Unit 10: LINES AND ANGLES

10.1.- BASIC TERMS IN GEOMETRY

Geometry is the branch of Mathematics that deals with the properties, measurement, and relationships of points, lines, angles, surfaces and solids.

Point
A point is a dot on a piece of paper. We identify this point with a number or letter. A point has no length or width, it just specifies an exact location.

Example: The following is a diagram of points A, B and C.

Line
A line as a straight line that we might draw with a ruler on a piece of paper. A line extends forever in both directions. We write the name of a line passing through two different points A and B as line AB.

Example: The following is a diagram of two lines: line AB and line HG.

The arrows signify that the lines drawn extend indefinitely in each direction.

Ray
A ray is a straight line that begins at a certain point and extends forever in one direction. The point where the ray begins is known as its endpoint. We write the name of a ray with endpoint A and passing through a point B as ray AB.

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Example: The following is a diagram of two rays: ray HG and ray AB.

Line segment
A line segment is a portion of a straight line. A line segment does not extend forever, but has two distinct endpoints. We write the name of a line segment with endpoints A and B as line segment AB or as AB .

Example: The following is a diagram of two line segments: line segment CD and
line segment PN, or simply segment CD and segment PN.

Intersection
The term intersect is used when lines, rays, line segments of figures meet, that is, they share a common point. The point they share is called the point of intersection. We say that these figures intersect.

Example 1: In the diagram below, line AB and line GH intersect at point D.

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Example 2: In the diagram below, line 1 intersects the square in points M and N.

Example 3: In the diagram below, line 2 intersects the circle at point P.

Parallel lines
Two lines in the same plane which never intersect are called parallel lines. We say that two segments are parallel is the lines that they lie on are parallel.

Example 1: Lines 1 and 2 below are parallel.

Example 2: The opposite sides of the rectangle below are parallel. The lines
passing through them never meet.

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10.2.- ANGLES
An angle measures the amount of turn. The corner point of an angle is called the vertex. And the two straight sides are called arms. The angle is the amount of turn between each arm. There are two main ways to label angles: 1. by giving the angle a name, usually a lowercase letter like a or b, or sometimes a Greek letter like (alpha) or (theta), 2. or by the three letters on the shape that define the angle, with the middle letter being where the angle actually is (its vertex). Example: angle a is BAC, and angle is BCD.

Measuring angles
We can measure angles in degrees (). There are 360 in one full rotation (one complete circle around).
A full circle is 360 Half a circle is 180 (called a straight angle) Quarter of a circle is 90 (called a right angle)

Why 360 degrees? Probably because old calendars (such as the Persian Calendar) used 360 days for a year - when they watched the stars they saw them revolve around the North Star one degree per day.

You measure and draw angles in degrees using a protractor.

This angle is 74

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Types of angles
As the angle increases, the name changes: Acute angle: Right angle: Obtuse angle: Straight angle: Reflex angle: Full rotation: an angle that is less than 90. an angle that is 90 exactly. an angle that is greater than 90 but less than 180. an angle that is 180 exactly. an angle that is greater than 180. an angle that is 360 exactly.

Angles that add to 180 are called supplementary angles. These two angles (140 and 40) are complementary angles, because they add up to 180). Angles that add to 90 are called complementary angles. These two angles (40 and 50) are complementary angles, because they add up to 90).

Exercise 1
Find the missing angles in these diagrams by calculating. i) ii) iii)

iv)

v)

vi)

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Exercise 2
Measure these angles:

Exercise 3
Construct a triangle ABC with AC = 10 cm, A = 40 and C = 60 .

10.3.- BISECTING ANGLES AND SEGMENTS

If you bisect a segment or angle you cut it exactly in half: A perpendicular bisector is the perpendicular line to the segment that cuts it in two equal parts.

The points of the perpendicular bisector are equidistant from the endpoints of the segment. PA = PB

QA = QB

An angle bisector is a line passing through the vertex of the angle that cuts it into two equal smaller angles.

The points of the angle bisector are equidistant from the sides of the angle. PR = PS

QR' = QS'

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Vertically opposite angles are equal:

1=3 5=7 2=4 6=8

Corresponding angles are equal:

1=5 2=6 3=7 4=8

Alternate interior angles are equal:

3=5 2=8

Alternate exterior angles are equal:

1=7 4=6

Exercise 6
Find the missing angles in each diagram. Write down which angle fact you are using each time. a) b)

10.5.- ANGLES IN POLYGONS

A polygon is a plane closed shape with three or more straight sides.

Polygon (straight sides)

Not a Polygon (has a curve)

Not a Polygon (open, not closed)

Polygon comes from Greek. Poly- means many and gon means angle.
A regular polygon has all sides the same length and all interior angles equal. The interior angles are inside the polygon. The exterior angles are made by extending each side in the same direction. Exterior angles are outside the polygon.

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Exercise 7
Prove that the sum of angles in a triangle is 180. (Hint: Add a line parallel to AB.)

Interior angle sum of any polygon

Look at this pentagon. A pentagon divides into 3 triangles. Angles in a triangle add up to 180. So interior angle sum of a pentagon = 3 180 = 540

You can divide any polygon into triangles by drawing diagonals from a vertex (corner). The number of triangles is always two less than the number of sides.

For a polygon with n sides the interior angle sum = n 2 180

Exercise 8
Complete the table.

Regular polygons
Hexagon Heptagon Octagon Nonagon Decagon

Number of sides Number of triangles the shape splits into Sum of the interior angles in the shape Size of one interior angle

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Exercise 10
Find the missing angles. a) b) c)

d)

e)

f)

10.7.- SYMMETRIC SHAPES

The simplest symmetry is reflection symmetry (sometimes called line symmetry of mirror symmetry). It is easy to recognise, because one half is the reflection of the other half.

The white line down the centre is the line of symmetry.

You can find if a shape has a line of symmetry by folding it. When the folded part sits perfectly on top (all edges matching), then the fold line is a line of symmetry.

Examples:

This is not a line of symmetry.

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This is a line of symmetry. Not all shapes have lines of symmetry, or they may have several lines of symmetry. For example, a triangle can have 3, or 1 or no lines of symmetry.

Equilateral triangle (all sides equal, all angles equal)

Isosceles triangle (two sides equal, two angles equal)

Scalene triangle (no sides equal, no angles equal)

Exercise 11
a) How many lines of symmetry does a regular polygon of n sides have? b) How many lines of symmetry does a circle have?

Exercise 12
Find lines of symmetry in the following capital letters of the alphabet.

A H U
Exercise 13

B I O V

C J P W

D K Q X

E L R Y

F M S Z

G N T

Complete the figure in order that it has the two indicated lines of symmetry.

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Unit 11: PLANE AND 3-D SHAPES

11.1.- TRIANGLES
A triangle is a polygon that has three sides and three angles. The three angles always add to 180. It is usual to name each vertex of a triangle with a single capital letter. The sides can be named with a single small letter, and named after the opposite angle. So in the figure on the right, you can see that side b is opposite vertex B, side c is opposite vertex and so on.

Equilateral, Isosceles and Scalene

There are three special names given to triangles that tell how many sides (or angles) are equal. There can be 3, 2 or no equal sides/angles:

Equilateral Triangle
Three equal sides Three equal angles, always 60

Isosceles Triangle
Two equal sides Two equal angles

Scalene Triangle
No equal sides No equal angles

What type of angle?

Triangles can also have names that tell you what type of angle is inside:

Acute Triangle
All angles are less than 90

Right Triangle
Has a right angle (90)

Obtuse Triangle
Has an angle more than 90

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Constructing triangles
You can construct a triangle given 3 sides (SSS) using a ruler and a compass, but no protractor as you dont know any angles.

Example:

There are two types of triangle that you can construct using a ruler and a protractor. The first is when you are given two sides and the included angle (SAS). The second is where you are given two angles and the included side (ASA). If you want to see all these constructions, click on the following link: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/ks3bitesize/maths/shape_space/triangles_bearin gs/revise1.shtml

Exercise 1
Classify the following triangles:

Exercise 2
Construct each of these triangles. Measure the angles in each triangle and write them on your page. i. ii.
iii.

a = 8 cm , b = 7 cm , c = 4 cm
A = 30 , B = 50 , c = 6 cm a = 5 cm , b = 5 cm , C = 120

What did the three angles in each triangle add up to?

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I.E.S. Andrs de Vandelvira Seccin Europea

Mathematics

Exercise 1 Classify the following triangles by their sides and by their angles. Find the asked angles of the triangles.

Triangle ABC DEF HGI JKL MNO YAZ BCD

QPR SUT XVW MKL NPO GEF QSR UTV HI

By the sides

By the angles

Calculate

H=

N=

Y=

Z=

C=

D=

P=

X=

L=

O=

F=

R=

U=T= V =

I=

11-2

Exercise 3
Some triangles can not be constructed. Think about a triangle with sides of length 12 cm, 5 cm and 4 cm. If you draw the base of 12 cm, the other two sides are not long enough to join up with each other. Try it! Which of these triangles is it possible to draw? i. a = 7 cm , b = 6 cm , c = 4 cm iii. a = 8 cm , b = 3 cm , c = 3 cm ii. iv. a = 15 cm , b = 12 cm , c = 8 cm a = 6 cm , b = 6 cm , c = 6 cm

Medians of a triangle. Barycentre

A median of a triangle is a line segment joining a vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side. The three medians of a triangle always intersect at a single point. This point is called the barycentre of the triangle (the centre of gravity of the triangle).
Median

Barycentre

Altitudes of a triangle. Ortocentre

An altitude of a triangle is a straight line through a vertex and perpendicular to the opposite side. This opposite side is called the base of the altitude. The length of the altitude is the distance between the base and the vertex. Sometimes the opposite side is not quite long enough to draw an altitude, so we are allowed to extend it to make an altitude possible.

The three altitudes of a triangle intersect in a single point. This point is called the ortocentre of the triangle.
Ortocentre ycentreoid

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Perpendicular bisectors of a triangle. Circumcentre

A perpendicular bisector of a triangle is a straight lines passing through the midpoint of a side and perpendicular to it. The 3 perpendicular bisectors meet in a single point, it is called the triangles circumcentre; this point is the centre of the circumcircle, the circle passing through the 3 vertices.

Classification of quadrilaterals
There are three types of quadrilaterals: parallelograms, trapeziums and trapezoids. A parallelogram is a quadrilateral in which the opposite sides are parallel and equal in length. Also opposite angles are equal. Rhomboids, rectangles, rhombuses and squares are parallelograms.

Rhomboid

Rectangle
(right angles)

Rhombus
(equal sides)

Square
(right angles and equal sides)

A trapezium (called trapezoid in USA) has a pair of opposite sides parallel.

Trapezium

Isosceles trapezium

A trapezoid (called trapezium in USA) is quadrilateral with no parallel sides:

An interesting trapezoid is the kite. It has two pair of sides. Each pair is made up of adjacent sides that are equal in length. The angles are equal where the pairs meet. Diagonals meet at a right angle, and one of the diagonal bisects (cuts equally in half) the other.

Exercise 8
Draw two segments that intersect in their midpoints and that are perpendicular. Join the endpoints and say what type of quadrilateral you get: a) If both segments are equal in length. b) If both segments are not equal in length.

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Exercise 9
Draw a quadrilateral in each case. a) b) c) d) e) Parallelogram with two lines of symmetry. With four lines of symmetry. Parallelogram with a line of symmetry. Parallelogram without lines of symmetry. Trapezoid with a line of symmetry.

Exercise 10
Name the following quadrilaterals.

Exercise 11
Construct a square in which the diagonal is 6 cm.

11.3.- REGULAR POLYGONS

A regular polygon is a polygon that has all sides equal and all interior angles equal.

Properties of regular polygon

The apothem of a regular polygon is a line from the centre to the midpoint of a side. It is also the radius of the incircle (see below). The radius of a regular polygon is a line from the centre to any vertex. It is also the radius of the circumcircle (see below).

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The incircle is the largest circle that fits inside a regular polygon. Its radius is the apothem of the polygon. The circumcircle is the circle that passes through all the vertices of a regular polygon. Its radius is the radius of the polygon. In a regular polygon, the radius, the apothem and half side make a right triangle.

11.4.- CIRCUMFERENCE
The circumference is the set of points that are a fixed distance from another point. This point is called the centre of the circumference. You can also say that the circumference is the curved line that goes around the circle. The radius is the distance from the centre to the edge.

Tangents and circumferences

If a line is tangent to a circumference, it is perpendicular to the radius drawn to the point of tangency.

Common tangents are lines or segments that are tangent to more than one circumference at the same time. 4 Common Tangents (2 completely separate circumferences)
2 external tangents (blue) 2 internal tangents (black)

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11.5.- PYTHAGORAS THEOREM

In a right triangle, the two smallest sides that make the right angle are called legs and the longest side is called hypotenuse.

a = hypotenuse b and c = legs

Years ago, a man named Pythagoras found an amazing fact about triangles: If the triangle had a right angle (90) and you made a square on each of the three sides, then the biggest square had the exact same area as the other two squares put together. It is called Pythagoras Theorem and can be written in one short equation:

a2 = b2 + c2
In a right angled triangle: the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides.

There are a lot of proofs of this theorem. Here you are one of them:

Since the two big squares are equal, their areas will be the same. If we leave out the four equal triangles in each big square, we get:

a2 in the first square b2 + c2 in the second one

a2 = b2 + c2

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Exercise 13
Find the value of the area of the green square in each case. a) b)

Exercise 14
Find the missing side in each of these right-angled triangles. Round the answers to 1 dp.

Exercise 15
Find the length of the diagonal of a square with side length 8 cm.

Exercise 16
In a computer catalogue, a computer monitor is listed as being 19 inches. This distance is the diagonal distance across the screen. If the screen measures 10 inches in height, what is the actual width of the screen to the nearest inch?

Exercise 17
A ladder of length 5.5 m leans against a wall. The foot of the ladder is 1 m from the wall. How far up the wall does the ladder reach?

Exercise 18
Find the length of the side of a square with diagonal length 8 cm.

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