Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Second edition Robert W. Erickson Dragan Maksimovic University of Colorado, Boulder

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1. 1.2. 1.3.

Introduction to power processing Some applications of power electronics Elements of power electronics Summary of the course

1.1 Introduction to Power Processing

Power input

Switching converter

Power output

Control input

Dc-dc conversion: Ac-dc rectification: Dc-ac inversion:

Change and control voltage magnitude Possibly control dc voltage, ac current Produce sinusoid of controllable magnitude and frequency Ac-ac cycloconversion: Change and control voltage magnitude and frequency

Control is invariably required

Power input

Switching converter

Power output

Control input feedforward Controller reference feedback

High efficiency is essential

1

Pout = Pin
1 1 Ploss = Pin Pout = Pout

0.8

0.6

High efficiency leads to low power loss within converter Small size and reliable operation is then feasible Efficiency is a good measure of converter performance

0.4

0.2 0 0.5 1 1.5

Ploss / Pout

A high-efficiency converter

Pin

Converter

Pout

A goal of current converter technology is to construct converters of small size and weight, which process substantial power at high efficiency

Devices available to the circuit designer

Resistors

Capacitors

Magnetics

LinearSwitched-mode mode Semiconductor devices

DTs

+
Ts

Devices available to the circuit designer

Resistors

Capacitors

Magnetics

LinearSwitched-mode mode Semiconductor devices

DTs

+
Ts

Signal processing: avoid magnetics

Devices available to the circuit designer

Resistors

Capacitors

Magnetics

LinearSwitched-mode mode Semiconductor devices

DTs

+
Ts

Power processing: avoid lossy elements

Power loss in an ideal switch

Switch closed: Switch open:

v(t) = 0 i(t) = 0

+ v(t)

i(t)

In either event: p(t) = v(t) i(t) = 0 Ideal switch consumes zero power

A simple dc-dc converter example

I 10A + Vg 100V + Dc-dc converter R 5 V 50V

Input source: 100V Output load: 50V, 10A, 500W How can this converter be realized?

Dissipative realization

Resistive voltage divider

I 10A + Vg 100V + 50V R 5 + V 50V Pin = 1000W Pout = 500W

Ploss = 500W

Dissipative realization
Series pass regulator: transistor operates in active region
+ 50V Vref I 10A + Vg 100V + linear amplifier and base driver Ploss 500W Pin 1000W + R 5 V 50V Pout = 500W

Use of a SPDT switch

I 10 A + Vg 100 V +
2

+ R v(t) 50 V

vs(t)
vs(t) Vg

Vs = DVg 0 (1 D) Ts 2

DTs switch position: 1

t 1

The switch changes the dc voltage level

vs(t)

Vg Vs = DVg 0 (1 D) Ts 2

D = switch duty cycle 0D1 Ts = switching period fs = switching frequency = 1 / Ts

DTs switch position: 1

t 1

DC component of vs(t) = average value:

Vs = 1 Ts
Ts

vs(t) dt = DVg
0

Addition of low pass filter

Addition of (ideally lossless) L-C low-pass filter, for removal of switching harmonics:
1

i(t) + L C R + v(t) Pout = 500 W

Vg 100 V

vs(t)

Pin 500 W

Ploss small

Choose filter cutoff frequency f0 much smaller than switching frequency fs This circuit is known as the buck converter

Addition of control system for regulation of output voltage

Power input Switching converter + vg + v Transistor gate driver
(t)

Load i

H(s)

Sensor gain

dTs Ts

Reference vref input

Pulse-width vc G (s) c modulator Compensator

Error signal ve

Hv

The boost converter

L
1

+ C R V

Vg

5Vg 4Vg

3Vg 2Vg Vg 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

A single-phase inverter
vs(t)
1

Vg

+
2

+ + v(t) load

2 1

vs(t)

H-bridge Modulate switch duty cycles to obtain sinusoidal low-frequency component

1.2 Several applications of power electronics

Power levels encountered in high-efficiency converters less than 1 W in battery-operated portable equipment tens, hundreds, or thousands of watts in power supplies for computers or office equipment kW to MW in variable-speed motor drives 1000 MW in rectifiers and inverters for utility dc transmission lines

A laptop computer power supply system

Inverter

Display backlighting

iac(t) vac(t)

Charger PWM Rectifier Buck converter Microprocessor Power management Disk drive

ac line input 85265 Vrms

Lithium battery

Boost converter

Power system of an earth-orbiting spacecraft

Dissipative shunt regulator

+ Solar array vbus Battery charge/discharge controllers Batteries Payload Payload Dc-dc converter Dc-dc converter

An electric vehicle power and drive system

ac machine

ac machine

Inverter battery + 3ac line 50/60 Hz Battery charger vb

Inverter

control bus P system controller DC-DC converter Vehicle electronics

Low-voltage dc bus Inverter Inverter

Variable-frequency Variable-voltage ac ac machine ac machine

1.3 Elements of power electronics

Power electronics incorporates concepts from the fields of

analog circuits electronic devices control systems power systems magnetics electric machines numerical simulation

Part I. Converters in equilibrium

Inductor waveforms
vL(t)
Vg V DTs D'Ts V switch position: 1 2 1

Averaged equivalent circuit

RL D Ron D' VD D' RD D' : 1 + V R

Vg

iL(t)
I iL(0) 0 Vg V L

iL(DTs) V L DTs Ts

iL

Predicted efficiency
100% 90%

0.002 0.01

80% 70% 60%

0.02 0.05 RL/R = 0.1

50% 40%

Discontinuous conduction mode Transformer isolation

30% 20% 10% 0% 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Switch realization: semiconductor devices

The IGBT
gate

iA(t)

collector

Switching loss

transistor waveforms

Qr Vg vA(t) 0 iL 0 t

emitter

Emitter Gate

diode waveforms

iL 0

iB(t) vB(t) 0 t

area Qr

Vg

np

minority carrier injection

pA(t) = vA iA
area ~QrVg

tr

Collector
t0 t1 t2

area ~iLVgtr t

Part I. Converters in equilibrium

2. Principles of steady state converter analysis 3. Steady-state equivalent circuit modeling, losses, and efficiency 4. Switch realization 5. The discontinuous conduction mode 6. Converter circuits

Part II. Converter dynamics and control

Closed-loop converter system
Power input Switching converter + vg(t) + v(t) transistor gate driver (t)
(t)

Averaging the waveforms

Load
gate drive

R feedback connection
actual waveform v(t) including ripple t

vc(t)

voltage reference vref

t

dTs Ts

Controller

Small-signal averaged equivalent circuit

v g( t )

I d (t )

compensator pulse-width vc G (s) c modulator

v
averaged waveform <v(t)>Ts with ripple neglected t

1:D

V g V d (t )

D' : 1
+ I d (t )

v( t )

Part II. Converter dynamics and control

7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Ac modeling Converter transfer functions Controller design Input filter design Ac and dc equivalent circuit modeling of the discontinuous conduction mode Current-programmed control

12.

Part III. Magnetics

n1 : n 2

transformer design

i1(t)

iM(t) LM R1 R2

i2(t)

the proximity effect

layer 3

3i 2i 2 2i i

layer 2

ik(t)
layer 1

i
d

: nk

4226

transformer size vs. switching frequency

3622

0.1 0.08

Pot core size

2616 2213 1811 1811 2213

2616

0.06 0.04 0.02 0

25kHz

50kHz

100kHz

200kHz

250kHz

400kHz

500kHz

1000kHz

Switching frequency

current density J
Bmax (T)

Rk

Part III. Magnetics

13. 14. 15.

Basic magnetics theory Inductor design Transformer design

Part IV. Modern rectifiers,

and power system harmonics
Pollution of power system by rectifier current harmonics A low-harmonic rectifier system
boost converter ig(t) iac(t) vac(t) + vg(t) vcontrol(t)
multiplier

i(t) L D1 Q1 C + v(t) ig(t) Rs PWM va(t) v (t) + err Gc(s)

compensator

vg(t) X

vref(t) = kx vg(t) vcontrol(t) controller

100% 100% 91% 73% 52% 32% 19% 15% 15% 13% 9% 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19

Harmonic amplitude, percent of fundamental

80% 60% 40% 20% 0%

THD = 136% Distortion factor = 59%

iac(t) +

Ideal rectifier (LFR) p(t) = vac / Re Re(vcontrol)

2

i(t) + v(t) dc output

Model of the ideal rectifier

vac(t) ac input

Harmonic number

vcontrol

Part IV. Modern rectifiers,

and power system harmonics

16. 17. 18.

Power and harmonics in nonsinusoidal systems Line-commutated rectifiers Pulse-width modulated rectifiers

Part V. Resonant converters

The series resonant converter
Q1 D1 Q3

L
D3

1:n +

Vg

+
Q2 Q4

D2

D4

Zero voltage switching

vds1(t) Vg

1 0.9

Q = 0.2

Q = 0.2

0.8
0.35

0.7

M = V / Vg

0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3

0.35

0.5 0.75

conducting devices:

Q1 Q4 turn off Q1, Q4

X D2 D3 commutation interval

0.5 0.75 1 1.5 2 3.5 5 10 Q = 20

1 1.5 2 3.5 5 10 Q = 20

Dc characteristics

0.2 0.1 0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

F = fs / f0

Part V. Resonant converters

19. 20. Resonant conversion Soft switching

Appendices
A. B. C. D. RMS values of commonly-observed converter waveforms Simulation of converters Middlebrooks extra element theorem L 1 2 Magnetics design tables 50 H
1 2 CCM-DCM1

iLOAD + R1
11 k

Vg
20 dB

+
5

C
500 F
4

|| Gvg ||

28 V
Open loop, d(t) = constant

0 dB 20 dB 40 dB 60 dB 80 dB 5 Hz

R=3

L = 50 fs = 100 kz
8 7 6

Xswitch

85 k

R2

Closed loop

R = 25

vx
VM = 4 V
500 Hz 5 kHz 50 kHz

vz

vy

LM324

50 Hz

Epwm
value = {LIMIT(0.25 vx, 0.1, 0.9)} .nodeset v(3)=15 v(5)=5 v(6)=4.144 v(8)=0.536

R3
120 k

C3

C2
1.1 nF

2.7 nF

+12 V
5

vref +
5V

R4
47 k

Chapter 2 Principles of Steady-State Converter Analysis

2.1. Introduction 2.2. Inductor volt-second balance, capacitor charge balance, and the small ripple approximation 2.3. Boost converter example 2.4. Cuk converter example 2.5. Estimating the ripple in converters containing twopole low-pass filters 2.6. Summary of key points

2.1 Introduction Buck converter

1

SPDT switch changes dc component

Vg +

+
2

+ R v(t)

vs(t)

Switch output voltage waveform

Duty cycle D: 0D1

vs(t)

Vg DTs D ' Ts 0 DTs 1 2 Ts t 1

complement D: D = 1 - D

0 Switch position:

Dc component of switch output voltage

vs(t) Vg area = DTsVg 0 vs = DVg 0 DTs Ts t

Fourier analysis: Dc component = average value

vs = 1 Ts
Ts

vs(t) dt
0

vs = 1 (DTsVg) = DVg Ts

Insertion of low-pass filter to remove switching harmonics and pass only dc component
1

L + + C R v(t)

Vg

vs(t)

V
v vs = DVg
Vg

0 0 1

Three basic dc-dc converters

(a)
1

1 0.8

M ( D) = D

Buck

Vg

M(D)

iL (t)
C R

+
0.6 0.4 0.2

0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

(b)

Vg

M(D)

Boost

iL (t)

4 3 2 1 0 0

1 M ( D) = 1 D

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

(c)
0

0
1 2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Buck-boost
Vg
+

+ C R v

M(D)

iL (t)

2 3 4 5

D M ( D) = 1 D

Objectives of this chapter

Develop techniques for easily determining output voltage of an arbitrary converter circuit Derive the principles of inductor volt-second balance and capacitor charge (amp-second) balance Introduce the key small ripple approximation Develop simple methods for selecting filter element values Illustrate via examples

G G

2.2.

Inductor volt-second balance, capacitor charge balance, and the small ripple approximation
Actual output voltage waveform, buck converter
1

iL(t)

L + vL(t) iC(t) R + v(t)

Buck converter containing practical low-pass filter

Vg

Actual output voltage waveform

v(t) = V + vripple(t)

v(t)
V

Actual waveform v(t) = V + vripple(t)

dc component V
0

The small ripple approximation

v(t) Actual waveform v(t) = V + vripple(t)

v(t) = V + vripple(t)

dc component V
0

In a well-designed converter, the output voltage ripple is small. Hence, the waveforms can be easily determined by ignoring the ripple:

vripple < V
v(t) V

Buck converter analysis: inductor current waveform

1

iL(t)

L + vL(t) iC(t) R + v(t)

original converter

Vg

switch in position 1
iL(t) L + vL(t) Vg + C + iC(t) R v(t)

switch in position 2
L + vL(t) Vg + iL(t) C + iC(t) R v(t)

Inductor voltage and current Subinterval 1: switch in position 1

Inductor voltage
vL = Vg v(t)
Vg + iL(t) L + vL(t) iC(t) C R + v(t)

Small ripple approximation:

vL Vg V

Knowing the inductor voltage, we can now find the inductor current via
diL(t) vL(t) = L dt

Solve for the slope: diL(t) vL(t) Vg V = L L dt

The inductor current changes with an essentially constant slope

Inductor voltage and current Subinterval 2: switch in position 2

L

Inductor voltage
+ vL(t)

+ iC(t) C R v(t)

vL(t) = v(t)

Small ripple approximation:

vL(t) V

Vg

iL(t)

Knowing the inductor voltage, we can again find the inductor current via
diL(t) vL(t) = L dt

Solve for the slope:

diL(t) V L dt

The inductor current changes with an essentially constant slope

Inductor voltage and current waveforms

vL(t) Vg V DTs D ' Ts V Switch position:
iL(t) I iL(0) 0

t 1
iL(DTs)
Vg V L V L

diL(t) vL(t) = L dt

iL

DTs

Ts

Determination of inductor current ripple magnitude

iL(t) I iL(0) 0 iL(DTs)
Vg V L V L

iL

DTs

Ts

(change in iL) = (slope)(length of subinterval) Vg V DTs 2iL = L

Vg V iL = DTs 2L

Vg V L= DTs 2iL

Inductor current waveform during turn-on transient

iL(t)

iL(Ts) iL(0) = 0 0 DTs Ts 2Ts

V g v( t ) L v( t ) L

iL(nTs)

iL((n + 1)Ts)

nTs

(n + 1)Ts

When the converter operates in equilibrium:

i L((n + 1)Ts) = i L(nTs)

The principle of inductor volt-second balance: Derivation

Inductor defining relation: diL(t) vL(t) = L dt Integrate over one complete switching period:
iL(Ts) iL(0) = 1 L
Ts Ts

vL(t) dt
0

In periodic steady state, the net change in inductor current is zero:

0=
0

vL(t) dt

Hence, the total area (or volt-seconds) under the inductor voltage waveform is zero whenever the converter operates in steady state. An equivalent form:
0= 1 vL(t) dt = vL Ts 0 The average inductor voltage is zero in steady state.
Ts

Inductor volt-second balance: Buck converter example

vL(t) Vg V Total area t V
Integral of voltage waveform is area of rectangles:
Ts

Inductor voltage waveform, previously derived:

DTs

=
0

vL(t) dt = (Vg V )(DTs) + ( V )(D'Ts)

Average voltage is vL = = D(Vg V ) + D'( V ) Ts Equate to zero and solve for V:

0 = DVg (D + D')V = DVg V

V = DVg

The principle of capacitor charge balance: Derivation

Capacitor defining relation: dvC(t) i C (t ) = C dt Integrate over one complete switching period:
vC(Ts) vC(0) = 1 C
Ts

iC(t) dt
0

In periodic steady state, the net change in capacitor voltage is zero:

0= 1 Ts
Ts

iC(t) dt = iC
0

Hence, the total area (or charge) under the capacitor current waveform is zero whenever the converter operates in steady state. The average capacitor current is then zero.

2.3

Boost converter example

L iL(t) + vL(t)
1 2

Boost converter with ideal switch

iC(t) C R

+ v

Vg

D1 iC(t) C R + v

Realization using power MOSFET and diode

iL(t) Vg +

+ vL(t) Q1
DTs Ts

Boost converter analysis

L iL(t) + vL(t)
1 2

iC(t) C R

+ v

original converter

Vg

switch in position 1
L iL(t) Vg + + vL(t) + iC(t) C R v
Vg

switch in position 2
L iL(t) + + vL(t) iC(t) C R + v

Subinterval 1: switch in position 1

Inductor voltage and capacitor current

vL = Vg iC = v / R
iL(t) + L + vL(t) + iC(t) C R v

Small ripple approximation:

vL = Vg iC = V / R

Vg

Subinterval 2: switch in position 2

Inductor voltage and capacitor current

vL = Vg v iC = i L v / R
L iL(t) Vg + + vL(t) + iC(t) C R v

Small ripple approximation:

vL = Vg V iC = I V / R

Inductor voltage and capacitor current waveforms

vL(t)

Vg DTs D ' Ts t Vg V

iC(t) DTs V/R

I V/R D ' Ts t

Inductor volt-second balance

Net volt-seconds applied to inductor over one switching period:
Ts

vL(t)

Vg DTs D ' Ts t

vL(t) dt = (Vg) DTs + (Vg V ) D'Ts

0

Vg V

Equate to zero and collect terms:

Vg (D + D') V D' = 0

Solve for V:
Vg V = D'

The voltage conversion ratio is therefore

M (D) = V = 1 = 1 Vg D' 1 D

Conversion ratio M(D) of the boost converter

5 4

1 1 M ( D) = = D' 1 D

M(D)

3 2 1 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Determination of inductor current dc component

iC(t) I V/R DTs V/R D ' Ts t
Ts 0

Capacitor charge balance:

iC(t) dt = ( V ) DTs + (I V ) D'Ts R R
I Vg/R
8 6 4 2 0 0

Collect terms and equate to zero: V (D + D') + I D' = 0 R Solve for I: I= V D' R Eliminate V to express in terms of Vg: Vg I= 2 D' R

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Determination of inductor current ripple

Inductor current slope during subinterval 1: diL(t) vL(t) Vg = = L L dt Inductor current slope during subinterval 2: diL(t) vL(t) Vg V = = L L dt

iL(t)
I

iL
Vg L
0 DTs

Vg V L
Ts

Change in inductor current during subinterval 1 is (slope) (length of subinterval): Vg 2iL = DTs L Solve for peak ripple:
Vg iL = DTs 2L

Choose L such that desired ripple magnitude is obtained

Determination of capacitor voltage ripple

Capacitor voltage slope during subinterval 1: dvC(t) iC(t) V = = C RC dt Capacitor voltage slope during subinterval 2: dvC(t) iC(t) I = = V C C RC dt

v(t)
V

v
V RC
0 DTs

I V C RC
Ts

Change in capacitor voltage during subinterval 1 is (slope) (length of subinterval):

2v = V DTs RC

Solve for peak ripple:

v = V DTs 2RC

Choose C such that desired voltage ripple magnitude is obtained In practice, capacitor equivalent series resistance (esr) leads to increased voltage ripple

2.4

Cuk converter example

L1 C1 + v1
1 2

L2 i2 C2 + v2 R

Cuk converter, with ideal switch

Vg +

i1

Cuk converter: practical realization using MOSFET and diode

L1 i1 Vg +

C1 + v1 Q1 D1

L2 i2 C2 + v2 R

Cuk converter circuit

with switch in positions 1 and 2

Switch in position 1: MOSFET conducts Capacitor C1 releases energy to output

Vg +

L1 i1 + vL1 v1 + iC1 C1

L2 + vL2

i2 iC2 C2 + v2 R

i1

L1 + vL1 iC1 + C1 v1

L2 + vL2

i2 + iC2 C2 v2 R

Switch in position 2: diode conducts Capacitor C1 is charged from input

Vg +

Waveforms during subinterval 1

MOSFET conduction interval
Inductor voltages and capacitor currents:
L1 i1 + vL1 Vg + v1 + L2 iC1 + vL2 C1 i2 iC2 C2 + v2 R

vL1 = Vg vL2 = v1 v2 i C1 = i 2 v2 i C2 = i 2 R

Small ripple approximation for subinterval 1:

vL1 = Vg vL2 = V1 V2 i C1 = I 2 V2 i C2 = I 2 R

Waveforms during subinterval 2

Diode conduction interval
Inductor voltages and capacitor currents:
i1 L1 + vL1 Vg + C1 iC1 + v1 L2 + vL2 i2 iC2 C2 + v2 R

vL1 = Vg v1 vL2 = v2 i C1 = i 1 v2 i C2 = i 2 R

Small ripple approximation for subinterval 2:

vL1 = Vg V1 vL2 = V2 i C1 = I 1 V2 i C2 = I 2 R

Equate average values to zero

The principles of inductor volt-second and capacitor charge balance state that the average values of the periodic inductor voltage and capacitor current waveforms are zero, when the converter operates in steady state. Hence, to determine the steady-state conditions in the converter, let us sketch the inductor voltage and capacitor current waveforms, and equate their average values to zero.

Waveforms:
Inductor voltage vL1(t)
vL1(t)

Volt-second balance on L1:

Vg DTs D'Ts t Vg V1

vL1 = DVg + D'(Vg V1) = 0

Equate average values to zero

Inductor L2 voltage
vL2(t) DTs V1 V2 V2 D'Ts t

Average the waveforms:

Capacitor C1 current
iC1(t) DTs I2 I1 D'Ts t

vL2 = D( V1 V2) + D'( V2) = 0 i C1 = DI 2 + D'I 1 = 0

Equate average values to zero

Capacitor current iC2(t) waveform
iC2(t) I2 V2 / R (= 0) DTs D'Ts t

i C2

V2 = I2 =0 R

Note: during both subintervals, the capacitor current iC2 is equal to the difference between the inductor current i2 and the load current V2/R. When ripple is neglected, iC2 is constant and equal to zero.

Cuk converter conversion ratio M = V/Vg

D
0 0 -1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

M(D)

-2 -3 -4 -5

V2 D M ( D) = = Vg 1D

Inductor current waveforms

Interval 1 slopes, using small ripple approximation:
i1(t) I1
Vg L1 Vg V1 L1

i1

di 1(t) vL1(t) Vg = = L1 L1 dt di 2(t) vL2(t) V1 V2 = = L2 L2 dt

Interval 2 slopes:
di 1(t) vL1(t) Vg V1 = = L1 L1 dt di 2(t) vL2(t) V2 = = L2 L2 dt

DTs
DTs I2 i2(t)
V1 V2 L2 V2 L2

Ts
Ts t

i2

Capacitor C1 waveform
Subinterval 1:

dv1(t) i C1(t) I 2 = = C1 C1 dt
Subinterval 2:

v1(t) V1 v1
I2 C1 I1 C1

dv1(t) i C1(t) I 1 = = C1 C1 dt

DTs

Ts

Ripple magnitudes

Analysis results

Use dc converter solution to simplify:

VgDTs i 1 = 2L 1 V1 + V2 i 2 = DTs 2L 2 I 2DTs v1 = 2C 1

VgDTs i 1 = 2L 1 VgDTs i 2 = 2L 2 2 VgD Ts v1 = 2D'RC 1

Q: How large is the output voltage ripple?

2.5 Estimating ripple in converters containing two-pole low-pass filters

Buck converter example: Determine output voltage ripple
1

L iL(t) iC(t) C + vC(t) iR(t) R

Vg

iL(t)

Inductor current waveform. What is the capacitor current?

iL(DTs)
Vg V L V L

I iL(0) 0

iL

DTs

Ts

Capacitor current and voltage, buck example

iC(t)

Must not neglect inductor current ripple!

If the capacitor voltage ripple is small, then essentially all of the ac component of inductor current flows through the capacitor.

Total charge q iL Ts /2 DTs D ' Ts t

vC(t) V v v t

Estimating capacitor voltage ripple v

iC(t) Total charge q iL Ts /2 DTs D ' Ts t

vC(t) V v v t

Current iC(t) is positive for half of the switching period. This positive current causes the capacitor voltage vC(t) to increase between its minimum and maximum extrema. During this time, the total charge q is deposited on the capacitor plates, where
q = C (2v)

(change in charge) = C (change in voltage)

Estimating capacitor voltage ripple v

iC(t) Total charge q iL Ts /2 DTs D ' Ts t

The total charge q is the area of the triangle, as shown:

Ts q = iL 2
1 2

Eliminate q and solve for v:

iL Ts v = 8C
v

vC(t) V

v t

Note: in practice, capacitor equivalent series resistance (esr) further increases v.

Inductor current ripple in two-pole filters

Example: problem 2.9
Vg + L1 i1 C1 + vC1
vL(t) Total flux linkage v Ts /2 DTs D ' Ts t

iT

Q1 i2 D1

L2 + C2 R v

can use similar arguments, with = L (2i) = inductor flux linkages

i

iL(t) I

i t

= inductor volt-seconds

2.6

Summary of Key Points

1. The dc component of a converter waveform is given by its average value, or the integral over one switching period, divided by the switching period. Solution of a dc-dc converter to find its dc, or steadystate, voltages and currents therefore involves averaging the waveforms. 2. The linear ripple approximation greatly simplifies the analysis. In a welldesigned converter, the switching ripples in the inductor currents and capacitor voltages are small compared to the respective dc components, and can be neglected. 3. The principle of inductor volt-second balance allows determination of the dc voltage components in any switching converter. In steady-state, the average voltage applied to an inductor must be zero.

Summary of Chapter 2
4. The principle of capacitor charge balance allows determination of the dc components of the inductor currents in a switching converter. In steadystate, the average current applied to a capacitor must be zero. 5. By knowledge of the slopes of the inductor current and capacitor voltage waveforms, the ac switching ripple magnitudes may be computed. Inductance and capacitance values can then be chosen to obtain desired ripple magnitudes. 6. In converters containing multiple-pole filters, continuous (nonpulsating) voltages and currents are applied to one or more of the inductors or capacitors. Computation of the ac switching ripple in these elements can be done using capacitor charge and/or inductor flux-linkage arguments, without use of the small-ripple approximation. 7. Converters capable of increasing (boost), decreasing (buck), and inverting the voltage polarity (buck-boost and Cuk) have been described. Converter circuits are explored more fully in a later chapter.