IRRIGATION FUNDAMENTALS

GeorgeH.Hargreaves,ProfessorEmeritus,and GaryP.Merkley,Professor BiologicalandIrrigationEngineering UtahStateUniversity

 Preface
The future of the world depends very much on how we manage the natural resources. Since 1900 there has been a ninefold increase in global carbon emissions from burning fossil fuels, and the world population has increased about 3.7 times in this century. Vast areas of forests have been destroyed, and irrigated lands now produce 40% of the food supply. Due to depletion of groundwater reserves and an increaseinpopulation,irrigatedareapercapitaisdeclining.Consequently,theirrigationofadditionalalluvial landsisastrategicnecessityforallofhumankind. Much of the alluvial lands cannot be made productive without prior development of water resources in the form of flood control, drainage and irrigation. The production of electricity through hydropower and the production of alcohol from irrigated crops, as has been practiced in Brazil, can slow the increase in carbon emissions. Such diverse developments are typically not separable; rather, they must be considered as integral parts of a comprehensive development plan. The conservation of natural resources and increasing of productivity of irrigated lands are also strategic necessities. Much of the currenttechnologyis highlytransferableandcropyieldscanbesignificantlyincreasedonlandsalreadyunderirrigation. Theauthorshaveworkedinmanycountriesinconnectionwithresourceinventories,teaching,andthe planning, development and use of irrigation as a tool for increasing production and providing employment. They have written extensively and have been honored for their achievements. They have considerable experience with everything from primitive lowtechnology irrigation developments to highly developed irrigationintheUSAandindozensofcountriesaroundtheworld.Bothoftheauthorshavededicatedtheir careers to teaching, research and consulting in agricultural irrigation and water resources development and planning. It is their hope and expectation that this book will provide incentives for investigating and documenting land and water resources, improving development, increasing crop yields, conserving resources,andimprovingtheenvironment. WewouldliketoacknowledgethefacultyoftheDepartmentofBiologicalandIrrigationEngineeringat Utah State University for their input during the preparation of this book. Many thanks are also due to Mr. BabukananKasilingamforhelpingtoproofreadthematerialandforofferingvaluablesuggestions.Thisbook isdedicatedtoourwives,SaraHargreavesandPongpanMerkley.

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Contents
1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 1
1.1 1.2 A Definition of Irrigation ................................................................................................................. 1 Statistical Perspectives of Agricultural Irrigation ........................................................................... 2

2. FACTORS INFLUENCING CROP PRODUCTION ................................................... 5

2.1. 2.2. 2.4. 2.5. 2.6. 2.7. 2.8. Introduction................................................................................................................................ 5 Temperature, Radiation, and Evaporative Potential ................................................................. 5 Soil Fertility and Fertilizers ........................................................................................................ 9 Water Availability and Distribution .......................................................................................... 13 Soil Aeration and Drainage ..................................................................................................... 15 Plant Density, Spacing and Leaf Area Index .......................................................................... 16 Crop Variety ............................................................................................................................ 17

3. AGRICULTURAL SOILS ........................................................................................ 19

3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. 3.5. 3.6. 3.7. 3.8. 3.9. 3.10. 3.11. Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 19 Soil Texture and Structure ...................................................................................................... 19 Soil Classification and Evaluation ........................................................................................... 20 Bureau of Reclamation Land Classification ............................................................................ 21 Soil Age and Topography........................................................................................................ 22 Soil Chemistry ......................................................................................................................... 23 Infiltration Rates ...................................................................................................................... 23 Soil-Water Relationships ......................................................................................................... 25 Equations for Soil Water Content ............................................................................................ 27 Soil Water Potential ................................................................................................................. 28 Measuring Soil Water Content ................................................................................................ 29

4. EVALUATING OTHER IRRIGATION RESOURCES .............................................. 31

4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4. 4.5. Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 31 Climate .................................................................................................................................... 31 Hydrology ................................................................................................................................ 32 Human and Other Factors ...................................................................................................... 34 Integrated Development .......................................................................................................... 36

5. IRRIGATION METHODS ........................................................................................ 38

5.1. 5.2. 5.3. 5.4. 5.5. 5.6. 5.7. 5.8. 5.9. 5.10. 5.11. 5.12. 5.13. Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 38 Graded Border Irrigation ......................................................................................................... 38 Basin Irrigation ........................................................................................................................ 39 Contour Levees ....................................................................................................................... 39 Furrow Irrigation ...................................................................................................................... 40 Sub-Irrigation ........................................................................................................................... 41 Sprinkle Irrigation .................................................................................................................... 42 Drip or Trickle Irrigation ........................................................................................................... 43 Selecting an Irrigation Method ................................................................................................ 44 Land Grading and Leveling ..................................................................................................... 46 Laser-Leveling Equipment and Practices ............................................................................... 47 Computing Diagonal Slopes ................................................................................................... 49 Irrigation System Evaluation ................................................................................................... 49

6. CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS.......................................................................... 53

6.1. 6.2. Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 53 Direct Methods ........................................................................................................................ 53

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6.3. 6.4. 6.5. 6.6. 6.7. 6.8.

Indirect Methods ...................................................................................................................... 54 Potential Evaporation .............................................................................................................. 54 Reference Evapotranspiration ................................................................................................ 55 Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation ............................................................................................... 59 Irrigation Requirements ........................................................................................................... 62 Crop Coefficients ..................................................................................................................... 62

7. IRRIGATION SCHEDULING .................................................................................. 69

7.1. 7.2. 7.3. 7.4. 7.5. Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 69 Crop Rooting Depth and Allowable Water Depletion .............................................................. 69 Monitoring Soil Water ................................................................................................................. 72 Scheduling Irrigations.............................................................................................................. 75 Rice Irrigation .......................................................................................................................... 75

8. DRAINAGE ............................................................................................................. 77
8.1. 8.2. 8.3. 8.4. 8.5. 8.6. 8.7. Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 77 Benefits of Drainage................................................................................................................ 77 Surface Drainage .................................................................................................................... 78 Subsurface Drainage .............................................................................................................. 78 Spacing of Drains .................................................................................................................... 80 Types of Drains ....................................................................................................................... 83 Solving Salt Problems ............................................................................................................. 84

9. FLOW MEASUREMENT ........................................................................................ 87

9.1. 9.2. 9.3. 9.4. 9.5. 9.6. 9.7. 9.8. 9.9. 9.10. 9.11. Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 87 Fundamental Concepts ........................................................................................................... 87 Flow Measurement Accuracy .................................................................................................. 88 Simple Open-Channel Measurement Methods ....................................................................... 89 Weirs ....................................................................................................................................... 92 Sharp-Crested Weir Discharge Equations .............................................................................. 93 Flumes..................................................................................................................................... 97 Broad-Crested Weirs............................................................................................................. 102 Calibration of Canal Gates .................................................................................................... 105 Commercial Flow Meters ...................................................................................................... 108 Current Metering ................................................................................................................... 108

10.

POLICIES AND MANAGEMENT ....................................................................... 112

Introduction............................................................................................................................ 112 Water Management............................................................................................................... 112 Selecting a Crop Mix ............................................................................................................. 114 Irrigated Farm Size ................................................................................................................ 115 Watershed Management ....................................................................................................... 116 Organization and Management............................................................................................. 117 Groundwater Wells................................................................................................................ 118 Water Law and Water Rights ................................................................................................ 118 Making Irrigation Profitable ................................................................................................... 119

10.1. 10.2. 10.3. 10.4. 10.5. 10.6. 10.7. 10.8. 10.9.

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1.

INTRODUCTION

IRRIGATION FUNDAMENTALS is a comprehensive text on the basic principles and practices of applied agriculturalirrigation.Thebookisforusebyteachersofintroductorycoursesinirrigation,farmerswhohave somebasictechnicalknowledge,andforadministratorswhoneedageneralunderstandingofirrigationasan aid for policy decisions in water resource development and planning. However, each of the subject areas presented in this book can only be considered as introductions, and the design of irrigation systems is not included herein. The interested reader can delve much deeper into each of the areas by referring to other more specialized materials, including several excellent texts on the various aspects of irrigation system design which are currently available. Many of these books and manuals are listed in the references and bibliographyatthebackofthisbook. Recent developments and new technology are included herein when they have obvious practical applications,butforthemostpartthematerialpresentedinthisbookisbasedonwellestablishedprinciples and practices. Much of the content is very practical and much is essentially nontechnical. Nevertheless, some of the material covered in this book goes beyond the basic concepts in an attempt to more fully describetherelationshipsandtechniquesemployedbyirrigationscientistsandirrigationengineers.

1.1

ADefinitionofIrrigation

Irrigationhasbeenpracticedformorethan5,000yearsandwasessentialtothedevelopmentofsome of the early civilizations. The earliest irrigation was by gravity diversion and from water lifters powered by man, animals, or by the flow of water. In an industrial or technological age, opportunities and methods for irrigation are greatly expanded. The earliest civilizations recognized that the essential elements for plant growth are water, energy, and plant nutrients. The use of level basins surrounded by dikes or small ridges becamecommonforriceproductionandforotherfoodgrains.Currentirrigationpracticesincludeavariety of surface irrigation methods, sprinkle, mist, and drip or trickle systems. Good irrigation practices require attempts at optimizing crop yields and or profits by considering the influence of crop variety, planting density,soilaeration,andothermanagementpracticesonyields. Thetermirrigationissometimesusedwithreferencetobothwatersupplytocropsanddrainage.In fact, many discussions of irrigation are woefully incomplete without considerations for drainage, especially when considering farming systems and integrated agricultural production. Irrigation may be treated separately when discussing the design of onfarm water application systems, but drainage must be given equal importance from a holistic viewpoint if agriculture is to prosper in a given area for more than a few years. Provisions for the drainage of excess surface and subsurface water are always necessary for sustainable agriculture. However, in some cases the natural drainage is adequate (e.g. the land is situated significantly above existing waterways) and no infrastructure is needed to remove excess water from irrigation,rain,runoff,etc.Inafewagriculturalareasinthetropicstherainfallisusuallymorethanadequate tomeetcropwaterrequirements,anddrainagesystemsaremoreimportantthanirrigationsystemsinthese areas. The water supplies from streams, reservoirs, wells, or other sources are frequently limited compared totheareasofrelativelygoodlandsuitableforirrigationandthedemandsforcropsthatcanbeproducedon irrigated lands. Irrigation science is becoming increasingly concerned with questions relative to how much land to irrigate with the available supplies and at what cost. In some geographical regions, population

growth exceeds increases in food production. There is a need for a rapid expansion in irrigation for decreasingrisksinagricultureandforincreasingfoodproduction.Yetarapidexpansioninirrigationmaynot be consistent with sound planning for overall future resource development. Rapid development with currenttechnologymaycontaminatewatersupplies,causingseriousproblemsforfuturegenerations. Powers (1994) defines water management as controlling supply distribution and usage of water for specified purposes. Irrigation management consists of determining when to irrigate, the amount to apply at each irrigation and during each stage of plant growth, and the operation and maintenance of theirrigationsystem,atthesametimetakingintoconsiderationtheavailabilityofwaterandtheoverall waterbalance.Theoverallwaterbalanceinvolvesinflowsandoutflowsfromanirrigatedarea,generally includingbothsurfaceandsubsurfacehydrologicinteractions. Therearevariousdefinitionsforirrigation,eachdependingontheperspectiveordisciplinefrom which it is derived. However, a common and general definition for irrigation is the application of water to the soil for the purpose of supporting plant growth. More specifically, there are several objectives that are typically to be accomplished by irrigation: (1) to add water to the plant root zone for plant growth;(2)toprovidesoilwaterstorageasinsuranceagainstshortdurationdrought;(3)tocoolthesoil and or air around the plants, creating a more favorable microenvironment for plant growth; (4) to reduce or eliminate the detrimental effects of shortduration frost;(5)toleachordilutesaltsinthesoil; (6) to soften hard pans and soil clods; (7) to delay bud formation by evaporative cooling; and (8) to dispose of effluent from farms. These are not all of the objectives that can be cited for irrigation, and onlyafewofthosementionedabovewouldbeappliedinanygivencase,butcollectivelytheyrepresent themajorreasonsforirrigatinginagriculturalareas.

1.2

StatisticalPerspectivesofAgriculturalIrrigation

An estimated 17% of global cropland is irrigated and produces about 40% of the worlds food. The remaining 83% of cropland is unirrigated, or rainfed. Of the total irrigated area in the world today, about 10%suffersfromsalinizationseriousenoughtolimitcropyields.Thesalinizationisincreasingbyabouttwo million hectares annually. Large areas of irrigated lands depend on groundwater overdraft,orgroundwater mining.FortypercentofthefreshwatersupplyinthewesternUSAisfromgroundwater,andmanyformer agricultural areas have been abandoned because the aquifers were severely depleted, making it uneconomicaltocontinuepumping.Overdraftofaquiferscanresultinirreversibledamagewhentheaquifer partially collapses due to voids from the extraction of water. The percent of irrigation from groundwater overdraft is estimated at 10% for China, 33% for Iran, and 75% for the Arabian peninsula. Aquifers in north Africa, at least six of the western states of the USA, central Mexico and other areas are being depleted. A large and ancient aquifer in Libya is currently being pumped for irrigation and other purposes, and it is estimated that the supply will be exhausted within 50 years because there is essentially no recharge from rain.Industrialanddomesticdemandsforwaterareprojectedtoincreaseby30%to50%duringthenext30 years. The per capita food grain production has declined by 15% since 1984. There is an increasing need to preservenature,wildlife,andtheenvironment.However,natureandwildlifehavelittlechanceofenduring without serious deterioration where many people are poor, hungry, or unemployed. No nation can successfully nurture progress in an impoverished environment, and ample food availability often requires improvingtheuseoflandandwaterresources.Thus,theimportanceofirrigationhasneverbeengreater.

Demographers have projected a doubling of the world population within the next 50 years to more than 10 billion people (Brown 1996). Such a large growth rate will cause severe stress on the environment and on the ability for agriculture to provide sufficient food. Many experts have predicted widespread famines and regional food shortages in the coming decades. Investments in irrigation and water resources managementwillbecomemoreimportantinthecomingyears.Muchoftheseinvestmentswillcomeinthe form of improved water management and productivity, not in the form of horizontal expansion with new land developments. There has been a more than 100% increase in total food production in the developing world during the past 30 years, but per capita agricultural production has only slightly increased, except for someareasofAsiawheretheincreasehasbeen40%ormore.Itwillbeanincreasinglydifficultchallengefor agriculturalproductiontokeeppacewithworldpopulationgrowth. Many areas in the developing world with recently completed irrigation projects have experienced moderate to high soil erosion. Much of this problem is due to a lack of experience with irrigation in areas that were traditionally farmed with rainfed (nonirrigated) crops, or where there was previously no agricultural production. The potential for the development of new lands under irrigation is greatest in central and south America, and in subSaharan Africa. But the development costs in subSaharan Africa are projectedtobemuchhigherthaninsouthAmerica. There are roughly 250 million irrigated hectares in the world. The USA has some 20 millionirrigatedhectares,ofwhichabout60%is Australia Europe South America 1% irrigated by gravity or surface methods 11% 3% North America (furrows,basins,borders,etc.),and30%orsois 13% sprinkler irrigated. About 17% of the irrigated area in the USA is in California, with Texas and Nebraska having the second and third largest Africa irrigatedareasinthiscountry. 5% Asia 67% The USA uses an estimated 120,000 millioncubicmetersofirrigationwaterperyear on some 240,000 farms. Nearly half of the irrigation water in the USA is pumped from groundwater wells, and the average annual application is about 570 mm. Irrigated agriculture in the western USA typically uses 80% to 85% ofallfresh water diverted or pumped for agriculture, industry, municipalities, and other purposes. But much of the surfacewaterfromriversandlakesisnotdivertedbecauseofenvironmentalconcernsiteventuallyflows out to the sea. Therefore, irrigated agriculture uses only about 20 25% of all surface runoff and pumped groundwater. Return flows from irrigation (surface and subsurface) tend to decrease the benefits of improved irrigation efficiency, except in terms of the cost of applying the water in the first place, and in the usualwaterqualitydegradation.Waterprojectsandwatercostsforirrigationaregovernmentsubsidizedin mostcasesaroundtheworld,includingmanyprojectsinthewesternUSA. Worldwide, more than 95% of the irrigated area is by surface methods, and more than half of the irrigated area is found in five countries: India, China, USA, Russia, and Pakistan. Thus, most of the irrigated lands in the world are in Asia, where some 90% of the world rice production area is located and approximatelyhalfofthepopulationisemployedintheagriculturalsector(FAO1981).Therearealsolarge areas in the world with agricultural production under rainfed, or nonirrigated, conditions. Many areas in southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent rely on rain for irrigation water, but these regions also have

hundredsofirrigationprojectsthatsupplementrainandallowfordryseasonproduction.Evensomeofthe rainiest regions of the world have periods of no rain and occasional years of relative drought, and irrigation systemsintheseregionscanprovideformuchmoreconsistentagriculturalproduction. Egypt is about 15th in terms of irrigated area, but unlike the other countries with a relatively large irrigated area, Egypt relies almost exclusively on irrigation for agricultural production. Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world and is estimated to have about 8% of the fresh water in the world, yet this country is not among the top ten in terms of irrigated area. There is much potential for further irrigation development in Brazil and in other areas of south America, but in many other regions of the world the prospects for the development of new irrigated lands are relatively low. This is because the best and most fertile lands have already been developed, and new lands would require relatively large investments with higheroperationalcosts,andpossiblylowerpotentialagriculturalproductionlevels. The 20th century has seen dramatic expansion of the total irrigated area in the world. It is estimated that in the year 1900 about 40 million hectares were irrigated around the world. Thus, during the 20th centurytherehasbeenasixfoldincreaseinirrigatedarea.Thepeakirrigationdevelopmentperiodsawthe additionofabout6millionhectaresperyearofpreviouslyunirrigatedland.Currently,thedevelopmentrate islessthan4millionhectaresperyear. Irrigation projects are often designed around an average flow rate capacity of about one lps per hectare. Development costs range from about USD $2,000 to $10,000 per hectare, or more. The lowest development costs tend to be in Asia (India in particular) and the highest costs are in subSaharan Africa. Drainage systems costs are typically from about USD $1,000 to $2000 per hectare. The global average cost for irrigation and drainage development is USD $5,000 to $6,000 per hectare. Poor drainage and flooding are the primary constraints to agricultural productivity in many areas of the world, and production and developmentcostsarecloselylinkedtopetroleumprices(energyandfertilizers). The maturity of an irrigation project is reflected by the proportion of operational and maintenance (O&M) costs that are borne by the irrigators themselves. The O&M costs are heavily subsidized in many of themorerecentirrigationprojectsaroundtheworld,andtheprojectstaffareoftengovernmentemployees. However, current trends are toward privatization (or transfer) of irrigation projects, often with resultant improvementsinO&Mandprofitability.

2.

FACTORSINFLUENCINGCROPPRODUCTION
Introduction

2.1.

Manyirrigationdevelopmentprojectshavebeenundertakenaroundtheworld,andmanyhavefailed to produce the anticipated benefits. There are several reasons why benefits and productivity may be less thandesired.However,oneoftheimportantconsiderationsisthecomplexityoftheknowledgerequiredfor rapid progress in agricultural productivity. The engineer may design good facilities, the construction company may follow good practices, and the water supply may be adequate. But frequently not enough attentionhasbeengiventothefactorsofproductionotherthanwater. Agriculturaltechnologyhasadvancedrapidlyduringthelasthalfcentury.Insomeareasaveragecrop yieldshavemorethandoubled.Forafewcropsyieldshavequadrupled.Irrigationisameansforadvancing to a higher technological level, and it should be used as a means of advancing to a higher level of productivity, creating a middle class in agriculture in developing countries, optimizing farm income from available resources, improving the environment, conserving the resources, and other objectives. For these reasonsitisdesirablethataknowledgeofthefactorsofcropproductionbedevelopedasanintroductionto animprovedunderstandingoftheimportanceofirrigation. Water is only one of several factors that influence the yield and productivity of agricultural crops. Plantdiseasesandcompetitionfromweedsmayhavesignificantinfluenceonwhetherornotitisprofitable toirrigateagivencrop.Ifdiseasesandweedsareadequatelycontrolled,cropyieldsarelargelydetermined by six factors of production. These are: (1) energy (airtemperatureandsolarradiation);(2)soilfertilityand fertilizers;(3)wateravailabilityanddistribution;(4)soilaerationanddrainage;(5)plantdensity(spacingand leafareaindex);and(6)cropvarietyorcultivar. Crop production is a complex science. Failure to give proper consideration to any of the principal factors of production may reduce yields significantly below their potentials. Poor soil aeration or a poor selection of the variety to be planted may reduce potential yields to only half of the amount otherwise possible.Theproblemsofthedevelopingcountriesthatresultfromlowagriculturalproductivityandrapidly increasing populations have no simple solutions. Irrigation and water management alone, or adequate use offertilizerswithlittleattentiontotheotherfactorsofproduction,maynotproducesatisfactorycropyields. However, when all factors of production are improved, irrigation and fertilization may become very importantaskeyelementsforincreasingcropproduction. In many instances irrigation developments have failed to meet preproject expectations of yields and benefits. This failure may not be due to deficiencies in engineering design. In many cases water management,includingbothirrigationanddrainage,hasbeenlessthanadequate.Inothercasesthemajor deficiencieshavebeenrelatedtootherfactorsofproduction.Therefore,itisappropriatetobrieflydescribe the principal factors of production before presenting details relative to irrigation, drainage, and water management.

2.2.

Temperature,Radiation,andEvaporativePotential

Crop growth and development are influenced by temperature, solar radiation, the evaporative potential, and the daily temperature range. The total number of growing degree days is usually used in the

cropgeneticcoefficientsformodelingcropgrowthanddevelopment.Growingdegreedaysarecalculatedin several different ways dependinguponthecroptypeandtheyieldmodel.Withinarangeoftemperatures, potential crop yields have frequently been shown to be linearly related (proportional) to the evaporative potential. The optimum plant density or optimum leaf area index can be demonstrated to be a function of solar radiation. The optimum mean temperature range for a given plant species varies somewhat with the differentcultivarsofthespeciesandwiththedailytemperaturerange. Whataregrowingdegreedays? Growing degree days, or GDD, are the basis for a type of phenological clock, which is used to estimate the durationsofdifferentgrowthstagesforsomecroptypes.Thisisalsoreferredtoasaheatunitclock.Fora given crop or group of crops, experimental results are used to determine maximum and minimum temperatures,orcardinaltemperatures.Formaize,thesemightbe10Cand30C(50Fand86F).AGDD is calculated as the average air temperature minus the specified minimum temperature, but for any given day it cannot be less than zero nor greater than the difference between the cardinal temperatures. Daily values of GDD are accumulated and compared with established values that signify the end of a particular cropgrowthstage.Thus,thisaccountsfortheeffectthatwarmerweatherhas(withinlimits)onaccelerating cropgrowth.Variousotherphenologicalclockshavebeenproposedandappliedbyresearchers. Crop growth and development are influenced by photoperiod sensitivity, that is, latitude and day length. Crop yield models frequently contain a photoperiod sensitivity coefficient. The daily temperature range(differencebetweenmaximumandminimumairtemperaturesovera24hourperiod)canbeusedto estimatesolarradiationandminimumrelativehumidity.Optimummeantemperaturesforplantgrowthare influencedbysolarradiationandrelativehumidity,orbythedailyairtemperaturerange.Researchwithone potatocultivarindicatesthatalowtemperaturerangeincreasestheoptimummeanairtemperature.Some crops produce best when the temperature range is low. Theoptimumtemperatureforplantgrowthisalso influenced by other factors. Maize produced on a well aerated soil may produce maximum growth at a mean temperature of 28C, but with poor soil aeration, growth rates may decline for temperatures above 21C. Hargreaves and Samani (1987) reviewed the available literature and listed optimum and operative temperature ranges for the five crop groups from FAO (1978). The list given in Table 2.1 is a somewhat expanded version oftheirlist,withadditionsfromAdams(1953)andLorenzandMaynard(1988).Itshould beusedonlyasaguide,becausethemostfavorabletemperaturerangeisinfluencedbythecropcultivaras wellasclimaticfactorinteractions. Several crop species are listed in more than one crop group. Different cultivars or varieties of the samecropspecieshavedifferenttemperaturerequirements.Also,highrelativehumidityisassociatedwitha low daily temperature range. Relative humidity and or temperature range may significantly alter the optimum temperature range for some crops. From the lower value of the operative range up to the lower temperatureshownintheoptimumrange,therelativegrowthrateincreaseswithtemperature.Therateof increaseusuallydecreasessomewhatwithincreasingtemperature,butformanycropsalinearincreasewith temperatureprovidesareasonableestimateinthisrange.Oncetheoptimumtemperaturerangeisreached, the relative growth rate tends to level out with increasing temperature, then declines as optimum temperaturesareexceeded.

Table2.1.Optimumandoperativetemperaturesforselectedcrops.
CropGroupI Optimum temperature: 1520C; operative range: 530C arabica coffee, artichoke, asparagus, barley, beet, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, carnations, carrot, cauliflower, celery, chard, chayote, chickpea, chrysanthemum, crucifers, cucumber, French bean, garlic, gladiola, grape, green onion, lima bean, lentils, lettuce, linseed (flax), muskmelon, mustard, oats, olives, onions, parsley, parsnip, peas, pumpkin, potato, rape, roses, rye, snap bean, southern pea, spinach, squash, strawberry, sugar beet, sunflower, sweet corn, sweet pepper, tomato,andwheat. Optimum temperature: 2530C; operative range: 1035C avocados, banana, cassava, castor bean, cocoa, coconut, cotton, crow pea, eggplant, fig, French bean, grape, greater yam, groundnut, hot pepper, hyacinth bean, kenaf, mango, okra, oil palm, olive, para rubber, rice, robusta coffee, roselle, safflower, sesame, sunflower, sweet potato, tobacco, tomato, water melon,andwhiteyam. Optimum temperature: 3035C; operative range: 1545C corn (maize), rice, millet, sorghum,andsugarcane. Optimumtemperature:2030C;operativerange:1035Cmaize,millet,andsorghum. Optimumtemperature:2535C;operativerange:1045Cpineapple,andsisal.

CropGroupII

CropGroupIII CropGroupIV CropGroupV

Theoptimumtemperaturesformanytreecropsareinfluencedbythegrowthcyclestage.Citruscrops produce well in a wide range of climatic conditions, but the temperature range should be from 5 to 38C. Thereshouldbefreedomfromkillingfrosts(1or2C).Maximumtemperaturesforalmonds,figs,peaches, pears,andprunesshouldnotexceed38C.Exceptforcitrus,thesecropsrequireadormantseasonproduced by low winter temperatures. Apples and apricots should have maximum temperature of 30C, or less, and cherriesshouldhaveanapproximateairtemperatureof20Cduringtheperiodoffruitproduction.Mostof the bush berries, blackberries, dewberries, logan berries, young berries, and raspberries prefer warm (but nothot)sunnydaysduringaboutsixmonthsfromleafout(firstemergenceofleaves)untiltheendofthe harvestseason.Temperaturesduringthegrowthandfruitproductioncycleshouldnotfallbelow4C,norbe above25C. Figure2.1presentsrelativegrowthratesforfourcropsfromresearchplotmeasurements.Theserates are typical but vary with other factors and with cultivars of the plant species. Figure 2.2 indicates the approximate average relationship between mean temperature and the leaf photosynthesis rate. One must keep in mind that there is considerable variation from these averages due to differences in variety and in otherfactorssuchasthedailytemperaturerange. 2.3ClimateChange Carbon emissions from the burning of fossil fuels are increasing. This has resulted in about 0.5C increase in average global temperature. As the temperature rises, more energy is released into the atmosphere. Storms become more intense, violent, and destructive. Crop and vegetative suitability are determined by temperature and precipitation, and an average increase in temperature of 0.5C has already produced a measurable change in crop adaptation. But, the modeling of the effect of climate change on precipitation has many uncertainties, and it seems probable that there will be some shifting of rainfall amountsfurtherfromtheequatorintemperatezones.

Whatisatemperatezone? Either of two intermediate latitude regions of the earth: the northern temperate zone, between the Arctic Circle and the Tropic of Cancer, and the southern temperate zone, between the Antarctic Circle andtheTropicofCapricorn.Thetropicsliebetweenthetemperatezones. AnanalysisofclimaticdatafromtheUnitedStatesandtheformerSovietUnionindicatesthatisolines oftemperaturehaveshiftedabout60kmtothenorthwithanaverageincreaseinthelengthofthefrostfree growingseasonoffiveormoredays.Annualvaluesofreferenceevapotranspiration(ETo)haveincreasedby 12 to 30 mm due to the rise in temperature. The result has been a decline in wheat and corn yields due to thehigheraveragetemperaturesinthecornandwheatbelts.Theshiftof60kmfurthernorthofthezones mostsuitableforthesecropsmaynotchangethepotentialmuch,buttheshiftmaybecontinuing.Also,the infrastructureandfarmingpracticeswillprobablybeslowtoadapttothischange. It has been forecast that average global temperatures will rise by 3C during the next 100 years. The global warming trend, if it continues, can have various potential impacts on irrigated agriculture. Some of thepossiblebenefitsarelongergrowingseasonsandmorerainfall.Someofthepossibledrawbacksinclude more frequent and more severe droughts, more severe flooding, and more salinization of soils. It has also been suggested by some scientists that global warming will lead to an overall decrease in agricultural productionsometimeinthefuture.

2.4.

SoilFertilityandFertilizers

The application of an optimum amount of fertilizer often has the potential for doubling crop yields over those possible without fertilization. The productivity and economic viability of newly developed irrigation projects often depend to a large degree upon the proficiency of fertility management. Plants require several nutrients from the soil, and others from the air. These nutrients include nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur and others. Plant roots can typically absorb only a limited number of chemical compounds of the required nutrients,whichmeansthatorganicdecomposition and mineral weathering in the soil are needed to support plant growth. Organic decomposition usually occurs on a large scale in an agricultural soil through the activities of many types of bacteria and other microorganisms, and the presence of sufficient nitrogen in the soil is critical for sustained levels of bacterial activity. Many manufactured fertilizers have a predominance of nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium, oftenwithsometraceelementssuchaszinc,andmanganese.Largerplants,suchasmaize(corn),tendto require more nitrogen than the smaller plants because nitrogen is critical in supporting vegetative growth. Someoftherequiredplantnutrientsareactuallytoxictotheplantswhensmallconcentrationsareexceeded inthesoil.Forexample,boronisrequiredbymostplants,butwhenthereismorethanonepartpermillion inthesoilwateritcanseverelyrestrictgrowthandproductionformanycroptypes. Fertilizerscantaketheformofanimalwaste,plantmaterialandindustrialproducts.Somecroptypes are referred to as green manure and are used to improve soil fertility and physical soil characteristics. Green manure is a crop grown not to be harvested in the traditional sense, but to be disked or plowed into the soil where it will decay. Industrial, or manufactured, fertilizers are not natural like animal manure or vegetative matter, but contain the same basic soil nutrients and are no more of a contaminant than manure. Problems with using animal waste as fertilizer are the potential healthhazardinhandling,andthe possibility of large amounts of weed seed. Nevertheless, animal manure has the advantage that it directly adds organic matter to the soil, which can be a significant benefit for some soils. Compost is also used for fertilizers,butusuallyonarelativelysmallscale,thatis,onsmallplotsofland.

 The most common forms of nitrogen fertilizer are ammonium sulfate and ammonium nitrate, but anhydrous ammonia is also used extensively in the USA. Standard fertilizer classifications include the percentagesbyweightofnitrogen,phosphorous,andpotassium(NPK).Thesearethethreemainfertilizer components typically added to agricultural soils, but other chemical compounds are commonly added in much smaller quantities. As an example of an NPK specification, an 181818 fertilizer will have 18% N by weight, 18% P and 18% K, with the remaining 46% being inert or filler material. The second figure is, in fact,traditionallyrepresentativeoftheamountofphosphate(P2O5),andthethirdvalueisthepercentweight ofpotash(K2O)ifthesevalueswereinpurePandKthepercentageswouldbelower. Doorenbos and Kassam (1979) provide a list of ranges of fertilizer requirements for twentysix crops. The ranges in requirements for nitrogen (N) for leguminous crops vary from zero to 40 kg per ha, and for nonleguminouscrops,from40to300kgperhectare.Forphosphate(P2O5)andpotash(K2O)therangesare 15to110and24to480kgperhectare,respectively.Theresultsfromfieldtrials,soiltesting,laboratorypot tests, known interactions, and crop yield models can be very useful for determining the desirable amounts andfrequenciesoffertilizerapplications. Doorenbos and Kassam (1979) also give a table that includes fertilizer requirements for the growing period of different crop types. Table 2.2 is a summary of the fertilizer requirements from their table. It is seen that fertilizer requirements can vary significantly. For legumes a booster of about 20 kg of nitrogen usually produces good results. For other crops most require at least 100 kg of nitrogen per hectare. The averageP2O5andK2Orequirementsareabout100kgperhectareformostagriculturalcrops. Table 2.2. Fertilizer requirements in kg per ha for the growing periods of various crops (adapted from DoorenbosandKassam1979). CropType Nitrogen Phosphate Potash Range Average Range Average Range Average Bananas&pineapple 200400 282 108156 129 132576 309 Orchardsandgrapes 100250 168 84168 122 60276 194 Legumes 040 22 36156 101 30192 89 Foodgrains 100200 135 48192 101 30144 85 Vegetables 80170 109 60264 132 42192 131 Fieldcrops 40200 106 36216 106 30192 108 Theyieldresponsetofertilizercanbeshownasafunctionoftheamountapplied.IfYiscropyieldand Fisfertilizeramount,atypicalyieldfunctionmaybeapproximatedbytheequation:

Y = a + bF cF (2.1) in which a is equal to the yield with no application of fertilizer, F; b is the initial slope of the yield curve (the increase in Y divided by the increase in F for the first 25 to 50 kg per ha of F applied); and c is determined from the amount of F required when Y is at a maximum. If water is limited, the values of a,b,andcwillbe different than the values corresponding to full water adequacy; however, the mathematical form of the relationshipwillbesimilar.
2

10

Equation 2.1 can be used to represent results from research with various applications of N, P, or K. Equations derived for one production factor are useful. However, a knowledge of the interactions of two factors of production is usually more useful. Lines of equal yield or of equal benefit or net profit, can be developed graphically as functions of two factors. Figure 2.3 indicates isoquants (lines of equal yields) of average cotton lint production from three years of field results in the San Joaquin Valley of California. The shape of the interaction for nitrogen and water on yield is typical for many crops. It appears that the optimum average application of N in kilograms per hectare for these cotton trials is about 0.18 times the wateravailabilityinmillimeterspercropseason. Figure 2.4 gives isoquants of maize production from several years of research. The optimum N fertilization in kilograms per hectare appears to be about 0.32 times seasonal evapotranspiration in millimeters.Figures2.3and2.4presentisoquantsofaverageyields.Agivenprobabilityofyieldsuchasthe 75% probability of assured yield can be used to indicate the dependability of yield. Some studies have produced isoquants of average net profits and comparisons of average profits with those at the 75% probabilitylevel.Similargraphshavebeenpreparedforvariouscrops.Theshapeoftheresultingisoquants hasusuallybeensimilartothoseinFigs.2.3and2.4.

AtypicalequationforoptimumapplicationsofNinkilogramsperhectarecanbewrittenasafunction of total seasonal crop evapotranspiration in millimeters of water depth (ETa). The equation states that the optimalapplicationofnitrogenistheproductofacoefficientandthecropwateruserate: N = K (ETa ) (2.2)

11

 in which K is an empirical coefficient determined from the available research data for a particular crop type andlocation;ETaistheactualcropwateruserateinmmperseason;andNisinkg/ha. Yielddatawereevaluatedfromresearchtrialsformaize,wheat,cotton,andsugarbeets.Theapparent averageoptimumvaluesofKforthedataevaluatedwere0.32,0.12,0.18,and0.15,respectively.Foroneset ofresearchdataoncottonyieldsavalueofK=0.10wasobtained.Thisvalueseemslow.However,different varieties of the same crop species respond differently to fertilization. Although the shape of the interaction seemsquitegeneral,themagnitudemayvarysignificantlywithvarietyandwiththeinfluenceofotherplant nutrients,climate,management,orotherfactors. Figure 2.5presentsanaverageinteractionofnitrogen(N)andphosphate(P2O5)onaverageisoquants of yield for dryland maize production. There was some uncertainty with respect to the value of the intercept. This was further evaluated by graphing the interactions of P2O5 and N on net profits for various probabilities of yields. Based upon the isoquants of estimated profits, the relationship of P2O5 = 15 + 0.2N, with a maximum value of N = 150 kg/ha seems to be a very satisfactory representation of the optimum interactiononyieldsandprofits.Forsomefieldtrialstheapplicationoffertilizerdoublednetbenefits. Perhaps a useful analogy with respect to crop production factors is that when a containerhasseveral holes along one side, it can only be filled with water up to the lowest hole. Any one of the factors of production or any essential element for crop growth can, if seriously limiting or deficient, determine the upper limit of crop yields even though all other considerations are near optimum. For many agricultural cropsandconditionsthemostseriousorcriticallimitingfactorwillbeeitherwaterornitrogen,orboth.

12

2.5.

WaterAvailabilityandDistribution

Water is absorbed by the plant roots from the soil solution, passes up through the plant and is transpiredorevaporatedfromtheleaves.Wateralsoevaporatesfromsoilandplantsurfaces.Itisdifficultto measure the amounts of evaporation and transpiration separately. For that reason they are usually measured or estimated together as evapotranspiration. The major portion of consumptive use of water by crops is transpiration. Within the range of suitable temperatures, crop growth and production are approximately proportional to transpiration and for practical purposes are frequently assumed to be proportionaltocropwateruse,orevapotranspiration(ET). Waterfromirrigationorrainisnotuniformlyavailabletothecropassomeportionsofthefieldreceive more water than others. Within the same field, soils may not be uniform and water holding capacities and infiltration rates may vary considerably. Consequently, when water becomes fully adequate for all portions of the field there will be considerable excess or waste from some portions. As maximum yields are approached, efficiencies decline, producing an approximately exponential relationship between yields and wateravailability. Hargreaves(1975)obtainedcropyielddatafromvariouscropsandresearchtrialsandcomparedyields to the water available (initial soil water stored in the soil plus growing season rainfall plus irrigation water applied). Relative crop yields (Y) were used in order to compare different crops and yield units. A value of unity for Y was used for the maximum yield of each crop, and X is unity for the water required to produce maximumyield.ThedatausedcoveredtherangeofvaluesofXfrom0.30to1.20.Itwasfoundthatmostof theyielddataevaluatedcouldberepresentedbytheequation: Y = 0.8 X + 13 . X 2 11 . X3 (2.3) whereYisrelativecropyield(fraction);andXisthedepthofappliedwater.Theequationisnormalizedsuch thatforX=1.0,Y=1.0. Doorenbos and Kassam (1979) used a procedure for estimating the yield response to water. Reduction of crop yield below the maximum for prevailing conditions is assumed to be proportional to the

13

reduction in actual evapotranspiration (ETa) below the maximum potential evapotranspiration (ETm). ETm is the evapotranspiration under conditions where soil water availability does not limit crop yield. The relationshipknownastheStewartmodel(Stewartetal.1977)iswrittenasfollows:

Ya 1 Y m

ETa K 1 = y ET m

(2.4)

in which Ya is the actual harvested yield; Ym is the maximum potential harvested yield; Ky is a yield response factorforwateradequacy;andETa,andETm,areasdefinedabove. Values of Ky are given in Table 2.3. The flowering period is the most critical for most crops. For example, the value of Ky for maize for the flowering period is 1.5, indicating that with ETa ten percent less thanETmduringthisperiodtheactualyield(Ya)fortheseasonwillbefifteenpercentlessthanYm.However, a10%deficiencyspreadequallythroughoutthetotalgrowingperiodwouldresultina12.5%reductioninthe seasonal yield. A deficiency in one period conditions the plant so that a deficiency in the next period is less effective in reducing yields. Also, there are various interactions from other factors that influence yields. Table 2.3 is, therefore, recommended principally as a guide indicating the relative importance of adequate waterduringdifferentstagesofcropgrowth. Table2.3.Yieldresponsefactor,Ky(afterDoorenbosandKassam1979).
Crop Alfalfa Banana Bean Cabbage Citrus Cotton Grape Groundnut Maize Onion Pea Pepper Potato Safflower Sorghum Soybean Sugarbeet Sugarcane Sunflower Tobacco Tomato Watermelon Wheat(winter) Wheat(spring) VegetativePeriod Early Late Total 0.71.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.45 0.2 0.45 0.8 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.75 0.25 0.2 0.45 0.5 1.0 0.4 0.7 0.2 0.2 1.0 1.1 0.8 0.6 0.65 0.5 0.8 1.5 0.9 0.6 0.5 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.45 1.0 0.5 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.55 0.25 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 Flowering Period Yield Formation Ripening Period TotalGrowing Period 0.71.1 1.21.35 1.15 0.95 0.81.1 0.85 0.85 0.7 1.25 1.1 1.15 1.1 1.1 0.8 0.9 0.85 0.61.1 1.2 0.95 0.9 1.05 1.1 1.0 1.15

1.1

0.75 0.45

0.2 0.6

0.55 0.55 0.8

0.1

0.4 0.3

14

Other yield functions have been proposed. For example, it has been suggested that transpiration, T, beusedinsteadofETtodeterminerelativecropyield.Hilletal.(1987)developedamultiplicativecropyield functionbasedonrootzonewaterdeficitandgrowthstage:

Ta Y = 100 i =1 Tm
n

(2.5)

where Y is the relative yield (%); Ta is actual transpiration (mm/day); Tm is the maximum potential transpiration; is a fitted exponent (a calibrated value); is the gamma function; and the subscript i referstothegrowthstage.Thenumberofgrowthstages,n,isoftenfrom4to6.Equation2.5isapplied attheendofeachgrowthstagebyusingthecumulativevaluesofTaandTmduringthestage.However, when the ratio of Ta/Tm is greater than one hundred minus the specified threshold value, the relative yield for that stage is assumed to be 100%. Ta and Tm are reset to zero at the end of each growth stage foreachcroptype. The above concepts have been incorporated into various crop yield or crop growth and development models. Some models use estimated crop transpiration (T), others use crop ET, and some estimate interactions of fertility and drainage on yields. Most crop yield models require the availability of daily climaticdata.However,somemodelshavebeendevelopedforgeneratingdailyvaluesfrommonthlymeans and their standard deviations. Most crop yield models require the computation of reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo). As shown by Jensen et al. (1990), values of ETo vary widely depending upon the method and climate data used to calculate ETo. For this reason, various agencies are now attempting to standardizemethodsforcomputingETo. Table2.3illustratestheinfluenceofdistributionofwateravailabilityoncropyields.Considerationsof soil characteristics, effective rainfall, and irrigation scheduling are included in subsequent chapters of this book.

2.6.

SoilAerationandDrainage

Where natural drainage is inadequate and artificial drainage cannot be economically provided, the lands usually cannot be permanently irrigated. Rice is an exception although rice grows well in standing water,drainageisrequiredformosttillageandharvestingoperations.Irrigationoflandswheretheoriginal water table is less than thirty meters below the surface has usually resulted in eventual waterlogging or salinization or both. Control of salinity and methods of drainage are described in other sections, but in this chaptertheemphasisisonsoilaerationasafactorofproduction.Thedegreeofaeration,ortheamountof oxygen available to the plant roots, has a large direct effect on the rate of plant growth. There are also numeroussecondaryeffectsrelatedtosoiltemperature,toxicity,plantdiseases.andavailabilityofnutrients. Respiration is essential for water and ion uptake by plant roots. Low oxygen (O2) content in the soil will decrease water and nutrient uptake by plants because of reduced root permeability for water. One of the harmful results is decreased transpiration of water which may result in wilting (wet wilt). Wellaerated plants may take up two to four times as much water as poorlyaerated plants. In poorly aerated soils, anaerobic respiration results in incomplete oxidation of organic matter and may result in products toxic to plants.Susceptibilityofrootstoattackbyfungiandotherorganismsisoftenincreased.Withpooraeration, nitrate(NO3)maybelostthroughdenitrification.

15

The first requirement for a high crop yield is a good stand. Aeration has an important role in plant survivalintheearlystagesofgrowth.Ifthecropisgrownforfruitorgrain,asignificantdecreaseinyieldcan result from low O2 levels (low levels of respiration) at the flowering or blooming stage. Poor aeration may also result in reduced shoot growth and this can reduce yield whether the crop is grown for its fruit or its vegetation. Photosynthesis results in the production of carbohydrates from H2O and CO2. The reaction requires energy. Respiration results in the conversion of carbohydrates to H2O and CO2 (water and carbon dioxide) andreleasesenergytobeusedinvariousplantgrowthprocesses.Therequirementsforrespirationandthe energy from respiration increase exponentially with increasing temperature. At high temperatures waterloggingofthesoilforonlyonedaymaybeverydamagingtocropproductionorevenfataltosensitive crops.Figure2.1indicatesanoptimumtemperatureofabout28Cformaizewithwellaeratedsoilcondition andanoptimumofabout21Cforapoorlyaeratedsoil.Abovethesetemperaturesgrowthdeclinesrapidly withincreasingtemperature. Guptaetal.(1992)proposedamodelconsistingofaninitialthresholdandalineardeclineinyieldper dayofsubmergence.Theygivetablesshowingyieldlossesfordifferentcropsatseverallocationsforvarious stages of growth. The average threshold is only a few hours. The yield loss is quite variable but averages 10% per day of submergence. After a heavy rain fine textured soils may require four days to drain to the fieldcapacityafterwaterhasbeendrainedfromthesurface.Theneedsforsurfacedrainagevarywithcrop, soil texture, and the probability of amounts and duration of excessive rainfall. Excessive rainfall is indicated bythe75%probabilityofamountsexceeding1.33timesETo(seethedefinitionof"wateravailabilityindex"in theglossary). The tolerance to poor aeration depends upon temperature, the daily temperature range, plant species, and the variety or genotype within the species. There are wide variations in climatic and plant requirements for aeration and drainage, but, with the exception of rice, without good natural or artificial drainagetherecanbeirrigatedagricultureofonlylimitedproductivityandforarelativelyshorttime.

2.7.

PlantDensity,SpacingandLeafAreaIndex

Withinlimits,yieldperplantincreaseswithacorrespondingavailabilityofgrowthresourcesorfactors of production. Yields per unit area increase with increasing numbers of plants until plant population is sufficient for maximum resource utilization. The totalyieldperunitareathengenerallyremainsreasonably constantwithincreasingplantpopulationoveranoptimumrange.Thisrangemayincludeplantpopulations oftwotofourtimesthatrequiredforoptimumresourceutilization.Beyondthisrangeofplantpopulations, yieldsperunitareadecline.Thedesirableplantpopulationvarieswiththeavailabilityofresources.Thebest number of plants per hectare for irrigated agriculture may be two or more times that for dryland farming. The amount of available solar energy has an important influence on the optimum plant population or upon the desirable leaf area index (LAI). The LAI is the ratio of the total leaf area of the plants on a fixed or unit areatotheareaofsoilproducingtheplants. VariousstudieshavebeenmadeoftheoptimumLAIoroptimumpastureheightsformaximumgrowth of different forage grasses. Figure 2.6 is a typical comparison of the optimum LAI for variable rates of incoming solar radiation at the surface, Rs, in cal/cm2/day. The maximum dry matter production was obtainedwhenLAIwasapproximately2.6plus0.007Rs(LAI=2.6+0.007Rs).

16

Plant spacing is influenced by cultivation and cultural practices such as distance between rows and spacing within rows. Crops vary widely in their ability to adapt to the utilization of the elongated space required when spacing in the row is only a small portion in relation to the distance between rows. With a given crop, the better the individual plants are able to spread and intercept light, the lower the optimum population per unit of area. That is, plant density neednt be higher than that which provides full ground coveratmaturity.

2.8.

CropVariety

For given conditions of resources including soil, nutrients, climate, etc., one cultivar or variety of a given plant species may produce much better than another. For example, the crop genetic coefficients for fourteen maize cultivars were used with one set of resource conditions with the CERESMaize nitrogen model(JonesandKiniry1986).Theyieldspredictedbythemodelandthegeneticcoefficientsarepresented in Table 2.4. The yields of grain varied within a range of 2.7 times the lowest predicted. If, under the same resource conditions one variety will yield nearly three times as much as another, it is of considerable importancethatthebestcultivarfortheresourceconditionsbeselected. Cropgrowthanddevelopmentmodelsareavailableformostofthefoodgrains,cassava,groundnuts, soybeans, and other crops. Crop genetic coefficients are available for varietal comparisons using the yield models for several crops. This science or methodology is rapidly being perfected for various crops. At research stations field varietal trials have been carried out for many years. The availability of irrigation improvesthedesirabilityofselectingimprovedvarieties.Bothresultsoffieldtrialsandtheuseofcropyield modelsshouldbeusedinordertoselectthebestvarietiesforirrigatedagriculture.

17

Table2.4.CultivarsandcalculatedyieldsmaizevarietiesandestimatesforrainfedproductionfromCERES maizenitrogenversionSanJeronimo,ElSalvador(afterKarahliloglu1989).
Cultivar Name B56XOH43 B60XR71 B59XC103 PIO3382 PIO3901 PIO3780 W64AXW117 B14XOH43 B8X153R PIO3147 PV82S B73XMO17 H610 PIOX304C Region 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 P1 162 172 172 200 215 200 245 265 218 225 260 220 340 360 P2 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.70 0.76 0.76 0.00 0.80 0.30 0.76 0.50 0.52 0.52 0.52 P5 685 685 685 800 600 685 685 665 760 685 750 880 900 900 G2 784 710 825 650 560 600 825 780 595 834 600 730 520 550 G5 6.90 7.70 10.15 8.50 9.00 9.60 8.00 6.90 8.80 10.00 8.50 10.00 6.50 5.6 GrainYield (kg/ha) 3860 4242 5453 5364 3473 5062 4097 3116 5059 4712 4658 5265 4163 1995 BioMass (kg/ha) 11184 11186 11645 11827 11171 11687 12136 11903 11808 11951 11939 12190 11703 10753

Regions: 1. Northern United States, 2. Northern Nebraska, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, 3. SouthernNebraska,S.Iowa,S.Illinois,S.Indiana,4.Central Missouri,KansastoNorthCarolinasouthward,5.Tropical.

Genetic Coefficients: P1 is for growing degree days (based on a minimum of 8C) from seedling emergence to the end of the juvenilephase(daysC),P2isforphotoperiodsensitivitycoefficient(1/hr),P5isforgrowingdegreedays(basedonaminimum of8C)fromthesilkingstagetophysiologicalmaturity(daysC),G2isforthepotentialkernelnumber(kernels/plant),andG5is forthepotentialkernelgrowthrate(mg/kernelday).

A large percentage of the world's agricultural research has consisted of crop variety trials. The adaptation of a given variety is in large measure determined by climate. The mapping or identification of similar climates world wide and the use of analyses similar to that presented in Table 2.4 has the potential for greatly reducing the need for variety trials. Varietyselectioncouldbemadebaseduponanexchangeof information relative to which varieties produce best in specific climatic conditions. The recording and publication of crop genetic coefficients, the climatic conditions, other conditions and yields would increase thepotentialforusingcropyieldmodelsforcropselection. Samanietal.(1987)presentamethodologyforusingmeanmonthlyvaluesoftemperature,reference evapotranspiration, number of rainy days, rainfall amounts, and the standard deviations of these four monthlymeanvaluesforthesimulationofdailyclimaticdata.Thecomparisonspresentedindicatethatcrop yieldsmodeledfromthesimulatedclimaticdataareverysimilartothosecalculatedusingthehistoricaldaily data. Table 2.4 indicates how variety selection can be made from computer modeling of yields. Selection fromyieldmodelscanthenbeverifiedbyfieldtesting. Agrotechnologyishighlytransferable.Worldwideinformationonsoilsandclimateisbecomingmore accessible.Aknowledgeoftheconditionsforthelocationswhereagivencropproducesgoodyieldscanaid greatlyintheselectionofthebestcropsforgivenresourcesofsoilsandclimate.AWorldWaterandClimate Atlas will greatly facilitate agrotechnology transfer. The Atlas is accessible from the World Wide Web at http://atlas.usu.edu.

18

3.

AGRICULTURALSOILS
Introduction

3.1.

The method of irrigation, the scheduling of irrigations, management practices, and decisions relevant to the feasibility of irrigation depend in a large measure on soil and topographic conditions. Management decisions relative to irrigation are influenced by water holding characteristics of soils and infiltration rates, and water availability is frequently a constraint to irrigation development. The total land area suitable for irrigated agriculture may be in excess of the potential water supply for irrigation. Therefore, the process of selecting the lands to be irrigated should include a procedure or criteria for rating the lands and soils with respect to their relative value or suitability for irrigation. Sources of useful information include soil surveys, soil classifications, land classifications, topographic maps, geological or geomorphological maps, and studies relative to soil water relationships. This chapter is presented to create an awareness of the required information for good irrigation planning and management, and to present some of the basic soil water relationshipsthatareneededforanalysesandconceptssuchasrootzonewaterbalance. By any of the numerous classifications there is a tremendous diversity of soils around the world. The etymologyofthewordsoilleadstosomethingmeaninggroundorfloor.Fromanagriculturalperspective, soils can be thought of as a medium for plant growth and for storing water within the plant root zone. Agricultural soils are composed primarily of minerals, organic material, water, and air. Typically, about half ofthesoilvolumeisporespace,whichisinterstitialspaceoccupiedbywaterandair.Mostagriculturalsoils have only a small percentage of organic material, and the predominately mineral solids usually have a fairly consistentparticledensityofabout2.65gm/cm3.

3.2.

SoilTextureandStructure

Soils are often described in terms of texture and structure. By convention, soil texture refers to the relative quantities of inorganic matter, and this is related to soil structure, which is indicative of such macro properties as infiltration rate and water holding capacity. Structure is affected by texture, chemical interactions, and mechanical actions such as compaction from agricultural machinery. Soil structure results from the aggregation or flocculation of individual soil particles into clumps or masses. Deflocculated soils are those that have lost their structure, have very low porosity, and can support only minimal water movement this can happen to some clay soils and is always to be avoided in agricultural fields. The mechanismsinvolvedinthedegreeofsoilflocculationareextremelycomplex. Thevarioussoiltexturalclassesarebaseduponasystemdevelopedseveraldecadesagoinwhichthe relativepercentages(byweight)ofsand,siltandclayareusedtodeterminetheclass.Figure3.1showsthe soil texture triangle diagram that has been generally accepted for use with agricultural soils, encompassing twelve different classes, each with a descriptive name. This particular classification system is based only on therelativequantitiesofinorganicmaterial,andithasbeenappliedallovertheworld.

19

100 90 80 70
Cla y
Clay

10 20 30
Pe

60

40

rce

rce

nt

nt

50
Sandy clay Clay loam

40

Silty 50 clay Silty clay loam

t Si l

Pe

60 70 80

30 20

Sandy clay loam Loam Silt loam

Sandy loam L 10 oam 90 ys Silt an d Sand 100 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Percent Sand Figure3.1.Soiltexturetrianglewithsoilclassesaccordingtopercentageofsand,siltandclay. Sands are the simplest soil textures in terms of physical and chemical properties they are relatively noncohesive and chemically inert. Sands have a relatively large volume of noncapillary pore space (spaces between soil particles that drain freely by gravity) and tend to have good natural drainage and aeration. However,sandshavelowwaterholdingcapacityandlowporositycomparedtoothersoiltextures.Claysoils havemuchsmallerparticlesthansandsandtendtoformcomplexphysicalstructures,withhighporosityand anabundanceofcapillaryspaces.Claysoilshaverelativelylowwaterinfiltrationratesandaremoredifficult to drain, and some clays exhibit swelling and shrinking characteristics with different water contents. Loam soils contain roughly equal percentages of sand, silt and clay, and tend to combine the favorable characteristicsofsandsandclays,whichcanbethoughtofastexturalextremes.Predominatelyclaysoilsare oftenreferredtoasheavyorfinesoils,whilesandysoilsmaybesaidtobelightorcoarse.Thesesubjective termsaremostlyrelatedtotheworkability(intermsoftillage)andcohesionofthesoils. Some soil classifications refer to four components: mineral matter, organic matter, air and water. Organic material is present in varying amounts in all agricultural soils, and those with relatively large amounts of organic matter are sometimes called peats or mucks. Soils with 20 to 30% or more of organic matter by weight have physical properties dominated by the organic fraction, and not by the mineral fraction. The presence of organic material can have a profound influence on the structure and physical characteristicsofasoil,aswellastheporosityandworkabilityofthesoil.Someclaysoilscanbeverydifficult totillexceptwithinaverynarrowrangeofwatercontentsinoneinstancethesoilmaybetoodryandhard, but with too much water it is slippery and sticky. Organic material almost always improves the physical characteristicsofasoil,andincreasestheporosity.

3.3.

SoilClassificationandEvaluation

Agricultural soils are often compared and distinguished according to texture and structure, which are two relatively independent classifications. Standard textural soil classifications include three inorganic constituents: clay, silt and sand. The relative percentages of these three constituents determines the

20

texturalclassification,suchassandyloam,clay,andsiltyclayloam.Thestructureofasoilreferstothe looseness or compactness (amount of pore space), and the alignment of small colloidal particles. Both texture and structure are directly related to the permeability of a soil, or the rate with which water can infiltratedownwardintothesoilfromthesurface. There are several methods for evaluating soils or classifying lands with respect to their agricultural potential. The Storie Index (Univ. of California 1978) provides a simple but effective means for rating the potentialutilizationandproductivecapacityofthesoil.Theratingisapercentagewithamaximumof100% calculatedastheproductoffourpercentageratings.Thefourfactorsareasfollows: A.profile:Soilprofilesaredividedintoninegroupsbasedonsoilorprofiledevelopment,geologic position, and source of soil forming material. Within each profile group the percentage rating variesprincipallywithsoildepthandthedegreeofprofiledevelopment. B.surfacetexture:Finesandyloams,loams,andsiltloamsarerated100%exceptwhentheyare gravellyorstony,inwhichcasethemaximumis70to80%.Coarsetexturedsoilsandfinetextured orheavytexturedsoilsaregivenlowerratings. C.slope:Soilsthatarenearlylevel(0to2%)arerated100%.Verysteepslopes(45%andhigher) arerated5to30%. X. other conditions: This factor includes drainage, alkalinity, nutrient level, acidity, erosion, and microrelief. An example application of the Storie Soil Index rating is given in Table 3.1. Table 3.2 showshowsoilsaregroupedbyrangesinindexratings. Table3.1.SampleStorieindexsoilclassification. Factor Rating A.Recentalluvialsoilwithunconsolidatedprofile 100% B.Highlycalcarioussiltyclay 80% C.Undulating(3to8%) 90% X.Fairnutrientlevel 95% CompositeStorieIndex(100%x0.80x0.90x0.95) 68% Table3.2.SubjectivesoilgradesaccordingtoStorieindexranges. Grade RangeinStorieIndex 1(excellent) 80to100% 2(good) 60to79% 3(fair) 40to59% 4(poor) 20to39% 5(verypoor) 10to19% 6(nonagricultural) lessthan10%

3.4.

BureauofReclamationLandClassification

21

The Bureau of Reclamation developed a system for mapping or delineating soils on the basis of a systematic appraisal of the soil, topographic, and drainage conditions or characteristics of the land. The mapping or classification is based upon an evaluation of the capability of the lands to repay irrigation developmentcoststhroughcropproductioninthewesternUSA.Landsaredividedintosixclassesasgivenin Table3.3. Table3.3.U.S.BureauofReclamationlandclassifications.
Class 1 2 3 4 5 6 Description Landsmostsuitablefordevelopment Landslessdesirablebecauseofsoil,topographic,ordrainagecharacteristics Landswhichareconsideredleastsuitableandwhichhavethelowestpotentialrepayment capacity Landswithexcessivedeficienciesbutconsideredcapableofrepayingcostsupondevelopment Landsnotsuitableforirrigationunderpresentconditionsbutworthsegregatingforfurtherstudy Landsconsideredtobepermanentlynonarable

In many land classification studies only classes 1, 2, 3, and 6 have been mapped. Definite specificationsareestablishedforeachmajorprojectareapriortolandclassification.Thesespecificationsset thelimitsforeachlandclasswithrespecttosoiltexture,depth,waterholdingcapacity,permeability,salinity, andothercharacteristicsofthelands.Mostcharacteristicsaredeterminedforboththesurfacesoilandthe various layers or horizons of the subsoil. Topography, natural drainage, vegetative cover, stoniness, and other considerations that may influence development costs or crop production are mapped and or described.Duringthemappingsurveys,anydetailthatmayinfluenceplanningoftheirrigationdevelopment shouldbenoted. Inmanycasesmuchvaluableinformationcanbemadeavailablethroughastudyofvariouspublished soil surveys, soil conservation studies, geologic maps, and geomorphology studies and reports. The map boundaries between geologic formations are often also the boundaries between soil types or land classes. Calcarious formations and basic igneous rocks are frequently associated with the more fertile soils having highbaseexchangecapacities.Oldergeologicformationsareoftenassociatedwithsoilsofpooragricultural potential. Soil conservation studies frequently contain information on infiltration rates and the field capacitiesofthevarioussoiltypes.

3.5.

SoilAgeandTopography

Generally, geology and the type of parent material have more influence on the characteristics of younger soils. Soil physical and chemical properties are determined largely by the nature of the parent material, the soil age, and the amount of leaching and decomposition that has taken place. Many of the better soils for irrigation development are fairly young alluvial deposits from calcareous marine parent materialorfrombasicigneousrocks. Topography and position frequently relate to soil texture. Where the flow of surface water slows, sands and coarse materials are deposited first, while clays are usually deposited in locations where water movement has become very slow or even stagnant. As mentioned previously, the medium textured soils (e.g.loamsandsiltloams)areratedhighestforagriculturaldevelopment.

22

3.6.

SoilChemistry

Thequalityofasoilforirrigationisinfluencedbyacidityoralkalinity,salinity,baseexchangecapacity, basesaturation,nutrient(fertility)level,andbyotherconditionsorelements.TheoptimumrangeofsoilpH for irrigated crops varies somewhat. A pH of 6.5 is optimum for many crops, although the full range of suitable values varies by crop. The pH should not be less than 5.0 or more than 8.5 for the usual crops producedunderirrigation.AlkalinesoilsarethosewithapHofgreaterthan7.Morerainfallsintheeastern USAthaninthewest,andagriculturalsoilstendtobemuchmoreacidicintheeast.Limeisoftenappliedto acidicsoilstoraisethepH,butthisisalmostneverdoneonsoilsinthewesternUSA. WhatispH? The acidity or alkalinity of a soil water solution is commonly quantified by the base 10 logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration in moles per liter. The resulting value is called the pH of the solution. In equation form: pH = log (1/H+). The pH scale runs from 0 to 14, where 0 is for a strong acid solutionand14correspondstoastrongbase.ApHof7isneutral.

3.7.

InfiltrationRates

Whenthesoilisdry,waterisabsorbed(infiltrates)quickly.After20to30minutestheratedecreases astheairspacesinthesoilarefilledwithwater.After1or2hoursinfiltrationusuallyoccursataslowsteady ratethisrateisthebasicinfiltrationrate.Basicinfiltrationratesforthevarioussoiltypesareapproximately asgiveninTable3.4;however,somesoilsexhibitmuchdifferentinfiltrationcharacteristicseventhoughtheir texturesareverysimilar.Forexample,thecerradosoilsincentralBrazilhaverelativelyhighinfiltrationrates even though their texture is predominately clay. Table 3.5 indicates the approximate bulk density (dry weightdensity)andporosityofthreedifferentsoiltypes. A knowledge of the basic infiltration rate is needed when selecting a method of irrigation. Surface irrigation is not desirable on soils with high infiltration rates because rapid infiltration makes uniform water distribution difficult or impossible. Sprinkle and trickle irrigation are less desirable on soils with low infiltration rates because surface ponding and runoff tends to occur, compromising the uniformity of application of water. Wetting the entire soil surface for a significant period of time restricts soil aeration, reducingplantrespiration,andfrequentlyresultinginlowercropyields. Table3.4.Basicinfiltrationratesforvarioussoiltextures. SoilType BasicInfiltrationRate (mm/hr) Clay 15 Clayloam 510 Siltloam 1020 Sandyloam 2030 Sand 30ormore Table3.5.Typicalvaluesofsoilbulkdensityandporosity.

23

 SoilType Clay Loam Sand Infiltration rates are also useful for estimating the amount of effective rainfall. If rain falls faster than the infiltration rate, it will produce runoff unless some provision is made to retain the excess water on the soil in order to increase the opportunity time for the rain to enter the soil. However, crop or vegetation, cultivation, and management practices may have large influence on the amount of runoff. Comparisons of areas or fields with the same or similar slope and soil textures may result in a wide range of infiltration differencesforsimilarslopesandtextures. Soil infiltration rates can be measured using cylinder ring infiltrometers, ponds, inflowoutflow in furrows, blocked (ponded) furrows, and through the use of special equipment such as recycling furrow infiltrometers. A cylinder ring infiltrometer, as shown in Fig. 3.2, is usually made of steel and can be with single rings or concentric double rings. Doubleringed cylinders have the advantage that the infiltration measurement is more accurate in terms of vertical infiltration into the soil due to the presence of an outer bufferpond,whichissupposedtobemaintainedatthesamedepthasthewaterintheinnerring. Cylinderringsaremostusefulforirrigationwithbasinsorbordersinwhichtheinfiltrationisessentially vertical during an actual irrigation. However, for furrow irrigation it is preferable to take into account the twodimensional(verticalandhorizontal)infiltrationbyperforminganinflowoutfloworblockedfurrowtest. Inflowoutflow and blocked furrow tests also provide greater spatial integration, whereas cylinder ring tests are essentially point measurements of infiltration, and many samples are needed over a field area to determine representative infiltration parameters. A recycling furrow infiltrometer is an instrumentation packagethatrunswaterthroughashortsectionoffurrowandmeasurestheinfiltrationrateasafunctionof time;ithastheadvantageoftakingintoaccountboththegeometryofthefurrowsandthemovementofthe wateralongthefurrow,twofactorsthatcansignificantlyaffecttheinfiltrationrate. cylinder wall BulkDensity (gm/cm3) 1.11.3 1.31.4 1.41.8 Porosity (%) 5361 4753 3047

earthen dike buffer pond buffer pond

vertical infiltration Figure3.2.Acylinderringinfiltrometerwithabufferpondtopromoteverticalinfiltrationunderthecylinder. In sprinklerirrigationtheimpactofthewaterdropsonthesoilsurfacecancauseapartialsealingand reduced infiltration rate. This is especially true with sprinklers that produce large drops on heavy textured (clay)soils.Thevelocityofthedropsastheyarriveatthegroundsurfaceisalsoafactorinthepartialsealing phenomena, but most drops from sprinklers reach their terminal velocity before hitting the ground (Keller

24

and Bliesner 1990). Thus, the infiltration rate measured from cylinder infiltrometers and other means may beinaccurateundersprinklerirrigatedconditions,especiallywithheavytexturedsoils.

3.8.

SoilWaterRelationships

Theamountofwateravailableinthesoilthatcanbeusedforcropgrowthanddevelopmentdepends uponseveralvariables.Thesevariablesincludethecropeffectiverootdensityanddepth(howwelltheroot system explores the soil), as well as the ability of the soil to store available water. The principal soil characteristics used to estimate the amount of potentially available water storage include the field capacity (FC),thepermanentwiltingpoint(PWP),andtheavailablewater(AW). Field capacity may be defined as the soil water content just after rapid drainage due to gravity, following an irrigation in which the soil was temporarily saturated. Field capacity will typically be reachedonetothreedaysafteranirrigationinwhichthesoilintherootzoneiscompletelyrefilled.The field capacity can be measured directly as a percentage by volume, which can be expressed in terms of mm/m of soil depth. Field capacity can also be calculated from the bulk density and the fraction of the weightofwaterinasoilsample. The bulk density may change with irrigation, passage of farm equipment, or tillage practices. For agricultural soils, it can vary from 1.1 gm/cm3 for highly structured clays to 1.8 gm/cm3 for fairly compact coarse sand. For estimates in connection with irrigation scheduling, an average value of 1.4 or 1.5 is frequentlyassumedformediumsoiltextures. Thefieldcapacity(FC)istheamountorpercentageofwaterbyvolumeofsoilthatcanbeheldagainst drainage by gravity. This usually occurs between 1/10 atmosphere of tension for coarse soils and 1/3 atmosphereforheavysoils.ApracticalprocedurefordeterminingFCistoselectanareawithnoplantsonit, floodtheareatosaturatethesoil,coverwithcanvasorplastictopreventevaporation,andtakesoilsamples after the soil has drained to the field capacity. The drainage time required is usually one day for sandy or coarsetexturedsoilsandmaybeasmuchasfourdaysforfinetexturedorheavytexturedsoils.Thesamples should be placed in cans to prevent further drying prior to weighing, be weighed, oven dried, and the percentage of water per unit of volume or of unit dry weight of soil calculated. The FC by volume is the percentage of water held in the soil after drainage by gravity per unit dry weight multiplied by the bulk densityofthesoil.Bymeasuringthevolumeofthesampletakentheneedforcalculatingthebulkdensityis eliminated.Forsomesands,theFCmaybelessthan8%,whilefororganicclaysitmayexceed40%. Less permeable layers, sandy or gravelly strata, and shallow depths to ground water slow drainage. The water table should be 1 to 3 m below the measured sample. When excess water is applied the water content at lower depths may increase for several days. Drainage of some soils is so slow that a quantitative determinationofFCisdifficult. The permanent wilting point (PWP) is the percentageofsoilwater(dryweightofsoil)atwhichplants wilt and do not recover unless water is added. It is approximately equal to the water held in the soil at 15 bars (15 atmospheres of tension). The PWP may be estimated for most medium textured soils as being abouthalfofthefieldcapacity.Theavailablewater(AW)istheFCPWP.AWisusuallyexpressedasdepth of available water per meter of soil depth. This is calculated by multiplying the AW as a dry weight percentagebythebulkdensity(BD).Typicalwaterholdingcapacitiesofsoilsinmm/mofsoildeptharegiven inTable3.6.

25

 Table3.6.Availablewaterforvarioussoiltextures.

SoilTexture CoarseSands FineSands LoamySands SandyLoams FineSandyLoam SiltLoams SiltyClayLoam SiltyClay Clay PeatsandMucks

AvailableWater(AW) (mm/m) 2065 6085 65110 90130 100170 150230 130160 125170 110150 160240

Note: this table was compiled from several sources and represents an approximateaverageofrelationshipsfound.

SoiltextureisnotaverygoodindicationofAWthevariationinwaterholdingcharacteristicswithina given texture is too great. About half of the soil texture triangle (see Fig. 3.1) is comprised of clays and clay loams. A soil with more than 55% clay may be mapped as clay but have very different water holding characteristics than those of a soil with 90% clay. The field capacity or the upper drained limit (UDL) is a muchbetterindicationoftheavailablewater. Bowers et al. (1989) compared values of FC and AW for about 2300 California soil profiles. From one tothreesamplesareshownforeachprofile.AcomparisonwasmadebyselectingagivenFC,tabulatingthe values given for AW, and calculating the mean value of AW and its coefficient of variation, CV. In another study,alinearregressionwasmadeforvaluesofFCoffrom8to41%byvolume.Theequationobtainedis: AW = 2.3 + 0.37 FC (3.1) The coefficient of determination (r2) was 0.98 for the data used to calibrate the equation. For each valueofFCtherewassignificantvariationinvaluesofAWaboutthemeanvalue.Theaveragecoefficientof variation (CV) was 21%. Jensen et al. (1990) give eight corresponding mean values of AW and FC. These eightmeanvaluesofAWaverage13%morethanthecorrespondingvaluesofAWfromEq.3.1.Allen(1994) developedanequationfromthedatagivenbyJensen,etal.(1990):

AW = 1.55(FC )

0.66

(3.2)

Equation 3.2 gives somewhat higher values of AW than those from Eq. 3.1. There is significant variationintheserelationshipsbuttheequationsaresuperiortoestimatingAWfromsoiltexturealone. Whenplantsareusingwaterfromtheupper50%ofAWthereislittlestress.Inthelowerrange,plants experience increasing water stress, and when the PWP is reached, water use by the plant approaches zero. For irrigation scheduling, it is assumed that soil water should be replaced when between 25 and 75% of available water is depleted. The overall recommended average depletion is about 50% of available water.

26

The actual recommended depletion fraction or percentage depends upon the crop potential evapotranspirationandthecroptype.TheseconsiderationsarefurtherexplainedinChapter6ofthisbook.

3.9.

EquationsforSoilWaterContent

Several equations are given below to define the common terms related to soil water content. Porosity, , is simply the percent pore space (air and water) related to the total soil volume. Porosity tendstobehigherforfinetextured(clay)soils,butitisalsoafunctionofthesoilstructure.

Vair + Vliquid Vtotal

= 1

b s

(3.3)

wherethevolumetermsaredefinedinFig.3.3,withVliquidbeingthevolumeofwaterinthesoil;bisthebulk density (defined below); and s is the soil particle density (about 2.65 gm/cm3 for most agricultural soils). Porositytendstovaryfrom0.3to0.6(Table3.5),or30%to60%. Saturationoccurswhentheporespaceofasoiliscompletelyfilledwithwater(noair).Saturation,S, canbedefinedasafunctionofvolumetricwatercontentandporosity:

S=

Vliquid Vair + Vliquid

(3.4)

whereSisthesaturationasafraction;andvisthevolumetricwatercontent,whichisdefinedas:

v =

Vliquid Vtotal

= S

(3.5)

Figure3.3.Soilwaterblockfordefiningvarioussoilphysicalproperties. The dry mass fraction water content is the ratio of the mass of water in a given soil volume to themassofsolidparticles:

m =

w Vliquid s Vsolid

(3.6)

where m is the dry mass fraction water content; and w is the density of water. The density of water depends on the chemicals dissolved in the water, but can usually be taken to be slightly higher than 1.0 g/cm3.

27

Bulkdensitycanbedefinedastheratioofthemassofsolidsoilparticlestothebulksoilvolume:

b =

s Vsolid = s (1 ) Vtotal

(3.7)

The available water (AW) is difference in water content at field capacity and wilting point, multipliedbythedepthoftherootzone,Rz.Waterheldinthesoilbetweensaturationandfieldcapacity is actually available to plants, but it is generally ignored because most agricultural soils drain to field capacity in one to three days. Ignoring the water between saturation and field capacity can be considered a safety factor in design calculations for irrigation system capacity. In equation form, the availablewateris: AW = fc wp R z (3.8)

The management allowed deficit (MAD) is the fraction of the total available water that is allowed to be depleted from the soil before irrigating. The value of MAD tends to be smaller for high valuecrops,unlessitisnecessarytostresstheplantsforacceptableproduction(forexample,cottonand watermelons).TheMADisoftenusedinpreliminaryirrigationsystemdesigncalculations. Figure 3.4 shows two sample soil water content curves: one for the soil water distribution in the root zone immediately following an irrigation, in which the soil water content at the surface is at or near saturation,andtheotherfortheredistributedsoilwaterafterafewdays.Thisrepresentsthetypicalcasefor a uniform soil profile, and where the soil water content reaches field capacity from 1 to 3 days after irrigation.Figure3.4isdrawnwiththeassumptionthattheinitialsoilwatercontent(justbeforeirrigation)is less than field capacity and that it is constant with depth; however, this is somewhat idealized because the initialsoilwatercontentwouldnotbeuniformingeneral,andthepresenceofahighwatertablewouldshift thelowerpartsofthecurvestotheright.

3.10. SoilWaterPotential
Potential is analogous to temperature, as soil water content is analogous to heat content. Soil water potential is often expressed in units of cm of water. Soil water tension is negative pressure, and negative pressure is relative to atmospheric pressure. The total soil water potential in a soil is usually equaltothegravitational,plussolute,plusmatricpotentials: t = z + p + s + m (3.9) where t is the total potential; z is the gravitational potential; p is the pressure potential; s is the solute potential; and m is the matric potential. The gravitational potential is referenced from an arbitrary datum and its significance is purely for purposes of comparison at different elevations in a soil profile.Thatis,gravitationalpotentialisarelativeterm.Thepressurepotentialiszerounlessthesoilis saturated. This term is zero above the free water surface, and increases linearly below. Pressure potentialcanbemeasuredusingapiezometer,andtheunitsareusuallycmofwater.Solutepotentialis related to osmosis and semipermeable membranes (as in plant roots, for example) which tend to leave salts behind. Solute potential can often be estimated as 0.36 times the electrical conductivity (EC) for

28

soil extracts in the 3 to 30 dS/m range. The osmotic potential increases as the soil water salinity increases,makingitmoredifficultforplantrootstoextractwaterfromthesoil.

ground surface

init
depth

fc
A1

sat

A2

just after irrigation 1 -3 days after irrigation

Figure3.4.Samplecurvesofvolumetricwatercontentversusdepthfromthesoilsurface. Matric potential is related to the adsorptive forces of the soil, and can be measured using a tensiometer. Matric potential is nearly zero for saturated soil conditions, is negative 0.1 to 0.3 bars ( 100 to 300 cm of water head) at field capacity, and is negative 15 bars (15,000 cm) at wilting point. Bars are approximately equal to atmospheres, and one centibar (0.01 bars), cb, is about 10 cm of water head.

3.11. MeasuringSoilWaterContent
Several methods can be used to determine soil water content, and new methods are under development. Perhaps the most accurate method is the gravimetric method, in which soil samples are taken to a laboratory and weighed, dried in an oven for several hours, then weighed again. The difference in weights corresponds to the mass of water in the soil. The gravimetric method has the disadvantage that it takes several hours to collect and prepare soil samples, and requires laboratory equipment. Theneutronprobehasbecomeverycommonfortakingmeasurementsofsoilwatercontent.The device is accurate and quick to apply, but is also expensive at several thousand dollars or so. Measurements with the neutron probe should start at about 9 inches below the soil surface to avoid boundaryerrors,butthisdependsonthesoilwatercontent(withmorewater,thesphereofinfluenceof theprobedecreases).VerticalaccesstubesforinsertingtheprobeareusuallyaluminumorPVC,butthe calibrationisdifferentforthesetwomaterialstheprobereadingisnotaffectedbyaluminum,butPVC

29

hassomehydrogen,andthisdoesaffectthereading.Neutronprobesareradioactiveandcanbehealth hazards if handled improperly. Users should have formal training on the application and storage of thesedevices,andshouldwearbadgesthatcanbecheckedforlevelofexposuretoradiation. Radio waves have been used to determine soil water content. These devices are becoming more refinedandaresaferthanneutronprobes,butcanbeveryexpensive.Othermoderntechniquessuchas time domain reflectometry have also been applied, and many of these are still under research. Porous blockshavebeenusedformanyyearstomeasuresoilwatercontent.Thesearesimpleandinexpensive, but are not particularly accurate. The calibration of porous blocks tends to shift with time, and it also depends on soil water salinity. Tensiometers are not used to measure soil water content they are for measuringmatricpotential.

30

4.

EVALUATINGOTHERIRRIGATIONRESOURCES
Introduction

4.1.

A knowledge of the resources available for irrigation developments and of the needs for irrigation is necessary for the evaluation of potential irrigation benefits. If conditions of climate, soils, water supply, and market price and demand are all favorable it may not be difficult to finance irrigation developments. For large irrigation projects the resources are frequently investigated in considerable detail. For small developments, farmers may have sufficient knowledge of theresourcestomakesounddecisionsrelativeto installingapumptotakewaterfromariverorthedevelopmentofirrigationfromwells. This chapter describes some of the principal resources to be considered and provides guidance with respecttothemethodsforinvestigatingandevaluatingthemoreimportantresources.

4.2.

Climate

When other factors of production are favorable or approximately optimum, the rate of crop growth and development is determined by the availability of energy and water. Most agricultural crops can be divided into two groups with respect to their temperature requirements for growth (see Table 1.1). The coolseason crops produce little growth at temperatures below about five degrees Celsius and have optimum growth in the range of 15 to 20C. Warm season crops have a minimum limit of about 10C. The optimum growth range is 25 to 30C. For a few crops the optimum range starts at 25 to 30C and ends at about35C. Some crops produce best in humid climates and others are wellsuited to arid conditions. Photosynthesis is determined largely by solar radiation and is influenced by temperature. The amount of solarradiationreachingtheearth'ssurfacecanbeestimatedfromlatitudeandtherangebetweenmaximum andminimumtemperaturesortemperaturerange(TR).LowvaluesofTRareassociatedwithhighvaluesof minimum relative humidity. As a result of these relationships, values of maximum and minimum temperatures, precipitation, and latitude are usually adequate for defining the climatic potential for agriculturalproduction. The mean value and the standard deviation (SD) of precipitation provide a useful index for evaluating rainfall as an agricultural resource. The SD is a statistical value such that 67 percent of historical measured valuesarewithintherangeofmeanplusorminusoneSD.TheSDofmonthlymeanvaluesoftemperatureis usually in the range of two to 10% of the longterm mean value. The 75% probability of assured rainfall amounts for monthly or ten day periods is useful as an indication of the dependability of precipitation for agricultural production. A 75% probability means that in of the years the specified amount or more will occur on average. Or, in of the years less than this amount will be observed, on average. Excessive rain canbeharmfultocropproductioncausingsoilerosion,interferencewithcropmanagement,orreducedsoil aeration.Therefore,itisfrequentlydesirabletoevaluatetheprobabilityofextremerainfallamounts. Cropwaterrequirementscanbeestimatedfromcropcharacteristics,latitude,meantemperature,and the temperature range (TR). If all other factors are near optimum the potential for crop production can be determinedfrom: 1. meantemperature,thetemperaturerange,anddaylength

31

2. theadequacyanddependabilityofwaterincludingfreedomfromexcessiveamounts Hargreaves (1977) proposed classifications of climate and agricultural productivity based on a moisture or rainfall adequacy index (MAI). MAI is the 75% probability of assured precipitation (PD) divided byreferenceevapotranspiration(ETo).TheclassificationsaregiveninTable4.1. Table4.1.ClimateandproductivityclassificationsbasedontheMoistureAvailabilityIndex(MAI). Criteria Climate ProductivityClassification Classification AllmonthswithMAIof0 Veryarid Notsuitedforrainfedagriculture to0.33 1or2monthsofMAIof Arid Limitedsuitabilityforrainfedagriculture 0.34orabove 3or4monthsofMAIof Semiarid Productionpossibleforcropsrequiringa 0.34orabove threetofourmonthgrowingseason 5ormoreconsecutive Wetdry Productionpossibleforcropsrequiringafive monthsofMAIof0.34or (ormore)monthgrowingseason above 1or2monthswithMAI Moderatelywet Gooddrainagerequiredfornormal above1.33 agriculturalproduction 6ormoremonthswith Verywet Verygooddrainagerequiredfornormal MAIabove1.33 agriculturalproduction Theabovecriteriahavebeenusedforzoninglargeregionsforpotentialagriculturalproductionandfor theneedsforirrigationanddrainage.TheuseofMAIvaluesfor10dayperiodsismoreusefulthanthosefor monthly periods. MAI can be reliably computed from records of precipitation and temperature. This procedure provides good area coverage. The computation of reference evapotranspiration from temperatureeliminatesmanyoftheerrorsthatresultfrompoorqualityestimatesormeasurementsofsolar radiation,windrun,andvaporpressuredeficit. Table 4.1 has been used principally for potential agricultural use zoning of tropical areas with a 12 monthfrostfreegrowingseason.Fortemperateclimates,anallowanceneedstobemadeforcarryoversoil water from the winter season. The amount of carryover varies with soil type, management practices and otherfactors. The International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI) has selected the symbol A75 (an adequacy index at the 75% probability level) instead of MAI to be used in worldwide studies. IIMI uses net evapotranspiration(NET)toindicatetheneedsforirrigationanddrainage.NETisequaltoETominusthe75% probableprecipitationamount,P75.

4.3.

Hydrology

Average or mean amounts of precipitation or of stream flow are frequently poor criteria for use in irrigationdevelopmentplanning.Theaverageannualdeparturefrommeanrainfallmaybelessthan10%or may exceed 40%. Monthly amounts are much more variable. There is sometimes several years of lag time between precipitation amounts and their influence on the base flow (minimum flow) of streams. The
32

influence isalsocumulative.Forthe18yearperiod(19501967)theaveragerainfalloftwentywestAfrican stationsexceededthelongtermmeanin17yearsandwasonlyslightlybelownormalfortheoneyear.This periodoffavorablerainfallwasfollowedbyacorrespondingperiodoflessthanaverageprecipitation. During a long period of significant rainfall the base flow in streams and rivers gradually increases. Groundwater levels and yields of springs and wells may also increase substantially. In a long period of less thanaverageprecipitationsomestreams,springs,andwellsmaydryuporhaveseverelyreducedflows.The interactions between surface and ground water can be complex and can involve significant time delays a detailedunderstandingoftheserelationshipsrequiresthestudyofhydrologicprinciples. Fortheplanningofirrigationdevelopments,severaldifferentcriteriahavebeenusedforevaluationof the dependability of water supplies. Sometimes the 75% probability of assured stream flow is used. On other occasions, stream flow during the worst dry period of record has been used for design. Frequently somedegreeofwaterdeficithasbeenconsideredacceptablesuchasadeficitinanyoneyearnottoexceed 30%. The use of the mean monthly stream flow minus one standard deviation has been proposed as a measureofdependabilityofwatersupply. In some situations the stream flow will be much in excessofirrigationrequirements.However,more often the area of lands suitable for irrigation exceeds the potential water supply, meaning that there isnt enough water to irrigate the entire area. In these cases all available records and information on precipitation, average stream flow, base flow, and water levels in wells should be inspected and evaluated. The means and standard deviations by months of daily values of rainfall and stream flow should be summarized. Means of monthly values of days of rain, extremes of one day rainfall, peaks of stream flow, andabsoluteminimumsofstreamflowshouldalsobecalculatedandreported. Records of water levels in wells, the strata encountered at various depths, and the well yields expressed as unit volume per unit of time per unit of draw down should be obtained. Topographic and geological maps frequently provide some information relative to the probable location and extent of groundwateraquifers. The amount of rainfall that can be used by crops is influenced by intensities (depthduration rainfall amounts),infiltrationratesintothesoil,andthemanagementpracticesthatdeterminetheopportunitytime forwatertoenterthesoil,aswellassoilconditions.Someknowledgeofextremerainfallamountsisneeded forthedesignofdrainagefacilities,floodways,culverts,andotherhydraulicworks. A study of worldwide rainfall records indicates that for a given return period or frequency of occurrence from 5 to 200 years, average depths of rainfall expressed as ratios of observationday depths (ODD) of rainfall are approximately constant. For a given frequency or return period the ratios to ODD amountsaverageapproximatelyasgiveninTable4.2. Table4.2.Averagerainfalldepthsasfractionsofobservationdayrainfalldepthsforvariousdurations. Duration Ratio 5min 0.15 15min 0.28 30min 0.40 1hr 0.50 2hrs 0.60 6hrs 0.78 2days 1.19 3days 1.32

33

Onehour probable depths of rainfall are approximately equal to ODD depths divided by two. Hershfield(1961)foundthat1440minute(24hour)probablerainfallamountsaveraged1.13timesODD extreme rainfall for the same frequency. Use of this relationship with the ratios shown above indicates that for the duration times, t, of from 0.5 to 72 hours the probable depth of rainfall is a function of the fourthrootoft,thatis,t0.25. For a given frequency or return period (T) in years from 5 to 200 years values of ODD can be used to estimate the extreme value of ODD for a given return period. This value of ODD divided by two will approximate the probable depth (D) for a one hour time (t). For any other frequency (T) of from 5 to 200 years and for durations (t) of from 0.5 to 72 or more hours the probable depth of rainfall can be estimatedfromtheequation:

D1 t1 X T1 = D2 t 2 X T2

0.25

(4.1)

There is a relationship between mean annual rainfall amounts (PMA) and extreme values of ODD. Extreme values of ODD from three continents were compared with PMA. The relationship of5(PMA)0.50 envelopes 70% of the extreme ODD values from 30year periods of record. The outliers tend to occur mainlyunderstrongorographicconditions.Thisrelationshipisusefulasaninitialorfirstroughestimate ofprobableextremevalues. Precipitation (P) minus evapotranspiration from the watershed largely determines the runoff (R) or stream flow. The sum of monthly positive values of P minus reference evapotranspiration (ETo) can be used as a surrogate value (S) to estimate the coefficient of variation (CV) of R. If the measured or averaged precipitation is representative of that for the watershed the CV of S will be very similar to the CVofR.Thisrelationshipisveryusefulindeterminingthevalueofshortrunoffrecords.Alongclimatic record can be used to compare the long term variability of S with the short term variability during the shortperiodofmeasurements. It is sometimes necessary or desirable to estimate monthly values of stream flow from an ungaugedwatershed.Ifrecordsofprecipitationandtemperatureareavailable,runoffmeasuredfroma similar watershed can be used. Good correlations have been found between monthly values of the moisture availability index (MAI) and monthly runoff in l/s/km2 at a 75% probability. There is a time delay in the runoff, and a lag time of 15 days or one month or more produces the best correlation. Values of r2 (the coefficient of determination) of these correlations have usually been on the order of 0.75to0.80.Thepredictionofthreefourthsormoreofthevarianceinstreamflowata75%probability providesausefulestimateforpreliminaryplanning. In watersheds where there is much deep percolation and subsurface flow from the area, the relationship between MAI and surface flow is not well defined. However, good correlation has been foundformanylargewatersheds.

4.4.

HumanandOtherFactors

Inanumberofdevelopingcountries,dependenceonthelandforalivelihoodbygreatnumbersof small landholders familiar with primitive methods of cultivation has resulted in a destructive and inefficient use of resources. In several of these countries water is virtually undeveloped. Centralization

34

of government functions may impede the development of local responsibility and leadership in communityorgroupactivities. Manyirrigationdevelopmentsrequiregroupaction.Astrongtendencytowardsindividualismmay present certain problems in obtaining effective group action. However, individualism can be used effectivelytostimulategreaterachievementindesirableirrigationpractices.Insomeruralcommunities thesmalllandholdersareverydependentuponpoliceprotection.Althoughfrequentlydistrustfulofthe government they may recognize that successful, fair, and just administration of irrigation facilities will requirestrongsupportandenforcementofdecisionsandregulations. The longterm success of irrigation developments may depend upon several factors. Some of the moreobviousfactorsare: 1. Abilitytoprovideconservationmeasuresforthewatershedupstreamfromtheproject; 2. Provisionforadequatewatercontrolandofadequatedrainageforremovalofexcessrainfall andtheleachingofsalts. 3. Availability of market demand and facilities for processing and/or storing the crops to be produced; 4. Availabilityofcredit,fertilizer,equipment,laborsupplies,andotherrequiredinputs; 5. Acceptances of farm sizes and other policies that will promote a fairly rapid rate of capital growth; 6. Participation of the potential water users in the planning and financing of the irrigation project; 7. Availability of a capability for introducing desirable, profitable, and near optimum farming practices,croppingsystems,andvarietieswhenwaterisfirstmadeavailable. Improved agricultural practices are frequently best introduced as a complex; acceptance of one changeoftenmakesacceptanceofotherseasier.Failuretointroducegoodpracticeswhenwaterisfirst delivered may make the continued introduction of improved practices more difficult. In one developing country farmers vehemently resisted land consolidation of their fragmented parcels. Later, they gladly accepted reforms with the objective of creating economical units capable of capital growth when such reforms were offered in combination with rural electrification, subsidized credit, improved technical assistance, and improved market facilities. Rural electrification has frequently been a catalyst that has madeirrigationfeasible. More than half of the world's irrigation facilities are controlled and managed by farmers. Farmer or water user managed irrigation systems have typically been much more successful and better maintained. Farmer management has resulted in higher crop yields and incomes than for publicly owned and operated projects. The providing of farmer control of water deliveries by ondemand scheduling or flexible arrangeddemand schedules has usually saved water, improved drainage, and increasedyieldsandprofits. The takeover of publicly owned irrigation projects by the water users is best accomplished in stages, and an initial operating budget and some capital equipment may be required. Under farmer management of an irrigated project in the Dominican Republic crop yields increased 3.5 times over a fiveyear period. This resulted mainly from better water availability and irrigation scheduling. Water fees were increased by the water users by about seven times and government subsidies for O&M costs werediscontinued.

35

 Failure to adequately maintain irrigation projects managed by state governments of developing countries has in many cases resulted in increased farming of the watersheds and greatly increased destruction of the natural resources of the watersheds. Many such cases around the world have been documented.

4.5.

IntegratedDevelopment

At the project level, most irrigation development should be associated with other types of development. Some situations require the inclusion of hydropower, flood control, drainage, transportation, and marketing facilities. Basic data on soils, climate, water supply, power sites, etc., are seldom as complete and reliable as required. Few of the developing countries have the required equipment or trained personnel for collecting adequate and reliable data. Measurement of flood flows requiresadequateequipmentandwelltrainedpersonnel. In most developing countries the basic information and data are less adequate than desired. However, a summary and analysis of existing information often indicates good potential for integrated waterresourcedevelopment.Topographicmapsatascaleof1:50,000witha20mcontourintervalare available for many countries. These can be used to summarize the valley areas and areas of suitable slopes. Possible dam sites can be located. A contour can be selected as a possible water level. Using carbon paper the contour can be transferred to engineers computation paper and the squares counted to determine the area. Planimeters and software with digitized maps can also be used to determine land areas. An approximation of the reservoir capacity is one third of the depth at the dam site times theareaoftheproposedwatersurface.Thebettersitescanthenbeinvestigated. The lag time between rainfall and base flow of the streams can be determined graphically. In some situations a year of significantly above normal rainfall will increase base flow for as many as four years afterwards. In other situations with shallow soils over impervious material the lag time between rainfall and runoff is very short. The lag time can be investigated on 10day, monthly and yearly intervals. Soil characteristics are influenced by geology and climate. Boundaries between soil series and typeareoftenalsogeologicboundaries.Ageologicmapisquiteusefulinevaluatingthepotentialuseof thesoils.Cropselectionshouldbebasedonsoilcharacteristics,markets,andclimate.Eachcrophasan optimum temperature range. Some require a dry cycle for maturing and during harvest. Temperatures decrease about 0.5 to 0.7C per 100 m increase in elevation. IIMI is placing a climatic summary in the form of an atlas on the Internet. The atlas provides information on temperature, rainfall, the 75% probable rainfall (P75) reference evapotranspiration (ETo), MAI renamed A75 and net evapotranspiration (NET). NET is ETo minus P75. These values are retrievable by latitude and longitude for monthly and 10 daytimesteps.Theatlasvaluesarefromdatafrom56,000weatherstations(seesection1.8). Mostdevelopingcountrieshaveconsiderableinformationanddatathatcanbeusedforintegrated water resource development planning. Unfortunately, few have institutional authority nor trained personnel for this type of development planning. In 1994 the InterAmerican Development Bank (IDB) created a Private Sector Department for offering longterm financing and guarantees for infrastructure projects.TheIDBactivelypromotesprivatesectorintegratedwaterresourcesdevelopment.

36

The European Union (EU) has established a staged private sector system of finance for international joint ventures. These ventures must involve at least on EU company and one company from a qualifying country. This system is called EPIC (European Community Investment Partners). The EPIC financing mechanism is complex with a mix of grant, loan, and equityloan facilities. EPIC operates in developing countries through a large number of European and other banks and investment institutions.Othersimilarsystemsalsoexist. Topographic maps at a scale of 1:50,000 have been completed for nearly all of the worlds potential agricultural areas. World climate data are also available. Preparation of world surface water and ground water atlases would greatly assist in integrated water resource development, but this has not been done yet. In some developing countries the large number of construction corruption complaints has discourage private investment in water resource development. Uniform commercial codes and laws governing the use of water are needed so that an investor can expect fair treatment underlaw.

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5.

IRRIGATIONMETHODS
Introduction

5.1.

The term irrigation system has been applied by different people in various ways. In one definition, an irrigation system includes the storage facilities that collect runoff from a watershed, the conveyance and distribution system (canals and pipelines), the onfarm application systems, and the drainage facilities in a large irrigated area. In other definitions one or more of these physical infrastructurecomponentsareconsideredtobeanirrigationsystem.Inthisbook,anirrigationsystemis considered to be the onfarm or field application methodology and related equipment, such as pumps, pipes,andsprinklers.Thefieldapplicationsystemisusedtodistributewaterover(orunder)theground surfacewhereitcaninfiltrate. Irrigation water can be applied to the land in several different ways, and the choice among alternative irrigation systems depends upon many factors, including economics, crop type, soil type, wateravailabilityandquality,farmingpractices,legalconsiderations,andothers.Onecangotothefield and find seemingly endless variations on irrigation systems and water application and management techniques,butthefollowingmajorcategoriesofonfarmsystemscovermostofthevariations: 1. Surfaceirrigationbyfloodingorbyfurrows 2. Subsurface irrigation by maintaining a water table or zone of saturation within reach of the plantroots 3. Sprinkleirrigation 4. Driportrickle(localizedirrigation) There are many considerations relative to the selection of the best method of irrigation. The selection process should evaluate the influence of cost, topography, soil texture, potential salinity problems, crop or crops to be produced, and other factors that may influence crop yield and profit. A system that consistently, over time, results in higher crop yields is definitely worth more to the farmer and justifies a higher initial cost. The size of the irrigation stream (supply flow rate) and the probable costandprecisionoflandpreparationorlandlevelingmayinfluencetheselectionofthetypeofonfarm irrigationsystem.Thevarioustypesofirrigationsystemsaredescribedbrieflyinthischapterinorderto providesomeguidancefortheselectionofanappropriatemethod.

5.2.

GradedBorderIrrigation

Thisisasurfaceirrigationmethodinwhichwaterisintroducedattheupper(head)endsofeachof many strips of land, each separated by a low earthen dike, or border. The ground surface is sloping in fromtheheadendtothetailendoftheborderstrips.Someoftheprincipalrequirementsfortheuseof thismethodinclude: Relativelylargeirrigationstreams Gentletopographyslopesofthreepercentorless Soilswithsufficientlyhighintakerates Carefullandlevelingorpreparation

38

The land to be irrigated is divided into strips of usually 5 to 15 m width separated by low dikes or borderridges.Thedikesorridgesareusuallymadewithmachinedrawnimplements,andmanyofthese toolsinsertsmalldamseveryfewmeterstopreventadvancingwaterfromrunningdownthefurrowsat each side of the dikes (see Fig. 5.1). The borders are usually in the direction of the slope but may be on the contour, and the land between the borders should be leveled (that is, zero crossslope). The land surface between borders is irrigated by allowing a sheet of water to flow down the slope. When the lower end is reached, irrigation is started on the next border strip. This method may be used for hay, pasture, grain and orchard crops. It is less suitable for finetextured soils that require several days to drain to the soil field capacity. The surface soil remains saturated for a longer time restricting aeration andresultinginlossofgrowthandinloweryields. earthen dike separating border strips

Figure 5.1. End view of an earthen dike created between border strips, with resulting furrows on either side.

furrows created when making the dike

5.3.

BasinIrrigation

Basin irrigation or level border irrigation is used for the reclamation of saline soils (leaching) and for a wide variety of soil textures and crops. This is also a surface irrigation method because water is distributed over the field on the soil surface rather than though pipes. Water application efficiencies with this method can be very high (less than 10% deep percolation losses) when the field surface is precisely leveled and the flow rate is sufficient to cover the area quickly. In fact, the application efficiency in a level basin can easily be higher than that obtainable in most sprinkler systems because there is no surface runoff unless water is purposely transferred between adjacent basins through small openings in the dikes. Basins may range in size from very small to quite large (several hectares). Small basins used in the irrigation of orchards are often referred to as checks. In areas where significant rainfall occurs it is sometimes necessary to provide a means of surface drainage, and in rice and sugar cane fields the water may be passed from basin to basin by gravity flow through breaks or checks in the dikes. For field and vegetable crops a system of ridges and furrows within the basins provides what is essentially level furrow irrigation the ridges provide aeration for the plant roots while soil in the furrowsissaturated.

5.4.

ContourLevees

Contour levees are a type of basin irrigation and are widely used for the production of flooded rice. Contour dikes or levees may be constructed at intervals so that the difference of elevation of the dikes will not exceed 10 cm.Onathreepercentslope,thiswouldresultina3mspacingofdikes.They

39

may be used with large flows of water for the irrigation of some pasture grasses. The land between dikesshouldbecrossleveledandgooddrainagefacilitiesshouldbeprovided.

5.5.

FurrowIrrigation

This is one of the most common surface irrigation methods. Furrows may be made by cultivating between the plant rows or beds may be created from the soil removed to make the furrows. Corrugations are shallow furrows running down the slope to irrigate close growing crops such as hay or grain. The distinction is that furrows normally contain the surface water, while with corrugations the entire ground surface is flooded during irrigation. Furrows may be level, on the contour with some slope, or down the slope. Furrow irrigation can be used with a large range of stream sizes by adjusting the number of furrows irrigated at the same time. This type of irrigation is adaptable to a great variety inlandslopesandsoiltextures.However,careshouldbeexercisedtolimittheflowinthefurrowssoas topreventerosion.Saltsmustbeleachedfromthesoilorbemanagedsothattheyaccumulateinzones away from germinating seeds and plant roots. This can be done by irrigating every furrow on double rowbedssothatthesaltswillaccumulateinthemiddleofthebedtopandnotintheplantrowsorseed lines. Furrowirrigationisusuallyaccomplishedinsetsoffurrowsbecausethesupplyflowrateisseldom enoughtoprovidewatertoallfurrowssimultaneously,andevenifitwere,themanagementofsomuch water could be very difficult. Water is usually supplied to the head end of each furrow through aluminum or plastic siphons taking water from an open ditch, or from gated aluminum pipe with adjustablegatesatthesamespacingasthefurrows.Multiplesiphontubescanbeplacedattheheadof each furrow for rapid advance of water to the end of the furrows, then one or more can be removed to continue irrigation after the water has advanced to the end. This results in manual cutback irrigation, inwhichtheinflowisreducedtopreventexcessivesurfacerunofffromtheendofthefurrows.Another way cutback irrigation can be achieved is by manually reducing the openings in the gated pipe, or by applying a technology referred to as cablegation, in which a plug is slowly pulled along the length of theslopinggatedpipebyacabletoautomaticallychangesetsandproduceacutbackeffect. The furrow length and initial stream should be regulated so that water will flow through the furrow rapidly but without erosion and then the flow should be reduced so that little runoff will occur during the remainder of the irrigation. In furrow irrigation, crops are frequently fertilized by what is calledsidebanding.Irrigationinthefurrowsthenmovesplantnutrientsintotherootzoneofthecrop as water moves laterally from the furrows. Furrow irrigation is generally used on land with a fairly uniform surface and slopes of less than one or two percent. However, furrow irrigation has been used extensively in Andean countries on mountain slopes in which the furrows wind back and forth in the down slope direction. In these cases, the zigzag furrows are well formed and deep, with constant vigilancetopreventsevereerosionfromabreakinthefurrowduringirrigation.Thisisjustoneofmany exceptionstothemoretraditionalapplicationsofirrigationtechnologies. Surge flow is a technology developed at Utah State University for pulsing the advance of water down furrows such that both application efficiency and uniformity are improved. Instead of providing a continuous stream of water at the head of the field, the flow rate is intermittently applied through a repeating onoff cycle. The on time may be anywhere from a few seconds to hours, and may be differentthantheofftime.Bysurgingtheinflowinthisway,somedegreeofsurfacesealingoccursin the soil, thereby allowing for faster advance of subsequent surges, or on cycles, over previously wetted portions of the furrow. The water advances to the end of the field in less time and with less

40

deeppercolation.Highfrequencysurging(rapidonoffcycles)duringthepostadvancephaseofsurface irrigation helps reduce runoff losses by effectively reducing the inflow to the furrow, while still maintainingwaterinthefurrowforextrainfiltration. Surge flow is most applicable to heavier textured soils that exhibit surface sealing characteristics. The surge flow technique has little benefit over continuous flow regimes on very sandy soils. Various companies manufacture and market hardware for applying surge flow, but with inexpensive labor the techniquecanbeappliedmanually.Someofthehardwareisdesignedtocontrolindividualvalvesatthe headofeachfurrow,andotherscontrolleftandrightbanksofgatedpipetoachievetheonoffcyclesin surgeflow.

5.6.

SubIrrigation

Subirrigation may provide the only water supply to a field, or be supplemental to other water applicationmethods.Withsubirrigation,waterissuppliedtocropsbycapillarymovement(unsaturated flow) of water above a water table of controlled elevation.Thesoilsmustpermitlateralanddownward movementofwaterandbecapableofmovingwaterfromthewatertablethroughoutthemajorportion of the root zone. The fields should be smooth and the surface should be approximately parallel to the water table. In many cases there will be a semiimpermeable layer below the crop root zone, which helpstomaintainthewatertablewithoutexcessivedeeppercolation. The water table may be controlled by laterals, most commonly as open channels 23 m in depth, that serve both irrigation and drainage functions. Figure 5.2 shows a side view of a subirrigated field withopenchannels.Thedistancebetweentheopenchannels,orburiedperforatedpipesinsomecases, depends mainly on the crop root depth, soil texture and structure, and on the permissible variation in water table elevation between the channels (see drain spacing in Chapter 8). With natural sub irrigation, the water table may typically be high due to geographical and or topographical conditions, and the open channels or buried drain pipes are used not for supply purposes, but rather to control the phreaticwaterlevel.Thephreaticwaterlevelisthelevelunderthesoilatwhichthesoilwatertensionis zero,andthisessentiallycoincideswiththewatertable. Thismethodisusedprincipallywithshallowrootedcropsonpeatormucksoilsinriverdeltas,but is also used in mediumtexture soilsforsupplementingdirectrainfall.Lessthan2%oftheirrigatedarea in the United States uses this irrigation method, and much of this area is concentrated in a few large tractsoflandthatdependmostlyonsubirrigationforcontrollingthesoilwatercontentofthecroproot zone.

open ditch water table

open ditch

Figure5.2.Sideviewofasubirrigatedfieldwithopenchannelsforwatersupplyanddrainage.

semi-impermeable soil layer

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5.7.

SprinkleIrrigation

Most crops can be successfully irrigated by some type of sprinkler system. However, decisions relative to the desirability of installing a sprinkler system and the type of system to be installed should only be made by those with considerable knowledge of the costs, options, probable benefits, soil, crop, andtopographicconditions.Theavailabilityofelectricalenergyorfossilfuel(e.g.gasolineanddiesel)at reasonable prices and the dependability of the energy source are important considerations. Sprinkle irrigationonfinetexturedsoilsoflowpermeabilitymayresultinreducedaerationofthesurfacesoiland consequently some reduction in crop yields. Localized surface ponding and runoff may also be a problem,especiallywithhighapplicationrates. Sprinkleirrigationinstallationsmaybeofthefollowingtypes: 1. Stationaryorsolidsetfororchardsandperennialcrops. 2. Semiportableorhandmovedwithfixedmainlinesandmovablelaterals. 3. Portableforcropgerminationorforirrigationsupplementaltorainfall. 4. Lowpressureundertreesprinklersinorchards. 5. Highpressureforfieldcropsorovertree,suchasbiggunsprinklers. 6. Siderollandselfpropelled(travelersprinklers). 7. Centerpivotandlinearmove. Center pivots have become very popular in some areas over the past two decades, and can be found in many countries around the world. The state of Nebraska in the USA has more than 23,000 centerpivotsofvarioussizesinmanydenseclusters,andapproximatelyhalfofallthesprinklerirrigated land in the USA is with center pivots. One of the potential difficulties in using center pivots is that the application rate can be very high at the outer area of the irrigated circle, which may cause surface pondingandorrunoff. Sprinkler irrigation can be restricted to crops that can withstand complete foliar wetting. Some crops such as tomatoes cannot tolerate wetting when thefruitmaturesbecauseitwouldcausemolding and other damage. However, in some cases fungicides and other chemicals are injected into the irrigation water to prevent quality degradation in the fruit. In orchards it is often necessary to use under tree sprinklers to avoid wetting the leaves and fruit, but in crops such as bananas a big gun sprinklercanbeusedforabovecanopysupplementalirrigation. Some systems have been provided with automatic hydraulic controls, and automatic metering devices are frequently used. Sprinklers have been classified by two main groups, set and continuous move(KellerandBliesner1990),andmaybedividedintosixprincipaltypesasfollows: 1. Revolvingsprinklers 2. Whirlingsprinklers 3. Fixedheadsprinklers 4. Sprinklerguns 5. Perforatedpipe 6. Oscillatingrainpipe Sprinkler (or drip)irrigationisfrequentlydesirableonsteep,rocky,orunevenlandareasorwhere the soils are shallow or too pervious for efficient use of other forms of irrigation. Pressurized irrigation

42

may not be desirable where electrical energy or an alternative energy source may be undependable or expensive. Pressurized irrigation can and should be metered and the irrigation amounts adjusted in accordance with the crop irrigation requirements. The output of water at various parts of the system can be measured by catching the water and measuring the amounts. Uniformity should be periodically measuredandadjustmentsmadewhenevernecessary. Sprinkler irrigation designs should be made by engineers with considerable experience with the possible alternative choices. Whenever possible the client or farmer should test or obtain information onefficienciesanduniformitiesofsimilaralreadyinstalleddesignspriortoacceptingaproposeddesign.

5.8.

DriporTrickleIrrigation

Water is applied to the place where the active plant roots are to be found. Perhapsabetterterm is localized, or micro irrigation. There are many types of emitters and misters that are capable of supplying water directly to the plant root area. Initially, perforated pipe was used. This has now been replaced by use of plastic twinwall tubing and systems of tubing and emitters. The soil water may be keptatahighlevelofavailabilityatalltimes.Thesystemmaybelocatedonorunderthesoilsurface,or elevated above ground along rows of trees or vines. Operating pressures are usually low (one half to oneatmosphereor7to15psi).Theinstallationmaybenonportable,semiportableorportable. Water can typically be applied more frequently and efficiently than with other methods, and evapotranspirationisnotreducedbyreducingthesoilwaterbelowfieldcapacity.Insomecasessurface evaporation is reduced but transpiration may be somewhat increased due to maintenance of low water tension in the crop root zone. Therefore, the influence on evapotranspiration can be considered to be negligible. Deep percolation and surface runoff can be reduced to minimum values. The low irrigation rate also makes the method suitable for lowinfiltration soils. Water can be saved by not wetting the areabetweenrowsorbetweenplants. Drip irrigation requires a dependable source of power for maintaining pressure in the main and lateral lines. Treatment of the water is essential to minimize clogging of the emitters (water outlets). However, drip or micro irrigation has many advantages for the irrigation of fruits, nuts, vines, and vegetable crops. Crops can often be irrigated with significantly less water than by other common irrigationmethods.Laborcostsforirrigatingcanbereducedsincewaterappliedbydripsystemscanbe regulatedbylaborsavingautomatictimingdevices. Field operations are easier because much of the soil surface remains dry. Weed growth is reduced, and uninterrupted orchard operations are possible. When crops are grown on beds the furrows in which farm workers walk remain relatively dry. Fertilizers can be injected into the irrigation water to avoid the labor for ground application. Greater control over fertilizer placement and timing may lead to improved fertilizer efficiencies. The probability of groundwater contamination due to deep percolationcanbesignificantlyreduced. Fertilizers are frequently applied in dissolved form through the irrigation water. Herbicides and soil sterilants can also be applied with the irrigation water. Crop yields are often higher and of better quality.Sometimesthetimingofharvestcanbeimproved.Localizedirrigationisexpensive,butinmany cases increased quantity and quality of yields together with improved timing of harvest has justified the expense.

43

The large number of emitters required, problems with clogging of outlets, maintenance of the system, and pressure variations due to topography require a lot of knowhow, experience, and careful operation of drip systems for optimal results. Unless fertilizers are applied in the irrigation water, the system may leach fertility from the root zone of the crop. If salinity is a problem, salts may accumulate in the interface between the irrigated and nonirrigated zones in the soil. These salts, if not washed away,maydamagethenextseason'scrops. WhatisaLEPAsystem? Low energy precision application (LEPA) is a concept developed in the mid to late 1970s in the stateofTexastoconservewaterandenergyinpressurizedirrigationsystems.Theprincipalobjectiveof the technology was to make effective all available water resources, including the use of rainfall and minimization of evaporation losses, and by applying irrigation water near the soil surface. Such applications of irrigation water led to sprinkler system designs emphasizing lower nozzle positions and loweroperatingpressures,therebyhelpingpreventdriftandevaporativelossesanddecreasingpumping costs. For example, many center pivot systems with abovelateral sprinklers have been refitted to position sprinkler heads under the lateral, often with lower pressure nozzle designs. The commercialization of the LEPA technology has led to many modifications and extensions to the original concept.

5.9.

SelectinganIrrigationMethod

Various manuals and texts are available on the selection and design of the different types of irrigation systems. These provide considerable detail but are no substitute for experience. Irrigation systemselectionanddesignshouldbecarriedoutbyexperiencedprofessionals.Thefarmerorirrigation manager should, however, have sufficient knowledge of the conditions of soils, topography, size and shapes of fields, cropping systems, labor availability, and alternative possible irrigation systems in order to provide some guidance to the designer. Of course, initial development costs and annual operational costs are usually important economic factors in the selection of an irrigation method. Social considerations and traditional practices have also generally had a large impact on the appropriateness and feasibility of a particular method. In some developing countries, the supply of electricity is not dependable. If load shedding and power failures are frequent, pressurized irrigation may not be economicalunlessanalternativesourceofenergyisavailableatareasonablecost. Table 5.1 provides a guide for selecting an irrigation method. This table contains a very useful summary, but it should be recognized that there are exceptions to almost all rules in irrigation system selection. The ingenuity of farmers and irrigation engineers around the world has produced dozens of notable adaptations of irrigation methods under difficult conditions, including the successful application ofirrigationmethodsthatwouldgenerallybeconsideredunsuitablefortheprevailingconditions. Frequent irrigation with slow drip rates reduce capital costs due to the reduction of main and lateral line sizes when compared with those required for sprinkler or surface irrigation. The frequent irrigations reduce fluctuations between wet and dry conditions and provide good soil aeration. Salts in the soil water are kept more diluted making possible the use of more saline waters than with other irrigation methods. Crops frequently mature earlier and produce higher yields. In many cases the improvements in yield, quality, and uniformity of product have resulted in significantly increased profitability. Table5.1.Guideforselectingamethodofirrigation(adaptedfromDoneenandWestcot1984).

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IrrigationMethod Widelyspaced borders Topography Landslopescapableof beinggradedtoless than1%slopeand preferably0.2% Crops Alfalfaandother deeprootedclose growingcrops,and orchards Remarks Anappropriatesurfacemethodforirrigatingclose growingcropswherethetopographyisfavorable. Anevengradeinthedirectionofirrigationis requiredonflatlandandisdesirableonslopesof morethanabout0.5%.Gradechangesshouldbe slightandreversegradesmustbeavoided.There shouldbenocrossslope. Especiallyadaptedtoshallowsoilsunderlainbya claypanorsoilsthathavealowintakerate.Even gradeinthedirectionofirrigationisdesirablebut notessential.Sharpgradechangesandreverse gradesshouldbesmoothedout.Crossslopeis permissiblewhenconfinedtodifferencesin elevationbetweenbordersof69cm.Sincethe borderstripsmayhavelesswidth,agreatertotal crossslopeispermissiblethanforborderirrigated alfalfa. Thismethodisespeciallydesignedtoobtain adequatedistributionandpenetrationofwaterin soilswithlowwaterintakerates. Thismethodisespeciallyadaptedtosteeplandand smallirrigationstreams.Anevengradeinthe directionofirrigationisdesirablebutnotessential. Sharpgradechangesandreversegradesshouldat leastbesmoothedout.Duetothetendencyof corrugationstoclogandoverflowandcauseserious erosion,crossslopesshouldbeavoidedasmuchas possible. Especiallyadaptedtorowcropsonsteepland, thoughhazardousduetopossibleerosionfrom heavyrainfall.Actualgradeinthedirectionof irrigation0.51.5%.Nogradingisrequiredbeyond fillinggulliesandremovalofabruptridges. Especiallyadaptedtofoothillconditions.Requires littleornosurfacegrading. Especiallyadaptedtosoilsthathaveeithera relativelyhighorlowwaterintakerate.May requireconsiderablelandgrading.

Closelyspaced borders

Landslopescapableof beinggradedto4% slopeorless,and preferablylessthan1%

Pastures

Checkbackand crossfurrows Corrugations

Landslopescapableof beinggradedto0.2% slopeorless Landslopescapableof beinggradedtoslopes between0.5%and12%

Fruit

Alfalfa,pasture,and grain

Gradedcontour furrows

Variablelandslopesof 225%,butpreferably less

Rowcropsandfruit

Contourditches Rectangularchecks (levees)

Contourlevee

Irregularslopesupto 12% Landslopescapableof beinggradedsosingle ormultipletreebasins willbeleveledwithin6 cm Slightlyirregularland slopesoflessthan1%

Hay,pasture,and grain Orchards

Fruit,rice,grainand foragecrops

Portablepipes Subirrigation

Irregularslopesupto 12% Smoothandflat

Sprinklerirrigation

Undulatingwithupto 35%slopeormore

Hay,pasture,and grain Shallowrootedcrops suchaspotatoesor grass Allcrops

Reducestheneedtogradeland.Frequently employedtoavoidaltogetherthenecessityof grading.Adaptedbesttosoilsthathaveeithera highorlowintakerate. Especiallyadaptedtofoothillconditions.Requires littleornosurfacegrading. Requiresawatertable,verypermeablesubsoil conditionsandpreciseleveling.Veryfewareasare adaptedtothismethod. Highoperationandmaintenancecosts.Goodfor roughorverysandylandsinareasofhigh productionandgoodmarkets.Goodmethodwhere powercostsarelow,orwherethewatersupplyisat asignificantlyhigherelevationthanthefieldarea. Goodforhighrainfallareaswhereonlyasmall

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Contourbench terraces Subirrigation (installedpipes)

Slopingland,especially forslopesunder3%, butalsoupto6% Flattouniformslopes upto1%surfaceshould besmooth

Anycropbut particularlysuitedto cultivatedcrops Anycrop;rowcrops orhighvaluecrops usuallyused

Microirrigation (dripandtrickle)

Anytopography suitableforrowcrop farming

Rowcropsorfruit

supplementalwatersupplyisneeded. Considerablelossofproductivelandduetoberms. Requiresexpensivedropstructuresforwater erosioncontrol. Requiresinstallationofperforatedplasticpipein rootzoneatnarrowspacings.Somedifficultiesin rootspluggingtheperforations.Alsoaproblemas tocorrectspacing.Fieldtrialsondifferentsoilsare needed. Perforatedpipeonthesoilsurfacedripswaterat baseofindividualplantsortrees.Hasbeen successfullyusedwithsalineirrigationwaterwhere irrigationfrequencyishighandthesoilwater salinityisnearlythatoftheappliedwater.

One factor in irrigation system selection has often been the perceived level of technology. Surface,orgravity,irrigationsystemstypicallyhavetheleastamountofhardware(pipes,valves,pumps, filters, etc.) and have in some cases been labeled as obsolete or inherently inefficient. Because surface systems have less hardware, there is less to sell to farmers. Some vendors of pressurized (sprinkle and trickle) systems in various regions of the world have produced beautiful color brochures and convinced farmers that they are not modern if they continue to use surface irrigation methods. Nevertheless, surface irrigation systems can be and often are more efficient than pressurized systems, and they are themostcommontypesofonfarmirrigationsystemeveninthemostdevelopedcountries.

5.10. LandGradingandLeveling
Land leveling and land grading are not the same thing. Land leveling usually involves cutting, moving,andfilling,wherethecutandfillareasareseparatedbysomedistance.Landlevelingisseldom performed on a yearly basis, but rather every five to ten years, or more. Land grading involves smoothing of the soil surface to correct localized, minor surface irregularities. In rice culture, land gradingisoftenperformedundersaturatedconditionswithanimalormachinerypower. Thebenefitsoflandlevelingandgradingare: Surface irrigation is accomplished with less labor and with greater uniformity and efficiency (potentiallybetterwatermanagement) Soil erosion hazards are lessened because surface runoff is better controlled during rain and irrigation(byanyirrigationmethod) After irrigation, the field surface dries quicker and more uniformly, allowing more frequent irrigationsbetweencultivationsandotherfarmingoperations Weedcontrolisfavorablyaffectedbecausethereisnotaproblemduetowetspotsinlowareas ofthefield Fertilizer application is more efficient and effective, because there is potentially less deep percolation Theprincipaldrawbackstolandlevelingandgradingare: Itisusuallyexpensive

46

Heavycutscanreduceagriculturalproductivityforyears Some soils are not deep enough to permit leveling, or there are too many stones and rocks for earthworktobefeasible Levelingandgradingequipmentissometimesmisusedandpoorlyunderstood,causingproblems ratherthanprovidingsolutions

Land leveling calculations can be performed using conventional techniques or through least squares regression. Regression can be linear, rowbyrow and columnbycolumn across the field, or it can be multiple linear regression, which is preferred. Multiple regression can include a correlation coefficient for the entire field surface, giving an indication of the "roughness" of the field surface. That is, the correlation indicates how well the bestfit plane actually fits the existing field surface. The time requiredtocompletealevelingjobdependsontwoprincipalfactors:(1)volumeofcut;and(2)distance between area centroids of cuts and fills, respectively. The second factor gives an indication of how far the earth must be transported across the field, on average, but the actual transportation distances dependonhowtheequipmentoperator(s)goabouttheirwork. Thecut/fillvolumeratiomustusuallybegreaterthanunityinordertocompletethejobwithouta lack of fill material. The needed ratio will vary according to soil texture, soil structure, soil moisture, presence and type of organic material, and other factors. Usually one or two adjustments to the cut depth must be made before finishing the job, otherwise there will be "extra" soil left over, or there will beunfilledareasafterallcutshavebeenmade.Operatorjudgmentandfieldexperienceareveryhelpful insuchdecisions. "Pads" are sometimes constructed at the head end of a field, consisting of a 10 to 15foot strip of slightly elevated ground surface. These are to facilitate surface irrigation, especially with earthen ditches and siphon tubes. The construction of pads requires some adjustment to the cut and fill calculations. It is usually advisable to apply additional fertilizer on cut areas after land leveling, especially when deep cuts are made, exposing the subsoil. Some new application services can create a map of soil nutrient deficiencies, then apply chemicals semiautomatically according to the map. But for deep soil cuts,itisrecommendedtocutdeeperthannecessary,thenbackfillwithtopsoil.Otherwise,cropsmay notgrowwellintheheavycutareasforseveralyears.Areaswithdeepfillsmaysettlesubstantiallyafter irrigationorrain,thusrequiringtouchuplevelinginthefollowingyear.

5.11. LaserLevelingEquipmentandPractices
Laser leveling has been used in agriculture for more than twenty years. The word laser is an acronymforLightAmplificationbyStimulatedEmissionofRadiation.Thelasersusedinagriculturalland leveling and in construction are usually of the heliumneon type, producing a redcolored light. Many farmersownandoperatethisequipmentintheUSA.Someoftheadvantagesoverconventionalleveling are that operator skill in creating a level field surface is essentially eliminated, the final leveling job can be more accurate, and less preparation is required before beginning the earthwork. Conventional levelingisstillusedwhenverydeepcutsandfillsarerequired. Laser equipment has been used for more than 20 years in the construction industry, and it is also usedforlayingpipelines,excavatingditchesandcanals,andliningcanalswithconcrete.Lasersareused for conventional surveying jobs, except that in many cases only one person is required to complete the

47

work. The laser equipment includes a laser with sensitive leveling instruments, a sensor for distinguishing between normal light and a specific frequency of laser light, and control circuitry for monitoringandoperatingtheequipment.Alsoneededareasufficientlylargetractorandascraper.The laser equipment and automatic hydraulic valves may cost $20,000 to $30,000 or more, and the tractor canprobablybeusedforotherfarmingpurposes,inadditiontolevelingjobs. The laser is mounted vertically, and a mirror at a 90degree angle rotates above at about 8 revolutions per second. This essentially establishes a plane of light over the field surface, and when the job is finished, the field surface is parallel to the plane of light. The laser is usually powered from a regular car battery, either in a pickup truck or from a separate battery. The battery is usually changed every12hoursofoperation. Problems will arise when two separate laser sources overlap in a field because the sensor doesn't know which one to use. This is not a very common occurrence, but there have been cases of this happening. Most laser equipment is sensitive to movement (e.g. from gusty winds), and the mirror will stop rotating if the laser unit is shaken slightly, resuming again after automatically resetting to the specifiedslopes.Inwindyconditions,thetowerortripoduponwhichthelaserismountedcanbemore firmly stabilized if cables are attached and anchored to the ground. Equipment can work day and night, butheavyfogandthickdustcanobstructthelaserbeamenoughtopreventoperations.Theseproblems are worse when the sensor is far from the laser itself (e.g. in fields of about 50 acres or more). Hot and dry conditions can also cause problems when the sensor is far from the laser and the air has strong currents, causing the beam to diverge and fluctuate. This in turn causes the sensor to feed fluctuating signalstothecontroller,givinga"washboard"effecttothecutandfillareas. The equipment can be used for both surveying the existing field elevations, and for doing the leveling work. The survey job is not as accurate as a conventional manual survey, but it is quick and easy. Leveling calculations are somewhat complicated by the fact that the survey is often performed using a sloping reference plane. This is done because the telescoping mast upon which the sensor is mounted has limited vertical travel, and some parts of the field could go out of its range. The operator must check the sensor position at the high and low corners before beginning the surveying process. Threecommonmodesofoperationare:1.Manual(laserisignored);2.Automatic(scraperbladefollows the plane of light); and 3. Survey (laser sensor follows the plane of light on a telescoping mast and the blade remains at fixed height above the ground surface. With deep cuts, the operator may need to make a few initial passes in manual mode, then make the final cuts in automatic mode "ongrade". Otherwise, the scraper and tractor may be forced to bite off too much at a time. Also, with deep fills, theoperatormaybeadvisedtomakeinitialpassesinmanualmode. Operator skill is not in cutting and filling to elevation, but in controlling the cutting such that the bucketfillswithoutthetractorstallingorthewheelsspinning.Whenthewheelsspin,thetireswillwear quickly (in a few days), and the replacement cost may be thousands of dollars. Thus, the operator must learn to simultaneously control steering, engine throttle, forward gear (with automatic transmissions) laser mode (automatic to manual), scraper blade, and scraper door. This can require both feet, both hands, and perhaps an elbow or two. Operator alertness is also valuable, because the mast with the sensorcanbeabovetheheightofthetractorcabin,andneartreesthesensorcanbedamaged. Theequipmentisusuallytakendownandstoredwhennotinuse.Resettingtheequipmentinthe field before a job is completed can be a problem for the following reasons: 1. It may be difficult to line up the main (in the direction of furrows or borders) and side slopes to exactly the same directions as

48

before; 2. The plane of laser light may be at the same slopes as before, but the height above the field surface has changed, requiring a corresponding change in the elevation difference between the sensor andthescraperblade.

5.12. ComputingDiagonalSlopes
Farmerssometimesmakefurrowsatdiagonalanglestothemainandsideslopesofafield.Thisis typicallydonetochangetheslopeofthefurrowswithoutrelevelingthefieldsurface.Theapplicationof coordinaterotationequationsisrequiredtodetermineslopesthatlieonadiagonalbetweentheknown main and side slopes. Contrary to what is sometimes common intuition, the slope on a diagonal of a fieldwithequalmainandsideslopesisgreaterthanthemainorsideslope. Coordinate rotation involves trigonometry. If the main and side slopes of a field are Sx and Sy along the x and y directions, respectively, then the effective main slope for a rotation of degrees wouldbe: Sx cos + Sy sin (5.1) Equation 5.1 gives the ground slope in the x direction, as shown in Fig. 5.3. The slope in the y directionwouldbe: Sy cos + Sx sin (5.2)

y y' x' x
Figure5.3.Definitionsketchforcoordinaterotationtodefinefieldslopesondiagonalangles. Thus, for an angle of zero ( = 0) the x and x axes coincide, as do the y and y axes, and from Eqs. 5.1 and 5.2 the slopes are simply Sx and Sy. For any other angle the slopes are different because the coordinatesystemisrotated.Usingthesesimpleequationsitispossibletoshowwhattheslopeswould beforanygivenanglefromthedirectionoftheknownmainorsideslopes.

5.13. IrrigationSystemEvaluation

49

Irrigationsystemevaluationisdonetodeterminetherelativeperformanceofthesystem,withthe ultimate objective to identify various possible improvements that would improve performance. Performance can be defined in subjective terms in the most practical applications, but often involves quantitativeindicatorssuchasefficiencyparametersandwaterapplicationuniformity.Irrigationsystem evaluation is inherently relative because comparisons of performance indicators with other irrigation systems are required to determine whether water management in the system is adequate or not. In some cases, a low level of performance is acceptable, and in others the system should be very efficient, distribute water with a high degree of uniformity, etc. All systems can be improved upon, but the level of improvement is contingent upon the crop value, water cost, and other factors. An irrigation system thatdoesnotappeartobebeautifulmayinfactbeveryappropriateandmayfunctionverywell. A thorough irrigation system evaluation will involve three components: (1) field observations, (2) field measurements and data analysis, and (3) an interview with the farmer or irrigator. The third component can be a very important part of an evaluation because it can provide indications as to why the system is maintained and operated the way it is, and can uncover additional problems that may not have been discovered during the field observations and measurements. The interviewer should ask the farmer what kinds of irrigation problems are normally experienced, and what are his or her perceptions astohowtheperformanceoftheirrigationsystemmightbeimproved. There are various ways to evaluate irrigation systems. However, one of the most important is frequentvisualinspectionofhowthecropsaredeveloping.Somemethodsofsoilwatermonitoringare described later in this book. Simple field observations are essential to any irrigation system evaluation, and they should precede measurements. However, an evaluator may look at a field or farm, yet not see the problems in the irrigation system. Field observations can be made during an irrigation or between irrigations, and many interesting things can often be found. The following are examples of whattolookforwhenvisitinganirrigatedarea: Is the soil very dry or very wet (use soil augers or a shovel)? Is the soil dry enough that anirrigationshouldbegin,orsowetthatirrigationinprogressshouldstop? Are there any signs of soil erosion, especially at the head end and tail end of the field? Aretheflowratestoohighorarethefieldslopestoosteep? Aretheheadworks(ditches,structures,pipes,etc.)wellmaintained? Arethefurroworbasininletseroded?Isgatedpipedischargingdirectlyintothefurrow withoutanyenergydissipation? Are there low spots in the field (ponded water, wet and perhaps weedy areas)? Does thefieldneedtobegradedorleveled? Are there sandy areas in the field that tend to dry much quicker than the rest of the field?Arethereheavyclayareasthatdrymuchslower? Forbordersandbasins,arethedikesingoodcondition? Forfurrows,arethefurrowsdeepenoughandwithoutobstructions(clods,straw,vines, etc.)?Aretheredeepcracksinthefurrowsduetosoilshrinkage? For furrows, is the soil crusted on the beds (did the beds become inundated during the irrigation)?Doesitappearthatwaterjumpedacrossfurrowsduringtheirrigation? Forsprinklers,isthewaterbeingblownoffthefieldbystrongwinds?Arethesprinklers rotatingevenly,andarethereanyvisibleleaksinthepipes?

50

For sprinklers, is the water droplet size obviously very small (high pressure, high evaporation, low uniformity) or very large (low pressure, soil surface sealing, low uniformity)? Aresaltsvisiblyaccumulatingonthesoilsurface? Are there any barren areas that dont even support weed growth (alkaline soils, sodic soils,lackofwater,etc.)? Doesthecropgrowthappeartobeuniformacrossthefield? Isthereevidenceofpondedwateronthefieldsurface(applicationrateistoohigh)? Doessurfacerunoffdrainadequately,oraretheoutletscloggedorblocked?

Field measurements are also an important part of an evaluation, but care must be taken to present the results in a comprehensible way such that the results can be applied toward irrigation system improvements. General measurements may include soil infiltration rate using cylinder ring infiltrometers or other devices, soil water, and water quality analysis. In surface irrigation systems, typicalfieldmeasurementsincludewateradvanceratesoverthesoilsurface,runoffvolumesandinflow outflow hydrographs, and field dimensions and topography. Sprinkler irrigation evaluations usually involve catchcan measurements for analysis of application uniformity, pressure measurements in pipes or at sprinklers at different locations, and other miscellaneous data and observations. Trickle irrigation system evaluations typically include sample discharge measurements from emitters to estimate application uniformity. Merriam and Keller (1978) and Walker and Skogerboe (1986) describe detailedtechnicalproceduresforperformingirrigationsystemevaluations. Surface irrigation management parameters include inflow rate, irrigation duration, field length, field topography, soil infiltration rate. These are the parameters that can often be adjusted to improve the performance of an irrigation system. The inflow rate is often the easiest thing to change, and can result in a large change in performance. The inflow rate affects the advance rate across the field, and althoughhigherratestendtoprovidebetterapplicationuniformity,theyarealsoassociatedwithhigher runoff at the tail end of the field. High flow rates can also cause soil erosion. The duration of an irrigation is also a simple parameter to change, and can greatly affect irrigation system performance. In practice, durations are often longer than required, resulting in excessive runoff and deep percolation losses. Field length can be modified, but the possibilities are usually very limited. For example, the field length can be divided by two when the advance rate is too slow, then later in the season it may be feasible to irrigate over the entire length. Field topography can be modified by land grading or leveling, whichcansignificantlyaffecttheuniformity,laborrequirements,weedcontrol,andtimetodrybetween irrigations. Infiltration rates can be affected by mechanical or chemical means, or by using surge flow. Farmers will sometimes run furrows with a tractor to crush clods and reduce the infiltration rate, thereby allowing faster water advance and better uniformity. Or, it may be necessary to chisel the soil toprovideincreasedinfiltrationandaeration. Anothercriterionforirrigationsystemperformanceiswhethertheratioofbenefitstocostforthe systemisatamaximum.Thus,thefollowingcanbeevaluated: Istheuniformityofwaterapplicationacceptable? Arelaborcostsforoperatingthesystemreasonable? Doesthesystemsupplypeakwaterrequirementswhenneeded?

51

Istheoperationofthesystemdependable? Arecropyieldsandcropqualitysatisfactory?

Uniformity can be measured or observed in various ways. Leaves of the crop turn a darker green as water stress increases. Infrared photography of the fields can be used to indicate areas of deficit or excesswater.Ametalprobecanbeusedtodeterminetheuniformityofwaterpenetrationintothesoil. Cans can be placed in the field to evaluate the uniformity of sprinkler irrigation. For furrow or flood irrigation, the advance rate should be fairly rapid when irrigation is started and then cut back so as not to waste too much water at the end of the field. The labor costs of a particular irrigationsystemcanbe comparedwiththoseofothersystemsinordertoevaluatetheneedsforchanges.Ifthesupplyofwater istoolimitedfortheareatobeirrigated,thenlaborinwaterapplicationwillbeincreased.

52

6.

CROPWATERREQUIREMENTS
Introduction

6.1.

Crop water requirements are determined by the climatic evaporative potential, plant characteristics, and all of the factors that influence growth and development of the crop. For purposes of irrigation planning, design, and management, computations are usually made to determine reference evapotranspiration (ETo), which is multiplied by a crop coefficient (Kc) to determine the evapotranspirationofaparticularcropatagivengrowthstage.Cropcoefficientsaredefinedmorefully insection6.8. Irrigation requirements tend to be significantly greater than crop water requirements because of theneedtoallowforimperfectapplicationuniformitiesandefficiencies,andformaintainingafavorable saltbalanceinthecroprootzone.Cropwaterrequirementsincludetranspirationofwaterbytheplants and evaporation from the soil and from the plants. These combined amounts result in evapotranspiration (ET), the major component of which is usually transpiration of water by the plants. The more often the soil surface is wetted, or the more frequent the water applications, the higher the magnitude of the evaporation component. In general, it takes about 500 kg of water (about onehalf cubic meter) to produce one kg of dry plant material most of the water taken up through the roots doesnotremainwithintheplant,butistranspiredthroughthestomaintheleavestotheatmosphere. Much has been written about crop water requirements and many different equations have been developed and used for calculating ETo. Many of the equations for ETo are complicated and require severalweathermeasurementsthatmaybeunavailableorofquestionableaccuracyatagivensite.Itis therefore desirable that methods selected for calculating crop water requirements require a minimum ofmeasuredclimaticvariables,andbesimpleandeasilyunderstood. The peak ETrate,whichtypicallyoccursduringthehottestperiodofthegrowingseason,formost agriculturalcropsisfromabout5to9mm/day(0.2to0.35inch/day).Somenonagriculturalvegetation in wetlands can have an ET rate on the order of 12 mm/day (0.47 inch/day), but this is exceptionally high.Manyirrigationprojectsinsemiaridareasaroundtheworldweredesignedwithasystemcapacity of approximately 1 lps/ha, which is equivalent to an average gross application depth of 8.64 mm/day. Accounting for inefficiencies in application, this may amount to an average net application on the order of 6 mm/day (0.24 inch/day). However, due to frequently encountered inequities in the distribution of water within an irrigation system, there is a wide range of actual average application depths on the individual farms or fields. In English units, 1 lps/ha is about 1 cfs per 70 acres, which is equivalent to an averagegrossapplicationdepthof0.34inch/day.

6.2.

DirectMethods

Evapotranspiration can be measured directly by means of lysimeters. Lysimeters are tanks or containers of soil in which plants are grown under conditions similar to the surrounding soil and vegetation. Changing water content in the lysimeter is measured by weighing, by comparing applied water with the amount of drainage, or by other suitable methods. The ET of various grasses grown in lysimetershasbeenusedtodevelopand/orcalibratenumerousequationsforestimatingETo.However, due to the wide variations in the ET of grasses and in the management and design of lysimeters, there

53

has been considerable variation in the calibration of equations for computing ETo. The emphasis on the use of lysimeters has shifted more toward the determination of crop coefficients than reference crop evapotranspirationbecauseequations(mostnotably,thePenmanMonteithequation)havebeenshown topredictreferenceETwithexcellentaccuracyformostagriculturallocationsaroundtheworld. Crop ET can alsobedeterminedbyintensivesoilwaterstudieswherethesoilisfairlyuniformand thedepthtogroundwaterwillnotinfluencesoilwaterwithintherootzone.Soilwaterisdeterminedby fieldmoisturesamplingbeforeandaftereachirrigationwithsomemeasurementsbetweenirrigationsto determinewaterdepletionintherootzone.

6.3.

IndirectMethods

A Class A evaporation pan set in a large irrigated pasture or other irrigated areaprovidesanindex thathasbeenwidelyusedforestimatingcropET.Theprincipalsourceofenergyforevaporationissolar radiation.Ifthepanreflectsfivepercentofradiationbacktotheatmosphereandanextensiveirrigated grass area reflects 25 to 30%, then it seems logical to assume a ratio of ET of grass to pan evaporation (Ep)of0.75to0.80.TheCaliforniaDepartmentofWaterResources(1986)givesET/Epratiosforirrigated pasturesandturfgrassesrangingfrom0.70forthecoldestweeksto0.78forthewarmestmonths. Many methods have been derived and used for estimating ETo from climatic variables. The principal climatic factors used include incoming solar radiation, net radiation, extraterrestrial radiation, air temperature, the temperature range, relative humidity, vapor pressure, sunshine hours, and wind speed. Most of these methods require some degree of local calibration for general application. Considerable use has been made of at least eight versions of the Penman combination equation. This equationmakesuseofawindfunction.Windrunhasfrequentlybeenestimatedwhenmeasuredvalues are not available, and the calibration of the wind function has also remained controversial among researchers.Therequirednetradiationisusuallyestimatedfromglobalradiation(RS). In the application of the Penman combination equations global solar radiation (Rs) is frequently estimated from sunshine hours. For cloudless days, the value of Rs can usually be approximated as 0.75RA, where extraterrestrial solar radiation, RA, is a function of the day of year and latitude (see Eq. 6.14). The quality of measured or estimated values of sunshine hours is frequently less than fully adequate. The reliability of the Penman equations is also influenced by the method used for measuring orestimatingthevaporpressuredeficit. A procedure requiring maximum and minimum temperature and latitude provides satisfactory estimates of ETo for five or more days. There is little or no indication of a need for local calibration for climaticconditionstypicalofthegrowingseasonofirrigatedcrops.

6.4.

PotentialEvaporation

The evaporation of water requires energy. The latent heat (in calories) required for the vaporizationofonecubiccentimeter(oronegram)ofwaterisgivenbytheequation: = 595.9 0.55 T (6.1) inwhichisthelatentheadofvaporizationincaloriespercm2;andTisthedryairtemperatureinC.At 20C, the energy required to evaporate a depth of one millimeter of water is 58.5 calories per cm2. If
54

five percent of incoming radiation is reflected back into the atmosphere, 61.6 Langleys (cal/cm2/day) correspondtoanequivalentdepthofwaterevaporationofonemillimeterperdayat20C. The latent heat of vaporization can also be estimated from theairtemperatureformetricunitsas follows: = 2.50 0.002361 T (6.2) whereisinMJ/kg;andTisthedryairtemperatureinC.Thenumericalvalueoffor15Cis2.47,and for40Citis2.41.AtypicalvalueoffromEq.6.2isabout2.45,correspondingtoanairtemperatureof 20C. Advection is heat transfer resulting principally from lateral movement of air. The total energy available for water evaporation consists of net radiation plus advective energy. The evaporative potentialmaybedeterminedbyEq.6.1orEq.6.2.

6.5.

ReferenceEvapotranspiration

The evapotranspiration of various species and varieties of grass or alfalfa has been used as a reference for determining the water requirements of other crops in general. By convention, the term ETo is used when grass is the reference crop, or ETp when alfalfa is the reference. ETp is always greater thanETo,anditcanbeestimatedasabout1.2timesEToinsemiaridandmoderatelywindyconditions.In humid,nonwindyareastheratiomaybeaslowas1.05,andinarid,windylocationsitcangoashighas 1.4. Some grasses are low water users and others user relatively high amounts of water, so in many casesitisimportanttoknowwhattypeofgrasswasusedtocalibrateaparticularreferenceETequation. Typicalgrassvarietiesusedinresearcharealtafescueandperennialryegrass. Alfalfa varieties adapted to hot climates increase their ET rates with increasing temperature as long as water is available in the root zone. Most grasses increase their stomatal resistance at higher temperatures causing the ratio of ETp/ETo to increase. The daily ETratesareinfluencedbytheheightat which the grass is clipped, nitrogen availability in the soil, leaf and stem densities, leaf orientation, and thedegreetowhichtemperatureandotherconditionsareoptimumforgrowth.Obviously,anequation baseduponclimaticvariablesandETmeasuredfromonelysimetermaynotreproducethemeasuredET fromadifferentgrassunderdifferentconditions.Itis,therefore,difficulttousegrassETmeasurements tocomparemethodsforestimatingETo. Reference ET is calculated based on a calibrated equation for a selected reference crop using lysimeter measurements. The equation form may be empirically developed, involving only a few external environment variables, or it may be derived from the principles of physics, heat transfer, and other scientific fields of study. Some of the more complex reference ET equations include many variables and can be very precise. However, in practice the complexity of a reference ET equation must bejustifiedbytheavailabilityofclimatologicalandotherdataifanequationisverycompletefroma theoretical standpoint it may be preferred over an empirically derived equation, but only if there is sufficient data to support its application. In general, reference ET equations can usually be categorized as temperaturebased methods, radiationbased methods, and combination methods. Dozens of reference ET equations have been proposed and applied by researchers over the past few decades, but onlyafewhaveremainedingeneraluse.
55

ETo = 0.0023R A (T + 17.8) TR (6.3) in which ETo and RA are in the same units of equivalent water evaporation (often in mm), RA is extraterrestrial solar radiation (Eq. 6.14). T is the mean air temperature in C, or the average of mean maximum and mean minimum daily temperatures, and TR is the average daily temperature range for theperiodconsidered(meandailymaximumminusmeandailyminimum).ThevalueofTRisinfluenced by solar radiation, local advective energy, and the frontal temperature differences associated with storms and abrupt weather changes. Therefore, Eq. 6.3 will not be accurate for the days of major weatherchangesbutusuallyprovidesverysatisfactoryresultswhenTandTRareaveragedoverperiods offiveormoredays.Thus,Eq.6.3isoftenappliedtothecalculationofweeklyETo. Equation 6.3 was derived from various comparisons and data sets and calibrated from eight years of Alta Fescue grass ET measurements from 20ft (6.1 m) diameter weighing lysimeters at Davis, California.Asnotedabove,Eq.6.3isoneofmanyequationsthathavebeenproposedovertheyearsto estimatereferencecropevapotranspiration. In recent meetings of the Irrigation and Drainage Division, American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), and the International Commission for Irrigation and Drainage (ICID) the use of the Penman Monteithequationhasbeenrecommended.Thisequationcanbeexpressedas(Allenetal.1989):

Hargreaves, et al. (1985) and Hargreaves and Samani (1985) propose the use of an equation for estimating ETo from air temperature and latitude. It is classified as a temperaturebased method, and several previous versions were proposed and subsequently improved upon before the current equation formwasdeveloped.Theequationis:

ETo =

0.408(Rn G ) +

890 U 2 (ea ed ) T + 273 + (1 + 0.339U 2 )

(6.4)

where ETo is in units of mm/day for a grass reference crop; is the slope of the saturation vapor pressure function (kPa/C); is a psychrometric constant (kPa/C); Rn is net solar radiation (MJ/m2/day); U2isthewindspeed(m/s)at2.0mheight;Tisthemeandailyairtemperature(C);eaedrepresentsthe vaporpressuredeficitofair(kPa);andGisthesoilheatfluxdensity(MJ/m2/day). Net daily solar radiation data are often not available from direct measurements. In these cases thedailyvaluescanbedeterminedasfollows(Allenetal.1993): Rn = Rns Rb (6.5) where Rns is the net shortwave solar radiation (MJ/m2/day); and Rb is the outgoing longwave solar radiation(MJ/m2/day).ThesetwocomponentsofRncanbeestimatedas: Rns = 0.77 (0.25 + 0.5 S) RA (6.6) and,
56
4 4 Rb = 2.45(10) 9 (0.9S + 0.1) 0.34 0.14 ed Tkx + Tkn

)(

(6.7)

where ed is the actual vapor pressure (kPa); Tkx is the maximum daily air temperature (K); Tkn is the minimum daily air temperature (K); S is the ratio of actual (measured) to maximum possible bright sunshinehoursperday(fraction),andRAisaspreviouslydefinedforEq.6.3. Temperature in degrees Celsius (C) can be converted to degrees Kelvin (K) by adding 273.15. Theslopeofthesaturationvaporpressurefunction,,canbecalculatedas:

4098 ea ( T + 237.3)2

(6.8)

where is in kPa/C; T is the air temperature (C); and ea is the saturation vapor pressure at temperature T (kPa). The saturation vapor pressure, ea, can be estimated from air temperature measurementsasfollows(Allen1993):

17.27T ea = 0.611exp T + 237.3

(6.9)

where the vapor pressure is in units of kPa, and T is the air temperature (C). The term exp() means e raised to the power of the term in parentheses. For 24hour periods the saturation vapor pressure should be calculated as the unweighted average of ea at Tmax and ea at Tmin for the day. Thus, Eq. 6.8 is applied once with Tmax, again with Tmin, and the two resulting vapor pressure values are added and dividedby2. The actual vapor pressure, ed, is estimated by multiplying the maximum relative humidity by the vapor pressure at Tmin. The justification is that the minimum daily air temperature is usually associated withthemaximumdailyrelativehumidity.Thus,eaatTmin(seeEq.6.8),multipliedbyRHmaxis:

(Rh )max ed = 0.611 100

17.27Tmin exp Tmin + 237.3

(6.10)

where(Rh)maxisinpercent.Then,whenthemaximumrelativehumidityis100%,edisequaltoeaatTmin. Thepsychrometricconstant,,iscalculatedas:

cp P

(6.11)

where has units of kPa/C; cp is the specific heat of moist air at constant pressure (equal to 0.00101 MJ/kg/C); P is atmospheric pressure (kPa); is the ratio of molecular weights of air to water (equal to 0.622);andisthelatentheatofvaporization(MJ/kg). ThevalueofRA(usedinEq.6.3)inequivalentunitsofevaporationcanbeestimatedbytakinginto accountthelatentheatofvaporization.LambdaistheconversionfactorbetweenMJ/m2andequivalent millimeters of water evaporation. Divide the RA value in MJ/m2/day (from Eq. 6.14) by the value of (fromEq.6.1orEq.6.2)toobtainequivalentmm/dayofevaporation,whichcanthenbeusedinEq.6.2. Forexample,ifRAis35MJ/m2/day,theequivalentevaporationisabout35/2.45=14.3mm/day.

57

 Themeanatmosphericpressure,P,isafunctionofelevation,andisapproximatelyequalto:

293 0.0065z P = 101.3 293

5.26

(6.12)

where P is in kPa; and z is the elevation above mean sea level (m). The daily value of soil heat flux density,G,inEq.6.4isestimatedas: G = 0.38 Tday T3 (6.13)

whereGisinunitsofMJ/m2/day;Tavgistheaverageairtemperatureonthedayofcalculations(C);and T3istheaverageoftheaveragedailyairtemperaturesofthepreviousthreedays(C). ASCE has proposed the use of standard conditions for application of the PenmanMonteith equation, including a leaf area index (LAI) of 2.9 and a clipped height of 12 cm. The PenmanMonteith and Eq. 6.3 produce very similar values for ETo when compared using standard conditions for periods of five or more days and complete and reliable climatic data. Also, Eq. 6.3 requires much simpler climatic dataandcanbesuccessfullyappliedinmorelocationsbecausemanysitesdonothavesufficientdatafor application of the PenmanMonteith equation. For these reasons, Eq. 6.3 is often a very acceptable alternativetothemorecomplexPenmanMonteithequation. The standardized PenmanMonteith method for ETo is currently recommended as the reference value by FAO. This equation can be used to calculate ETo on a daily, or even an hourly basis. Hourly calculations of ETo are seldom used except in research studies, and usually not in irrigation scheduling, becausetheactualirrigationapplicationdepthsarenotsopreciselyknown.TheFAOPenmanMonteith method requires that the weather data be collected over a large, wellwatered grass area. However, relativelyfewweatherstationshavetherequiredwellwateredsiteenvironment. The FAO PenmanMonteith method requires values of solar radiation (Rs), vapor pressure deficit (VPD), temperature (T), and wind run (U). Measured values of VPD, T and U are influenced by site aridity. The FAO PenmanMonteith method significantly overestimates ETo when the weather data are obtained from nonirrigated arid sites. Satisfactory methods for correctingforaridityhavenotyetbeen developed.Theoverestimationduringthepeakwaterusemonthmaybeverysignificant. The Hargreaves method also overestimates ETo for arid sites. Numerous comparisons have been madewithpairedlocations(onedryandtheotherwellwatered).Themaximumdifferencefoundatthe drysiteduringthepeakusemonthwas15%.Therefore,forgeneralusewhenmanyofthesitesmaynot be well watered, Eq. 6.3 is recommended as the preferred ETo method. For the growing season, Eq. 6.3 seldom overestimates measured ETo by more than 10%. The Hargreaves method is not generally appropriatefordailycalculationsofEToitisnormallyappliedonweeklyintervals. Various of the western states of the USA have established weather station nets for measuring values for computing ETo. Frequently, a Penmantype equation is used. Numerous comparisons of ETo valuesfromPenmantypeequationshasledtotheconclusionthatdifferencesinETovaluescomputedby Eq. 6.3 are minor when compared with the uncertainties of estimating actual crop evapotranspiration. They are also minor when compared with the probable errors that occur due to poor instrument calibrationornonstandardsiteconditions.

58

 The International Irrigation management Institute (IIMI) is developing an Atlas (IIMI 1997). The Atlas includes 10day and monthly averages and standard deviations of ETo from Eq. 6.3, minimum and maximum temperatures, and rainfall frequencies and amounts. The 75% probable precipitation (P75) and ETo are used to evaluate the needs for irrigation and drainage. NET (ETo minus P75, as defined in Section 3.2) is used to indicate rainfall excess or the required depth of irrigation to achieve full crop production. The Atlas will be published on 18 compact disks and it includes 10day and monthly summary information. Data are retrievable for river basins as well as for any location defined by a latitudeandalongitude.

6.6.

ExtraterrestrialSolarRadiation

The extraterrestrial solar radiation, RA, can be calculated according to latitude and day of year. The following equations are taken from Allen et al. (1993), Duffie and Beckman (1980) and London and Frohlich(1982): R A = 37.6d r ( s sin sin + cos cos sin s ) (6.14) where RA is in units of MJ/m2/day; dr is the relative distance from the earth to the sun; s is the sunset hour angle (rad); is the latitude (rad); and is the declination of the sun (rad). Southern latitudes are givennegativevalues.Theremainingvaluesaredefinedas:

= 0.4093 sin

2 (284 + J ) 365 2 J d r = 1 + 0.033 cos 365

(6.15) (6.16)

(6.17) s = cos 1 ( tan tan ) where J is the calendar dayfrom1to365or366(Jequals1forJanuary1st,etc.),dependingonwhether agivenyearisaleapyear.Onaleapyeartheconstant365inthedenominatorofEqs.6.15and6.16can bereplacedby366,butthedifferenceintheresultsmaynotbesignificant. The inverse cosine argument in Eq. 6.17 is valid for latitudes between 55 N and 55 S. For latitudes outside this range, the argument should be less than or equal to 2.0 during the winter. If less than zero during the summer, it should be evaluated as[tantan2.0].Asnotedabove,thevalueof ispositivefornorthernlatitudesandnegativeforsouthernlatitudes. SampleCalculationofRA For27Nlatitude(=0.4712rad)onJanuary8th,thevalueofis0.3893,dris1.0327,andsis1.3602. From Eq. 6.14 the value of RA is 22.20 MJ/m2/day, which when divided by lambda (Eq. 6.11) is about9.1 mm/dayofequivalentwaterevaporation.

59

Figure 6.1 was prepared using Eqs. 6.146.17 for northern latitudes. The figure illustrates the relatively high annual variation in extraterrestrial solar radiation at the higher latitudes. At the equator, the annual variation in solar radiation is minimal. Thus, the possibility for yearround cropping at low values of latitude, particularly within the tropics (23.5 N and S). Table 6.1 was developed using the same equations and gives approximate mean monthly RA values in equivalent millimeters per day of waterevaporationforbothnorthernandsouthernlatitudes.Theequivalentmm/dayvaluesinTable6.1 are based on an air temperature of 20C, which by Eq. 6.2 gives = 2.45. Average air temperatures of 10Corof30CwillresultinvaluesofRA(mm/day)thatdifferfromthosefor20Cbylessthan1.0%.
45
Equator

40

Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation (MJ/m2/day)

35
Equator

30
52N Latitude

25

20

15

vernal equinox

autumnal equinox

summer solstice

10

0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Day of the Year (1 is Jan 1st)

winter solstice

Figure6.1.CurvesofRAinMJ/m2/dayfornorthernlatitudesfrom0to52,with4increments.

60

An interesting point to note in Table 6.1 is that extraterrestrial solar radiation is not equally distributedovertheyearbetweenthenorthernandsouthernhemispheres.Forexample,themaximum mean monthly value in the southern hemisphere is about 18.2 mm/day (4244S in December) as comparedtoabout17.0mm/dayinthenorth(3648NinJune).Fornorthernlatitudes,theminimumRA valuesoccuronaboutDecember21,andthemaximumvaluesareataboutJune21.However,thesedo

61

not generally correspond to the dates of minimum and maximum air temperatures, because many severalfactorsotherthanextraterrestrialradiationaffectairtemperature. An average daily RA value for a month can be estimated from an equation for approximate values ofJforthemiddleofeachmonth.Theequationis: (6.18) J = 15 + 30.5 (M 1) whereMisthenumberofthemonth(beginningwith1forJanuary).

6.7.

IrrigationRequirements

In very arid climates irrigation supplies essentially all of the water used by the crops. In other climates irrigation may be supplemental to rainfall. The concepts of dependable rainfall and effective rainfall can be used for evaluating the probable contribution of water for crop growth from precipitation. The 75% probability of assured rainfall, or the mean minus one standard deviation, have both been proposed as indices of dependability and as useful criteria for purposes of irrigation system design. Effective rainfall is that portion stored in the crop root zone and available for use by the plants. This value depends on soil infiltration rates, rainfall amounts and intensities, crop cover, soil preparation,andvariousothermanagementpractices. Irrigation should supply the difference between effective rainfall and crop water requirements, with an allowance for efficiencies, the lack of uniformity of application, and for any required leaching of the soils. In some cases allowance must also be made for water supplied to the crop from a shallow watertableorfromcondensationoffog.

6.8.

CropCoefficients

As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, reference crop ET is multiplied by crop coefficients (Kc) to obtain estimates of crop potential water use, or crop waterrequirements(ETc).Cropcoefficients aredependentmostlyuponcroptypeandstageofgrowth,notclimaticconditions.Theideaisthatcrop coefficients remain essentially the same for the same crop regardless of location and climate, so once the Kc values for a given crop and variety are determined, they can be applied almost anywhere. If this transferabilitywerenotvaliditwouldnotmakemuchsensetodetermineETcthroughsuchaproductof terms instead, it would be necessary to calibrate ET equations for each site and each crop type individually.Thus,withcropcoefficientsitisonlynecessarytoestimateEToatagivensite,thenmultiply bytheappropriateKcvaluetoarriveattheestimatedevapotranspirationrateofthecrop. Crop coefficients generally include both transpiration from plant stomata and evaporation from wet soil and foliar surfaces, with the assumption that the availability of water is not a limiting factor to plantgrowthanddevelopment.Frequent(e.g.daily)irrigationusuallycauseshigherETratesthanthose normally considered in the development of crop coefficient values because of higher wet soil evaporation (especially with sprinkler and surface irrigation) and possibly higher transpiration as well. Othertypesofcropcoefficientshavebeenproposedandused.Forexample,basalcropcoefficients(Kcb) account primarily for the transpiration component of ET, and are generally used in conjunction with separatewetsoilevaporationfunctionstodetermineETcvalues.Basalcropcoefficientsaremostuseful when it is necessary to determine accurate daily estimates of crop water use, such as in irrigation

62

scheduling applications, because this approach can provide greater accuracy in taking into account the effects of individual irrigations. Normal crop coefficients (Kc) are appropriate when applied to weekly, monthly,orseasonalestimationsofcropwateruse. Crop coefficients depend principally on crop type and stage of growth. Kc values generally range fromabout0.2to1.2foragrassreferencecrop,andthevalueformanyagriculturalcropsneverexceeds that of grass, even during the peak use period. But because of the significant difference between grass andalfalfaET,itisimportantthatKcvaluesbequalifiedasgrassoralfalfabased.Whenthisdistinctionis notmadeitislikelythatthevaluesarebasedonagrassreference. Figure6.2givesgeneralizedcropcoefficientsandthegrowthstage,whichisapproximatelycorrect for weekly or longer calculation periods, and for basal crop coefficients. A knowledge of the number of days in each growth stage is needed for calculating crop water requirements. Table 6.2 provides descriptionsofthedifferentlinesegmentsinFig.6.2.

Table 6.3 gives a summary of Kc values with grass as a reference crop. These values were published by Hargreaves (1990) and Hargreaves and Samani (1991). The Kc values were derived principally from crops grown in California under well watered conditions (no appreciable water deficit

63

intherootzone)andmanagementpracticesdesignedtoproducehighyields.ValuesofKcvarywithcrop variety, leaf area index, and vigor of growth. The values given in Table 6.3 are considered adequate for good yields of crops produced when climatic and management conditions are favorable, and published cropcoefficientsingeneralareforwellwateredconditions.Whensignificantsoilwaterdeficitoccursat any time during the growing season the actual ET rate will be less than that predicted by the product of ETo and Kc, and there are equations to predict the consequent decrease in actual ETc. Table 6.4 from Doorenbos and Kassam (1979) is provided for comparison of the FAO crop coefficients with those presentedinTable6.3,andisalsoforagrassreferencecrop. From Tables 6.3 and 6.4, it is seen that rice has the greatest water requirements of any common agricultural crop, not including deep percolation and runoff from rice paddies. Rice is also one of the major crops in Asia and in other regions of the world, and it is probably the major water user of all agricultural crops. Sugarcane and alfalfa can have comparable water requirements, but the worldwide areaplantedinsugarcaneandalfalfaismuchlessthanthatwhichisplantedinrice. Table6.3.Cropcoefficients,Kc,forusewithEqs.6.2and6.3(seealsoTable6.2andFig.6.2).
Crop Alfalfa Artichokes Asparagus Banana Barley Beans(green) Beans(dry) Beets(table) Cabbage,etc.1 Cantaloupe Carrot Celery Citrus2 Corn(Maizegrain) Corn(sweet) Cotton Cucumber Deciduousorchard Deciduousorchardwithcovercrop Eggplant Flax Grape Groundnut Kiwifruit Lentil Lettuce Millet Oats Olives Onions(dry) Onions(green) Peas(fresh) Peppers(fresh) Pistachios (Kc)1 0.400.50 0.901.00 0.250.30 0.400.65 0.250.30 0.300.40 0.300.40 0.240.40 0.300.50 0.150.40 0.400.50 0.250.35 0.65 0.200.50 0.200.50 0.200.50 0.200.40 0.50 0.750.85 0.250.50 0.200.40 0.200.50 0.300.50 0.30 0.200.30 0.200.30 0.200.40 0.200.40 0.60 0.400.60 0.400.60 0.400.50 0.300.40 0.10 (Kc)2 1.001.40 0.951.05 0.95 1.001.20 1.001.10 0.951.05 1.051.20 1.051.20 0.951.10 1.001.10 1.05 1.001.15 0.650.75 1.051.20 1.051.20 1.051.30 0.901.00 0.851.20 1.101.25 0.951.10 1.001.15 0.740.85 0.951.00 1.05 1.051.20 0.851.05 1.001.15 1.051.20 0.80 0.951.10 0.951.05 1.051.20 0.951.10 1.10 (Kc)3 0.951.35 0.901.00 0.25 0.751.15 0.100.20 0.850.95 0.250.30 0.250.30 0.800.95 0.300.90 0.75 0.901.05 0.65 0.350.60 0.700.80 0.300.60 0.700.80 0.500.85 0.701.10 0.800.90 0.200.25 0.200.45 0.500.60 1.05 0.250.30 0.45 0.250.30 0.200.25 0.80 0.750.85 0.951.05 0.951.10 0.800.90 0.35

64

Potatoes 0.400.55 1.101.20 Pulses 0.200.40 1.051.20 Rice 1.101.15 1.101.30 Safflower 0.300.40 1.051.20 Smallgrains 0.200.40 1.101.30 Sorghum(grain) 0.150.40 1.051.20 Soybeans 0.300.40 1.001.15 Spinach 0.200.30 0.951.05 Squash 0.200.40 0.901.00 Sugarbeet 0.200.40 1.051.20 Sugarcane 0.400.50 1.001.30 Sunflower 0.300.40 1.051.20 Tobacco 0.300.40 1.001.20 Tomatoes 0.250.50 1.051.25 Watermelon 0.250.50 1.001.10 Wheat 0.200.40 1.051.25 1 Includesothercrucifers(e.g.cauliflower,broccoli,brusselsprouts) 2 Add0.20to0.25whenthereisacovercrop

0.400.75 0.250.30 1.10 0.200.25 0.200.35 0.300.50 0.450.55 0.901.00 0.700.80 0.701.00 0.500.60 0.350.45 0.750.85 0.600.85 0.200.70 0.200.30

Table6.4.FAOcropcoefficients(afterDoorenbosandKassam1979).

Crop Type Bananas tropical subtropical Beans green dry Cabbage Cotton Grapes Groundnuts Maize sweet grain Onions dry fresh Peas(fresh) Pepper(fresh) Potatoes Rice Safflower Sorghum Soybeans Sugarbeets Sugarcane Sunflower Tobacco Tomatoes Watermelons Wheat Alfalfa Citrus Olives Initial 0.40.5 0.50.65 0.30.4 0.30.4 0.40.5 0.40.5 0.350.55 0.40.5 0.30.5 0.30.5 0.40.6 0.40.6 0.40.5 0.30.4 0.40.5 1.11.15 0.30.4 0.30.4 0.30.4 0.40.5 0.40.5 0.30.4 0.30.4 0.40.5 0.40.5 0.30.4 0.30.4 CropDevelopmentStages Development MidSeason LateSeason 0.70.85 0.80.9 0.650.75 0.70.8 0.70.8 0.70.8 0.60.8 0.70.8 0.70.9 0.70.85 0.70.8 0.60.75 0.70.85 0.60.75 0.70.8 1.11.5 0.70.8 0.70.75 0.70.8 0.750.85 0.71.0 0.70.8 0.70.8 0.70.8 0.70.8 0.70.8 1.01.1 1.01.2 0.951.05 1.051.2 0.951.1 1.051.25 0.70.9 0.951.1 1.051.2 1.051.2 0.951.1 0.951.05 1.051.2 0.951.1 1.051.2 1.11.3 1.051.2 1.01.15 1.01.15 1.051.2 1.01.3 1.051.2 1.01.2 1.051.25 0.951.05 1.051.2 0.91.0 1.01.15 0.90.95 0.650.75 0.91.0 0.80.9 0.60.8 0.750.85 1.01.15 0.80.95 0.850.9 0.951.05 1.01.15 0.851.0 0.850.95 0.951.05 0.650.7 0.750.8 0.70.8 0.91.0 0.750.8 0.70.8 0.91.0 0.80.95 0.80.9 0.650.75 Harvest 0.750.85 1.01.15 0.850.95 0.250.3 0.80.95 0.650.7 0.550.7 0.550.6 0.951.1 0.550.6 0.750.85 0.951.05 0.951.1 0.80.9 0.70.75 0.951.05 0.20.25 0.50.55 0.40.5 0.60.7 0.50.6 0.350.45 0.750.85 0.60.65 0.650.75 0.20.25 1.051.2 TotalGrowing Period 0.70.8 0.850.95 0.850.9 0.70.8 0.70.8 0.80.9 0.550.75 0.750.8 0.80.95 0.750.9 0.80.9 0.650.8 0.80.95 0.70.8 0.750.9 1.051.2 0.650.7 0.750.85 0.750.9 0.80.9 0.851.05 0.750.85 0.850.95 0.750.9 0.750.85 0.80.9 0.851.05 0.650.9 0.40.6

65

 Table 6.5 gives the length in days for the four crop growth stages shown in Fig. 6.2. These stages vary significantly in duration depending principally on climate and crop variety. The values in Table 6.5 are presented as a guide, but whenever possible, local phenologic information should be used for the varieties grown because the length of crop growth periods depends on many factors, not the least of which are air temperature and net solar radiation. Phenological clocks are sometimes by researchers used to account for the differences in growth period durations for different crop types. Table 6.6 (Doorenbos and Pruitt 1977) is more complete and gives the length of the growing season, the time of plantingandthelengthsofthecropdevelopmentstages. Table6.5.Approximatelengthofgrowthperiods,indays,forsomeannualcrops(seealsoFig.6.2).
Crop Beans:Green Beans:Dry Cotton Groundnuts Maize(Corn) Onions:Fresh Onions:Dried Potatoes Rice Safflower Sorghum Soybeans Sugarbeets Sugarcane Sunflower Tobacco Tomatoes Watermelons WheatSpring Initial AB 1015 1015 1525 1020 1525 1025 1525 1025 2545 410 1520 10 2535 1030 20 4060 (nursery) 1015 1015 RapidGrowth BC 2025 2025 2535 2535 2540 2530 2530 2030 4060 25 2030 3040 2535 150350 55 5070 2025 2025 3050 Midseason CD 3045 4055 90110 6075 5065 3040 3545 4555 3550 115 5060 5575 5080 70200 55 2540 4060 3550 3055 LateSeason DE 05 2025 1520 1020 1015 05 1520 1015 1020 10 1015 1015 4050 5070 15 1535 1520 1520 1015

66

Table 6.6. Approximate growing season durations and crop development stages for selected field crops (adaptedfromDoorenbosandPruitt1977).

CropType Artichoke LengthofGrowingSeasonandCropDevelopmentStages Perennial, replanted every 47 years; example Coastal California with planting in April 40/40/250/30 and (360); subsequent crops with crop growth cutback to ground level in late spring each year at end ofharvestor20/40/220/30and(310). Also wheat and oats; varies widely with variety; wheat Central India November planting 15/25/50/30 and (120); early spring sowing, semiarid, 3545 latitudes and November planting Rep. Of Korea 20/25/60/30 and (135); wheat sown in July in East African highlands at 2500 m altitude and Rep. Of Korea15/30/65/40and(150). February and March planting California desert and Mediterranean 20/30/30/10 and (90); August SeptemberplantingCaliforniadesert,Egypt,CoastalLebanon15/25/25/10and(75). Continentalclimateslatespringplanting20/30/40/20andPulses(110);JuneplantingCentralCalifornia andWestPakistan15/25/35/20and(95);longerseasonvarieties15/25/50/20/and(110). Spring planting Mediterranean 15/25/20/10 and (70); early spring planting Mediterranean climates andprecoolseasonindesertclimates25/30/25/10and(90). Warm season of semiarid to arid climates 20/30/30/20 and (100); for cool season up to 20/30/80/20 and (150); early spring planting Mediterranean 25/36/40/20 and (120); up to 30/40/60/20 and (150) forlatewinterplanting. Semiaridandaridclimates,springplanting25/40/65/50and(180). Precool season planting semiarid 25/40/95/20 and (180); cool season 35/55/105/20 and (210); humidMediterraneanmidseason25/40/45/15and(125). March planting Egypt, AprilMay planting Pakistan, September planting South Arabia 30/50/60/55 and (195);springplanting,machineharvestedTexas30/50/55/45/and(180). Wide range in length of season due to varietal differences; spring planting Mediterranean and continental climates 20/30/20/10 and (80); late winter planting Mediterranean 25/35/25/10 and (95); autumnplantingCoastalMediterranean30/35/90/40and(195). JuneplantingEgypt,AugustOctoberCaliforniadesert20/30/40/15and(105);springplantingsemiarid andcoolseasonaridclimates,lowdesert25/35/50/20and(130). Warm winter desert climates 30/40/40/20 and (130); late springearly summer planting Mediterranean30/45/40/25and(140). Spring planting cold winter climates 25/35/50/49 and (150); OctoberNovember planting warm winter climates;Pakistanandlowdeserts25/35/65/40and(165). Spring planting Mediterranean 20/30/60/40 and (150); OctoberNovember planting warm winter climates;Pakistanandlowdeserts25/35/65/40and(165). Spring planting in cold winter climates 20/30/60/40 and (150); precool season planting warm winter climates25/35/70/40and(170). Spring planting Mediterranean climates 20/30/15/10 and (75) and late winter planting 30/40/25/10 and (105); early cool season low desert climates from 25/35/30/10 and (100); late cool season planting,lowdeserts35/50/45/10and(140). Philippines, early March planting (late dry season) 20/20/30/10 and (80); late cool season planting desert climates 20/30/30/10 and (90); early cool season planting desert climates 20/30/50/10 and (110). Spring planting East African highlands 30/50/60/40 and (180); late cool season planting, warm desert climates 25/40/45/30 and (140); June planting subhumid Nigeria, early October India 20/35/40/30 and(125);earlyAprilplantingSouthernSpain30/40/50/30and(150). Late spring plantingMediterraneanclimates25/35/40/20and(120);midwinterplantinginlowdesert climates30/45/65/20and(160). June planting Pakistan 15/25/40/25 and (105); central plains U.S.A. spring planting 20/30/55/35 and (140). SameasBarley. Spring planting Mediterranean climates 15/25/70/40 and (150); prewarm winter planting semiarid andariddesertclimates20/35/110/45and(210).

Barley

Beans(green) Beans(dry) Beets(table) Carrots

Castorbeans Celery Cotton Crucifers

Cucumbers Eggplant Flax Grain,small Lentils Lettuce

Maize(sweet)

Maize(grains)

Melons Millet Oats Onions(dry)

67

Table6.6.(concluded).
CropType Peanuts (groundnuts) Peas LengthofGrowingSeasonandCropDevelopmentStages Dry season planting West Africa 25/35/45/25 and (130); late spring planting Coastal plains of Lebanon andIsrael35/45/35/25and(140). Cool maritime climates early summer planting 15/25/35/15 and (90); Mediterranean early spring and warm winter desert climates planting 20/25/35/15 and (95); late winter Mediterranean planting 25/30/30/15and(100). FreshMediterraneanearlyspringandcontinentalearlysummerplanting30/35/40/20and(125);cool coastal continental climates midspring planting 25/35/40/20 and (120); prewarm winter planting desertclimates30/40/110/30and(210). Full planting warm winter desert climates 25/30/30/20 and (105); late winter planting arid and semi arid climates and late springearly summer planting continental climate 25/30/45/30 and (130); early mid spring planting central Europe 30/35/50/30 and (145); slow emergence may increase length of initialperiodby15daysduringcoldspring. Mediterranean early spring and continental summer planting 5/10/15/5 and (35); coastal Mediterraneanlatewinterandwarmwinterdesertclimatesplanting10/10/15/5and(40). Central California earlymid spring planting 20/35/45/25 and (125) and late winter planting 25/35/55/30and(145);warmwinterdesertclimates35/55/60/40and(190). Warm season desert climates 20/30/40/30 and (120); midJune planting Pakistan, May in midWest USA and Mediterranean 20/35/40/30 and (125); earlyspringplantingwarmaridclimates20/35/45/30 and(130). May planting Central USA 20/35/60/25 and (140); MayJune planting California desert 20/30/60/25 and (135); Philippines late December planting, early dry season: 15/15/40/15 and (85); vegetables 15/15/30/0and(60);earlymidJuneplantinginJapan20/25/75/30and(150). Spring planting Mediterranean 20/20/15/5 and (60); SeptemberOctober and late winter planting Mediterranean20/20/25/5and(70);warmwinterdesertclimates20/30/40/10and(100). Late winter planting Mediterranean and warm winter desert climates 20/30/30/15 and (95); August planting California desert 20/35/30/25 and (110); early June planting maritime Europe 25/35/35/25/and(120). Spring planting Mediterranean 25/35/25/15 and (100+); early summer Mediterranean and maritime Europe20/30/25/15and(90+);winterplantingwarmdesert25/35/25/15and(100). Coastal Lebanon, MidNovember planting 45/75/30/30 and (230); early summer planting 25/35/50/50 and (160); early spring planting Uruguay 30/45/60/45 and (180); late winter planting warm winter desert35/60/70/40and(205). Spring planting Mediterranean 25/35/45/25 and (130); early summer planting California desert 20/35/45/25and(125). Warm winter desert climates 30/40/40/25 and (135); and late autumn 35/45/70/30 and (180); spring plantingMediterraneanclimates30/40/45/30and(145). SeeBarley.

Peppers

Potato (Irish)

Radishes Safflower Sorghum

Soybeans

Spinach Squash(winter) pumpkin Squash (zucchini) Sugarbeet

Sunflower Tomato Wheat

Notes: 40/40/250/30 stand for initial, crop development, midseason, and late season crop growth stages in days, respectively, and(360)isthetotalgrowingperiodfromplantingtoharvest,alsoindays.

68

7.
7.1.

IRRIGATIONSCHEDULING
Introduction

Theamountofirrigationwaterthatshouldbeappliedandthetimingofapplicationsdependupon severalfactors.Watershouldbecontinuouslyavailableinthecroprootzone.Adequateaerationisalso required. The needed amount of water and the timing or frequency of applications are influenced by crop root depth, soil water holding capacity, the crop water use rate, precipitation, irrigation method, and some management considerations. The goal is usually maximization of profit. Maximization of profit may result from some level of deficit irrigation. If water is expensive, irrigation for less than maximum yields may increase profits. The savings in the expenses for water may exceed the value of thereductioninproduction. When irrigation is frequent (every day ortwo)thecroprootdepthandsoilwaterholdingcapacity are often not relevant to the calculation of application depth because in this case the application of waterisusuallysuchthatdailycropwaterrequirementsaresatisfied.Thatis,thewaterstoragecapacity of the soil in the crop root zone is not relied upon and the soil water content is maintained at or near field capacity, FC, at all times. This type of irrigation scheduling can be most easily accomplished with automatedandpressurizedsystemssuchascenterpivotsandtrickleirrigation. In other cases, the soil water content is allowed to decrease below field capacity, but only to a pointthatdoesnotsignificantlycompromisecropproduction.Whenthisminimumallowablesoilwater content is reached, it is time to apply irrigation water. Many irrigation systems are designed and operated to take advantage of this soil water storage capability to minimize the number of irrigations in a season, and to boost application efficiency by applying greater depths of water per irrigation. Thus, water from rainfall and/or irrigation should replace soil water lost by crop water use. The amount required should allow for uniformity and efficiency of application and for any requirement for soil leaching.Theoptimumtimingofirrigationsdependsuponseveralfactorsincluding: 1. Theeffectiverootingdepthofthecrop 2. Thesoilwaterholdingcapacity 3. Thecropwateruserate 4. Thesensitivityofthecroptowaterstress(waterdeficit) 5. Irrigationsystemtypeandflowratecapacity 6. Thewatersupplyanddeliveryscheduletothefield

7.2.

CropRootingDepthandAllowableWaterDepletion

A table of rooting depths of mature irrigated crops grown on deep permeable well drained soils is given by Doneen and Westcot (1984). This table is fairly complete and gives considerable explanation relative to variations in rooting depth. The table by Doneen and Westcot (1984) is presented as Table 7.1. It is assumed that the rooting depth for annual crops is only a few centimeters at crop emergence. Forirrigationschedulingtheassumptionismadethatthedepthofrootingincreaseslinearlywithtime.

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Table7.1.Rootingdepthofmatureirrigatedcropsgrowninadeep,permeablewelldrainedsoil.
ShallowRooted (00.6m) Broccoli 0.30.6 Brusselssprouts 0.30.6 Cabbage 0.40.5 Cauliflower 0.30.6 Celery 0.30.5 Lettuce1 0.30.5 Onion2 0.30.5 Pineapple 0.30.6 Potato1 0.40.6 Radish 0.30.6 Spinach 0.30.5 Strawberry 0.20.3 ModeratelyRooted (0.51.2m) Banana 0.50.9 Beans 0.50.7 Beets(table) 0.61.0 Cantaloupe4 0.91.5 Carrots 0.51.0 Citrus5 1.21.5 Clover 0.60.9 Cucumbers 0.71.2 Eggplant 0.71.2 Grains(small)6 0.61.5 Grass(pasture) 0.51.5 Groundnuts 0.51.0 Palmtrees 0.71.1 Parsnips 0.71.1 Peas 0.61.0 Peppers3 0.51.0 Soybean 0.61.3 Squash 0.51.0 Sugarbeet9 0.71.2 Tobacco 0.51.0 Turnips 0.71.1 DeepRooted (1.02.0m) Alfalfa Almonds Asparagus Barley(winter)6 Castorbeans8 Cotton Dates Flax Fruittrees Grains(winter)6 Grapes Maize(corn)9 Olives Pumpkins Safflower Sorghum9 Squash(winter) Sugarcane Sunflower Sweetpotato Tomato Walnuts Watermelon Wheat6 1.02.0 1.52.5 1.53.0 1.01.5 1.52.5 1.01.7 1.52.5 1.01.5 1.02.0 1.52.0 1.02.0 1.01.7 1.21.7 1.52.2 1.02.0 1.02.0 1.52.2 1.22.0 0.81.5 1.01.5 0.71.5 1.53.0 1.01.5 1.01.5

Neither lettuce nor potatoes develop extensive root systems. Some of the roots may penetrate deeper than 0.50.6 m, but belowthisdepththerootmassisrelativelysmall. 2 Onions have very shallow roots. It is usually necessary to maintain adequate soil water in the top 0.20 m or so to achieve maximumyield. 3 Most varieties of bush beans do not develop extensive root systems. However, some types (such as Lima beans) develop betterrootsystemsuptoadepthof1.2mormore. 4 Cantalouperootspenetratetoadepthofuptoabout1.8m,butmostwateristakenupintheupper1.0moftherootzone. 5 Most citrus roots are in the top 0.9 m of the root zone, with only a few extending down to the maximum depth of about 1.5 m. 6 Mosttypesofgrainhaverootsextendingtoadepthof1.2mafterheading,butcanaccesswaterupto1.7mindepthduring ripening 7 Grasseshavevariablerootdepths,withsomebelow1.2mandothersmoreshallow. 8 Castorbeans,whengrownasanannualcrop,donotdevelopextensiverootsystems. 9 Maize (corn), sorghum, and sugarbeets develop poor root systems during the first part of the growing period, but later developmorevigorousroots.

The water in the soil in excess of thepermanentwiltingpoint,PWP,anduptothefieldcapacityis consideredtobetheavailablewaterforplantgrowth.Mostcropswiltatapproximatelythesamevalue of soil water tension. In terms of soil water content, the average PWP is approximately 50% of FC; the average available soil water is therefore about half of the field capacity. For most sandy soils the availablewater,AW,exceeds50%ofFCandformostclaysAWislessthan50%ofFC.

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Astheplantdepletestheavailablesoilwatertherateofgrowthandtherateofwaterusedecline. Table7.2fromDoneenandWestcot(1984)givesthepercentagesofavailablewaterdepletionallowable between irrigations for near maximum yields. These percentages are influenced to a significant degree by soil texture as will be demonstrated under "Monitoring Soil Water". A usual irrigation practice is to establish or set the time between irrigations in order to utilize no more than about half of the available water. For most vegetables and potatoes the allowable depletion should be significantly less than 50%, butforsomecrops,adepletionofmorethan50%producesnearmaximumyields. Iftheaverageavailablesoilwateris50%ofthefieldcapacityandtheallowabledepletionis50%of the available water, then the average irrigation scheduling should provide water at 0.5 x 50% = 25% depletion of the available soil water. Table 7.3 from Hargreaves and Samani (1991) suggests variations in this depletion percentage with rates of crop evapotranspiration (ETc) and crop rooting depth. As indicated in Table 7.2 there is considerable variation in the allowable soil water depletion that is influenced by factors other than rooting depth. Table 7.3 should, therefore, be used only as an approximateguide. Table 7.2. Allowable root zone depletion between irrigations for near maximum yield (after Stegman, MusikandStewart1980). Crop AvailableWater RootZoneDepthin Depletion(%) DeepSoils(m) Alfalfa 3050 1.201.80 Beans(dry) 5070 0.600.90 Maize(corn) 4060 0.751.20 Cotton 5065 0.901.20 Deciduousfruit 5070 1.201.80 Potato 2550 0.600.90 Sugarbeet 3060 0.901.20 Grainsorghum 5070 0.901.20 Soybean 5060 0.600.90 Wheat 5070 0.901.20 Vegetablecrops 2550 0.601.20 Table7.3.Suggestedallowablesoilwaterdepletioninpercentoffieldcapacity. Crop ETc(mm/day) RootDepth 2 4 6 8 10 Shallow(0.20.6m) 25 20 17 14 10 Moderate(0.51.2m) 35 30 25 20 15 Deep(1.02.0m) 40 35 30 25 20 Tables 7.4 and 7.5 are from Doorenbos and Kassam (1979). Table 7.4 divides crops into four groups where both rooting depth and drought tolerance are considered in this grouping. The soil water depletionfraction(P)inTable7.5isdepletionofavailablewater(AW). Table7.4.Cropgroupsaccordingtosoilwaterdepletion.
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 Group 1 2 3 4 Crops onion,pepper,potato banana,cabbage,grape,pea,tomato alfalfa,bean,citrus,groundnut,pineapple,sunflower,watermelon,wheat cotton,maize,olive,safflower,sorghum,soybean,sugarbeet,sugarcane,tobacco

Table7.5.Soilwaterdepletionfraction,P,forcropgroupsandmaximumevapotranspiration(ETm). Crop ETminmm/day Group 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 0.50 0.43 0.35 0.30 0.25 0.23 0.20 0.20 0.18 2 0.68 0.58 0.48 0.40 0.35 0.33 0.28 0.25 0.23 3 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.45 0.43 0.38 0.35 0.30 4 0.88 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.55 0.45 0.45 0.43 0.40

7.3.

MonitoringSoilWater

Computations of reference crop evapotranspiration and the use of crop coefficients provide approximations of crop water use. On the other hand, the field capacity provides an indication of the approximate amount of available water in the crop root zone. The actual water use by the crop is influencedbythestageofgrowth,variety,andallofthefactorsthatinfluencecropvigorandtherateof growth.Forthesereasonsitisdesirabletomonitorthefieldwaterstatus. Israelson and Hansen (1962), Doneen and Westcot (1984), and Hargreaves and Samani (1991) have published tables indicating how much water can be added to bring the soil to the field capacity. A handfulofsoilissqueezedveryfirmlyoristestedtoseeifitribbonsoutbetweenfingers.Thefollowing table can be used to indicate when 25 to 50 percent of the available soil water has been depleted. The values below the description are the depth of water in millimeters per meter of soil depth that are required to bring the soil to its field capacity. Judgment based upon feel and appearance of the soil is improvedbyexperience,particularlywhencombinedwithothermethodsofmonitoringsoilwater. Table 7.6. Guide for deciding when 25 to 50% of AW has been depleted, and the depth of water requiredtobringthesoiltofieldcapacity. LoamySand SandyLoam Loam&SiltLoam ClayLoam/SiltyClay Appearsdry,willnot Tendstoballbut Formsaplasticball, Formsaball,ribbonsout formaballwith seldomholds sometimesslightly whensqueezedbetween pressure together sticky thumbandfinger 1742mm/m 3367mm/m 4283mm/m 50100mm/m Soil water tension determines the availability of water to the crop roots. The relationship of tensiontoavailablewaterdepletionvarieswithsoiltexture.Figure7.1indicatesthetypicalvariationsof available water depletion with various soil textures. The curves in Fig. 7.1 areusuallydevelopedusinga laboratory apparatus calledapressureplate,usedtocreatevariouslevelsofnegativepressureonsoil

72

samples, but they can be partially determinedusingtensiometers.Pressureplatesarecommonlyfound insoilanalysislaboratories. Tensiometersareveryusefulformonitoringsoilwaterandforschedulingirrigations.InFigure7.1 soilwatertensionisshowninatmospheres,wheresoilwatertensionmeansnegativepressure(relativeto atmosphericpressure).Tensiometersmeasuresoilwatertensionincentibars(cb)fromzeroupto8085. As the name implies, tensiometers measure the tension on a column of water. The reading is increased one cb for each 10 cm of column of water. If the ceramic tip is at a depth of one meter, 10 cb must be subtracted from the reading to obtain the soil water tension. The usefulness of tensiometers is limited in heavy textured soils and infrequently irrigated crops because tensiometers will break tension between 80 and 85 cb, or 0.80 to 0.85 atmospheres, of soil water tension. Tensiometers cannot read a soilwatertensionbeyondthisrange. Table 7.7 is a generalization of the significance of tensiometer readings. An inspection of Figure 7.1indicatesthatTable7.7appliesprincipallyformediumtofinetexturedsoils. Table7.7.Soilwatertensionrangesandtheirsignificance. Tension Significance (cb) 05 Thesoilistoowetformostcrops(exceptrice,forexample) 1025 Idealwaterandaerationconditionsformostcrops(irrigationnotneeded) 2540 Adequatewaterformostcropsexceptforshallowrootedcropsandcoarse texturedsoils(irrigationnotneeded) 4050 Adequatewaterformoderatelyrootedcropsgrownonmediumtexturedsoils (irrigationnotneeded) 5070 Adequatewaterformostdeeprootedcrops(irrigationnotneeded) 7080 Irrigationisgenerallyrecommendedatthissoilwatertensionrangefornearlyall soilsandcropconditions >80 Irrigationisneededunlessitisdesirabletostressthecrop For finetextured soils gypsum blocks have often been used to measure soil water tensions in the range of 80 to 100 cb. Pogue (1990) proposed the use of WATERMARK soil water sensors to combine the factors which favor both tensiometers and gypsum blocks. These sensors are described as inexpensive, stable over time, and not requiring individual calibration. Various other monitoring methods have been used. These include: soil water sampling, the neutron probe method, infrared thermometer readings, crop colorandappearance,andtherateoffoliargrowth. The values of cb in Table 7.8 are fromMarsh(1981)andarerecommendedforusewithfullcoverage irrigationmethods.Thevaluesaretypicalformediumtexturedsoils;coarsetexturedsoilsmayrequiremore frequent irrigation. Figure 7.1 indicates that for a clay soil a water tension of 70 cb corresponds to a soil waterdepletionofabout20%oftheavailablewater.

73

0 0.1

25

50

75

100

0.1

0.2 0.3 0.4

Soil Water Tension (atmospheres)

0.2 0.3
F i
y nd Sa

L
my oa

0.4 0.5
nd

0.5

S ne

Sa

an
L dy

Lo
am

m oa

1.0

Lo

1.0

am

2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

Cl ay

2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

10.0

10.0

20.0

75 25 50 Depletion of Available Water (%)

100

Figure7.1.Typicalwaterretentioncurvesforseveralsoiltextures. Table7.8.Tensiometerreadingfordecidingwhentoirrigate.
Crop Deciduousfruittrees Citrus Avocado Tomato Lettuce Strawberry Celery MelonandCarrot Turf(exceptputtinggreens) SoilWater Tension(cb) 7080 5070 4050 6070 4050 2535 2030 5060 2030

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7.4.

SchedulingIrrigations

Thereareseveralmethodsfordecidingwhentoirrigateandhowmuchwatertoapply.Manyfarmers useanirrigationfrequencybasedonpreviousexperience,andusuallysomewhatmorewaterisappliedthan that required to bring the soil water content to the field capacity. If water is available by turns on rotation, thefrequencyofwateravailabilitymaydeterminetheschedule.Whenwaterisavailableondemand,some form of monitoring soil water status can be used to determine when to irrigate. The amount of water depletedfromthecroprootzoneprovidesaguideforthedepthofirrigationtobeapplied. The water budget approach to irrigation scheduling requires estimates of the daily crop evapotranspiration or for other suitable time periods. This approach requires a knowledge of or an estimation of the amount of water available from rainfall and/or shallow water tables. In some situations some of the supply can be contributed by fog or dew. The required amount not supplied by these sources mustbeappliedbyirrigation.Irrigationsarescheduledfromestimatesofthefollowing: cropevapotranspiration fieldcapacityofthesoil theallowablesoilwaterdepletion theeffectivecroprootdepth requirementsforleaching allowancesthatneedtobemadeforuniformityandefficiencyofirrigationapplications For most irrigation methods, efficiencies of 75 to 85% are attainable. However, efficiencies in the order of 55 to 65% are typical at the field level. Farm (one to several fields) and projectlevel (dozens to thousands of fields) water application efficiencies tend to be higher due to the reuse of water within the irrigated area. That is, inefficiencies in applying water on individual fields are not as concerning when the water losses translate into additional available water at downstream fields. Further, some losses in the formofdeeppercolation(watermovingdownwardbelowthecroprootzone)areacceptablewhenleaching is required to maintain a favorable salt balance. However, even if field inefficiencies provide water for downstreamlocations,itisusuallyassociatedwithincrementalreductionsinwaterquality.Thismeansthat all things being equal, it is better to deliver water to individual fields through a conveyance and distribution system (canals and or pipes) than through runoff and deep percolation from upstream fields. However, water is sometimes applied in excess of irrigation requirements for leaching or to recharge ground water aquifers.

7.5.

RiceIrrigation

Riceistheprincipalfoodinthedietofmorethanhalfoftheworldpopulation,andmorethan90%of theworldwidericeproductionisinAsia.Onehectareofricecanrequire1000hoursofmanuallaborinmany areas, and mechanization in many of the largest rice producing regions is still very minimal. Rice requires relatively high temperatures during a growing season of three to five months, and growth is influenced by water temperature, mean air temperature, and the daily temperature range. Rice is one of the major grain cropsintheworld,anditisinterestingtonotethatgrainproductionpercapitahasdeclinedbymorethan1% peryearduringthelast11years(Brownetal.1996). Intermsofirrigation,oneofthesignificantcharacteristicsaboutmostkindsofriceisthatitgrowsbest under saturated soil conditions, with several centimeters of ponded water maintained on the soil surface. Most irrigated rice is grown on rather heavy clay soils or on soils underlain with a hardpan or a relatively

75

impervioussubsoil.Salineandalkalinesoilsareusuallynotsuitedforriceproduction.Itisfrequentlygrown inlowlandareaswhererainfallexceedscropevapotranspirationduringthreeormoremonthsofthegrowing season. Midseason ETc is usually in the range of 1.1 to 1.3 times reference evapotranspiration (ETo). Some rice is grown in deep water where annual flooding generally occurs, and the growth rate of the rice stalk (up to nearly 50 cm per day) is able to keep pace with the rise in the water surface during flooding. Deep waterricealmostalwaystakesadvantageofnaturalflooding,sonoirrigationisrequiredinthiscase. Thewaterrequirementofricedependsmoreontherateofwaterpercolatingthroughthesoilthanon ETc. Field surfaces should be leveled or smoothed so that a uniform shallow depth of water can be maintained. The most desirable depth for the improved short stemmed varieties is from 5 to 10 cm. Contour levees or rectangular areas are frequently used in rice production. Land between borders may be levelorgradedwithadifferenceinelevationofnomorethan5centimeters,andtheirrigationsystemcanbe arranged so that water moves down slope or down a mountain side from one border to the lower one. Provisions for drainage are required for periodic aeration, for disease control, and for harvesting. In some areas, the land between borders is level and level furrow irrigation of other crops is used during the dry season. Rice is usually planted by one of three methods. Perhaps the most common method is by growing seedlings in small nurseries, then transplanting to open field areas. The second is by drilling, which is commonforuplandrice,andthethirdisbroadcastingtheseed.Drillingcanbedonebehandwithastickor otherhandtool,orwithalargeimplementonatractor.Usualyieldsofriceareintherangeof4to6metric tons per hectare. Some areas have produced average yields exceeding 8 tons per hectare. High yields requireadequatelevelsoffertilizerincluding100200kgofnitrogenperhectare,andgoodweedandinsect control(Brownetal.1996).

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8.
8.1.

DRAINAGE
Introduction

Plants require both water and air. The presence of air in the root zone is as necessary as water for seed germination and plant growth. Farmers will often cultivate (or till) their fields, even in the absence of significant weed growth, because they understand that the plant root zone must be sufficiently aerated to supportcropgrowth.Adequatedrainageistheremovalofexcesswaterandsaltfromthesoilataratewhich willpermitnormalornearoptimumplantgrowthanddevelopment.Withadequateavailabilityofairinthe soil,withinarangeoffavorableconditions,plantrespirationincreasesexponentiallywithtemperature.The harmfuleffectsofpoordrainage,therefore,increasewithincreasingtemperature. Whataresoilwatersalts? Most discussions of soil water salt refer in general to dissolved minerals in the water. These commonly include compounds of calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, chloride, sulfate, carbonates and bicarbonates, and nitrate. All soil water has dissolved minerals, and in high concentrations these can be detrimentaltocropgrowth.Thereisawiderangeofcroptolerancetosalts;somecropsareverytolerantto high soil water salt concentrations, and others are very sensitive. Problems with soil water salinity are usuallyworseinaridandsemiaridareas. Drainagemaybeeithernaturalorartificial.Mostlandshavenaturalsurfaceandsubsurfacedrainage. Wherenaturaldrainagedoesnotremovewaterand/orsalinityatanadequaterateorinadequateamounts, drainage channels need to be deepened or constructed. Irrigation plus rainfall should be sufficient to provide deep percolation to keep the root zone free of excessive water and prevent the accumulation of harmful amounts of salt. If the internal drainage capacity of the soil is adequate, the design of a system to provide adequate drainagemustconsiderthedepthandspacingofdrainssoastomaintainthewatertable at a sufficient depth below the surface. Drainage is not an exact science although various design criteria areuseful,drainagedesignremainssomewhatamatterofexperience.

8.2.

BenefitsofDrainage

Insaturatedsoilsthelackofoxygenpreventstheformationofusableformsofnitrogenandsulfurasa resultofthelimitedgrowthofaerobicbacteria,resultinginlessthanoptimalcropproduction.Poordrainage also adversely affects cultivation and harvesting. The benefits from drainage include: a longer growing season, improved soil tillage, earlier plant growth, higher crop yield, better crop selections, more profitable cropproduction,andimprovedaccessandtransportation. Drainage promotes early warming of soils in the spring. Soils that are too wet may be four to eight degrees Celsius cooler than welldrained soils. Thus, welldrained soils may be planted two to three weeks earlier. Wet soils also encourage the growth of various plant pathogens. A high water table creates conditions in which the upward capillary movement of water can move salts into the root zone or deposit themonthesoilsurface. As indicated in Chapter 1, the saturation of the surface soil for a few days from either irrigation or excessive rainfall very significantly reduces the yields of most crops. Some studies indicate an average

77

decrease in yield of 10% per day of submergence. The duration of saturation is greater on heavy or fine textured soils. The yield decline increases with temperature. At high temperatures the lack of aeration increaseswaterstress,andyieldreductionsaregreaterifthisoccursduringcriticalgrowthstages.Research byGuptaetal.(1992)indicatedanaverageyieldreductionof50%fromaboutsixdaysofsubmergence.This clearly indicates the need for evaluating the probabilities of amounts and durations of rainfall in excess of cropwaterrequirements.

8.3.

SurfaceDrainage

Most irrigation is to some degree supplemental to rainfall. Surface drainage may be required to remove excess rainfall or excess irrigation water from the surface of the land. Control of surface water is normally accomplished by providing shallow channels for its removal. For rainfed agriculture use of raised bedsandfurrowsmayprovideimprovedaerationofthecroprootsinthebeds.Furrowswithlittleslopecan increase the opportunity time for water to enter the soil. This system including broad raised beds has sometimesincreasedrainfedyieldsuptoasmuchas40%. Storm flow, or runoff, depends on the intensity and duration of precipitation, soil type, topography, vegetative cover, and land use. Runoff estimates can be made from a knowledge of these conditions. Records of daily rainfall amounts are frequently available. Surface drains for crop protection should be designed to handle flows from five to 25year return period storm frequencies. For the protection of more importantorexpensiveworkssignificantlylongerreturnperiodsshouldbeused.Extremeonehourrainfall amounts are usually approximately one half of the amounts for one day. They can be converted to approximate values for a larger number of hours by multiplying by the onefourth power of the duration periodinhours. The requirements for surface drainage depend not only on the factors given above, but also on the areaofadjacentlandsthatmaycontributetothedrainagerequirements.Varioushandbooksandtextsgive methods and equations for estimating runoff from agricultural lands and ungauged watersheds. Hydrographs showing outflow as a function of time elapsed are useful providing the hydrograph was developedforsimilarconditions.

8.4.

SubsurfaceDrainage

Subsurfacedrainageisusedfortheremovalorcontrolofgroundwaterandtheremovalofsaltsby leaching. Drains may be open ditches or buried perforated pipes. Pumped wells may have dual purpose where groundwater is of good quality for irrigation. They can be used to lower the water table,whileprovidingasourceofirrigationwater.Onsomeirrigationprojects,pumpingofonethirdof thewatersupplyfromfairlyshallowgroundwaterhaseliminatedtheneedforotherdrainagefacilities. Itshouldneverbeassumedthatsubsurfacedrainsarefunctioningproperly.Manysubsurfacedrains arecloggedafteronlyafewyears,anddraincleaningandrepairareoftenneglected. The hydraulic conductivity of a soil is a measure of its drainability and provides a necessary criterion in the design of drainage systems. Hydraulic conductivity is frequently measured and reportedincubicinchespersquareinchperhourorincubiccentimeterspersquarecentimeterper hour.Thesetermsareusuallyabbreviatedandreportedasinchesperhourorcmperhr,respectively. Thesaturatedhydraulicconductivity(K)canbedeterminedbytheaugerholemethod,bytheuseof piezometers,bywelldrawdown,orbyawellpumpintest.Hydraulicconductivityisdeterminedby therateofwaterlevelrecoveryinanaugerhole,bythewaterlevelrecoveryrateinapiezometertube,

78

bythewelldrawdownatstaticwaterlevel,orbythepumpinraterequiredtomaintainastaticwater levelabovethegroundwaterlevel,respectively. Thespecificyield(S)isthevolumeofwaterthatcanbereleasedordrainedfromaunitareaof saturatedsoilundertheforceofgravityforaunitdropofthewatertable,expressedasapercentageofa unit volume of saturated soil. The specific yield is related to hydraulic conductivity. For optimum drainageconditions,Sshouldbeinexcessofsixpercent.Withavalueofthreepercentorless,drainage becomes both difficult and expensive. Both laboratory and field determinations of specific yield are expensive and time consuming. Figure 8.1 presents a curve developed by the USBR showing the averagerelationshipofStoKbaseduponabout2,000laboratorytests. Hydraulicconductivityvariesgreatlywithsoilwatercontent,asshowninFig.8.2.Thesaturated hydraulicconductivityisusuallyusedindrainagecalculations,butunderunsaturatedconditions,soils drainmuchmoreslowly.

100.00

Specific Yield (% by volume)

10.00

1.00 0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0

Hydraulic Conductivity (inch/hr)

Figure8.1.Generalrelationshipbetweenspecificyieldandhydraulicconductivity(aftertheUSBR1978).

79

10

Hydraulic Conductivity (cm/day)

0.1

0.01 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.30

Volumetric Water Content (fraction)

Figure8.2.Relationshipbetweenhydraulicconductivityandwatercontentforatypicalloamsoil.

8.5.

SpacingofDrains

Most irrigated areas eventually require the installation of some subsurface drains. Proper spacing of drains may be determined from field experience obtained under similar conditions. Where applicable field experienceisnotavailable,fullconsiderationshouldbegiventosuchfactorsas:depthofdrain,depthtoa slowly permeable barrier, hydraulic conductivity, specific yield of the soil, required rooting depth for the crops to be grown, the irrigation practices, rainfall, other climatic conditions, irrigation water quality, soil salinity, slope, and topography. Estimation of drain spacing requires that deep percolation and buildup in thewatertablefromeachsourceofrechargebeeitherknownorestimated.Buildupofthewatertabledue to precipitation or irrigation applications can best be determined by field measurements. These factors can be integrated into an appropriate steady state or transient drain spacing equation to determine the proper subsurfacedrainspacingforwatertablecontrol. Whenadrainageproblemexists,thewatertabledepthshouldbemeasuredatseverallocationsinthe areatobedrainedthedaybeforeandthedayaftereachofseveralirrigationapplications.Thisindicatesthe amountofdeeppercolationandrelatesthebuilduptoactualirrigationoperations.Irrigationwaterscontain various salts. Crops transpire essentially pure water leaving the salts to concentrate in the soil or in the groundwater. There is a critical depth to groundwater above which there is a sharp increase in the evaporation rate and, therefore, in soil salinization. The critical depth varies with soil type, salt content of groundwater, and crop characteristics. In general, the range is between 1.0 and 1.5 m. The groundwater depthhalfwaybetweendrainsshouldbemaintainedbelowthesedepths.Provisionofadequatesubsurface drainageistheonlywaytocontrolthedepthtothewatertable. Various equations have been developed for estimating the appropriate spacing of subsurface drains. Theuseofequationscanbesignificantlyimprovedwhencombinedwithfieldexperienceandaknowledgeof the factors described above. Perhaps the most common drain spacing method is based on the Hooghoudt

80

equation, which applies the DupuitForcheimer assumptions and uses horizontal soil hydraulic conductivity. The Hooghoudt equation is based on steadystate saturated flow in the soil. Steadystate flow is practically neverencounteredinagriculturalsubsurfacedrainage,buttheequationisappliedtothecalculationofdrain spacingratherthantothesimulationofactualflows,andhasbeenshowntoprovidegoodresults.TheUSBR usesatransientflowdrainspacingprocedure,whichusuallyyieldsacloserdrainspacing,thusgivingamore conservative(andmoreexpensive)design. TheHooghoudtequationisexpressedasfollows:

L2 =

4 KH (2d e + H ) V

(8.1)

where L is the spacing between parallel drains; K is the saturated hydraulic conductivity in the horizontal direction (mm/day); H is the vertical distance from the shallowest depth to the water table to the drain depth;andVisthedrainagecoefficient(sameunitsasK),asdefinedinEq.8.4below.Theequivalentdepth totheimpermeablelayer,de,isdefinedas:

de =

d 8d 8d 1+ ln L 3r

(8.2)

where r is the outside radius of the drain pipe, or outside radius of the drain envelope (if present); and d is thedepthfromthedrainstotheimpermeablelayer.Theequivalentdepthtermisdesignedtocorrectfor errors due to the assumptions made in Eq. 8.1, including the DupuitForcheimer assumptions. Many of the terms in Eqs. 8.1 and 8.2 are defined in Figure 8.3, which is an idealization of the actual water table profile belowafieldsurface.
V ground surface WTD Z H L

d impermeable layer

Figure8.3.DefinitionsketchofdrainspacingtermsfortheHooghoudtequation. According to DupuitForcheimer, the hydraulic gradient equals the slope of the water table. This assumption is most valid when the water table is flat, or nearly flat. If the water table is flat, then there would be no horizontal flow because the gradient would be zero. The minimum water table depth, WTD, occurs in the center of twodrains,asshowninFig.8.3.ThevalueofWTDshouldbeatleastasdeepasthe maximum potential crop root depth, and is normally taken as 0.9 m (3.0 ft) by the U.S. Soil Conservation

81

Service,oras1.2m(4.0ft)bytheUSBR.Ifthedrainsarespacedtoofarapart,theactualvalueofWTDwill betoolow,andcropyieldmaybeaffected.Ontheotherhand,ifthedrainsarespacedveryclosetogether, theinstallationmaybemuchmoreexpensivethanithastobe. Notethatthedepthtothedrains,Z,asshowninFig.8.3isdefinedasH+WTD.ForgivenvaluesofZ and WTD, the value of H is calculated as Z WTD. The value of Z is generally known as a standard value, or themaximumexcavationdepthofthetrenchingmachinery.TypicalvaluesofZarefrom1.0to1.8m(4.0to 6.0ft). The depth to the impermeable layer defines the value of d in Eq. 8.2, where an impermeable layer can be taken as any soil layer whose hydraulic conductivity is between onefifth and onetenth of the average hydraulic conductivity of the overlying layer(s). Thus, for the purposes of applying Eq. 8.1, the barrier is often a relatively impermeable layer through which water does pass, but very slowly. To identify thebarrier,andtoobtainarepresentativevalueofhydraulicconductivity,K,forallsoillayers,useEq.8.3.

(K d ) d
i i i

(8.3)

where i is a subscript indicating the layer, and the K value used in Eq. 8.1 is taken as a weighted average accordingtolayerthickness.Thedrainagecoefficient,V,canbecalculatedas:

V =

ET (1 + LF ) ET Eirrig

(8.4)

whereLF(theleachingfraction)canbetakenas0.05,unlessrainduringtheyearwillrefillthesoilprofileand causeleachingofsalts,inwhichcaseLFiszero;ETistherateofcropconsumptiveuse,orevapotranspiration (mm/day);andEirrigistheirrigationefficiencyexpressedasafraction,whichcanbedefinedas:

Eirrig = 1

deep percolation inf iltration

(8.5)

thus, if the deep percolation (infiltrated water passing downward through the root zone) is zero, the efficiency is 1.0, or 100%. Note that this is only one of many definitions of irrigation efficiency, but it is usefulfordeterminingthedrainagecoefficient. Both Eqs. 8.1 and 8.2 have the term L, which is the drain spacing. The two equations must be solved simultaneouslytodeterminethevalueofLforagivendraindesign,andthiscanbeaccomplishedreadilyon a programmable calculator or in a simple computer program. In summary, to apply Eq. 8.1 for the calculation of drain spacing the following seven parameters must be known or estimated: K, H, d, ET, LF, r, andEirrig. By convention, a conservative design of drain spacing assumes that the hydraulic grade line (HGL) remainsinsidethedrainpipe,meaningopenchannelflow.IftheHGLisabovethepipeatanypoint,alarger pipesizeshouldbeusedtocarrythedrainwater.Knowingtheslope,drainlength,pipematerial,andinflow per unit length, the Manning equation can be used to estimate the required drain diameter. The Manning equationisoftenappliedtouniformflow,andcanbewrittenas:

82

Q=

1 AR2 / 3 So n

(8.6)

whereQistheflowrate(m3/s);nisaroughnesscoefficient;Aisthecrosssectionalareaofflow(m2);Risthe hydraulic radius (m); and So is the slope of the pipe (m/m). The roughness value is usually between 0.018 and 0.04 for drain pipes. The hydraulic radius is equal to the area, A, divided by the wetted perimeter, Wp. Foracircularcrosssection,thegeometryparametersarerelatedasfollows: and,

A=

D2 ( sin ) 8
Wp = D 2

(8.7)

(8.8)

h=

D 1 cos 2 2

(8.9)

where the terms in Eqs. 8.78.9 are defined in Fig. 8.4. The wetted perimeter, Wp, is the portion of the circlescircumferencethatisincontactwithwater.Theangleisdefinedas:

= 2cos 1 1

2h D

(8.10)

ExampleDrainSpacingCalculation Some sample applications of thedrainspacingequationsaregivenbelow.Thesedatacanbeusedto verifyacomputerprogramthatappliesEq.8.18.5.Supposesubsurfacedrainsaretobeinstalledatadepth of1.2mfromthegroundsurface,withanoutsidedrainradiusof0.1mandaminimumwatertabledepthof 0.6 m. The depth to a relatively impermeable boundary is 1.5 m, the maximum ET rate is 5 mm/day, the leaching fraction is 0.05, the irrigation efficiency is 75%, and the hydraulic conductivity of the soil is 10 mm/day. For these data, the steadystate drain spacing would be about 4.99 m. If the depth to the impermeable layer were increased from 1.5 to 5.0 m, the spacing would decrease to 4.74 m, or if the drain depthwereincreasedfrom1.2to1.5m,thespacingwouldincreaseto6.85m.Ifthehydraulicconductivity were15mm/day,thespacingwouldincreaseto6.37m.

8.6.

TypesofDrains

Open ditches are advantageous for removing large volumes of water and for draining heavy clay soils where the slope is quite flat. They may also serve as outlets for buried tile or plastic pipe drains. The main disadvantages of open ditches is that they occupy land that might otherwise be farmed, obstruct farming practices, and may create problems due to weed growth, bank sloughing, and tend to have high maintenancecosts.

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Moledrainsareunlinedsubsurfacecircularchannelsleftbyabulletshapeddevicepulledthroughthe soil. They may be used for shallow drainage of heavy clay soils but are impractical with soils of coarser texture. Mole drains are shallow and temporary but are generally cheaper to install than other methods. Theyusuallydonotworkwellinaridareas.

h
Figure8.4.Definitionofhydraulictermsforcircularsections. Concreteandtiledrainshavebeenwidelyused.Claytilesareusuallyof30to60cmlengthsandof10 to 25 cm inside diameter. Corrugated plastic tubing has become increasingly popular for subsurface drainage during the last 20 years. Perforated plastic pipes are generally available in 8 to 30 cm diameters and in rolls of 75 to 80 m long. Tile and plastic drains are usually provided with a surrounding envelope of synthetic fabrics, a sand and gravel envelope, or other porous filter material. Drain envelopes are a type of filterthatpermitswatertopassfromthesurroundingsoilintothedrainwithoutsignificantpassageofsoil particles,andwithoutdestabilizingthesurroundingsoilmedium.

8.7.

SolvingSaltProblems

Irrigationwaterisoftenamajorsourceofsalts.Dependingonthesaltcontentoftheirrigationwater, it may be necessary to remove 10 to 20 tons of salt per hectare per year in order to prevent salt buildup. Salts can also move upward into the crop root zone from groundwater. In arid regions groundwater may containmanytimesasmuchsaltasirrigationwater.Soilsalinityiscontrolledbyleaching,whichrequiresthe applicationofslightlymorewaterthanthatusedbythecrops.Leachingmovessaltsdownwardthroughthe soil profile and through the crop root zone. For most crops and conditions 5 to 10% of the applied water mustpassdownthroughthesoiltocarryawayexcesssalts. Salt problems are evaluated by measuring the electrical conductivity of the soil saturation extract, or EC, in mmhos/cm (equivalent to decisiemens per meter, or dS/m) at 25o C. Table 8.1 gives an indication of the effect of root zone salinity on crop yield, but it should be noted that the values in the table are approximate because the tolerance to salinity varies greatly among crop types. Good soil fertility can decreasetheharmfuleffectofsoilwatersalt. Figure 8.5 shows a generally accepted relationship between relative crop yield, as percent of maximum potential yield, and soil water salinity in the crop root zone. Crop yield is not reduced by salinity until a threshold value is reached. If the salinity is increased beyond the threshold value, crop yield tends to decrease linearly until at some point the crop yield goes to zero. However, the rate of

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yield decrease is only approximately linear, and both the threshold value and rate of decrease vary accordingtocroptype. Table8.1.Effectsofsalinityoncropyield. ElectricalConductivity EffectonCropYield (dS/m) 01 Reductioninyieldwillusuallybenegligible 24 Yieldofsensitivecropswillberestricted 48 Yieldofmanycropswillberestricted 816 Yieldissatisfactoryonlyforsalttolerantcrops
100 80 60 40 20 0 0 Increasing Salinity Threshold Salinity

Relative Crop Yield (%)

Figure8.5.Generalrelationshipbetweenrelativecropyieldandsoilwatersalinity. Sprinkle irrigation is a very effective method for controlling salt because it tends to promote vertical infiltration of water to carry salts downward, as opposed to furrow irrigation, for example, which can leave salt accumulations on the beds between furrows. It is usually easier to remove salts from sandy soils than fromsiltyclaysoils,anditshouldberecognizedthatleachingworkswellonlywithgooddrainagetocarrythe salts away. Compacted zones and changes in soil texture reduce downward water movement through the soil and result in less leaching. Salt must always be managed so it accumulates in zones away from germinatingseedsandplantroots. Drip and other low flow irrigation methods can be used to flush salts away from seeds and or plant roots. These methods are also effective, particularly on sandy soils, in decreasing deep percolation and in reducing the farm irrigation water requirements. When saltsaccumulatebetweentheplantrowstheymay be leached during periods of sufficient rainfall or periodic use of irrigation in sufficient quantity to remove thesaltsfromthedepthofsoilusuallyexploredbyplantroots. It is important to recognize that the presence of salts can have detrimental effects on plants in different ways. For example, some of the chemical constituents in salts can be toxic to certain types of

85

plants even when present in very small concentrations. Salts can also harm the soil structure and increase the osmotic potential, thereby making it more difficult for plants to withdraw water from the soil.Thus,therearethreemainreasonswhysoilwatersalinityisoftenaconcerninagriculture: 1. Specifictoxicitytoplants 2. Detrimentaltosoilstructure(permeability) 3. Increasesthesolute(osmotic)potential,decreasingavailablewater Various parameters can be used to determine the suitability of water for irrigation purposes. Electrical conductivity of the irrigation water is one such index, as is the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), percent free sodium ions, and boron concentration. Table 8.2 gives rating indexes for six parameters, where an index of 1 is excellent, and an index of 6 is generally unsuitable for irrigation. Some of the ionic concentrations are expressed as milliequivalents per liter (meq/l), and others as parts per million (ppm). Table8.2.Ratingindexforvariouswaterqualityparameters. Na2CO3 Cl Boron Rating EC Na+ (%) SAR (meq/l) (meq/l) (ppm) Index (dS/m) 1 0.5 40 3 0.5 3 0.5 2 1.0 60 6 1.0 6 1.0 3 2.0 70 9 2.0 10 2.0 4 3.0 80 12 3.0 15 3.0 5 4.0 90 15 4.0 20 4.0 6 >4.0 >90 >15 >4.0 >20 >4.0 The SAR is a common water quality parameter and is defined as a ratio of sodium ions to magnesiumandcalciumions: Saline soils have relatively high levels of soil water salinity and can be reclaimed by leaching. Leachingistypicallyperformedbypondingoverthefieldsurfaceorsprinkleirrigating,butnotbyfurrow irrigation because this method would tend to leave salts near the soil surface in between the furrows. Alkaline soils have a pH greater than 7 (they can be either sodic or calcium carbonaterich soils). Sodic soils are those with SAR or exchangeable sodium percentage, ESP, greater than 15, or in other words soils with sodium as the dominant cation. The reclamation of sodic soils may involve gypsum (calcium sulfate, or CaSO4), but if there is a source of calcium carbonate in the soil sulfuric acid may be used to dissolve calcium carbonate and exchange the sodium with calcium, whereby the sodium could be leacheddownwardandwellbeyondthepotentialrootzone.

SAR =

0.5 Mg + + + Ca +

Na +

(8.11)

86

9.

FLOWMEASUREMENT
Introduction

9.1.

Good quality fresh water is becoming more and more scarce as water resources are more aggressivelyexploited,andastheworldpopulationincreases.Thistrendunderscorestheimportanceof water measurement to account for water, evaluate operational practices, and identify areas of improvement in water management. It is unlikely that the regional and global situations on water availability and water quality will improve in the foreseeable future; rather, the situation will become moreandmoredifficult. Flowmeasurementisakeyelementin: 1. Irrigation Water Management. Without knowledge of flow rates it is usually difficult to quantify deliveries to water users, which impedes the ability to evaluate water management practices. 2. Water Quality Analysis. This relates to concentrations, rate of movement, direction of movement,diffusionanddispersionofcontaminants,andotherissues. 3. Water Law and Water Rights. This includes volumetric delivery allotments, groundwater pumping,andexcesswater(e.g.irrigationrunoff),amongothers. Water management does not exist in the absence of flow measurement, just as financial accountingcannotoccurwithoutknowledgeofincomeandexpenditures.Thus,itisoflittleornouseto estimate crop water requirements through ETo equations and crop coefficients if actual irrigation water deliveries cannot be quantified. Irrigation scheduling implies the ability to measure flow rates and deliveryvolumesatkeylocationsinanirrigationsystem. Many devices and techniques have been developed for flow measurement in canals and pipes. Some of the more recent developments include ultrasonic and vortex shedding meters, but most flow measurement in openchannel irrigation systems is by weirs, flumes, calibrated gates, and current metering. These technologies are introduced in the remainder of this chapter. For more detailed treatment, the interested reader may wish to consult the numerous technical articles, handbooks, and manualsonflowmeasurementinirrigationsystems.

9.2.

FundamentalConcepts

The term flow rate refers to volumetric rate, or volume per unit time. For water in irrigation systems, this is generally the same thing as mass per unit time. Thus, flow measurement is concerned with mathematical relationships between head and discharge, or products of velocity and cross sectionalarea.Anothernameforflowrateisdischargethesetwotermsaresynonymous. Mostflowmeasurementdevicesandtechniquesarebasedonthemeasurementofhead(depthor pressure), or velocity. Strictly speaking, most openchannel and pipe flow measurement techniques cause head loss. However, some special methods incur negligible losses. It is usually desirable to have only a small head loss because this loss typically translates into an increased upstream flow depth in subcriticalopenchannelflow,asisthecaseinmostirrigationcanals.

87

In openchannel flow measurement, devices can operate under free flow and submerged flow regimes. These two regimes are also referred to as modular and nonmodular flow, respectively, because free flow involves only a single upstream depth measurement. In modular flow, only the upstreamheadisofconcernbecausecriticalflowoccursinthevicinityoftheflowmeasurementdevice. As long as this is true, changes in downstream depth will not affect discharge at that location. In non modular flow it is necessary to consider the upstreamtodownstream head differential across the flow measurement device, requiring the measurement of both upstream and downstream depths (or water surfaceelevations). Critical flow is only applicable to openchannel flow, not full pipe flow, and is distinguished by a minimumspecificenergyvalueforagivenflowrate.Specificenergyisdefinedas:

E=h+

V2 Q2 =h+ 2g 2A 2g

(9.1)

whereEisthespecificenergy(m);histheflowdepth(m);Visthemeanflowvelocityatachannelcross section; and g is the ratio of weight to mass (9.81 m/s2). According to continuity principles, the mean flow velocity, V, is also equal to the flow rate divided by the crosssectional area, or V = Q/A. For a constant flow rate, Q, the minimum specific energy is derived from Eq. 9.1 when Fr2 = 1.0, where Fr2 is definedas:

Fr =
2

Q2T g A3

(9.2)

where Fr is called the Froude number (dimensionless); and T is the top width of flow, at the water surface (m). Thus, when the Froude number is equal to unity, the flow is said to be critical, and nothing that occurs downstream of such a location will affect the upstream flow conditions. This is because no waves can pass upstream through a critical flow section in openchannel flow. In fact, whenever the Froude number is 1.0 or greater, waves will only move downstream from that location. When Fr2 > 1.0 theflowissupercritical,andwhenlessthan1.0theflowissubcritical.

9.3.

FlowMeasurementAccuracy

Perhapsthemostaccuratemethodformeasuringflowrateisbytimingthefillingofacontainerof known volume. For example, a bucket can be used to capture water flowing from a small pipe, and the timetofillthebucketismeasuredwithastopwatch.However,thisisusuallynotpracticalforlargeflow rates. Typically, flow measurement accuracy in irrigation systems is from 2% to 20% of the true discharge, but this range can be much higher if errors are present. Usually it is necessary to measure head, or velocity and crosssectional area, to arrive at a flow rate value. Measurements of head, velocity, and area are subject to errors for a variety of reasons. Table 9.1 gives some of the most commonreasonsforflowmeasurementerrors. Table9.1.Commoncausesfordischargemeasurementerror.

88


TypeofProblem ApproachConditions TurbulenceandEddies EquipmentProblems CommonPossibleCauses Highapproachvelocity Approachvelocitynotperpendiculartomeasurementdevice Roughwatersurface Swirlingflownearoratmeasurementlocation Staffgauges,currentmeters,floats,etc.,indisrepair Shiftingcalibrationsonpressuretransducersandothermeters Poorinstallation(nonhorizontalcrest,wrongdimensions,etc.) LocalMeasurements Streamgaugingstations(needsteadyflow) Misreadingwaterlevels,etc. Misuseofequipment,orimproperapplicationofequipment

MeasurementLocation HumanErrors

9.4.

SimpleOpenChannelMeasurementMethods

Thefollowingmethodsaresimpleandapproximate,andarenotusuallythepreferredmethodsfor flow measurement in open channels. Preferred methods are through the use of calibrated structures (weirs,flumes,orifices,andothers),andcurrentmetering. MeasurementbyObservation In this method one must rely on experience to estimate the discharge in an open channel, simply by observing the flow in the channel and mentally comparing it to similar channels from which the flow rate was measured and known. This method is usually not very accurate, especially for large flows, but someveryexperiencedhydrographerscan(perhapswithsomeluck)arriveataverycloseestimate. MeasurementbyFloats The average flow velocity in an open channel can be estimated by measuring the speed of a floating object on the surface of the water. This can be done by marking uniform distances along the channel and using a watch to measure the elapsed time from a starting location to respective downstream locations. It is a good idea to have more than one measurement point so that the velocity can be averaged over a reach, and to lessen the chance of an error. Then, a graph can be made of float traveldistanceversustime,withtheslopeequaltothesurfacevelocityofthewater. A location is selected in which the channel is fairly straight, not much change in crosssection, smoothwatersurface,andnoabruptchangesinbedelevationorlongitudinalslope.Notethatwindcan affect the velocity of the float, changing the relationship between surface velocity and average flow velocity. Care should be taken to obtain measurements with the float moving near the center of the surfacewidthofflow,notbumpingintothechannelsides,andnotsinking. The float speed will be higher than the average flow velocity in the channel. The average velocity inthechannelcanbeestimatedbyreducingthefloatspeedbysomefraction.Table9.2givesdatataken from the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (1981). The coefficients in the table are multiplied by the measuredfloatvelocity,asafunctionofaveragedepth,toobtaintheapproximateaverageflowvelocity inthechannel.

89

Some hydrographers have used partially submerged wooden sticks which are designed to approximatethemeanflowvelocity,precludingtheneedforcoefficientsasintheabovetable.Oneend of the stick is weighted so that is sinks further, as shown in Fig. 9.1. The float method is not precise because the relationship between float speed and true average flow velocity is not well known in general.Othermethodsshouldbeusedifanaccuratemeasurementisdesired. DyeMethod The dye method, or colorvelocity method, can be used to measure the flow velocity, similar to thefloatmethod.However,inthismethodaslugofdyeisinjectedintothestream,andthetimeforthe slug of dye to reach a downstream location is measured. This time can be taken as the average of the time for the first portion of the dye to reach the downstream location, and the time for the last portion ofthedyetoreachthatlocation(thedyewilldisperseandelongateasitmovesdownstream). The test section should not be too long, otherwise the dye will have dispersed too much and it is difficult to visually detect the color differential in the water. Usually, it is appropriate to use a test sectionofapproximately3minlength.Dyesusedinthistypeofmeasurementshouldbenontoxicsoas not to pollute the water. Food coloring can be used, as can other colored chemicals, such as flouricine. SaltDilutionMethod

90

 Inthismethod,anaqueoussolutionofknownsaltconcentration,C1,ispouredintothestreamata constant rate, q. The completely mixed solution is measured at a downstream location, providing the concentration C2. After measuring the existing salt concentration in the flow (before adding the concentratedsolution),C0,thestreamdischarge,Q,canbecalculatedas, or, Thismethodisused,then,nottomeasurevelocity,buttotalvolumetricflowrate.Concentrations canbeexpressedasmmho/cmordS/m,orotherunitsofelectricalconductivity. UniformFlowMethod In this method the channel bed slope, average crosssection, and average depth are measured. A roughness value is estimated, and the Manning or Chezy equation is applied to calculate the discharge. This method is valid only for steady uniform flow, and is severely limited by an inability to accurately estimate the roughness value. Furthermore, the roughness value is often taken to be a function of bed conditionorliningmaterialonly,whileinfactitisalsoafunctionofchannelsizeandshape.Theuniform flow method is only valid for steady uniform flow, so it cannot be applied in general because these flow conditions are often not found in irrigation canals. Ideally, both bed slope and water surface slope are measuredtoverifywhethertheflowisuniformornot. The discharge can be estimated by giving a range of probable flow rates for maximum and minimum roughness values (alsoestimated),basedonthechannelappearanceandsize.Theroughness canbeestimatedbyexperience,orbyconsultinghydraulicshandbookswhichprovidetablesandfigures, orphotographs. The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers have prepared hydraulic tables for the usual range of Manning roughness coefficients. These tables are widely used for the design of canals and other open channels, and also in what is referred to as the slopearea method. The slopearea method consists of using the slope of the water surface in a uniform reach of channel andtheaveragecrosssectionalareaofthereachtogivearateofdischarge.

QC 0 + qC1 = (Q + q)C 2

(9.3)

C1 C 2 Q = q C C 2 0

(9.4)

91

PitotTubeMethod A simple pitot tube can be positioned into the flow to measure the velocity head. One end of the tube is pointed into the flow, and the other end is pointed up vertically out ofthewater.Bothendsare open.Thesubmergedendofthetubeispositionedtobeessentiallyparalleltotheflow,nearthecenter ofthecrosssection(orslightlyabovethecenter). Other more complex pitot tubes can be used to obtain more accurate measurements, such as pitotstatictubesandmanometers.Thismethodisbestappliedforhigherflowvelocitiesbecauseitis difficult to read the head differential at low velocities, in which large errors in the estimation of velocity canresult.

9.5.

Weirs

Weirs are overflow structures placed in open channels to measure the volumetric rate of flow. Thecrestofameasurementweirisusuallyperpendiculartothedirectionofflow.Ifthisisnotthecase, special calibrations must be made to develop a stagedischarge relationship. Oblique and duckbill weirs are sometimes used to provide nearly constant upstream water depth, but they can be also calibrated as flow measurement devices. Weirs have several important advantages and disadvantages. The advantages are that they: (1) are capable of accurately measuring a wide range of flow rates, (2) tend to provide more accurate discharge ratings than flumes and orifices, (3) are relatively easy to construct, and (4) floating debris tends to pass over the structure. Of the disadvantages, the most important are (1) a relatively large head is required, meaning that the upstream depth is significantly increasedwhentheweiroperatesunderfreeflowconditions,oftenprecludingpracticaluseinflatareas suchasriverdeltas,and(2)sedimentandpartiallysubmergeddebristendstoaccumulateupstreamofa weir. Weirs are identified by the shape of their opening, or notch. The edge of the opening can be sharp or broadcrested, or something in between. A sharpcrested weir has a sharp upstream corner, or edge, such that the water springs clear of the crest. Those most frequently used are sharpcrested rectangular, trapezoidal, Cipolletti, and triangular or 90 Vnotch weirs. A broadcrested weir has a horizontal or nearly horizontal crest sufficiently long in the direction of flow such that the nappe is supportedandhydrostaticpressuresarefullydevelopedforatleastashortdistance. Hydraulically, a separate distinction can be made in terms of suppressed and contracted weirs. A suppressed weir is usually a rectangular weir whose notch (opening) sides are coincident with the sides of the approach channel, which extend unchanged downstream from the weir.Inacontractedweirthe sidesandcrestarefarfromthesidesandbottomoftheapproachchannelthenappewillfullycontract bothlaterallyandverticallyatthecrestoftheweirasthewaterspillsoverinthedownstreamdirection. This means that the opening of a contracted weir is narrower than the upstream channel width. Thus, thewordsuppressedisusedtomeanthatthelateralendcontractionsareabsent,whichsimplifiesthe relationshipbetweendischargeandupstreamhead. Free flow, or modular flow, is a condition in which the nappe discharges into the air. This exists when the water surface downstream is low enough to allow air to circulate between the weir and the underside of nappe. This aeration isautomaticinacontracted(unsuppressed)weir.Withasuppressed weir, the sides of the structure may prevent air from circulating under the nappe, so the underside of the nappe should be vented to the atmosphere. Otherwise, the air beneath the nappe may be

92

exhausted, causing a reduction of pressure beneath the nappe, with a corresponding increase in discharge for a given head. When this happens, the measured discharge is greater than the actual dischargeovertheweir. Submerged, or nonmodular, flow is a condition in which the discharge is partially under water, where changes in the downstream depth will affect the flow rate. A condition which indicates the change from freeflow to submergedflow is called transition submergence, where submergence is defined as the ratio of downstream to upstream specific energy. Submergence can be approximated by dividing the downstream depth by the upstream depth, which gives a number less than unity. When submergence is equal to unity, there is no flow, and when submergence exceeds unity, the flow is moving(temporarily)intheupstreamdirection. For practical application of weirs as flow measurement devices, it is preferable that they operate under freeflow conditions so that only the upstream depth need be measured to arrive at a discharge value.Thismakesapplicationmuchmoreconvenient.Furthermore,thecalibrationoffreeflowweirsis moreaccuratethatthecalibrationofsubmergedflowweirs. Large errors in flow measurement can occur because of poor flow conditions, highvelocity and turbulence in the area just upstream of weir. In general, the approaching flow should be the same as the flow in a long, straight channel of the same size. The velocity of approach to a weir should be less than 0.5 fps, or about 0.15 m/s. This value is approximately obtained by dividing the maximum discharge by the product of channel width and water depth, which is measured at the upstream point 4 to 6 times the weir head. This point is the preferred staff gauge location upstream of the weir. This tranquil flow condition should extend upstream from the weir to a distance of 15 to 20 times the head ontheweir.Theupstreamsectionofchannelissometimescalledtheweirpool.

9.6.

SharpCrestedWeirDischargeEquations

StandardsharpcrestedweirsincludeVnotch(triangular),rectangular,andCipollettiweirs.Figure 9.2 shows front and side views of rectangular and Vnotch weirs. The general equation for freeflow overarectangularsharpcrestedweiris: .5 Q = C eL eh1 (9.5) u where Q is the flow rate (m3/s or cfs); Ce is a calibration coefficient; Le is the effective length of the weircrest(morft);andhuisthe(upstream)headovertheweir(morft). WhenLandhuareinm,Qisinm3/s,andwhenLandhuareinft,Qisincfs.Theeffectivelengthis defined as: Le = L + KL, where KL is a function of the ratio of L/B, as given in Figs. 9.3 and 9.5. The coefficient, Ce, is a function of the ratios L/B and hu/P (Kindsvater and Carter 1959), as given by Fig. 9.4 forEnglishunits,andFig.9.6formetricunits.TheratioL/Bequals1.0forasuppressedweir.

93

94

95

An effective head, he, is sometimes used instead of hu in Eq. 9.5, but the difference between these two values is usually negligible. Also, sitespecific field calibrations of nonstandard or nonsharp crestedrectangularweirsmaygiveanexponentslightlydifferentthan1.5(seeEq.9.5). Triangular, or Vnotch, weirs are considered to be the most accurate open channel constrictions for measuring discharge. The discharge over a Vnotch weir increases more rapidly with head than in the case of a horizontal crested weir (rectangular or trapezoidal). For a sharpcrested triangular weir, thedischargeequationcanbewrittenas(Shen1981):

Q=

8 2.5 2g C e tan he 15 2

(9.6)

wherehe=hu+Kh;thecoefficient,Ce,andtheparameterKharetakenfromFig.9.6;andistheangleof theweirnotch,asillustratedinFig.9.1.Forheinft,Qisincfs,andforheinm,Qisinm3/s. An often used trapezoidal weir is called the Cipolletti weir, which was first reported in the literature in 1894. This is a fully contracted weir in which the ends are not vertical. The side slopes of the notch are designed to correct for end contraction (from a rectangular weir), splayed out at angle of 14 with the vertical (nearly 1 horizontal to 4 vertical). The discharge equation proposed by the U.S. BureauofReclamation(1981)includesatermtoaccountforapproachvelocity:

Q = 3.367 L(hu + 1.5hv )

1.5

(9.7)

96

 where Q is the flow rate in cfs; L is the weir crest length in ft; hu istheupstreamheadinft;andhvisthe headinftduetotheapproachvelocity(V2/2g).Formetricunits,withhu,hvandLinm,thecoefficientin Eq.9.7is(3.367)(0.3048)1.5=0.567,yieldingQinm3/s. ItisseenthatthedischargeequationforaCipollettiweirissimplertoapplybecausenofiguresare needed to determine the coefficient, and there is no need for effective length. However, some researchers have claimed that the Cipolletti weir is not as accurate as rectangular and triangular sharp crestedweirs.

9.7.

Flumes

Measurement flumes are openchannel devices with a speciallyshaped, constricted throat section. The flume geometry is often designed to force the flow to pass through critical depth, thereby providing ameansfordeterminingtherateofflowfromasingle(upstream)waterdepthmeasurement. Whenthewatersurfaceexceedsspecifiedlimits,submergedflowconditionsoccurandtwowaterdepth measurements are required (upstream and downstream). In flat gradient channels, it may be desirable to install a flume to operate under conditions of submergedflow rather than free flow in order to (1) reduce energy losses, and (2) place the flume on the channel bed to minimize the increase in upstream watersurfaceelevation.

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There are two classes of flumes: shortthroated and longthroated. In shortthroated flumes, criticalflowconditionsoccurinregionsofcurvilinearthreedimensionalflow.Theseincludeflumeswith side contractions and bottom contractions, with some type of transition section. In general, laboratory calibrations are required to obtain flow coefficients forrating,andunderfavorableoperatingconditions thedischargecanbedeterminedwithanaccuracyof2to5%.Withlongthroatedflumes,criticalflow conditionsarecreatedinaregionofparallelflowinthecontrolsection.Theselinearflowconditionsare much better theoretically defined; thus, rating relations can be reasonably well predicted. Generally, flowslargerthan10lpscanbemeasuredwithanerroroflessthan2%inanappropriatelydimensioned flume.Broadcrestedweirsarelongthroatedflumes,andaredescribedindetailbelow. Someoftheadvantagesofflumesare:(1)theyarecapableofoperatingwithrelativelysmallhead loss, and a high transition submergence value, (2) they are capable of measuring a wide range of free flow discharges with relatively high tailwater depths, using a single water depth measurement, and (3) both sediment and floating debris tend to pass through the structure. The most important disadvantagesofflumesare:(1)theyareoftenmoreexpensivetoconstructthanweirs,(2)theymustbe constructed very carefully to provide accurate flow measurement, (3) they cannot be used as combination flow measurement and flow control devices (as opposed to gates and adjustable weirs), and (4) flumes often must be built according to standard dimensions so that available laboratory calibrationtablescanbeused. When critical flow occurs the discharge is uniquely related to the upstream depth, hu. That is, the freeflow discharge can be obtained with only a single water depth measurement. In this case, the discharge can be expressed as a function of the upstream depth. When the downstream depth is increased such that the flume operates under submergedflow conditions, both upstream, hu, and downstream, hd, depth measurements are required. Under submergedflow conditions, the discharge can be expressed as a function of hu hd and S, where S is the submergence (S = hd/hu). The value of submergence at which the flow changes from free to submerged, and vice versa, is referred to as the transitionsubmergence,St.Atthisconditionthedischargegivenbythefreeflowequationisexactlythe sameasthatgivenbysubmergedflowequation. Many flumes that can be found in the field, particularly those installed several years ago, have problemsthatadverselyaffecttheflowmeasurementaccuracy.Forexample,someflumeshavesettled intothesoilsuchthatthebedisnolongerlevel,someareseverelydeteriorated,andsomehaveerosion and or sediment deposition. It is not uncommon to find a flume that was installed to operate under freeflowconditions,butforoneormorereasonsthedownstreamdepthhasincreasedtothepointthat the flume typically operates under submergedflow conditions. When these and other problems occur, the calibration must be adjusted to maintain discharge measurement accuracy. Some researchers have developed procedures to make calibration adjustments according to many of the common problems encounteredinfieldinstallationsofflumes. ParshallFlumes The Parshall flume is perhaps the most commonly used openchannel flowmeasuring device in irrigationsystemsintheU.S.andelsewhere.However,themorerecentlydevelopedbroadcrestedweir (seebelow)hasimportantadvantagesoverParshallflumes.Thisflumecanbedesignedtomeasureflow from 0.01 to 3000 cfs, or more. It is designed to operate under freeflow conditions, and typical installations are such that freeflow will occur. Size selection is based on the flume width that best fits the channel dimensions and hydraulic properties, where standard dimensions are almost exclusively

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usedsothatlaboratorycalibrationtablescanbeapplied.Asageneralrule,thewidthofaParshallflume should be about onethird to onehalf the width of the upstream water surface in the channel at the designdischargeandatnormaldepth.Figure9.8givesthedimensionalparametersforaParshallflume. This flow measurement device was developed by Parshall (1926). The general forms of the free andsubmergedflowequations(Skogerboeetal.1967)forflumes,includingtheParshall,are: and,

Q f = C f hu f C1(hu hd )nf Qs = [ C 2 log S)]ns

(9.8)

(9.9)

where nf and ns are the freeflow and submergedflow exponents, respectively, and Cf, C1 and C2 are empirically determined values. The coefficients for the above equations can be found in tables developedfromlaboratorymeasurements(seeTable9.4). E D F

hu hd
2/3 C

Top View D Inlet Section G

Flow

E Throat Section

F Outlet Section K

hd hu H Y X Side View Figure9.8.ParshallflumediagramshowingdimensionsgiveninTable9.3.

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 Table9.3.DimensionsandflowratecapacitiesforstandardParshallflumes(seeFig.9.8).
Throat Width (m) 0.025 0.051 0.076 0.152 0.229 0.305 0.457 0.610 0.762 0.914 1.219 1.524 1.829 2.134 2.438 3.048 3.658 4.572 6.096 7.620 9.144 12.192 15.240 A 0.167 0.214 0.259 0.394 0.575 0.845 1.026 1.206 1.391 1.572 1.937 2.302 2.667 3.032 3.397 4.756 5.607 7.620 9.144 10.668 12.313 15.481 18.529 B 0.093 0.135 0.178 0.394 0.381 0.610 0.762 0.914 1.067 1.219 1.524 1.829 2.134 2.438 2.743 3.658 4.470 5.588 7.315 8.941 10.566 13.818 17.272 C 0.363 0.414 0.467 0.621 0.879 1.372 1.448 1.524 1.632 1.676 1.829 1.981 2.134 2.286 2.438 4.350 4.972 7.772 7.772 7.772 8.084 8.395 8.395 D 0.356 0.406 0.457 0.610 0.864 1.343 1.419 1.495 1.600 1.645 1.794 1.943 2.092 2.242 2.391 4.267 4.877 7.620 7.620 7.620 7.925 8.230 8.230 E 0.076 0.114 0.152 0.305 0.305 0.610 0.610 0.610 0.610 0.610 0.610 0.610 0.610 0.610 0.610 0.914 0.914 1.219 1.829 1.829 1.829 1.829 1.829 Dimensions(m) F 0.203 0.254 0.305 0.610 0.457 0.914 0.914 0.914 0.914 0.914 0.914 0.914 0.914 0.914 0.914 1.829 2.438 3.048 3.658 3.962 4.267 4.877 6.096 G 0.152 0.203 0.381 0.457 0.610 0.914 0.914 0.914 0.914 0.914 0.914 0.914 0.914 0.914 0.914 1.219 1.524 1.829 2.134 2.134 2.134 2.134 2.134 H 0.029 0.043 0.057 0.114 0.114 0.229 0.229 0.229 0.229 0.229 0.229 0.229 0.229 0.229 0.229 0.343 0.343 0.457 0.686 0.686 0.686 0.686 0.686 K 0.019 0.022 0.025 0.076 0.076 0.076 0.076 0.076 0.076 0.076 0.076 0.076 0.076 0.076 0.076 0.152 0.152 0.229 0.305 0.305 0.305 0.305 0.305 X 0.008 0.016 0.025 0.051 0.051 0.051 0.051 0.051 0.051 0.051 0.051 0.051 0.051 0.051 0.051 0.305 0.305 0.305 0.305 0.305 0.305 0.305 0.305 Y 0.013 0.025 0.038 0.076 0.076 0.076 0.076 0.076 0.076 0.076 0.076 0.076 0.076 0.076 0.076 0.229 0.229 0.229 0.229 0.229 0.229 0.229 0.229 FreeFlow Capacity (m3/s) Min 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.003 0.011 0.014 0.020 0.023 0.028 0.037 0.062 0.074 0.116 0.130 0.170 0.227 Max 0.006 0.011 0.017 0.082 0.144 0.453 0.680 0.934 1.161 1.416 1.926 2.435 2.945 3.426 3.964 5.663 9.911

0.227 16.990 0.283 28.317 0.425 33.980 0.425 42.475 0.566 56.634 0.708 84.951

Table9.4.CalibrationparametersandtransitionsubmergenceforstandardParshallflumes.
Throat Width(m) 0.025 0.051 0.076 0.152 0.229 0.305 0.457 0.610 0.762 0.914 1.219 1.524 Cf 0.0604 0.1207 0.1771 0.3812 0.5354 0.6893 1.0588 1.4286 1.8071 2.1685 2.9259 3.7011 C1 0.0534 0.1093 0.1634 0.3072 0.4377 0.5359 0.7800 1.0607 1.3047 1.5541 2.0299 2.5075 nf 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.58 1.53 1.52 1.54 1.55 1.56 1.56 1.57 1.58 ns 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.080 1.060 1.080 1.115 1.140 1.150 1.160 1.185 1.205 St 0.56 0.61 0.64 0.55 0.63 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.67 0.68 0.70 0.72

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1.829 2.134 2.438 3.048 3.658 4.572 6.096 7.620 9.144 12.192 15.240

4.4944 5.3061 6.0642 7.5150 8.8952 10.9664 14.4196 17.8728 21.3260 28.2305 35.1369

2.9682 3.4395 3.8659 4.6423 5.4944 6.7734 8.9064 11.0394 13.1724 17.4364 21.7024

1.59 1.60 1.60 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59

1.230 1.250 1.260 1.275 1.275 1.275 1.275 1.275 1.275 1.275 1.275

0.74 0.76 0.78 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80

Tables9.3and9.4providestandarddimensions,flowratecapacities,andcalibrationvalues(Cf,C1, nf, and ns) for a base 10 logarithm in Eq. 9.9. The value of C2 is 0.0044 for all of the flume sizes given in Table 9.3, and it does not depend on the system of units. Metric units are used in the two tables, but theoriginaltablesweredevelopedusingEnglishunits(Skogerboeetal.1967). Figure9.8showsthedimensionalvaluesforaParshallflume,asgiveninTable9.3.Thecalibration data in Table 9.4 are for base 10 logarithms (Eq. 9.9), with depths in m and flow rate in m3/s (Eqs. 9.8 and 9.9). The value of St in the last column of Table 9.4 is the transitionsubmergence,atwhichEqs.9.8 and 9.9 give the same flow rate value. If the actual submergence is greater than St, use Eq. 9.9, otherwise use Eq. 9.8. The transition submergence values given in Table 9.4 are for the maximum flow ratesoftherespectivestandardflumesizes;theStvaluesactuallytendtodecreasewithdecreasingflow rate for a given flume size. For convenient use of Parshall flumes, Eqs. 9.8 and 9.9 can be used to generatecalibrationtablesforfreeandsubmergedflow. It should be noted that these calibration data are for correctly dimensioned flumes, level in the longitudinal and transverse directions, with correctly placed upstream and downstream depth measurement points. Some Parshall flumes have settled over time and are not level; therefore, the calibration shifts. Abt and Staker (1990), Wright and Taheri (1991), Blaisdell (1994) and others give calibration adjustment for outoflevel Parshall flumes, and flumes under other nonstandard operating conditions. CutthroatFlumes A cutthroat flume is a rectangular openchannel constriction with a flat bottom and zero length in the throat section (earlier versions did have a throat section). Because the flume has no throat section, the flume was given the name cutthroat by the developers (Skogerboe et al. 1967). The floor of the flume is level, which has the following advantages: (1) ease of construction the flume can be placed insideaconcretelinedchannel;and(2)theflumecanbeplacedonthechannelbed. TheCutthroatflumewasdevelopedtooperatesatisfactorilyunderbothfreeflowandsubmerged flow condition. It has been shown by experiment that flow depths measured in the diverging outlet sectiongivemoreaccuratesubmergedflowcalibrationcurvesthanthosemeasuredinthethroatsection ofaParshallflume.ItisalsosimplertoconstructthanaParshallflume.

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The dimensions of a Cutthroat flume are identified by the flume width and length (W x L, e.g. 4 x 3.0). The flume lengths of 1.5, 3.0, 4.5, 6.0, 7.5, 9.0 ft are sufficient for most applications. Common ratios of W/L are 1/9, 2/9, 3/9, and 4/9. In metric units, the flume length is often divisible by 9 (e.g. 90 cmor135cm). For Cutthroat flumes the freeflow equation takes the same general form as for Parshall flumes (Eq.9.8)andotherchannelconstrictions,andthecoefficientcanbedefinedas:

C f = K f W 1.025

(9.10)

whereCfisthefreeflowcoefficient,whichisafunctionofboththeflumelengthandthethroatwidth;Kf is the flume length coefficient; and W is the throat width. For the Cutthroat flume, the value of nf is dependentonlyupontheflumelength,L.Therecommendedratioofhu/Lislessthanorequalto0.33 The submergedflow equation also takes the same general form as for Parshall flumes, and other channel constrictions, but the value of C2 in Eq. 9.6 can be assumed to be zero. The value of the coefficientC1isdefinedas: C1 = K s W 1.025 (9.11) where Ks is the submergedflow coefficient. The generalized free flow and submerged flow coefficients andexponentsforCutthroatflumescanbefoundfromstandardfigures.

Figure9.9.Cutthroatflumediagramshowingdimensionalfeatures.

9.8.

BroadCrestedWeirs

Thebroadcrestedweirisanopenchannelflowmeasurementdevicethatcombinestheprinciplesof both weirs and flumes (see Figs. 9.10 and 9.11). These devices have also been called RBCs and ramp flumes. As with related openchannel measurement devices, the broadcrested weir has an upstream converging section, a throat section, and a downstream diverging section. The broadcrested weir can be calibrated for submerged flow conditions; however, it is desirable to design this device such that it will operateunderfreeflowconditionsfortheentirerangeofdischargesunderwhichitisintendedtofunction.

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 When operating under freeflow conditions, critical flow will occur over the crest (sill), and the discharge is uniquely related to the upstream flow depth the downstream conditions do not affect the calibration. The broadcrested weir can be calibrated in the field or laboratory; however, a major advantageofthestructureisthatitcanbeaccuratelycalibratedbasedontheoreticalequationswithoutthe needforindependentlaboratorymeasurements.

As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, all openchannel flow measurement devices require someheadloss,althoughwithsomespecializedequipment,suchasultrasonicmeters,thelossisnegligible. For this reason, the flow depth upstream of the measurement structure must always be higher than it would bein the absence of the structure. Downstream of the structure the depth will not beaffected;so, therequiredheadlossformodularflowcomesfromanincreaseintheupstreamdepth Thetypicalmaximumallowablesubmergence(downstreamdepthaspercentofupstreamdepth)for modular flow is: 60% for Parshall flumes, 65% for Cutthroat flumes, and 70 95% for the broadcrested weir.Thismeansthatthebroadcrestedweircanusuallyfunctionasafreeflowmeasurementdevicewith lessincreaseintheupstreamwaterdepth,whichcanbeasignificantadvantage. SiteSelection The channel upstream ofabroadcrestedweirshouldbefairlystraightandofuniformcrosssection. Theflowregimeintheupstreamsectionshouldbewellintothesubcriticalrangesothatthewatersurface is stable and smooth (Fr2 < 0.20, if possible). For this reason it is best to avoid locating the structure just downstreamofacanalgateorturnout,forexample,becausethewatersurfaceisoftennotstableenough for an accurate staff gauge reading. The use of a stilling well and float assembly (or other water level sensing device) to measure water level can partially compensate for fluctuating water levels, but it does

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involve additional cost. Preferably, there are no gates or channel constrictions downstream of the structurewhichwouldcausenonmodularflowinfact,itisdesirabletolocatethestructurejustupstream ofanelevationdropifpossible. The presence of adjustable gates downstream complicates the design even more than for fixed constrictions because the depth will depend on both discharge and gate setting. Other factors involved in thesiteselectionarethestabilityofthechannelbedandsideslopesintheupstreamdirection(inthecase of earthen canals), and the accessibility for measurement readings and maintenance. If the upstream channel is not stable, the calibration may change significantly, and sediment can accumulate rapidly at the structure,alsoaffectingthecalibration. DesignConsiderations One of the important advantages of the broadcrested weir is that it can be accurately calibrated according to theoretical and empirical relationships. This means that it is not necessary to install "standard" structure sizes and rely on laboratory calibration data. The ability to calibrate the structure using equations instead of measurements is based on the existence of parallel streamlines in the control section over the crest. In many other openchannel flow measurement devices the streamlines are not straight and parallel in the control section, and although a theoretical calibration would be possible, it would require very complex hydraulic modeling and a fast computer. On the other hand, theoretical calibrationofthebroadcrestedweirisrelativelysimple. The broadcrested weir should be located and dimensioned so that the flow is modular over the full operatingrangeofthedevice.Ifthereisasignificantdropinthechannelbedimmediatelydownstreamof the structure, then the height of the crest may not be important in achieving critical depth. However, the relativedimensionsofthestructureareimportanttoobtain"favorable"flowconditionsoverthecrest,that is, flow conditions which conform to the inherent assumptions for accurate theoretical calibration. Thus, the height and length of the crest are important dimensions with relation to the upstream flow depth. In any case, adequate design of the structure dimensions is essentially a process of trialanderror, and thereforecanbegreatlyfacilitatedthroughuseofacalculatororcomputerprogram.Ofcourse,thosewith muchexperienceindesigningthesedeviceswillhaveafeelingfortheneededdimensionsinagivencanal. Oneofthemostimportantdesignparametersistheheightofthecrestabovetheupstreamchannel bed. This height should be sufficient to provide modular flow for the entire range of discharges that the broadcrested weir is intended to measure; however, it should not be higher than necessary because this would cause undue increases in the upstream water level after installation. Thus, a design objective is to determine the minimum crest height for which modular flow can be obtained, and not to exceed this minimumheight.Excessivelytallbroadcrestedweirsarenotaproblemintermsofwatermeasurementor calibration,theyareonlytroublesomewithrespecttounnecessarilyraisingtheupstreamwaterlevel. Drainagetubescanbeinstalledatthebaseofthebroadcrestedweirtopreventwaterfromponding upstreamofthestructureduringperiodsofzeroflow.Thishelpspreventweedsormossesfromgrowingin the stagnant water, and also helps control mosquitoes. The tubes should not be too large, otherwise the discharge passing through would need to be accounted for in the structure calibration. Plugs should be installed in the upstream end of the tubes, then removed for drainage during periods of zero flow, unless the discharge through the tubes is less than 2% of the minimum flow over the broadcrested weir. Discharge through the tubes can be estimated from the calibration data and using a friction loss equation forpipeflow.

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 Computer programs for developing the theoretical calibration of broadcrested weirs apply various equations; however, it is worth noting that the losses due to wall friction are very minimal, and accurate estimation of roughness coefficients is not necessary for calibration. The majority of the losses occur due to the sudden expansion downstream of the throat section, and these losses are either estimated or calculated(usingempiricalrelationships)dependingonthedownstreamrampdimensions. CalibrationbyEnergyBalance The complete calibration of a broadcrested weir includes the calculation of head losses across the structure.However,thecalibrationcanbemadeassumingnolossesintheconvergingandthroatsections, andtheresultingvalueswillusuallybeveryclosetothoseobtainedbythecompletetheoreticalcalibration. Theprocedurepresentedbelowisparticularlyusefultocheckthecalibrationofanexistingstructureinthe field with a programmable calculator. The simplified calibration approach does not include the calculation of the modular limit; however, this is an important consideration in the design and operation of a broad crestedweirbecausethestructureisusuallyintendedtooperateundermodularflowconditions.

hc hu +

Ac3 2Tc

1 1 A2 A2 = 0 u c

(9.12)

wherehcisthecriticalflowdepthoverthesill(m);huistheupstreamdepth(m);Acisthecrosssectionarea offlowwherecriticalflowoccurs(m2);Auisthecrosssectionalareaofflowupstreamofthestructure(m2); andTcisthewidthofthewatersurfacewherecriticalflowoccurs(m).Thedepthsaremeasuredrelativeto the elevation of the sill of the broadcrested weir, and Au is based on the depth zu + hu (because hu is referencedtothesillelevation,notthebottomoftheupstreamchannel). This last equation can be solved by trialanderror, or by any other iterative method, knowing hu, zu, and the geometry of the upstream and throat crosssections. The geometry of the sections defines the relationshipbetweenhcandAc,andbetweenhuandAu.Thesolutiongivesthevalueofhc.Thefinalstepis tocalculatethedischargecorrespondingtothevalueofAc,whichiscalculateddirectlyfromhc.Thisisdone usingthefollowingformoftheFroudenumberequation:

Q=

gA 3 c Tc

(9.13)

This process is repeated for various values of the upstream flow depth, and in the end a table of values for upstream depth and discharge will have been obtained. From this table a staff gauge can be constructed. This simple calibration assumes that the downstream flow level is not so high that non modular flow exists across the structure. In the design of broadcrested weirs it is often necessary to consider other factors which limit the allowable dimensions, and which restrict the flow conditions for which the calibration is accurate. More complete details on broadcrested weir design, construction, calibration,andapplicationcanbefoundfromBos,Replogle,andClemmens(1984).

9.9.

CalibrationofCanalGates

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Canalgatescanoperateunderorificeflowconditionsandaschannelconstrictions.Ingeneral,either conditioncanoccurunderfreeorsubmerged(modularornonmodular)regimes.Orificeflowoccurswhen theupstreamdepthissufficienttosealtheopening.Inotherwords,thebottomofthegateislowerthan the upstream water surface elevation. The difference between free and submerged flow for a gate operatingasanorificeisthatforfreeflowthedownstreamwatersurfaceelevationislessthanCcGo,where CcisthecontractioncoefficientandGoistheverticalgateopening,referencedfromthebottomofthegate opening (other more complex criteria can be derived from momentum principles). The distinguishing difference between free and submerged flow in a channel constriction is the occurrence of critical velocity in the vicinity of the constriction (usually a very short distance upstream of the narrowest portionoftheconstriction). The basic relationship for orifice flow can be derived from the Bernoulli equation, and it is safe to assumethattheexponentontheheadfororificeflowis0.50.Thetheoreticalcontractioncoefficient,Cc,of 0.611isequalto/(+2),derivedfromhydrodynamicsforflowthroughaninfiniteslot,andfieldmeasured dischargecoefficientsnormallyrangefrom0.65toabout0.9.Radialgatescanbefieldcalibratedusingthe sameequations,althoughspecialequationshavebeendeveloped. Forfreeflowconditionsthroughanorifice,thedischargeequationis:

Q f = C dC v A 2ghu (9.14) whereCdisthedimensionlessdischargecoefficient;Cvisthedimensionlessvelocityheadcoefficient;Ais the area of the orifice opening, g istheratioofweighttomass;andhuismeasuredfromthecentroidof theorificetotheupstreamwaterlevel. The upstream depth, hu, can also be measured from the bottom of the orifice opening if the downstream depth is taken to be about 0.611 times the vertical orifice opening. Otherwise, it is assumed that the downstream depth is equal to onehalf the opening, and hu is effectively measured fromtheareacentroidoftheopening.Thechoicewillaffectthevalueofthedischargecoefficient. If the downstream water level is also above the top of the orifice, submergedconditionsexistand thedischargeequationbecomes:

Qs = C d C v A 2 g (hu hd )

(9.15)

where hu hd is the difference in water surface elevations upstream and downstream of the submerged orifice. The velocity head coefficient, Cv, approaches unity as the approach velocity to the orifice decreases to zero. In irrigation systems, Cv can usually be assumed to be unity since most irrigation channelshaveveryflatgradientsandtheflowvelocitiesarelow. An orifice can be used as an accurate flow measuring device in an irrigation system. If the orifice structure has not been previously rated in the laboratory, then it can easily be rated in the field. The hydraulic head term, hu or (hu hd), can be relied upon to have the exponent , which means that a singlefieldratingmeasurementcouldprovideanaccuratedeterminationofthecoefficientofdischarge, Cd. However, the use of a single rating measurement implies the assumption of a constant Cd value, which is not the case in general. Adjustments to the basic orifice equations for free and submerged flow are often made to more accurately represent the structure rating as a function of flow depths and

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gate openings. The following sections present some alternative equation forms for taking into account thevariabilityinthedischargecoefficientunderdifferentoperatingconditions. FreeFlowRectangularGateStructures For a rectangular gate having a gate opening, Go, and a gate width, W, the freeflow discharge equation can be obtained from Eq. 9.14, assuming that the dimensionless velocity head coefficient is unity.

G Q f = C d GoW 2 g hu o 2

(9.16)

whereGoistheverticalgateopening,Wisthegatewidth,andGoWisthearea,A,ofthegateopening. The upstream flow depth, hu, can be measured anywhere upstream of the gate, including the upstream face of the gate. The value of hu will vary a small amount depending on the location chosen for measuring hu. Consequently, the value of the coefficient of discharge, Cd, will also vary according to thelocationselectedformeasuringhu. One of the most difficult tasks in calibrating a gate structure is obtaining a highly accurate measurement of the gate opening, Go. For gates having a threaded rod that rises as the gate opening is increased, the gate opening is read from the top of the handwheel to the top of the rod with the gate closed,andwhensettosomeopening,Go.Thisusuallyrepresentsameasurementofgateopeningfrom where the gate is totally seated, rather than from the gate lip; thus, the measured value of Go from the thread rod is often greaterthanthetruegateopening.Thismeansitispreferrabletomeasurethegate openingdownatthegateitself,notuponthethreadrod. Likewise, when the gate lip is set at the same elevation as the gate sill, there will undoubtedly be some flow or leakage through the gate. This implies that the datum for measuring the gate opening is below the gate sill. In fact, there is often leakage from a gate even when it is totally seated because of inadequatemaintenance. SubmergedFlowRectangularGateStructures A different form of the submergedflow rating equation has been used with excellent results on many different orificetype structures in large canals. The differences in the equation involve consideration of the gate opening and the downstream depth as influential factors inthedetermination ofthedischargecoefficient.Theequationisasfollows: and,

Qs = C s hs W 2 g (hu hd ) Go Cs = h s

(9.17)

(9.18)

wherehsisthedownstreamdepthreferencedtothebottomofthegateopening(seeFig.9.12),and are empiricallyfitted parameters, and all other terms are as described previously. The value of the

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exponent,,isusuallyveryclosetounity,andinfact,forequaltounitytheequationrevertstothatof aconstantdischargecoefficientequalto(thehstermcancels).

hu G o

hs hd

Figure9.12.Definitionsketchfordepthsatasubmergedflowgatestructure. A similar equation can be used for freeflow through a large gate structure, with the upstream depth, hu, replacing the term hs, and with (hu Go/2) replacing (hu hd). The freeflow equation can be calibratedusing(hu0.611Go)insteadof(huGo/2).

9.10. CommercialFlowMeters
Several manufacturers produce what are referred to as commercial flow meters. Some of these devicesaredesignedforuseinopenchannelsandothersareforpressurizedpipeflow.Commercialmeters come in a wide variety of designs and types, and can have instrumentation to not only show the flow rate, but the volume of flow over a given time period. Commercial measurement devices for openchannel flow can be meter gates, deflection meters, ultrasonic meters, special flumes and weirs, and others. For pressurized pipe flow they can be propeller meters, ultrasonic, magnetic, vortex shedding, venturi, nozzle and many others. The cost of some of these meters can be high compared to simple devices such as standard sharpcrested weirs and flumes in open channels, but in pressurized pipe flow commercial flow metersarecommonlyused.

9.11. CurrentMetering
There are many companies that manufacture good quality current meters, and there are many types of current meters. One of the more recent innovations is the electromagnetic current meter. Current meters with a rotating unit that senses the water velocity are either verticalshaft or horizontalshaft types. The verticalaxis current meter has a rotating cup with a bearing system that is simpler in design, more rugged, and easier to service and maintain than horizontalshaft (axis) current meters. Because of the bearingsystem,theverticalshaftmeterswilloperateatlowervelocitiesthanhorizontalaxiscurrentmeters. The bearings are well protected from silty water, the bearing adjustment is usually less sensitive, and the calibrationatlowervelocitieswherefrictionplaysanimportantroleismorestable. Two of the commonly used verticalaxis current meters are the Price Type A Current Meter and the PricePygmyCurrentMeter,thelatterintendedforusewithshallowflowdepthsandrelativelylowvelocities. The horizontalshaft current meters use a propeller. These horizontalaxis rotors disturb the flow less than verticalaxis cup rotors because of axial symmetry in the flow direction. Also, the horizontalshaft current

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metersarelesssensitivetoverticalvelocitycomponentsinthechannel.Becauseofitsshape,thehorizontal axiscurrentmeterislesssusceptibletobecomingfouledbysmalldebrisandvegetativematerialmovingwith thewater.SomecommonhorizontalaxiscurrentmetersaretheOtt(German),theNeyrpic(France)andthe Hoff (USA). Some recent models have proven to be both accurate and durable when used for discharge measurementinirrigationchannels. Electromagnetic current meters are available that contain a sensor with the point velocity being digitally displayed. Some earlier models manifested considerable electronic noise under turbulent flow conditions.Presentmodelsyieldmorestablevelocityreadingsandhavebeenusedsuccessfullyinirrigation channels. SelectingaCrossSection Currentmetermeasurementsshouldbemadeinastraightreachofthechannelwherethestreamlines areessentiallyparallel.Crosssectionswithlargeeddiesorturbulenceshouldbeavoided,andcrosssections with nearly stagnant water near the banks should also be avoided. It is also good practice to avoid cross sectionswithveryshallowflowdepthsatthecenterofthecrosssection,andwhereflowvelocitiesarevery low. Rantz (1982) recommends that flow depths exceed 0.15 m, and flow velocities should be higher than about 0.15 m/s. It is preferable to select a crosssection with no aquatic growth that would interfere with the current meter operation. The channel bed should be fairly uniform so that the crosssectional area can beaccuratelydetermined,andsothevelocityprofileswillbeasclosetostandardprofilesaspossible. TechniquesforUsingCurrentMeters Wading The wading method involves having the hydrographer stand in the water holding a wading rodwiththecurrentmeterattachedtotherod.Thewadingrodisgraduatedsothatthewaterdepthcanbe measured.Therodhasametalfootpadwhichsetsonthechannelbed.Thecurrentmetercanbeplacedat anyheightonthewadingrodandisreadilyadjustedtoanotherheightbythehydrographerwhilestandingin the water. A tag line is stretched from one bank to the other, which can be a cloth or metal tape. This tag line is placed perpendicular to the flow direction. The zero length on the tag line does not have to correspondwiththeedgeofthewaterononeofthebanks.Thistaglineisusedtodefinethelocationofthe wadingrodeachtimethatacurrentmetermeasurementismade. Thewadingrodisheldatthetagline.Thehydrographerstandssidewaystotheflowdirection,facing toward one of the banks. The hydrographer stands 510 cm downstream from the tag line and approximately50cmtoonesideofthewadingrod.Duringthemeasurement,therodneedstobeheldina verticalpositionandthecurrentmetermustbeparallelwiththeflowdirection.Anassistantcansignaltothe hydrographer whether or not the rod is vertical in relation to the flow direction. If the flow velocity at the bank is not zero, then this velocity should be estimated as a percentage of the velocity at the nearest measuring point (vertical). Thus, the nearest measuring point should be as close to the bank as possible in ordertominimizetheerrorinthecalculateddischargeforthesectionadjacenttothebank. Bridge Many of the larger irrigation channels have bridges at various locations, such as cross regulators, but they may not be located at an appropriate section for current meter measurements. However, culverts often prove to be very good locations, with current meter measurements usually being made on the downstream end of the culvert where parallel streamlines are more likely to occur. Bridges often have piers, which tend to collect debris on the upstream face, that should be removed prior to undertakingcurrentmetermeasurements.Eitherahandlineorareelassemblymaybeusedfromabridge.

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In either case, a weight is placed at the bottom of the line, which sets on the channel bed in order that the line does not move as a result of the water flow. The current meter is then placed at whatever location is requiredforeachmeasurement. Forahandlineassembly,theweightisloweredfromthebridgetothechannelbedandthereadingon thegraduatedhandlineisrecorded;then,theweightislifteduntilitissettingonthewatersurfaceandthe difference in the two readings on the hand line is recorded as the water depth. Afterwards, the current meterisplacedattheappropriatelocationonthehandlineinordertomakethevelocitymeasurement.Ifa weight heavier than 1015 kg is required in order to have a stable, nearly vertical, cable line, then a crane andreelassemblyisused.Thereelismountedonacranedesignedtoclearthehandrailofthebridgeandto guide the meter cable line beyond any interference with bridge members. The crane is attached to a movable base for convenience intransferringtheequipmentfromonemeasuringpointtoanother(Corbett etal.1943). CablewayForverywidecanals,orrivers,withwaterdepthsexceeding150cm,acableisplacedabove the water with vertical supports on each bank that are heavily anchored for stability. The cable supports a car (box) that travels underneath the cable using pulleys. This car carries the hydrographer and the current meterequipment.Thecablehasmarkerssothatthelocationacrossthechannelisknown.Ahandlineora cablereelassemblyisuseddependingonthesizeoftheweightthatmustbeused. BoatForsomeextremelywidechannels,suchasthoseoftenencounteredintheIndianSubcontinent, the installation of a cableway is a significant expense. Consequently, a boat is commonly employed instead ofthecableway.Eitherahandlineoracablereelassemblyisusedinthiscase. VelocityMeasurementMethodologies VerticalVelocityMethod Themostcompletemethodforestablishingthemeanvelocityataverticalsectionistotakeaseriesof currentmetervelocitymeasurementsatvariousdepthsinthevertical.Thecurrentmeteristypicallyplaced belowthewatersurfaceatonetenthofthewaterdepthforthefirstvelocitymeasurement,thenitisplaced at twotenths of the depth, and so on until the velocity has been measured at ninetenths below the water surface. When this procedure has been completed for a number of verticals in the crosssection, the data areplottedinagraph.Therelativewaterdepth,whichvariesfromzeroatthewatersurfacetounityatthe channel bed, is plotted on the ordinate starting with zero at the top of the ordinate scale and unity at the bottomoftheordinatescale.Thevelocityisplottedontheabscissa,andasmoothcurveisfittedtothedata points for each vertical, from which the mean velocity for the vertical can be determined. The field procedure and data analysis for this method are relatively time consuming, so simpler methods are often usedinstead.Someofthemorecommonmethodsaredescribedbelow. TwoPointMethod Themostcommontechniquefordeterminingthemeanvelocityinaverticalisthetwopointmethod. Basedonmanydecadesofexperience,acurrentmetermeasurementismadeattworelativewaterdepths: 0.2 and 0.8 of the total depth, measured from the water surface. The average of the two measurements is assumed to be the mean velocity in the vertical. However, the velocity profile is sometimes distorted, or nonstandard,andtheaverageofthesetwovelocitiesisnotrepresentativeofthetrueaveragevelocityinthe vertical.Forexample,measurementstakendownstreamfromastructuremayhaveveryhighvelocitiesnear

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the water surface that can be visually observed, or near the channel bed which can be sensed by the hydrographer when using the wading method. If a nonstandard velocity profile is believed to exist in the crosssection, the vertical velocity method should be used instead; otherwise, the accuracy of the measurementwillbeinquestion. SixTenthsMethod For shallow water depths (less than about 75 cm) the sixtenths method can be used. However, shallowisarelativetermthatisdependentonthetypeandsizeofthecurrentmeter.Asinglecurrentmeter measurementistakenatarelativewaterdepthof0.6timesthetotaldepthbelowthewatersurfaceandthe resulting velocity is taken to bethemeanvelocityinthevertical.Incanals,thismethodisoftenusedatthe first vertical from each bank, while the twopoint method is used at all of the other verticals in the cross section. However, the sixtenths method should not be used, in general, across the entire channel section becauseinthiscasedischargeerrorsof10%ormorecanresult. ThreePointMethod The threepoint method is a combination of the twopoint and sixtenths methods. The average velocity value from the 0.2 and 0.8 relative depths is averaged with the velocity at 0.6 relative depth to produce a velocity based on three depth points. This method is not as common as the twopoint and six tenths methods, and it does take into account more measurements for the average velocity, but it is not necessarily more accurate than the above two methods.

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10. POLICIESANDMANAGEMENT

10.1. Introduction
Irrigation is frequently subsidized by governments as a means of promoting objectives that are considered to be beneficial and important to the state or nation. Some of the possible national objectives include: Creatinggrowthinfoodproductiongreaterthantheincreaseinpopulation Reducingrisksoffoodshortageduetodrought Providingfullyadequateproductionoffoodandfibertomeetdomesticrequirements Producingforexportmarketsandpromotionofinternaleconomicgrowth Creation of employment opportunities to reduce unemployment to low levels, thereby increasingdemandsforagriculturalproductsandpromotingeconomicgrowth The construction of an irrigation system may contribute to the achievement of national objectives or may become a burden on the government and the taxpayers. Irrigating traditional agriculture on subsistence farm sizes, with little access to the other factors of production, with an organization mainly controlled by government officials can not contribute much towards the above listed desirable objectives. Thepurposeofthischapteristoprovideabetterunderstandingofhowthecropmixselected,thefarmsize oroperativeunitsize,themanagementofotherresourcesthanwater,andtheorganizationalstructuremay contributetowardsgreaterbenefitstothepopulationandthenation. The state of California has developed a highly successful irrigated agricultural economy. The strength of the economy and rapid economic growth have been influenced by a highly competitive agricultural economywithlowbarrierstoentryatthefarmlevel.Butindividualfarms,inmanycases,donotcompetein finalmarkets.Farmershavebandedtogetherincooperativemarketingarrangements.Someexportsectors aredominatedbylargecooperatives.Themanagementofirrigationisalsodominatedbylargecooperatives. Cooperative efforts and the influence of farmer organizations have resulted in a rapid expansion of irrigatedareaandaveryrapidadvanceintechnologyrelatedtoirrigatedagriculture.Farmershavestrongly supported research a great deal of which has been financed by the farmers themselves. However, the irrigators have been very successful in obtaining subsidies for irrigation. For the State Water Project in California irrigators and other users pay about 80% of the costs and revenue from power generation pays another13%ofthecosts.TheU.S.BureauofReclamationprovideswaterforabout800,000hainCalifornia. Federaltaxpayerspay13%ofthecosts,andpowerdevelopedfromtheCentralValleyProjectpays65%.The federalandstateprojectssellwatertoirrigationdistrictsororganizationswhichareownedandmanagedby thefarmers.Thewateruserorganizationsarestructuredinmanydifferentways.Mostcanbeconsideredto beusercooperatives.

10.2. WaterManagement
Water management involves knowledge of how water is applied, where it goes after application, and of water quality. However, it often involves more than technical performance indicators. For example, water management may be seen in terms of anultimateobjectivewithrelationtotheuseofwater.Water managementperspectivescanberadicallydifferent(seeTable10.1).

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 Table10.1.Sampleperspectivesonwatermanagementissues. Specialization Typicalperceptionofgoodwatermanagement engineer efficientuseofwaterresources farmer wateravailabilityandcropyield sociologist equityinwaterdistributionandadherencetotraditionalpractices agronomist cropproduction,pestcontrol economist profitability,markets,economicbenefits environmentalist minimal damage to environment (water quality, flooding, wetlands) politician limitruralmigrationtocities;promoteruralwellbeing Technical issues related to the development and use of water resources often tend to be at the forefront,andareoftenmoredetailed,atsmallerlevelsinanirrigatedarea.Politicalissuestendtodominate at larger scales in which many people and perhaps multiple countries are affected by development and management decisions. Political issues involve many important factors such as economics, environmental impact,socialconcerns,nationalsecurityandothers,buttheyusuallyinvolvetechnicalfeasibilityaswell.In many cases technical concerns are only one part of the overall issue. Figure 10.1 gives a schematic representationofthedominanceoftechnicalorpoliticalissuesforareasatthemicroandmacroscales.

Figure 10.1. Technical and political issues in irrigation and water resource development for different scales ofarea. Water management decisions in large areas can be based on very complex criteria because of the desiretolimitthedamagingeffectsoftoomuchortoolittlewater.Furthermore,damagingeffectscanbe interpreted in different ways and from different perspectives: (1) public safety; (2) human economic investments and activities in general; (3) municipalities; (4) agricultural production; and (5) environmental conservation.Majordamsandreservoirsoftenhaveconflictingfunctions.Theymaybeusedto: 1. generateelectricity 2. provideirrigationwatersupply 3. providemunicipalandindustrialsupply 4. provideforfloodcontrol 5. provideforrecreationandfishing Water supply and flood control functions are operational dichotomies in that a full reservoir is preferred for the former, and an empty reservoir is preferred for the latter. It often becomes even more

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complicated when certain times of the year have flood danger and other times have the need for plentiful water supply due to hot and dry weather. Agricultural water use can be very high compared to other uses, andpeakannualcropwaterrequirementstypicallydonotcoincidewithmaximumstreamflow,especiallyin arid and semiarid areas. Thus, the great need for water storage to enable irrigation of crops when water wouldnotbeavailablefromnaturalstreamflow.Thewaterlevelinsomereservoirsisintentionallylowered, at least temporarily, in the spring time to help dry up banks and reduce mosquito populations. Other reservoirshavenocontrolgatesandareusedexclusivelyforfloodcontrol,notforstorage. Thehydrologyofwatershedscanbehighlyvariablefromyeartoyearanditisoftendifficulttopredict peak flows and hydrograph shapes. In many watersheds a great deal of effort is made to predict the hydrology in watersheds that supply major reservoirs because accurate forecasts can help resolve some of the conflicting uses of the reservoir and dam. When predictions are wrong, the dam itself may be in jeopardyduetoovertopping,orthereservoirmaybeleftwithlittlewateratthebeginningofadryseason. Ifunexpectedlyhighinflowsarriveatareservoiritmaybenecessarytoprotectthedambyreleasingflowsin excess of the inflow rate (higher than flows would be in the river in the absence of a dam), and this may cause flood damage downstream. Some river systems, such as the Colorado in the western USA, have severaldamsandarehighlymonitoredandcontrolled.Ifanupstreamdamreleasesalargeamountofwater inashorttime,thedownstreamdamsmustbeoperatedappropriatelysoasnottocompromisethestorage andfloodcontrolfunctionsthateachmustperform.

10.3. SelectingaCropMix
Several factors interact to determine whether a particular crop will have a competitive economic advantage.Theseincludesoils,climate,laborcosts,leveloftechnology,andmarketdemand.Acropbycrop analysis is needed. Employment opportunities can be created by selecting crops with high labor requirements;however,economicsuccessmaynotcorrelatewellwithlaborintensity. Adams(1953)showsgoodyieldsofabout50%aboveaverageforCaliforniacrops.Currentyieldsvary considerably but average about twice those shown by Adams. The data from Adams (1953) were used to summarize average per hectare personhours of labor, gross crop values, and net incomes for 15 vegetable crops, 16 fruits, 9 grains and 4 field crops. The grains included different varieties of field beans, flax seed, grain sorghum, oats, rice, and wheat. The field crops were alfalfa, cotton, potatoes, and sugar beets. Averagemanhoursforgoodyields,grosscropvalues,andnetprofitsperhectarearegiveninTable10.2. Moulton, et al.(1987) give estimates of 198687 labor requirements for selected California crops. These requirements are compared with those given by Adams (1953) for 1951 conditions associated with goodyields.Comparisonof1951and198687laborrequirementsforselectedcropsaregiveninTable10.3. Table10.2.Laborrequirements,cropvaluesandprofitsbycroptype(1951prices). CropType PersonHours GrossValue NetProfit perha ($/ha) ($/ha) Vegetables 524 1669 435 Fruits 424 1556 678 Grains 45 321 109 FieldCrops 132 1056 581

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 During the approximately 35year period, the average yields of tomatoes doubled, that of rice tripled and yields of strawberries about quadrupled. The increased yields improved economic returnsandinsome cases significantly increased the demand for labor. Table 10.3 indicates a 10% increase in average per hectare labor requirements over the 35year period. A rapid increase in advanced technology created a small increase in per hectare labor requirements. The production labor cost in percentage of the total production costs for the crops listed in Table 10.2 average as follows: fruit and nuts, 40%; vegetables, 64%; andgrains,24%.Netprofitsinpercentofgrosscropvalueaveraged26,44,47and55%,respectively. Table10.3.Laborrequirements,yields,andprofitsforselectedCaliforniacrops. Adams(1953)1951CropYield,Labor,andNetProfit 198687 CropType NormalYield GoodYield LaborNeeds NetProfit LaborNeeds (tons/ha) (tons/ha) (hr/ha) (US$/ha) (hr/ha) Alfalfa 11.3 18.0 90 256 37 Almonds 0.8 1.1 168 142 55 Asparagus 2.3 3.4 209 273 370 Avocados 1.8 3.4 197 460 325 Cantaloupe 14.7 22.5 325 592 573 Carrots 19.2 31.6 639 733 582 Cauliflower 11.3 18.0 254 137 402 ClingPeaches 18.0 27.1 770 1163 580 GrainSorghum 1.7 2.8 71 27 17 Grapefruit 20.3 25.4 315 424 198 Lemons 36.5 45.7 705 1674 680 Oats 1.1 1.7 17 38 17 Plums 4.5 6.8 168 255 476 Raisins 2.3 4.5 200 260 255 Rice 2.8 4.5 28 136 30 Wheat 1.7 2.3 15 28 12 Averages n/a n/a 261 412 288
Note: Labor requirements for 1951 are for good yields (about 50% above average), and for 198687 they are for average yields of thecropsshown.

Crops requiring the most labor produced the largest profits. In 1951 farm labor costs in the state of California were about $1.00 per hour. Net profits (NP) in $/ha based upon Table 10.3 were a function of hours of labor used per hectare (Hr). The regression results give: NP =28 + 1.68 Hr, with a coefficient of determination,r2,of0.83.

10.4. IrrigatedFarmSize
Inoverpopulatedareaswithhighpercentagesofunemploymentandlowutilizationofthelaborforce, lands developed for irrigation have sometimes been divided into small subsistence farms. In California a periodofincreasedmechanizationandfarmconsolidationresultedinincreaseddemandsforfarmlabor.In manydevelopingcountriesthecreationofsmallsubsistencefarmsmaynotresultinasignificantincreasein ruralemploymentnorinnationaleconomicgrowth.

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 In Greece, a goal of a minimum irrigated farm size of four ha was adopted. In Haiti a planning group recommendedathreehaminimumirrigatedricefarm.IntheSudanacceptanceofanirrigatedblocksizeof 90 acres managed much as a unit by a group of farmers improved the management and enhanced the success of irrigation. Prior to the approval of a fairly large loan the InterAmerican Development Bank required that the lands be irrigated and farmed in blocks of 20 ha. Delivering water in rotation to blocks of smallownershipsisamethodforsimplifyingwatermanagement. In order to understand the influence of farm size on competitive advantage and labor demands and the influence of the other factors, a crop by crop analysis is necessary. Frequently, new technologies and knowledge will need to be imported in order to maintain a comparative competitive advantage and continuedcapitalgrowthinchangingproductiontechnology.Duetoimprovedtechnologies,cropyieldsare usuallyhigheronlargerfarms.

10.5. WatershedManagement
The management of the watershed upstream from an irrigation diversion may be very important, or even essential, for the longterm success of irrigation facilities. The water yield is related to the type of vegetation on the watershed, and the safety of the project works may depend upon the condition of and land use practices in the watershed. These conditions are indicated by the value of what is referred to as a runoff curve number (Hudson 1981), which indicates the amount of rainfall and snowmelt that shows up downstream as runoff. Curve numbers vary with land use and vegetative cover, with treatment practice, hydraulicconditions,andwithhydrologicsoilgroups.Effectiverainfallwithintheirrigatedareaalsodepends onantecedentsoilwaterandtheabovefactors. Whenafiredestroysthetreesandbrushonawatershed,summerdrystreamsoftencometolifeand long dead springs may start to flow. If shallowrooted plants such as grasses take over the cleared watershed, extra water will continue to flow. Later, if trees and brush are allowed to grow back, the extra waterwillgraduallydisappearoverafewyears.Muchmorewaterwillalsorunoffduringthewetseasonif thetreesandbrusharereplacedbyshallowrootedvegetation. Most rainfall is consumed by the native or modifiedvegetation.Evaporationfromnonvegetatedsoil is much less than the transpiration by a fully vegetated plant cover. Runoff from a 100mm rain may be negligible if the watershed is wellvegetated and wellmanaged. If thesameareaisdesertedorfallowafter cultivation, the runoff may equal twothirds of the rainfall. The transport of sediments, rocks and debris increasesexponentiallywiththestreamdischarge,asdoesthecapacityfordamagetotheirrigationfacilities. In many tropical areas, population pressures have resulted in the clearing and farming of watershed areas upstream from irrigation projects. The resultant increased erosion and flooding and the scouring, silting, and deposition within stream and project channels has destroyed numerous small irrigation facilities and seriously damaged some major irrigation works. In these instances, wet season runoff from denuded watershedsincreases,butdryseasonbaseflowsmaydecrease. Thereisaveryimportantinteractionbetweenirrigationdevelopmentandwatershedconservation.In some regions irrigation of the plains and valleys has resulted in greatly improved watershed conditions. Farming and overgrazing of the watersheds has become so much less profitable than irrigated agriculture thatitbecameeasytopromoteconservationprograms.

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In some developing countries the failure of governments to maintain government managed irrigation facilities has produced disastrous results. Due to increasing population and the rapid decline in the area actually irrigated,farminginthewatershedsincreasedrapidly.Thisresultedinincreasederosion,increased flooding, and a further decrease in production. Many irrigation developments have been largely destroyed by this interaction. In one country, an inspection of the numerous irrigation developments indicated that many had become inoperative and of those still in operation only one had not been seriously reduced in productivity.

10.6. OrganizationandManagement
Insomecountriesmostoftheirrigationfacilitieshavebeenconstructedandmanagedbytheinitiative of water users. This has usually resulted in very satisfactory benefits for the individuals and for the nation. Individualinitiativehasbeenencouragedbyvarioussubsidies.Thelargerprojectsinvolvingmajordamsand large canals nearly always require governmental initiative. The governmental agencies may operate multipurpose reservoirs and the main canals while selling water for distribution by irrigation associations mainlycontrolledbyfarmers. Inthedevelopingcountriesitmaybedesirabletohavemixedcontrolofthewaterdeliverysystemsby farmers and government officials. Organizations mainly controlled by government officials are very numerous and are found in many countries. Where the government officials fully control the irrigation organizationtherearetwoprincipalpossibilities.Theseare: Statefarms(largeproductionunits) Irrigationsettlementprojects(smallfarmsizes,usuallysubsistence) These organizational systems imposed by government usually have not produced the desired level of productivityorofbenefitsfromirrigation. Irrigation Associations have often been encouraged and promoted by governments. They are organizations of the people for the benefit of the water users. They may include provision for uses other than irrigation. There are many variations in the organization of irrigation associations. The voting may be by water user regardless of area irrigated or by area irrigated. The structure usually includes the following executivebodies: Generalassemblycomposedofallwaterusers Boardofdirectorselectedbythegeneralassembly Managerresponsibletotheboardofdirectors Executiveunitsforspecificfunctions Objectives may vary considerably, and the policies may not always be consistent with the announced objectives.Thisfrequentlyresultsfromgeneralizationswithoutthebenefitofcarefulanalysis.Adequacyof basicfoodgrainsmaybemosteffectivelyachievedbyproducinghighvaluecropsforexport.Benefitingthe largestnumberofpeoplemayresultfromincreasingtheminimumoraveragefarmsizesoastoencouragea highertechnicallevelinagricultureandaconsequentincreaseinlabordemandsandincapitalgrowth. Rural electrification and high economic returns from the lands in the valleys may discourage farming andthecollectionoffirewoodinthewatershed.Thismayresultintherequiredwatershedprotectionsoas to assure a long useful life for the irrigation facilities in the valleys. Programs of irrigation research and

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extension and the formation of irrigation associations frequently improve project productivity and reduce demands for governmental funding of continuing operations. This can make more money available for investmentinnewdevelopment. Generalizations should be avoided. Alternative organizations and policies need to be evaluated on a casebycasebasis,andthosethatappeartoprovidethemaximumbenefitsforthepeopleandforthenation shouldbeselected.

10.7. GroundwaterWells
Water supplies for irrigation from stream flow and from reservoir storage may vary widely from year to year. Periods of below normal rainfall may extend for five to ten years. During dry cycles wells may provide a vital stabilizing influence on agriculture. For some conditions wells should be used principally to make up the deficits of other sources of water supply. In others wells may provide the only economically feasiblewatersupply.However,groundwaterexplorationshouldbeconservative.Perhapsasmuchas10% oftheworldirrigatedareadependsuponnonsustainablegroundwaterresources. Large irrigation projects may require long periods of construction and other development before reachingthefullpotentialuse.Thisperiodmaybeaslongas10to20years.Duringthisdevelopmentperiod, interestontheinvestmentfortheyettobefullyutilizedfacilitiesmaybecomeaburdenandmaydiscourage theconstructionoffuturelargeirrigationprojects.Invariousareasithasbeenfounddesirabletooverpump the aquifers and mine groundwater for a period of years prior to construction of the surface irrigation facilities. This procedure can shorten the project development period to only a few years, but the over exploitationofanaquifercausesirreversibledamagewhenitpartiallycollapses. An initial development of irrigation by means of wells has in many cases created a demand for large scale storage and conveyance projects as well as providing the required experience and justification for expandeddevelopment.

10.8. WaterLawandWaterRights
In general, water laws govern the use of water resources by individuals and by the public as a whole. Water laws can vary significantly from one region to another, and historical records show that water law has often changed over time as problems have arisen and needs have changed, and as the public perception of water use rights has shifted. Much of the early water law deals specifically with surface water, but recently there has been increasing awareness of the need for legislation that also governstheuseofgroundwaterresources. In the western USA there are two basic types of water rights that have been established over the past150years,andthesepersisttothepresenttime.Theearlierofthetwoisknownasariparianright, whichgovernstheprivateuseofwateronriparianlands,whicharepropertiesadjacentto(bordering) anaturalstreamorlake.Riparianwaterrightsareusuallyconsideredtobeattachedtothelandandthe land owner can use the water whenever desired. However, in some areas it is considered illegal for a riparian water user to store water on the property for more than 30 days (typically), or to import water from a hydrologic basin that does not border the property. Riparian rights cannot be transferred to otherareastheystaywiththeland.

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The other basic type of water right is the appropriative right, which is acquired either by prior appropriation (first use) of a water resource or by some type of permit. Unlike riparian rights, appropriative rights can exist without any particular relationship between the proximity of land and the water resource. Also, holders of appropriative rights are generally allowed to store water on their property for an indefinite duration of time. In the case of a prior appropriation, the user makes a claim on the water with the argument that it was not previously being used by anyone else. Prior appropriations were common in mining areas of the western USA during the 1800s. Appropriation by permitismorecommontodaybecausetheavailablewaterresourcesarebecomingmorefullyexploited (somemightarguethattheyalreadyarefullyexploited). Riparian rights are usually older and have precedence over appropriative rights, but appropriative rights actually control a greater volume of water in the western USA. Some holders of riparian water rights do not make use of the available water, creating a dormant riparian right, but such dormancy does not necessarily imply forfeiture of the right, even if many decades have passed. Those with appropriativerightsonwaterwithdormantriparianrightsalwaysruntheriskoftheriparianrightsbeing reasserted, and this has occurred in more than one case. Riparian and appropriative rights tend to be conflicting and countless legal disputes have arisen between the holders or claimants of such rights. As aresult,therehavebeenmanycourtcasesandmuchadjudicationofwaterresources.Waterlawisnow an area of specialization for many lawyers in the western USA, and the number legal battles over water rightsisnotlikelytodiminishintheforeseeablefuture. Water rights are generally interpreted as usufructary, which means that people can have rights to use water, but not to own it. Furthermore, many legal definitions now require that all water use, regardless of the type of right, must be reasonable and beneficial. This implies that water waste should be avoided and that water quality should be conserved, but the actual legal definition of reasonable and beneficial is not explicitly defined by current laws. Thus, this is one of a number of points that are subject to broad interpretation by individuals and by judicial courts. Some foresee an increasing emphasis on public water rights through the doctrine of public trust, which asserts that specified resourcesarethepropertyofthegeneralpublic.

10.9. MakingIrrigationProfitable
HundredsofbillionsofdollarshavebeenspentonirrigationdevelopmentinthewesternUSAoverthe past 100 years or so, yet only a small fraction (13%) of the desert lands have been reclaimed by this development. However, reclamation projects provide other benefits such as hydropower (electricity), recreation,floodcontrol,andothers. More than half of all World Bank financing of irrigation is for upgrading and rehabilitating older irrigation systems. The FAO summarized conditions in Africa relative to irrigation. FAO (1995) indicates that the total irrigated area exceeds 12 million ha. Thirty percent of the area is in rice and 34% is in othercereals.Sixteenpercentisinvegetableandindustrialcrops.Muchofthericeisproducedinareas where rainfall is excessive for three or more months. The costs reported by FAO (1995) for developing newirrigationprojectsinU.S.dollarsperhectarearegiveninTable10.4. Table10.4.IrrigationprojectdevelopmentcostsinU.S.dollars(FAO1995). Project Average RangeinCost

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Size Small Medium Large

Cost 4,000 9,000 16,000

1,0006,500 4,00015,000 5,00050,000

Table 10.2 indicates that fruits and vegetables require ten times as much labor as the grains and result in about five times as much profit. Net profits averaged 26% to 55% of gross farm crop value. Gross farm incomes per hectare for 1994 were calculated from the 1995 annual report of the Coachella Valley Resource Conservation District. The crop values per hectare for 13 crops in U.S. dollars were as showninTable10.5. Table 10.5. Crop values in U.S. dollars per hectare (Coachella Valley Resource Conservation District 1994). Crop Value Crop Value Crop Value (USD/ha) (USD/ha) (USD/ha) Beans 8,511 Eggplant 22,779 Okra 27,808 ChilePeppers 32,435 Grapes 19,313 Onions 12,535 Citrus 8,509 Melons 18,601 Potatoes 8,928 Dates 28,215 Oats 893 Tomatoes 14,463 Wheat 1,080 Irrigation and agrotechnologies are highly transferable, provided soils and climate are similar. For example, in northern Greece, farmers who were using a plow described by Homer in the 1950s were managingdripirrigationinthe1970s.Landsformerlycultivatedinrainfedpastureandfoodgrainswere producingcitrus,raisins,andotherfruitsandhighvaluecrops. The population growth rate in many countries underlines the need for increased food production, much of which must come from irrigated agriculture. In Africa, for example, the average annual population growth rate is currently about 2.9%. This rate will double the continents population in 25 years. Some developing countries have higher population growth rates than the average for Africa, and the need for irrigation development is rapidly increasing. Projects should repay construction costs, financemaintenance,andprovidesavingsforreconstructionwhennecessary. Sound irrigation development planning requires several disciplines. The soils and climate should be suitable for the crops to be grown, and crops should be selected that will repay irrigation costs and yieldsatisfactoryprofit.Profitabilityisalsoinfluencedbyfarmsize.Insomeareas,yieldsonlargefarms are30%higherthanonsmallfarms.Politiciansandgovernmentsareoftenpoormanagersasevidenced bythefactthatirrigationmanagementbythewaterusersinanumberofprojectshasresultedinbetter projectmaintenance,increasedyieldsandsignificantlyimprovedprofits. Many of the best opportunities for profitable irrigation involve multiple uses. Many developing countries lack the institutional capacity for multipurpose water resource development planning. Small gravityandpumpirrigationprojectsarebyfartheleastcostly.However,smallprojectsmayrequirethe availability of electrical energy at reasonable cost. Regional flood control and drainage many be

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required. Some of the most successful irrigation developments have combined benefits from hydropower,drainage,floodcontrol,andmunicipalandindustrialmarkets. Thereisaglobalneedforsignificantincreasesinfoodgrainproduction,employment,andincome. Hunger and demand will result in an increase in food grain prices. The requirements for income and employment and increasing water scarcity will result in increasing emphasis on the production of fruits and vegetables. Groundwater overdraft will force large currently irrigated areas out of irrigated production. This can be delayed to some extent if fossil aquifersarereservedtomakeupsurfacewater shortages only during drought years. The increases in food grain production are expected to come principally from rainfed production on welldrained soils and from rice production on lowland areas where rainfall is excessive. As costs of irrigation development increase, more emphasis on fruits, vegetables,andindustrialcropsisneededinordertofinanceconstructionandmaintenanceofirrigation anddrainagefacilities.Thisimpliescropdiversificationinthoseareasthathavetraditionallyproduceda predominanceoflowvaluecrops.

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