-
nated and piojected onto a scieen. The image can be fiont piojected oi ieai piojected.
The most piessing challenge iemains: development of an illumination souice that can piovide a
biightei image with bettei colois than CRT technology. If this can be achieved, othei benefts will ow
fiom the technology, with the potential to diastically ieduce powei consumption as well as cabinet size,
weight, and cost. Fuitheimoie, the inheient digital natuie of the imaging panels would make the iesulting
pioduct data compatible foi the much touted meiging of the Inteinet and television piogiamming.
High-iesolution ieai piojection televisions using lamps as the illumination souice aie alieady available
in Japan fiom Sony and Shaip. We can expect to see this type of pioduct in the U.S. maiket this yeai.
Howevei, the oveiall pioduct cost, lamp life, and scieen biightness all need impiovement befoie this
technology moves into the mainstieam.
The technical challenge foi the lighting industiy is to pioduce a miniatuie point souice that deliveis
high effcacy, high coloi tempeiatuie, and long lifetime. The challenge foi the immediate futuie is to
push the aic gap even smallei while extending the lamp life to be compaiable to today`s CRTs and
maintaining lumen output and good coloi tempeiatuie. Fuitheimoie, all these iequiiements have to be
met at a veiy low cost.
The iewaids foi the successful manufactuiei aie immense, consideiing the size of the maiket, not to
mention the spin-off maikets that could pick up on this technology. Duiing the next decade, we aie suie
to see a lot of exciting developments in this aiea, which will ultimately affect oui daily activities. (Adapted
fiom Ian Edwaids, Fundamentals of Lighting", Ots c P|oonts News, Optical Society of Ameiica,
7(11), 20, 1996. With peimission.)
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Effective Apiil 28, 1994, the Fedeial Tiade Commission (FTC) must piovide manufactuieis with labeling
iequiiements foi all lamps coveied: uoiescent, incandescent, and ieectoi incandescent. Though not yet
defned, the pioposals include: an eneigy iating foi the lamps, piobably LPW (lumens pei watt), and eneigy
cost pei yeai to opeiate the lamp. The eneigy effciency label will then allow side-by-side compaiison of two
diffeient lamp types, thus enabling consumeis to make a moie intelligent choice of lamps; taking into account
not just the puichase piice, but also the opeiating cost. Manufactuieis must begin applying labels by Apiil 28,
1995. Table 107.9 shows the pioposed effciency standaids foi the uoiescent lamps, and Table 107.10 shows
the pioposed effciency standaids foi incandescent ieectoi lamps.
Theie is no iequiiement to ieplace all existing lamps in any installation. Howevei, as these lamps buin out,
the ieplacement must meet the new standaids.
Replacement foi populai uoiescent types includes ieduced-wattage eneigy saving types. These lamps will
meet the coloi and effciency standaids, as will the full wattage tiiphosphoi lamps having a CRI ovei 69.
Table 107.11 shows some types of ieplacement lamps. On the incandescent side, ieplacements foi the standaid
incandescent spot and ood lamps will be lowei wattage halogen type ieectoi lamps which do meet the LPW
iequiiements. The halogen and halogen/infiaied types of ieectoi lamps will iemain the only type of such
lamps on the maiket. ER and BR types, those intended foi iough and vibiation seivice will also be excluded heie.
Theie is also a piovision foi lighting fxtuie manufactuieis to come up with voluntaiy luminaiie effciency
standaids. If these standaids aie found to be inadequate, the DOE will come up with the mandatoiy effciency
standaids.
The new Eneigy Policy Act is all-encompassing. It piomises to change foievei the way industiies pioduce,
distiibute, and utilize the valued eneigy iesouices. The end iesult should be incieased eneigy secuiity, decieased
enviionmental emissions, and cleanei aii and watei foi all humankind.
Dehning Terms
Candlepower distribution: A cuive, geneially polai, iepiesenting the vaiiation of luminous intensity of a
lamp oi luminaiie in a plane thiough the light centei.
Cavity ratio (CR): A numbei indicating cavity piopoitions calculated fiom length, width, and height. It is
fuithei defned into ceiling cavity iatio, ooi cavity iatio, and ioom cavity iatio.
Coefncient of utilization (CU): The iatio of the lumens ieaching the woiking plane to the total lumens
geneiated by the lamp. This factoi takes into account the effciency and distiibution of the lumanaiie,
its mounting height, the ioom piopoitions, and the ieectances of the walls, ceiling, and ooi.
TABLE 107.10 The Pioposed
Effciency Standaids foi Incandescent
Reectoi Lamps
Nominal Lamp Minimum Aveiage
Wattage Lamp Effcacy (LPW)
40-50 10.5
51-66 11.0
67-85 12.5
86-115 14.0
116-155 14.5
Noe. The above excludes miniatuie,
decoiative, tiaffc signal, maiine, mine,
stage/studio, iailway, coloied lamps, and
othei special application types.
TABLE 107.11 1992 Eneigy Policy Act - Replacement Lamps
Piesent Type W Acceptable W Impioved Type W Max. Savings W
F96T12/CW 75 F96T12/CW/SS 60 F96T12/D41/SS 60 F096T8/741 59
F96T12/WW 75 F96T12/WW/SS 60 F96T12/D30/SS 60 F096T8/730 59
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Color preference index (CPI): Measuie appiaising a light souice foi appieciative viewing of coloied objects
oi foi piomoting an optimistic viewpoint by atteiy.
Color rendering index (CRI): Measuie of the degiee of coloi shift objects undeigo when illuminated by the
light souice as compaied with the coloi of those same objects when illuminated by a iefeience souice of
compaiable coloi tempeiatuie.
Contrast: The ielationship between the luminances of an object and its immediate backgiound. It is equal
to (L
1
- L
2
)/L
1
wheie L
1
and L
2
aie the luminances of the backgiound and object. The iatio A L/L
1
is also
known as Webei`s fiaction wheie AL L
1
- L
2
.
Contrast rendition factor (CRF): The iatio of visual task contiast with a given lighting enviionment to the
contiast with spheie illumination.
Equivalent sphere illumination (ESI): The level of spheie illumination which would pioduce task visibility
equivalent to that pioduced by a specifc lighting enviionment.
Fenestration: Any opening oi aiiangement of opening (noimally flled with media foi contiol) foi the
admission of daylight.
Footcandle: The unit of illuminance when the foot is taken as the unit of length. It is the illuminance on a
suiface one squaie foot in aiea on which theie is a unifoimly distiibuted ux of one lumen.
Illuminance: The density of luminous ux on a suiface expiessed in eithei footcandles (lumens/ft
2
) oi lux
(lx). (lux 0.0929 fc)
Lighting effectiveness factor (LEF): The iatio of equivalent spheie illumination to oidinaiy measuied oi
calculated illumination.
Light loss factor (LLF): The iatio of the illumination when it ieaches its lowest level at the task just befoie
coiiective action is taken, to the initial level if none of the contiibuting loss factois weie consideied.
Luminance ratio: The iatio between the luminance of two aieas in the visual feld.
Veiling reection: Regulai ieections supeiimposed upon diffuse ieections fiom an object that paitially oi
total obscuie the details to be seen by ieducing the contiast.
Visual comfort probability (VCP): This iating is based in teims of the peicentage of people who will be
expected to fnd the given lighting system acceptable when they aie seated in most undesiiable locations.
Re!ated Tupics
3.1 Voltage and Cuiient Laws 3.4 Powei and Eneigy
Relerences
ANSI/IES, Recommended Piactices foi Industiial Lighting," Illuminating Engineeiing Society, New Yoik, 1991.
K. Chen, Energy E[[ete InJusra| I||umnang Sysems, Lilbuin, Ga.: The Faiimont Piess, 1994.
K. Chen, InJusra| Power Dsr|uon anJ I||umnang Sysems, New Yoik: Maicel Dekkei, 1990.
K. Chen, New concepts in inteiioi lighting design," IEEE Trans. InJusry |taons, Sept./ Oct. 1984.
IES Lg|ng HanJ|oo|, |taon Vo|ume, Illuminating Engineeiing Society, New Yoik, 1993.
Lg|ng HanJ|oo|, Westinghouse Electiic Coipoiation, Bloomfeld, N.J., 1976.
Further Inlurmatiun
L. Watson, Lg|ng Desgn HanJ|oo|, New Yoik.: McGiaw-Hill, 1991. It focuses on the ait and piocess of
lighting design and piovides invaluable, up-to-date technical details on equipment, coloi use, scenic piojection,
laseis, hologiams, fbei-optics, computeis, and eneigy conseivation.
C.L. Robbins, Day|g|ng-Desgn anJ na|yss, New Yoik: Van Nostiand Reinhold, 1986. Oiganized to coi-
iespond to the building design piocess, the book contains data foi calculation of annual cost and eneigy
savings as well as many case studies.
So[ware-Lg|ng Ca|tu|aons |y Zona| Cay Me|oJ, Oiloff Computei Seivices, 1820 E. Gaiiy Ave., Santa
Ana, CA 92705.