TGp6FwLGV4 http://pronuncian.com/Lessons/Default.aspx?Lesson=71 11:06 The master of the Oud Musician artist Fareed El-Atrash - YouTube www.youtube.com http://englishinteractive.net/vocabulary/Common-Expressions/ http://www.speakenglish.co.

.uk/partners/english http://www.eslgold.com/listening/levels/low_begin.html http://www.manythings.org/audio/sentences/ http://usefulenglish.ru/phonetics/listening-for-falling-and-rising-intonation 11:05 91 - http://www.phraseteacher.com/ http://www.talkenglish.com/LessonDetails.aspx?ALID=768 http://www.talkenglish.com/Listening/LessonListen.aspx?ALID=301 https://elt.oup.com/student/englishfile/elementary/e_wordbank?cc=us&selLanguage=en http://www.englishdaybyday.net/article-intonation-of-questions-112759247.html 11:06 The master of the Oud Musician artist Fareed El-Atrash - YouTube www.youtube.com Andy Krieger - Accent Reduction Course

11:05 King of Oud - Farid Al Atrash - YouTube www.youtube.com

10:54 Eastern Arab musician artist . The master of the Oud Fareed El-Atrash - You YouTube www.youtube.com

10:54 Eastern Arab musician artist . The master of the Oud Fareed El-Atrash - You

Unspeakable truth

Adore your Lord in this world full of mismatch; Love has lost its taste and is governed by whim; Today's love no longer itches and lives a bad patch; Lovers with pride brim but with sorrows my cups brim.

A freakish fancy, and then you are at death's door; Looking like grim death, you are afraid of death rattles; Neither your tongue nor your body can move for sure; You can only see angels and hear people's brattles.

Now people tittle tattle about your private life; Truth is in your bleak grave marked by a tomstone; Your friends laugh louder and twist the knife; They make you turn in your grave as you are lone.

What shall you say to both angels on your right and left side? Verily! you desired life of this world and its adornments; So now the hell is your abode as you have nothing to hide; No one cares about your red tears and pitiful laments.

Is hell your abode forever or just for a while? Sure you committed many sins day and night; You did not repent your sins all gathered in a pile;

Then came monotheism not standing in your light.

It saved you from the enduring punishment and pain; Such is a tug of war between polytheism and monotheism; You were in heedlessless, but now stark naked again; You were forgiven, for you rejected philosophers' atheism.

Philosophers are disbelievers for taking the wrong path; They are learned men, but deny the prophets' words; Only a few are forgiven as they avoid the warpath; These are still muslims and look like innocent birds.

They fight the prophets' enemies with a running pen; They were just poisoned with ideas and misled; Thus, prophets' sayings were beyond their ken; Paradise is their abode, and I swear this what God said.

Most today's muslims are polytheists in words and deeds; They associate deities with their Creator though they pray; They fast and go to Mecca, and are devout to their creeds; The ignorant say Hell is their dwelling and I say nay, nay, nay.

The ignorant, misunderstanding the Qur'an, are truth voicers ; Verily! their eyes are not blind, but their heart in their breast is; Some verses are unspecific but you are always good actors; You leave verses that are precise on purpose, but I am a wiz.

You say that muslims commit sins and worship dead saints; You mean muslims invoke the prophet, the saints and angels; A monotheist's sins ae forgiven, so leave your complaints; Only polytheism is not forgiven forever without quarrels.

Most muslims are laypersons who are far from classical Arabic;

Some are polytheistic and in Paradise forever they will dwell; A muslim is a layman who has faith and is never a sceptic; Falling in polytheism does not mean Hell if you understand well.

Unlike laymen's life, yours hangs between Hell and Paradise ; Muslims are neither wicked nor wretched but blessed; Do not be crooked and watch your lips and think twice; Learn from scholors before you trip and then, you are accursed.

Life is full of impediments making you choke up; Life adornments are clad in a widow's weeds; Love is a drinking fountain full of a sour cup; Today's love is governed by whim lacking deeds. I am not afraid of love but of this world in mismatch; Hurrying into a whim is like eating a poisonous bait; If true love leads to marriage, that is a good catch; We are all blind and we can never ever wait. Maybe, my poems to you still do not read well; Love is not love if not enduring and not humane; We all try to hit the target as love we cannot quell; If you are hit by love arrows, then you are insane. If then you fall on a snake, you are an easy prey; Now, the venom is running in your veins by its fang; You want to quit, but you cannot and you just obey; You live on that scar forever to remember the pang.

4'accomplishment= success 5choke up=To be unable to speak because of strong emotion. 6-weed=an undesirable plant growing wild, esp. one growing on cultivated ground to the disadvantage of a crop, lawn, or flower bed. 7-widow's weeds=mourning garments: 8-sour=having or denoting a sharp biting taste like that of lemon juice or vinegar. 9whim=A sudden or capricious idea; a fancy. 10mismatch=a bad or unsuitable match. 11 bait=a. Food or other lure placed on a hook or in a trap and used in the taking of fish, birds, or other animals 12- read= to have a specified quality for a reader 13-humane= Characterized by kindness, mercy, or compassion: 14-quell=to overcome 14- snake or snake in the grass= a deceitful or treacherous person 15-fang= the long pointed hollow or grooved tooth of a venomous snake through which venom is injected 16 pang=a sudden feeling of mental or emotional distress:

innocence

My love to you is the love of spring to flowers; Prickly red roses give my heart tingling sensation;

For ages they have been my lovely neighbours; I love them all as they have no transgression.

Innocence makes them ignorant about this world; Shyness makes them harmless and forever chaste; They blossom when they see me say a sweet word; I am their shepherd who tends them without haste.

They pich in the soft wind and sing in one voice; They are naked to every eye which is utterly blind

Learning English through poems

I asked my lady for a date, but she shot me down; Her ex-lover pulled the gun on me and shot me; I wasn't shot dead but in the leg and I did frown; He shot me on sight but I hid behind a stupy tree.

Two guys started shooting angry words at us; They shot across the road saying snotty words; I shot up my hand,' Miss, don't make a fuss.", She asked me, ' Why did you shoot my photo with birds ?'.

I said, ' you're my birdie giving me shooting pains; A sharp pain suddenly shot along my aching heart. a scene in which she shoot it out with me in mountains; I shot myself in the foot though I knew it from the start.

I stopped talking to her and shooting questions at her; I shot my mouth off about love and shot from the hip; I had to shoot off as I was no longer her lovely sir: I shot up drugs to forget her and my mouth I had to zip.

I had been shooting forher love for long but in vain; I enjoyed shooting the breeze with her in my childhood; I shot my bolt following her from a train to train; I shot the messenger who was canny and no good.

I shot for the moon and found myself lonely. Now I am shooting the rapids with my canoe.

1- date=An engagement to go out socially with another person, often out of romantic interest 2 shot someone or something down/ shot down someone or something ( informal English)=to say or show that someone's ideas or opinions are wrong or stupid; here it means to refuse to accept the offer made by (someone) = to disappoint someone 3-shot me=kill/injure [transitive] to deliberately kill or injure someone using a gun: 4-frown=To wrinkle the brow, as in thought or displeasure 5-on sight=shoot me as soon as he sees me). 6-stumpy=adj, stumpier or stumpiest a- short and thickset like a stump ( The part of a tree trunk left protruding from the ground after the tree has fallen or has been felled.) or b- A part, as of a branch, limb, or tooth, remaining after the main part has been cut away, broken off, or worn down.; it's like a tree without its trunk; see stump pictures in google; here it means the first meaning 7-shoot [+ obj] : to direct (a look, comment, etc.) at (someone) quickly and suddenly 8shoot=move quickly [intransitive,transitive always + adverb/preposition] to move quickly in a particular direction, or to make something move in this way: 9-snotty (vulgur)= Dirtied with nasal mucus. here it means dirty 10 make a fuss= a complaint or protest, esp. about something relatively unimportant 11- shoot: to film or photograph (something) *+ obj+ The movie was shot in Australia. The scene was shot in slow motion. Where did you shoot *=take+ this photo? *no obj+ The director says we'll begin shooting [=filming] next week. 12- birdie= a small bird 13shooting pains =continuous short pains passing through your body 14 shoot through/along=[intransitive always + dverb/preposition]= if pain shoots through your body, you feel it going quickly hrough it 15 shoot it out (with somebody)= if people shoot it out, they fight using guns, especially until one person or group is killed or defeated by the other: 16-shoot yourself in the foot= to say or do something stupid that will cause you a lot of trouble: 17-shoot questions at somebody(idiom)= to ask someone a lot of questions very quickly: 18shoot your mouth off(idiom)= -informal : to talk foolishly, carelessly, or too much about something

19-shoot from the hip (idiom= informal= : to act or speak quickly without thinking about the possible results 20-shoot off phrasal verb= to leave somewhere quickly or suddenly: 21-shoot up (something) informal to put illegal drugs into your blood, using a needle: 22-shoot for/at something phrasal verb= to try to achieve a particular aim, especially one that is very difficult [= aim for]: 23-shoot the breeze also shoot the bull= US, informal : to talk informally about unimportant things 24 if you have shot your bolt,= you have done or used everything possible to try to do something, and there is nothing more that you can do 25 cunny= skilled 26reach/shoot for the moon : to try to do or get something that is very difficult to do or get 27 shoot the rapids(idiom)= to sail a small boat along a river that is moving very fast over rocks, as a sport: innocence

My love to you is the love of spring to flowers; Prickly red roses give my heart tingling sensation; For ages they have been my lovely neighbours; I love them all as they have no transgression.

Innocence makes them ignorant about this world; Shyness makes them harmless and forever chaste; They blossom when they see me say a sweet word; I am their shepherd who tends them without haste.

They pich in the soft wind and sing in one voice; They are naked to every eye which is utterly blind

Shattered love At last now you are back to life and have shown up; Our passionate love is an old book you read at night; Turn the pages and remember the slivers of my love cup; Feel the scent of my love reminding you of your knight.

Please do not choke on the yellowish and ragged pages; Each love has its ups and downs and dies with age; It is embryonic till it reaches its decaying final stages; I remember you being a mousy girl with a happy visage.

Many sycophants sweet-talked you and cheated on you; Their love lasted for a night to snatch away your jewel; They were just horsing around like animals in the zoo; Their love was a John Doe and they were unthoughtful.

I used to be your ardent poet who wrote pearly words; From my verse, you knew it was you I was trying to woo; You were a tenderfoot and I only used coded passwords; Now you are a lady who knows that true love has no taboo.

1 show up= appear 2sliver= broken pieces of a glass, wood, etc 3knight=a person who served his lord as a mounted and heavily armed soldier 4 yellowish= a bit yellow 5- choke=to suffer from or as if from strangling or suffocating 6- ragged=Tattered, frayed, or torn: 7ups and downs=good and bad times 8-decaying=deteriorating 9-mousy= shy and quiet 10 sycophant= a person who uses flattery to win favour from individuals wielding influence 11-sweet-talk=o use cajoling words on; flatter 12- cheat on=to be sexually unfaithful 13- snatch= steal 14-jewel= precious thing; inhere itmeans chastity 15-horse around/about=To indulge in horseplay or frivolous activity: 16-John Doe= Used as a name in legal proceedings to designate an unknown or unidentified man or boy. 17-ardent= passionate

18- used to be= I was in the past ( habitual action) but not now 19-woo= court;To seek the affection of with intent to marry 20 tenderfoot(noun)=not experienced

loneliness Listen to the the sweet sad song of the nightingale; Goodbye, sweetheart! smell the sweet scent of my poem; I already ate the poisoned love bait by a gazelle in veil; She hardly knows me, and all my peoms are just a proem.

You need a young love in the young evening; You live on hope, and I live on bitter reminiscence; I was the Romeo of all pretty girls with cups brimming; They all sang my pearly poems and lost their senses.

I was the one who made the maids happy and sad; They all wanted to snatch away my love for my beloved; Wise, I accepted their petty jealousies being unclad; It is her who I loved and true love I discovered.

She was my neighbour who listened to my lute at night; Our secret was revealed, and her parents blamed me; She left without a sign that early morning without bright; I am used to loneliness and from her love I am not free

ost love Dig the knife deep in my sobbing and aching heart; Twist off the vodka bottle cap and let me drink; Pour the remaining wine in my wound and depart;

Let me weep over my lost love written in black ink.

Be away from me so as not to hear my death rattles; I am no longer your knight who once did not fear swords; I used to make many soldiers orphan in many battles; For you I fought all the world and the many lords;

Tolerance and mesirecord were always my white flag; Forcing me to kill them, I sobbed at each soldier's death; They killed my beloved and were merciless and did brag; I stoppen fighting them and to their defeat they were loath.

I left them and lived in the wild in the fauna and flora; They were my friends forever and shared my sadness; I broke my sword, my bow and my arrows by the aurora; I started writing elegy poems and lived in the darkness.

yours forever Feel comfy, cozy and homey with a fourty-old man; I have been a night owl to see your pearly face; so cute, so smart that blonde made me orphan; Like a hermit I will live as my heart has no place.

Her love is stormy which gives nightly sharp tugs; Wisdom holds me back to be more expressive; Her love I will suppress as it lacks tight hugs; I am not a rival though my love is obsessive.

She sends my heart to rhapsody that gazelle; I am between two fires as what to say; Her beauty is killing me, so what shall I tell? To have her by my side, which price shall I pay?

Her love has made me slender and bony; In China my aching heart dwells in forever; I will die like a cosuming candle and feel lonely; She is my apple of my eyes ever and ever.

A moonlit love One January night, I spotted a sunny rose on the net; That youngish Russian rare bird sent a heat wave; She smiled a friendly smile and caught me in the fishnet; Never can she be mine, and newly felt love I cannot save.

Like a far off mermaid, she drives any man insane; Youth crowns her with beauty like green leaves; Each spring she blossoms as now she reigns; To whom shall she give reins of emotions that Eve?

Love without fire is tasteless and can no longer itch; Like ashes, one day it may die with age if not stirred; Much water kills roses, so love slow down to reach the pitch.

Love is new moon, half moon and full moon; Swap the roles to make your lover suffer a bit; If love is daily routine, it will kill you very soon; Read between the lines, and my love do not quit.

A comely female student asked me what love is; She made me lose the lesson pace and I felt shaky; Classy, dressy, that blonde gave me a real quiz; Her bangles, bracelet and anklet made my heart dicky.

I told her: ' love is fully crowned with knowledge.' Love is divine and for the knowing not the ignorant; It all sounded Greek to her, and love I wanted to abridge; I told her: ' Are you in love?'. She said: ' I'm errant.';

'Two roads diverged', Poe wrote, so lady rank yourself; She said: ' Oh teacher, please don't be tough on me.' I replied: 'Twenty-first century love is words on the shelf.'; Verily! love aches and never dies but the blind cannot see.

Please lady, go back to the past and read rugged books; The truth of love is hard to explain if you are a laywomen; I am not a tendefoot, so mind my words and leave the rooks; Be sold on these oldish books till you meet your gentleman.

Comely= beautiful ( literary English) dicky= weak tough= hard verily ( old use)= surely rugged= torn laywoman= non professional oldish= a bit old

Wise not fool

People laughed at me for love though they are misled; They just think that love is only two souls in one bed; They also blame me after being a fourty-four old man; I told them love can be divine, so away from me layman.

Do you not know I am a learned man ahead of his time?

Do you think I am a wild animal with basic instinct ? Loving a lady though married is not a heart crime; You laymen, you are trying to put my love in extinct.

Who cured you from hemorrhoids when you ached? Did I not tell you to mix molmol with the camel hump oil? I told you to mix the hot oil with molmol to be saved; I told you to treat for seven days and be free from toil.

I treated other illnesses but they were still ungrateful; Do you think you are wise, knowledgeable and I am fool? No, sorry you do not know what love is, so be careful; Love is a soul bound, but you are still learning at school.

two loving birds Thou art a comely lady whose friendship hath blossomed into love; Love is not free-for-all, and soon both of you will fly high above; He will ne'er lose thee as thou luv hath always been a tidal wave; Like twin whitish doves thou shall llike thy love match till the grave.

Free verse and blank verse of woe and yearning are not for thee; Thou have been singing the blues for ages, so now smile back prithee; Love, if not remade all time and not stirred by constant impulse,dies; Thy love is rose-like and fresh like dew now it hath a marital tie;

Much love without grace extinguishes its flames and can no longer itch; Loving someone younger shall make thee live longer, so thy lover bewitch; Men's love is haste and lasts but a moment lack of knowledge; Tame and put your lover to real love test to cross the bridge.

Gazing at each other is not true love but just a fake luxury;

Love's tongue is in the beating hearts and aching souls not in a hurry; Of many passions, thou true love is a full moon at dusky night; Thou lover must, then, love thee, and for thee he must fight.

the language is middle English thou art= you are thy= your; ne'er= never thee= you; luv= love love match= a marriage of two lovers comely= attractive and beautiful love match= a marriage of two lovers tame= to make someoneeasy to control sing the blues= to be sad

Love is pain Sure you have had your moments in a moment of rhapsody; My words of love are homespun, and with poems I am handy; I have been feeling home 'sick since you left me alone and lonely; Words are honeyed and ache your inner soul continually.

The knife slipped and cut my finger while thinking of you; I fell on the icy road and got a bruise on my love tattoo; Now I am listening to the lute to feel the enduring pain; In pain, I am myself and love you more as you drive me insane.

Marriage kills art and poems as love is more than routine; You must make me suffer, and then give me a morphine; But make suffer from time to time to love you forever;

Tease me, leave me for a while, be hard on me to feel fever.

Give me a cold shoulder and let our aching love complain; I will be weeping like a baby as you will be easing my pain; Now you are full of pity and lifeless leaning against my bosom; Weeping, you will always be my lover, and will always blossom.

1-have your moments= to have short times that are better, more interesting, etc. than others. 2-rhapsody= the expression of great enthusiasm or happiness 3-home 'sick= ( pronounce sick strongly) lying in my bad and ill but 'homesick=sad because you are away from your family in another country (nostalgia to your own country) 4-homespun=simple and ordinary; not coming from an expert 5(handy= useful but here it means skillful 6-honeyed= soft and intended to please 7-bruise=a place where the skin turns dark) 8-insane=mad 9-morphine= a kind of drug which eases pain and send you to sleep

10 tease=make fun of or attempt to provoke (a person or animal) in a playful way 11- give someone a cold shoulder= do not care 12-complain= make a mournful sound: 13blossom=(of a tree or bush) produce flowers or masses of flowers:

My little lovely nymph Your hair, midnight-black, crashes over your shoulders; Let me coil a lock of your ebony hair around my fingers; Your sweet eyes look like deep water in the sunshine; Your rapture-black eyes fill my heart without a whine.

Sugar candy sweet lips send me to seven Heavens; Pinkish, they are lilac soft and look like water avens; Slender eyebrows and velvety eyelashes of a gazelle; A dainty nose and sea-nymph ears send a good smell.

Your shiny, halo-white teeth arranged in twin rows; Varnished smooth fingernails cast red warmy glows; Your soothing voice makes my heart kneel down; Your glossy skin glows over Shanghai night snow.

Wasp-waited, you stir any heart in a rebillious way; I am out of my mind and my poem is led astray; full-length and knee-length dresses fit you well; To meet you lady one day, one can never tell

1-coil=arrange (something long and flexible) in a coil:(a length of something wound in a joined sequence of rings: 2ebony= [mass noun] a very dark brown or black colour: 3-water=the quality of transparency and brilliance shown by a diamond or other gem 4-whine=a long, high-pitched complaining cry:

5lilac=a Eurasian shrub or small tree of the olive family, which has fragrant violet, pink, or white blossom and is a popular garden ornamental. 6-avens=a plant of the rose family, typically having serrated, divided leaves and seeds bearing small hooks. 7velvet=a closely woven fabric of silk, cotton, or nylon, that has a thick short pile on one side: 8-dainty=delicately small and pretty 9-sea-nymph=a mythological spirit of nature imagined as a beautiful maiden inhabiting rivers, woods, or other locations. chiefly literary a beautiful young woman. 10halo=a circle of white or colored light around the sun, moon, or other luminous body caused by refraction through ice crystals in the atmosphere. 11-soothing=having a gently calming effect: 12-glossy=shiny and smooth 13wasp-waist ( noun)=a very narrow or tightly corseted waist 14-astray=away from the correct path or direction:

My beloved At least I am now fortunate as I am on my lady's mind; Your shoulder-length fair hair makes me completely blind; You ran like the wind and and left me alone behind; If my love is not for you, then I am misled and unkind.

Your smilling and cheerful face makes you to be in all smiles; Still young and rosy-cheeked you show no no fake and lies: Lying on my pillow, I am watching you on my phone mobiles; Whatever you say, our love is separated by only few miles.

We are now dancing cheek to cheek around a fire; You cannot let go of me as you feel I am not a liar; I can smell you now that we are close like twin buds; Do you think our true love is just in the clouds?

Now I am daydreaming but one day you may agree; we are still fervent lovers though both of us not free;

Your love sets me on fire and makes me a working bee; I still love you very much , so then, I will wait and see

1-be in all smiles= ook very cheerful and pleased, especially in contrast to a previous mood: 2-rosy-cheeked=healthy (having or indicating good health in body or mind; free from infirmity or disease) 3-cheek to cheek=(of two people dancing) with their heads close together in a romantic way: 4-et go or let go of)= relinquish ones grip on someone or something: 5in the clouds =out of touch with reality:

Between two fires Now we are together strolling along the Huangpu River; You are shaking from head to toe as now you have no cover; I am looking at you and I am feeling head over heels for you; It is you, with verses from my poems Iam trying to woo.

I will take you to Yuyuan Garden to feel the breezy air; I will be unable to gasp for air as you shine with fair; talking under your breath, you will throw a love spell; Whoever you love, you are still my beloved gazelle.

My ardent words of love poems are clear as a bell; Your love is hard to open like a hard nutshell; When shall you open it for someone in pain? I hope one day your far off love I will attain.

Now you are mine though your love is for another; I am not a sportspoil though I am a love bother; Maybe, one day this long-waited love will bear fruit; I am like that and shall never give up my pursuit.

1head over heels in love ( in love) =madly in love: 2-woo=try to gain the love of (a woman), especially with a view to marriage: 3-(gasp for) strain to obtain (air) by gasping: 4-fair=2 [mass noun] stylishness and originality: 5under one's breath=in a very quiet voice; almost inaudibly: 6-clear as a bell;=perfectly clear 7nutshell=the hard woody covering around the kernel of a nut 8-attain=succeed in achieving (something that one has worked for) 9-spoilsport=a person who behaves in a way that spoils others' pleasure, especially by not joining in an activity: 10-a bother ( noun)=a person or thing that causes annoyance or difficulty 11bear fruit=yield positive results:

Be mine 'All is well that ends well.', Shakespeare wrote; Words of love in I have always learned by rote; I am obssessed by your beauty day and night; I love you forever though I can no longer fight.

When shall your sleeping eyes meet mine? Cannot you look at straight me like a sunshine? I am confused and your love I cannot define; You still do not accept to be my concubine.

Let me rub your both hands on chilly days; Against my cheeks I will catch some rays;

Our love can still become a ray of sunshine; So my love, lady, do not push and decline.

The sun rays forth its light into your heart; My heart is warmer than the natural sun; Be close to me and my love never depart; How long will you hide and live like a nun?

ray of sunshine=a person who brings happiness into the lives of others: decline= refuse nun=1a member of a religious community of women, typically one living under vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience

Routine I am used to seeing you now and then; your watch is normaly set each night at ten; I do not blame you if you are not always in time; My nightly poems will forever shine and rhyme.

You have many things to do on both hands; Unlike you, my mind travels to different lands; I feel empty and short of expressive words; I have become an ordinary bird like many birds.

I cling to my sheet the way your baby clings to you; Even a joey in a pouch clings to his mother kanguroo; I try to forget you as pain has dwelt in my heart; Better to go on separate ways and forever depart.

That love is strenous and gives me a chily fever; How long will I bear my pain alone as a lover? Many birds are preys and I am one of them; Love is good, but all it needs is a rigid stem

Still suffering I do not care if my enemies snarl and span at my heel; Do you think the thread has snapped, for my age I feel? We are lovers though my love is hanging by a thread; O lady! My love for you is forever, and I cannot see red.

You love has left a snakebite, and it is just another snafu; I cannot be your love snatcher if that far love is a taboo; Snakebitten, my love is now moving at a snail's pace; I am a bad snake charmer, and loss I have to face.

It is only me who is bracing himself for your love loss; On that fateful and hot night in August, I lost the toss; Now I cannot breathe a word as she lives in another hive. Only nightly love poems make us both close and alive.

Sure my true love is pitiful as it is only daily words; Such love cannot breathe freely again like jailbirds; My poems still ache her as if she is caught in a snarl; In pain, she loves me secretly even if I am a carl.

1-snarl=(at sth/sb) (of dogs, etc;)to show teeth and make a deep angry noise in the throat 2-snap (at sth/sb)= to try to bite sth/sb 3-hang by a thread= be in a highly precarious state: 4-snapped= broken suddenly with a sharp noise 5-for= because 6--feel one's age= become aware that one is growing older and less energetic. 7see red=informal become very angry suddenly: 8-snakebite= a wound that you get when a poisonous snake bites you 9-snafu = a situation in which nothing happens as planned 10-snatcher= a person who takes sth quickly with their hand and steals it 11taboo=a social or religious custom prohibiting or restricting a particular practice or forbidding association with a particular person, place, or thing: 12-snakebitten=adjective;North American informal; doomed to misfortune; unlucky: 13snail's pace= very slowly 14-snake charmer=an entertainer who seems to be able to control snakes and make them move by playing music to them. 15-brace( with object)=prepare (someone) for something difficult or unpleasant: 16-fateful=having far-reaching and often disastrous consequences or implications: 17-to win/lose the toss (of coins in a game)=an act of throwing a coin in the air in other to decide sth( for example, who will be the first to start playing) 18not breathe a word=remain silent about something secret: 19-hive ( also bee hive)= the structure made for bees to live in 20-pitiful= causing pity 21breathe (freely) again=relax after being frightened or tense about something: 22-jaibird=a person who is or has been in prison 23 -snarl or snarl-up= a situation in which traffic is unable to move 24-carl=a peasant or man of low birth.

I do not need any newly felt love other than yours; All girls are the same, O my servant pour the wine; In all events, our love is lost all closed are your doors; I shall never love again and my love will remain divine.

My love has left yours humming a cheerless tune; Still I am writing pearly poems for you to see life; My old Arabic poets ' love was lost in sand dune; And yours kills me each night and twists the knife.

My love will be suppressed for all beautiful girls; My heart has now a fragile grip on your heart; I no longer want to see around me ruby pearls; I no longer feel any love as my heart falls apart;

you have fallen for a handsome younger man; I do not have enough brains for the sciences; Nothing has gone according to my failed plan; I will live lonely forever as there are no choices.

1-hum=make a low, steady continuous sound like that of a bee 2-tune=a melody, especially one which characterizes a certain piece of music 3-cheerless=gloomy; depressing: 4see life=gain a wide experience of the world: 5-twist (or turn) the knife (in the wound)=deliberately make someones sufferings worse. 6-suppress=prevent the development, action, or expression of (a feeling, impulse, idea, etc.); restrain: 7-fragile=(of a person) not strong or sturdy; delicate and vulnerable: 8-grip=a firm hold; a tight grasp: 9-fall apart(or to pieces)=break up, come apart, or disintegrate:

(of a person) lose ones capacity to cope 10 fall for= love 11-brains=intellectual capacity:

Forgive me or forget me I have started not understanding love language because of 'lost'; I am lost and have already lost my lady; then, what is the cost? The word 'lost' has revealed my secret, and she gave me frost; I have miunderstood her,and by the storm my love will be tossed.

I think I have hurt her, and that is the big mistake I have made; She will no longer talk to me killing myself with my own blade; If not enough for her, I will tear apart myself with a grenade; From now on, my love, through her heart, will certainly wade.

Next time I should carefully mind my words as her love flops; I did my best to have her by my side and pulled out all the stops Now she knows I love her, and each night my tears are raindrops This love will soon end when farmers collect their summer's crops.

1-frost= the occurrence of weather that is cold enough to cause water to freeze and frost to form; the meaning here is! unfriendly manner or coldness. 2-tossed= To throw lightly or casually or with a sudden slight jerk

3-blade= the flat sharp part of a weapon or tool that is used for cutting 4-grenade= small bomb 5wade=to move or proceed with difficulty 6-flop=fail 7pull out all the stops=to make the greatest possible effort to achieve something 8-crop= : the amount of a crop that is gathered at one time or in one season

In the hot seat I had been waiting for my lady's love message for over a week; Instead an American message gave my heart a sharp tweak; On that bleak midwinter's night, her love reached its peak; I could feel her from distance that love made her very weak.

Her love for that Algerian reminds me of my lady in black; Telling her story, that American lady gave me a heart attack; Both of us are unsuccessful and lonely lovers on the wrack; My lady does not hold the rope ready to take up the slack.

How can I pull myself together after she has left a love scar.? I do not think I shall meet her as our hearts are very far; Her love is pushing me to spend the rest of my life in the bar; I wish I had not known her and been run over by a car.

After all, she is my beloved who cannot forget my poems; I have written everything to seduce her even love proems; Though phloem is a mass noun, my love has many phloems; My love for her is still vivid and young like protophloems

1-tweak= a sharp pull or twist 2-bleak(of weather) cold and miserable 3-peak=top 4-on the wrack=suffering intense distress or strain. 5 to take up the slack.=pull on the loose end or part of a rope in order to make it taut( tight): 5 pull myself together=recover control of my emotions: 6-proem=(formal)a preface or preamble to a book or speech. 7phloem ( uncountable noun)=the vascular tissue in plants which conducts sugars and other metabolic products downwards from the leaves. 8-protophloem ( uncountable noun but used inplural for ryme)= the first-formed phloem that develops from procambium (The primary meristem[ embryonic tissue in plants; undifferentiated, growing, actively dividing cells]) that gives rise to vascular tissue), consists of narrow thin-walled cells, and is usually associated with a region of rapid growth

Eyes speak for themselves It is getting late over here and my head is spinning around; It is just your love which cannot dress my deep wound; My nose to the ground, I track you by scent like a hound; Expressing your feelings is not easy but they are profound.

I think, if truth be told, both of us are in love and insane; Such strong feelings of love are quite natural and humane; I always badger you lady about my love which is not inane, If you push me away, then from your love I will abstain.

I am not trying to spin our love out as I am a good man; Then think big if you want our true love to live and span; Our love can be saved forever if all goes according to plan; For you my belovedI have done my best, and this is all I can.

Your love stories are my deep secret I can never tell; Be sold on them, my lady, because they make feel well; I will read them each night, and such love I cannot sell;

Spell them out to cure my aching heart under your spell;

1- spin around= feel dizzy 2- dress= treat 3- hound=a dog of a breed used for hunting 4 track=ollow the trail or movements of (someone or something), typically in order to find them or note their course: 5profound=(of a state, quality, or emotion) very great or intense 6 if truth be told= to tell you the truth 7humane=having or showing compassion or benevolence 8badger=repeatedly and annoyingly ask (someone) to do something: 9 inane=lacking sense or meaning; silly 10abstain=restrain oneself from doing or enjoying something: 11-spin something out=make something last as long as possible: 12 span=extend across (a period of time or a range of subjects) 13go according to plan=happen as one arranged or intended: 14 sell someone on)=cause someone to become enthusiastic about: 15 spell sth out=explain something in detail: 16 under your spell= under your charm

Forver yours

Never have I considered you,my lady a chattel but a lover; Yesterday, my teeth chattered and I hid under my bedcover; Our hearts are close-set and we have love on the brain; I hope our love will be forever and will not go down the drain;

You have been my bosom friend making me on cloud nine; Every cloud has a silver lining, and I hope you will be mine; I come close to death each time I see your pics close up; Bejewelled gracefully, you make me drown in my love cup.

Be free from the fetters of convention just for a while; Since I love you, I do not care if I die on your bosom in exile; My love for you is cut and dried, but yours is for another one; If your love remains like gold dust,how can we have fun?

Will you cut loose from me and leave me once for all? I cannot bite my lip as, in true love, we all blindly fall; Please lady have a sens of oneness as I am yours; A one-man love is useless, so please open love doors.

1-chattel ( old-fashioned or law)=something that belongs to you 2- chatter ( of teeth)= to knock together continuously because you are cold or frightened 3-have sth on the brain= to think about something all the time very close together 4-close-set=very close together 5to go down the drain= to be totally wasted 6-bosom friend= a very close friend 7-on cloud nine= very happy 8-Every cloud has a silver lining=(saying) every sad or difficult situation has a positive or hopeful side hhhhh 9come close( to sth/to doing sth)=to almost reach or do something 10-close up/ close to=in a position near to something 11- bejewelled ( bejeweled=AmE)= wearing jewels 12-fetter=a restraint or check on someones freedom to act: 13 convention=a way in which something is usually done: 14exile=the state of being barred from ones native country, typically for political or punitive reasons:

15 bosom=a womans chest 16 cut and dried=decided in a way that cannot be changed or argued about 17 like gold dust (idiom; noun)= difficult to find or obtain 18cut/break/tear loose(sth) from sht/sb=to separate yourself or sb/sth from a group of people or their influence, etc 19 once for all=now and for the last time; finally. 20 bite one"s lip= to repress an emotion; stifle laughter or repress a retort: 21-oneness=the state of being completely unified with sb/sth, or of being in complete ageeement 22 one-man=done or controlled by one person# one-woman

A heart-to-heart love me, love my dog, and please lady do not let me down; tears, coursing down my cheeks, are reaching my bedgown I have battled to keep this love on course though it is in a jam; Your eyes, gazelle-eyed, make me forget completely who I am.

You are struck by my poetry, and I am struck by all your beauties Pleasing the intellect and pleasing the body are different qualities Why do you make me suffer from bouts of insanity my lady? You smile bashfully, and I feel bereft and my heart is untidy.

Do not be addled, and let us have together a barn dance; lie on your back in the grass and let me steal a glance; Let us be picnickers and have an action-packed weekend; Each night, by the window croon gently a poem till the end.

Write your love stories, and on that do not close the book; One day, I am sure we will meet and stroll along the brook; Our longing and beating hearts will meet for the first time; Our love will melt all the crisp and thick Shanghai rime.

1-love me, love my dog=proverb if you love someone, you must accept everything about them, even their faults. 2-to course= [no object, with adverbial of direction] (of liquid) move without obstruction; flow: 3-on course=following the intended route:#off course 4- to be in a jam= to be in a difficult situation 5-gazell-eyed=having soft lustrous( wide) expressive eyes 6-bout of= an attack of illness or strong emotion: 7bashful ( adjective)=shy and easily embarrassed; bashfully ( adverb) 8-bereft=sad and lonely because you have lost something 9addled=confused or unable to think 10 barn dance=an informal social event at which people dance traditional country( of the village) dances 11glance=a brief or hurried look: 12-action-packed= full of exciting events and activity 13= to sing something gently and quietly 14 to close the book on something= to stop sthg cos you no longer believe you will be successful or will find a solution 15 brook=a small stream ( river) 16- stroll= walk slowly and in a relaxing and leisurely way: 17 crisp=(of a substance) firm, dry, and brittle: 18_ rime= ( literary) frost =(also rime ice) [mass noun] frost formed on cold objects by the rapid freezing of water vapour in cloud or fog.

Woe to who takes relish in pointing out a lover's weakness; Do not be tough and ruthless, and do not show meanness; My enemies said, ' there's not much love lost between us.'; In love I am peerless, so I do not care and I do make a fuss. . Her chunky gold jewellery is the adornment of her body; Her silver hair made my heart sing an intricate melody; Her feelings are revealed me to me through love stories; With her I will always feel homey and win all the victories.

1-woe= 2-relish = a strong liking 3-point out=direct someones gaze or attention towards, especially by extending ones finger 4-prejudice=(1) : preconceived judgment or opinion (2) : an adverse opinion or leaning formed without just grounds or before sufficient knowledge 5-beside or off the point=irrelevant: 6-ruthless= having no pity : merciless, cruel 7meanness= lacking dignity or honour 8-there's no (or little or not much) love lost between=there is mutual dislike between (the people mentioned) 9peerless=unequalled; unrivalled 10-chunky=thick and bulky 11-adornment= something added to make a person or thing more attractive 12intricate=complicated or detailed

Do not reprimand for love Thank you for being so forbearing and forgiving all the time; I swallow hard and cannot force back my tears at bedtime; As long as I love you lady, I do not care if I fall from grace; Yesterday,one of my students reminded me of your necklace.

The string of beads like a rosary made me lose the lesson pace; Worse than that, in a roll-call a sharp tug made my heart displace; A student whose name was Ameli made me stutter the word; I was like a rookie, and about that my students had not heard.

Gobsmacked, my students told me to tie my pair of shoelaces;

I whispered '', and at me some students pulled faces; With a dismissive tone, they blamed me for my gobbledegook; I told them,' Listen, I have taken the bait like a fish in a hook.'.

And I said,' You callow young, what I feel is out of hand.'; 'Yuragim muhabbatga to'la' for you is hard to understand; To Shanghai, the land of milk and honey, my heart will travel; Now, students, do the task and let me read her first novel.

forbearing=showing forbearance (formal=the act of being patient & sympathetic towards other people, especially after they have done something wrong 2-swallow= drink or eat an amount at one time 3-force something back or force back something= to make yourself hide your emotions 4to fall from grace=to lose the trust or respect that people have for you, especially by doing something wrong or immoral 5necklace=a piece of jewellery worn around the neck 6-bead=a small piece of glass, pearls, etc that can be put on a string of the same type 7-rosary=a string of beads that are used for counting prayers as they say them; muslims count their numbers of invocations with this 8-pace=the speed at which something happens ( fast or slow) 9- a roll-call=the reading aloud of a list of names to ckeck who is there 10- tud= a suuden pull 11- displace=to move sthg from its original position 13- to stutter=to have difficulty speaking because you cannot stop yourself from repeating the first sound of some words several times like AAAAAAAAAAAAmmmmmmmmmmeeeeliiiiiiiii

14-a rookie=a person who has just started a job or an activity and has very little experience 15gobsmacked=so surprised that you do not know what to say 16shoelace=a long thin piece of material like string that goes through the holes ( eyelets) on a shoe and is used to fasten it 17 to tie# untie or undo 18 to pull/make faces at somebody=to produce an expression on your face to show you do not like somebody/something or in order to make somebody laugh 19dismissive=showing that you do not believe a person or thing to be important or worth considering 20gobbledegook= complicated languge that is difficult to understand, especially when used in official documents 21-bait=food put on a hook to catch fish or in nes, traps to catch animals or birds 22-calow (adjective)=young and without experience 23- out of hand= difficult or impossible to control 25- the land of milk and honey=a place where life is pleasant and easy, and people are very happy

A faint ( possible) hope

I am no longer a control freak of your love making me sick; Your love keeps me in a small coop, and mine is no picnic; In love, I am not a hick, and a hickey will make me live; And in love I am heterodox, and to her I am submissive.

Now I am used to her, and her love is sleeping sickness; From the start I had no hidden agenda far from clumsiness; Such love is like a club foot looking for a doctor's cure; Where can I find the cure-all of this love not for sure?

The day before yesterday she was strolling by Shanghai sea; Turning her back to me, she avoided looking straight at me; Alone, she gazing at the greyish sky on that dusky night; If her eyes met mine, her tear ducts from love would ignite.

Let me take you to my beautiful Eden forever and be mine; Our love will be safe in a far off fortress far and forever divine; At night, by the window we see the fall of powdery snow; Such love gives rebirth and strength wiping the sorrow.

1-control freak= a person who always wants to be in control of their own & others' live, and to organize how are things are done 2- coop= a cage for keeping chicken, geese, etc 3- to be no picnic= to be difficult & cause a lot of problems 4-hick=a person from the country(village) who is considered to be stupid and to have little experience of life 5-hickey ( American English) = love bite( British English)= a red mark on the skin that is caused by somebody biting their partner's skin 6-heterodox ( formal)= not following the usual or accepted beliefs and opinions 7- sleeping sickness= a tropical disease carried by the tsetse fly that causes a feeling of wanting to go to sleep and usually causes death

8- hidden agenda= the secret intention behind what somebody says or does 9-clumsiness= complication in understanding things easily 10- club foot= a foot that has been deformed ( badly shaped) since birth 11- cure-all= something that people believe can cure any problem or any disease= panacea 12- stroll= to walk somewhere in a slow relaxed way 12-greyish= a bit grey 13gaze= to look at something steadily for a long time, either because you are interested or surprised, or because you are thinking of something else 14-greyish= a bit grey 15-dusky= dark 16-duct= a tube through which tears fall down 17-ignite= to start to burn 18-Eden= paradise where Adam and Eve lived 19fortress= a buildig or a place that has been protected against attack

Only love counts

I can understand all sciences except women's nature; To them, all love jealousies have the same signature; Their love is for only one man who loves only one; If you are polygamous, their love turns to be a gun.

Such is a catch-22 between polyandry and polygamy; Be polyandrous as long as we are far from blasphemy; We are on an equal foot in jealousy I cannot bully; Then do not let me down, and forever be my lilly;

I am not a cat burglar, and with you I want to be free; Our love remains in catacombs for a while until you agree; Seeing you once a month will send me to rhapsody; I do not care about other women if you are my lady.

Cheers to polygamy and polyandry in rallying cry; Since we are one, it is never late to have a try; Our love is enduring and has no dichotomies; Do not care, my lady, about people ' infamies.

Polyandry: the state of having more than one husband polygaamy: the state of having more than one wife rallying cry ( noun)= a phrase or an idea that is used to encourage people to support sthg/sb cat burglar= a thief who climbs up the the outside of a building in order to enter it and steal sthg dichotomy= people or things that are opposite to each other infamy= the state of being known for something bad or evil blasphemy= behaviour or language that shows a lack of respect for God or religion a catch-22 or a catch-22 situation=a difficult situation from which there is no escape because you need to do one thing before doing a second, and you cannot do the second thing before doing the first; eg: I can't get a job because I haven't got anywhere to live but I can't afford a place to live until I get a job- it's a catch-22 bully: to heat someone weaker than you catacombs=a series of underground tunnels used for burying dead people lilly=a kind of a flower that curls back from the centre rhapsody= a feeling of enthusiasm or happiness enduring=lasting for a long time

If I die, give my meat to the rapacious black crooks; Put fire on the remaining parts till they are ashes; Then, throw them like atoms in the runny brooks; No one will know that I had severe love crashes.

A twenty-three girl said to me she loves me; She wants to live peacefully with me forever;

I am afraid I will lose the one I cannot see; I will stop each new love that gives me a shiver.

I am really torn between different love oceans; Which one to love?; which one to choose? Every time my heart stops any new actions; I do not trust any love except the one I cannot lose

A love in chain Do not ask me to wipe my gushing tears again; For they are betrothed to you without refrain; Forever, my heart is hit by your deadly love blow; Each night I drink a cup of wine full of sorrow;

My mobile phone is always switched off at bedtime; I hate each spring rose as she can never be mine; Like a sparrow, I sit lonely by the moonlit window; Till dawn, and then hide my head under my pillow.

Many young ladies love me and enjoy my stay; My heart no longer responds as it is snatched away; All beauties fade like roses when I, call her name; She belongs to me in my dreams without a shame.

In dreams our souls meet each night and are not in chain; We will be together and drink from each other"s fountain; Such love is sublime and divine, and no one can blame; This is all what I can do though in real life it is not the same.

A lesson in love I have become a fool to ask a lady whose love is far off; My heart is no longer mine, and my age is just a scoff; A suuden rush of frantic love is bringing shame on me; Her gothic love is my destiny, and her, I can never see.

At least, we are friends and can share our joys and fears; At night, she reads my poems for a while and disappears; For how long will I write nightly poems with red tears? Till I am offline; then,a mourning black suit she wears.

Each year, she will remember that bleak day I left on tiptoe; A love scar is not easy to remove as it is a poisoned arrow; The more you read my poems, the more you feel pain; Even from my grave my love will haunt you again and again.

I warn, lady, my book do not read when I die and pack it away; Sleep kills the brave knights whose enemies are an easy prey; Your emotions will be stirred up like a berrylike old kiss in a cup; Love sends long heated waves which make anyone shaken up

Whose heart was not stolen away by that swift and lightly built gazelle?; Medium-sized with lustrous eyes and graceful movements, she sparkled naturally; Good-looking, yet remaining aloof and distant from my love arrows my Ms belle; Deliberatly, she hid among the herd to flee my trap constantly.

A bunch of skilled huntsmen were on their way now looking for a big treat; Like cheetahs, they were leaping on the herd and killing bucks and does; Not able to outrun their predators, the gazelles were performing leaps with feet; Such bounding in high arcs with sad wup wup woop wooop was giving me sorrows.

All of a sudden, I spotted my gazelle clashing horns with a huntsman wanting her death; Hurriedly, I broke his arrows and bow, and my gazelle took shelter on my back; Her thin, slim horns and white rump were full of blood, and from the fight out of breath; Her narrow muzzle and small head were aching in pain owing to the attack.

Then, I said to all the huntsmen, ' yuck! yuck!; woe to you to what you have done this day.'; I took my gazelle to my home and made her lie on my warm and cozy bed; I wiped all her bloodstains and bandaged her wound tightly without delay; When she recovered, I set her free, and warm tears both of us shed.

A hunter spotted me reciting my Arabic verses by the river at dawn; That old earnest man listened to pearls scattared from my mouth; Sitting beside me, he did not move as if, under spell, he was torn; I asked him why he felt so sad, and and why he headed south.

He told me I reminded him of his youth spent with his pretty girl; He, then with melancholy, asked me why I recited the verses; I said: 'I love an Uzbek lady and her love gives me a violent whirl.'; He said: 'the flames of love from your eyes anyone observes.'

In distance my lady remains, but in proximity forever from my heart; My love has reached the peak of despair and to her bidden farewell; The follies of her youth will fade one day and beauty will fall apart; A women is fool when she in love and when the gray gives her hell

When she is my age, sure she will be reminded of my pearly words; All that is pleasant does not last, and a loathsome cup is your fate; Then, your oldish love can no longer bite and race with young birds; I am not a tenderfoot, so mind the steps and my love do not hate.

In that moonless and sad night never reaching dawn's reach; I grasped two glasses of the finest brandies I was offered; I drank both glasses, and about love I started to preach; wave after wave of pent up and pending love now uttered.

A comely and tender-hearted lady displayed an act of humility; Virtue put shackles on her beating heart longing for a warm hug; No reproach,lady, to your heart not fulfilling my demands in chastity; At her sight one night, my heart failed and felt a sharply killing tug.

I should leave my tears outcast in your smooth pomegranates; I still have gushitears to adore your love strutting about in pride; My abode cannot bring her close as love has no needles for knits; And my grey hair cannot trap her love stopping its every stride.

My heart has no evil intent, and my burning love is not belied; Obediently, she has traveled to Shanghai and left me tearful; On my cheeks my tears fall each night and cannot be dried; But my tears heat drop on my liver still aching and painful.

Let love not be love and pour the wine in my cup; That sweet suffering makes me out of my mind; That is the real ecstacy when truth can stand up; let foolish me blame me as they are not kind

" Better who sits in nooks deaf, sj^eechless, idle. Than lie who knows not his own tongue to bridle." (Eastwick).

Woe to the man, who, warned by his hoariness, still blindly rushes along on youth's folly bent, And glances back on pleasure's fire when all his limbs already from weakness shake, Who rides the steed of wantonness which he deems a softer couch than chamberlains ever spread." Steingass.

From the moment you came into the world of being A ladder was placed before you that you might escape, First you were mineral, later you turned to plant, Then you became animal : how should this be a secret to you ? Afterwards you were made man, with knowledge, reason, faith. Behold the body which is a portion of the dust-pit, how perfect it has grown ! When you have travelled on from man, you will doubtless become an angel. After that you are done with this earth ; your station is in heaven." (Nicholson).

Waiting Locks upon my heart prevent me to understand the holy Koran; Still medidating on my love bird dwelt in and lost in Uzbekistan; Verily! my eyes are not blind, but my heart in my breast is; My love, on the brink of a water-worn bank, has nightly crises.

Will I compel her to be my lover? No, I am in a manifest error; I am not her lover who attains to his desires with dishonour; This world of illusions and fears stands against my love's path; A mighty obstacle is torturing me and going to the warpath.

The attempt to gather the scatterd love ashes comes late; Who flies in love life risks many ladies' lives longing for a date; Each love is afflicted by death and truth lies in the bleak grave; Never will my lady be wronged by truth, and for love I am brave.

'Marhamat' lady at any time, for no one feels for you what I feel; Like an antelope clinging to her fawn, she is afraid of love ordeal; She hopes one day I will be hers for ever as now she is not free; How long her burning absence will be to hug my cypress tree?

Maybe, in a year or ten years, so I just wait and see; I will, then, travel and bring her from China by sea.

Struggle Cut me loose and and live your life in full blosom and joy; Whatever language my love speaks, it remains just a toy; Neither a crime nor a sin my inoncent heart has committed; Our love is dying silently, and it can no longer be knitted.

Owing to cultural differences, you can never be mine; You will be complaining and soon going back by airline; Unlike yours, my love lives in the wild and everywhere; As long as my beloved is by my side, I do not care.

Such a mismatch will create hatred and bitter regret; I am your true lover, but surely my luck is ill and upset; For ever, you will remain a ripe spring flower untouched; If I die, bury me with your white wedding dress stitched;

What brings me to Interpals making me a fool each night? It is just her love which always keeps me online till daylight; I told the story to my wife, and she did not blame my heart; She said," Marry her if you want, but from me do not depart."

Love me or loathe me

How come, my bird, you completely forgot your English exercise? Did you get bored or did my burning love make you tongue-tied? She said,"I love you my way,so please,my love do not criticisize."; A solomn oath I took, "My love, doomed to pain, has never lied."

My love lives in bleeding heart and remains imperishable verse; More wild it will grow with frenzy flashing from her crying eyes; The world urges its power in vain now that she is my universe; A raving lunatic I am, and from China glen shewill hear my cries.

Verily! Layla made me cry and live as a lonely hermit for ten years; All that is finished now that Mishel has overwhelmed my thought; No longer can I live in the shackles of Layla's past causing stirs;

Still Mishel is not sure of my love coming to naught and drought.

No one can explain what love is , but is it a sin to love you both?; A man's heart remains the same for all his brides jealous all time; I feel for you what I felt for Layla,and to your love I am not loth; A woman's love is selfish and her sorcery succeeds past bedtime.

A burning love

Mishel, for ever in my sight and heart, made my feelings told; I saw her beauty and her grace killing me one August night; By prudence uncontrolled I loved her and forgot I was old; She stole my heart away as I gazed at that gazelle in delight.

My bosom heaved with groans, moans and gushing tears; In the lone nights I sought relief to bury that frenzy I felt; Her name was ever and ever on my tongue like musical tones; She, in my soul with matchless charms, was unable to melt.

Long-suffering love What is that Uzbekisthan love denying and chasing me away? Meeting at fortnightly intervals is far off to quench my thirst; Increasing my love tenfold is just a corpse without life in decay; For my darling, my love is a fogey and hers to her husband is first.

All women do the same, and no one blames you as my love has come late; In the name of God, forgive me if my love uses coded four-letter words; Your love has made me a mad man stalking you, and that is my fate; Please, love me and drink from my love cup like milk without curds.

For how long shall your love wear a dusky veil looking upon me as a friend? Why do you not treat like the one who brings drink to the thirsty? Mute and muzzed, I shall let her think till one day she agrees to my love trend; Neither my love love sleeps nor dies down and in her heart it remains tasty.

One day, she will know my ruby words are truths and, to her, my love is enduring; My spring of life runs into her aching heart trying to win a hard-fought battle; I just want to be back to my youth with a young lady whose love is not boring; Aged women's embraces are death rattles, and on about that I do not prattle.

Women's nature

Where, in women, does knowledge, love and taste live?' In their eyes their hearts, and hidden parts the truth is found; Durable qualities gracing young men make them submissive; The strength and abundant substance are their playground.

If I must marry, then I wil marry two young wives only; One alone is not good enough to fight two infantry armies; I shall be like a tug of war between them but not lonely; Like a ram between two ewes, I will be away from infamies

By reason of wisdom, a husband of two wives I do not complain; Bearing their jealousy, I do not worry about spice in our lives; Calming and quenching their heat of love is what women retain; Yesterday, I was given a hope by only one away from love strife

Oh, men! hear me out to what I say on the subject of women, Do not trust in their vows and say they are my beloved forever; As long as she is with you, you have won her love for certain;

A woman's love is frail, changeful , so my friend take a cover.

Gossip tongue I studied all what the bearded and wise man taught me in childhood A pretty and lovely girl of tender years, by destiny, sat close to me; Her arrows pierced my heart and made it scatter ruby poems in solitude; One winter, she heard me recite my verses by dawn as she was my neighbour; My love took no shield and she knew the secret of my love torn by grief; One single glance at her bewildered my life, and no remedy cured my ardour; On hearing my poems,Oh! bitterly she wept and shivered like a shaky leaf.

While our classmates were busy doing their tasks from their grammar book; Our eyes were trying to learn different ways in expressing our love in chain; Reading love in her antelope looks, I forgot grammar as her eyes made a hook; My mind, free from grammar by her spell, looked for words to drive her insane.

Love conquered both, and science for us had all its virtue lost; Only true love's ties was our taste and in melting words did we pass the hour; Our passion never ended, and not a rest we found from our love which cost; And conscious of our amorous state, our enemies turned our love sour.

The Unspeakable truth

What does wealth mean to me,for my lady's love has slipped of me? Even if my wealth equals that of Korah,my heart is eaten by sorrow; Zephyr, formely, carried my scent to each girl who was my devotee; Again in love, I am a dying candle cosuming itself by the window.

Where to build my nest and my bird has chosen another cypress tree;

My bird has already brooded its eggs, and all my prayers are in vain; The older I grow, the greater I miss my jewel I cannot possess; Even the jasmin seeds in my garden do not germinate with rain; Bowing reluctantly to its fate, my heart fails, as her love has no acess .

Under her watchful eyes, I will be strong to live that love forever; In the garden of youth she will keep me as her love will be magic in my soul; The jewel of my love will shine through the veil of her body to discover; All this, will remain a hidden secret from my prowlers like a tawny owl.

My poems scatter rare pearls though not published in the Press; From learned Arabs I have taken wisdom speaking the truth in bright daylight; Cheikh Sayouti, Nafzaoui and many others were my masters in what I express; The whole truth lies in Arabic language and manuscripts showing you the path and light.

Uzbek was formely written in Arabic script and look at 'Salom' and 'Tabala'where they are from; Even the so-called English words such as 'house','university' are Arabic in stem; Even'monotheism' has been distorted in meaning as on their heads it is a storm; Such things are transcendantal for most famous writers who write with a poisonous pen.

My poems remain a poison pen letter to all poets and writers running for praise; Putting pen to paper is easy for them to lie on the world day and night; Knowledge is nothing if not crowned with manifest truth not needing a sky raise; I am not a racist but a wise man who can distinguish between dark and light.

In love, I am a true lover and my bird knows it from the start; A fire has lit not in both and I, drown in the ocean of love, fight alone; Her beauty may slay the whole world, and my heart from hers wil never depart; Whose heart would not have filled with loving that lady speaking in a shy tone?

A hearfelt love to the lady in black

The first grey gave me a warning of the departure of my youth never shiny as spring;

Anguish, sorrow and grief filled my heavy heart and put an end to my fervish joys; Praiying and weeping during my prayer on remembering my darling, I was shivering; Woe to me for what the two angels wrote though my love had no ploys.

Salom' to my pretty lady; 'Sizni sevaman' and for you I will learn Uzbek; 'None can lead astray the one whom Allah guides' already written in the Sacred Books; Look at Thamud of al-Hijr and Iram living for centuries but all was just a sec; Surrounded by a black cloud to quench their thirst, they died and were left to crooks.

Never despair of your sins my darling if you worship your Creator Who made you from clay; For sins are all forgiven, and even if the seven skies and the seven earths' width they reach; Associating deities with your Creator is time-consuming, and the paradise path is away; Praying day and night, fasting and piligremage go in a vain, and against polytheism I will preach.

In love I am weak and an easy prey as honesty and sincerity are my manifest truth; Neither have played with a lady's heart nor have abused her love match; Nothing of what I own is mine as death is true, and for yonks I have left my youth; I no longer build up hopes on my wealth, for my darling's love is hard to catch.

With wisdom I tell the truth:most poets, only and only perversity follows them; Have you not seen how lost they are in aimeless wanderings and every valley and corner? Have you not seen how their words are short of deeds like a plant without a stem? Unlike their poems,mine express words of wisdom though I am still a fresh learner.

How can the physician cure my dying soul on remembering her marriage? While my tears become runny streams, I tell my friend as we travel on; "I will stop to kiss the walls; Oh!this is the last time when my love crosses Shanghai bridge''; What does sorrow return to me now that to Shanghai she has gone?;

She witnesses, her eyes full of tears, that I am her true lover not a liar; She said," Oh my God have mercy on me; his ardent love is tearing me apart."; She swears my love speaks the truth, and to it she cannot be obeyed though it sets her on fire; My love vanquishes her, and in her bed a life-and-death struggle tortures her heart.

A caller to prayer is now waking me up, and I do not know if I pray to God; I have grown a bit oldish and my youth is spent, but my love is still young; It is her ideal love,far away, that calls foth the tears of her heart not giving a nod; One day, I may drink from her sweet nectar and make her dance on a rhyming song.

How come, my bird, my bitter tears and night 's sighs keep you still? No half a word have you uttered torturing me to death, yet I live; I am the one who loves you and forgives, and for you I take peril; That tender love provides shield like prickly roses and does not give.

White tulips and red roses will fade away when I meet you darling; Even if gossip wags its tongue so tough, our love will finally win; The cups brimming,they will make you recite my poems with feeling; My Mishel, a charming girl, will then bite me on my fair and rosy chin.

Though youth has gone long since,and greyish hairs dwell in my eyebrows; It fills all my thought with Mishel day and night, Shanghai now her cozy home; And matters of stillborn marriage between us, obstacles manifold follow; In comfort she lives-no speech maybe with her again and the streets I will roam.

A guard waits before her door, strictly forbidding me to visit her warm nest; When her husband is at home, no and no love secret of ours she tells; She is my lover for better or for worse and I know that from a love test; And if you ask me for lore of women, verily I am the best without yells.

When grey-haired a man grows, or his well does not quench no love can he save;

Women look for abundant wealth, and freshness of youth dwells in their eyes; As antelopes, young and fresh, they flee from the hunter's pack to make you a slave; Men think they win a safe prey, for they are weak before women's cries.

I am a man of his words, and O my bird hear me out as things are hard; No one feels sorrows more subtly or expresses them truly than my true love; I mentioned my youth and lamented it and once it was my only guard; After witnessing my oldish age, forget me and read my poems on your shelves above.

Love to a special lady

Oh darling!my fervent love so heartfelt and true continues to grow; This is a gentleman's impassioned plea for love far from lust and play; Hear me out darling,for my love is sincere knitting my poem in a row Completely lost in your eyes,I am using my last breath without delay

Her beauty, needing a big hug, is more than all the world's treasures With her no regret for my past but sweet words for the rest of my life; I no longer have my youth on my side though strong for pleasures; My age is no secret to her but her love will make it sharp like a knife

Hand in hand, I will take my love for walks to the grassy park; Within my eyes I will hold as her love is special like no other; My love will speak Uzbek and chinese and sail by Noah's ark; Not only in words but in deeds I will prevent her to love another.

Behind her shadow,I will stand and fall till I win or lose the battle; A black void will take shape in my life if she pushes me far away; Then, I will die in silence and no one will hear my death rattle; Each love comes to grief if shared by one lover who will pay.

I stood on my beloved 's bleak grave and my tears reached my chest; Still remembering when I first leaned over whispering love, and out of joy she cried; She died very young by an evil witchcraft and heard her death from my guest; Already wrapped up in its shroud, my heart was torn as love had gone with my bride;

All my enemies offered their condolences to my grieving heart in total despair; They pretended to console my loneliness while their eyes were full of hatred; They even helped the gravediggers and helped them bury my beloved; At that moment, I fainted and fell on her tomb as angels took her high above.

All people wept over for my lasting grief except my enemies wiping their fake tears; Neither had I held a grudge against my enemies nor harm but jealousy was their flaw; Jealousy wore away their hearts like fire ashes and I forgave my enemies far to be my pairs; Brought up in a decent and rich family, I always abode by Allah's fair law;

As time wore on, I sunk in despair and melanchony, and sold all my properties; No matter how rich I was, I gave half of the money to charity as I was full of pity, I kept the other half in a safe for the my beloved's poor family as I lost life jovialities; Lying on my wooden bed, I shut myself off from the world, and wrote elegies with morosity.

No one knows how true love makes you blind, but when you lose your beloved your body hardly lives and your heart dies; the flame grows even bigger than before and you feel a strong desire in being tortured day & night. You are then shut in your own world and dies in silence till death relieves you of the burden. If you are not a true lover, you can never understand.

What is love poetry if not daily lies and amusing fairy tales stirring up our hearts?

It quenches our thirst for a while and then back to a world full of mismatch; Many beautiful ladies' hearts, after their wedding night, are killed by poisoned darts; Discovering that mariage is only a dearth bed, they long to remain virgin but it is late to catch.

A lovely princess was spotted reading a love story on a wooden brownish bench; Surrounded by green trees and bushes, she looked like a rare snowbird; Lying on her stomach, she showed a bit of her hidden white blosom far to quench; Her black hair and her inoncent smile twisted my heart with a wrench not heard.

I did my best to have her my snowbird by my side as my love reached its apex; Her love was icy like winter snow as her marriage sent me to my death bed; I kept sweet memories of her as her love was not shared and lacked its max; Going back home, I swore never to seduce her again as I was already dead.

No matter how foolish my snowbird is, my love is hers as love is wild & foolish; All the pretty girls O I knew were foolish and wild like a wild young foal She cannot understand how hard she has been on me, for she is still youngish; One day, an avalanche of my love will ache her, but it may be late as ashes cannot be coal.

Letting my bird see my photo album, I am no longer a secret in veil; No matter how worn out are my photos, they will be kept in her safe; Dating ten years ago, my album will live in her heart and will not be for sale; I love her and will always love hereven if my love is declared alone but not unsafe.

Living under the spell of a wicked witch,I lost half of my beauty; Neither doctors nor Imams were able to cure my illness again; Her witccraft burned my half- dead heart forgetting all its duty; Out of jealousy,she twisted my arm to forget my beloved in pain;

She made crawl like a baby day and night without any pity; Lying on my bed, I hardly moved and felt a throbbing headache; Alll clothes became loose-fitting as days passed by with morosity; My beloved,holding a rosary, wept for sadness all day by the lake.

Wish me, my bird, good night to feel warm in my own lonely world; Never will I let anyone know the deep secret of my love in jail; Sing my bluesy poems now and when I am in the afterworld; Weep over me and put a wreath on my grave wearing a veil.

I saw a bluebird fying high in the cloudy sky of that late August; Moving forward and backward in my chair, I wiped my tears; Some patches of rains fell down on my eyes not at rest; Panting softly like a cooing dove, I remembered she is not my pair.

She asked me to teach her and now she's taking the challenge; How could she tell me off after being grey- haired and wise? I am not surprised how foolish is my young bird without change;

I will let my bird do what she wants to stop her loud cries.

Re: [no subject]

All my hopes and attempts faded away in my sad yesterday's dream; Seeing her dressed up for her wedding day,I was stabbed to death; The pain stabbed through my panting chest hiding its loud scream; Wearing pearly white earings ,she sent me to my last dying breath.

I gave up the chase and kept my secrets shutoff from my snowbird; All my hope was to find a second part till death would split us apart; Her torturing love became my desire sinking me in the absurd. How coud I get rid of such a love destroying my aching heart?

Re: [no subject] Roll me and your baby your warm bedding satin sheets each night; Be our lovebird and sing us a sweet song to send us to paradise; Sleep between us to make us feel warm like summer sunlight; Do not engage with us in foolish horseplay and take my advice.

She said,'My teacher has been sick and the name of his illness is love.' In my forties, I'm still stronger than young men in the twenties; They live on genetically modified food in supermarkets shelves above. I eat the royal jelly and she-camel milk, and I will live longer like queen bees

I always give her easy peasy tests to do at night; Easing her into learning better is my dream and stuff;

She scores well, but is setting up a love test right? I will get the answer one day even if it is tough.

I will fight and fight till my poor soul loses its strength; ten years or ten centuries, my love remains closely tight; I will never give up till years become like an arm's length; To love is not an easy task and I shall one day see the light.

She asked me to teach her oh my God that lovely bird; What shall I do in front of her beating heart and starring eyes? All her classmates will discover my whispering word; Even if I hide our true love, my eyes will show white lies.

I do not know why and how I still love that tallish leggy gazelle; Her love was a fever sent to my heart in early August by dawn; Running through her photo album, I was lost in words for Mishel; My love was a lost cause and wished our blind love was not born.

Neither was my love bossy nor naugthy but certainly peerless; Caring about petty jealousies of her greedy lovers, I was peevish; My eyes became wet with early morning love dew and lifeless; Still dewdrop fell on my chest not thirty for her heart to ravish.

Moaning silently on my bleak bed, I heard a dove cooing outside; In her warm and cozy nest, she reminded me of my youth in joy; The days are gone when I could be with my lover by her side; Her love tore me to shreds and about my feelings I was not coy.

If one day she gives me the nod, I will travel to the Far East; Keeping her in my warm heart inside, I will still live years ahead; Each Autumn, I will bring her mooncakes in the morning mist; Each night we will have a romantic dinner by candlelight on bed.

Now I have understood how harsh life is when I'm grey-haired; I spent my youth among blonde girls in joy and happiness; They all gathered and wanted my young heart not to be shared; Among them I picked up a rare gazelle dressed like a princess.

How can I make you suffer in a jungle without laws? Though rich, you may quit one day and let me in heat; many women have loved me and pushed them for cause; I will never let you hate me and better not to meet.

I have chosen my destiny: I will live in a lion's den; He is my friend in the wild; he is my only solitude;

Be with me in my beauty spot away from your baby a fortnight; Distracted, your scattered love vanishes and Ah! surely falls apart; Have a beauty sleeping in the wild around a log fire each night; Roll in my duvet heart cover and feel the breeze in the moonlight

In a lion's den amid a dense forest resides my beauty queen; Now and then, barefoot she rides my dogie foal bareback; Pear-shaped and bareheaded, she is evermore evergreen; I still vividly remember her slipping over on my wet backpack.

Her skintight leggings got stuck in tree sticks making a hole; In a moment of weakness, I stole a look at that white spot; No blood clot but just a scratch on her fair skin and mole; Her birdsong moans reminded me of her baby in the cot.

Lovesick, I scraped her muddy shoes and wiped her eyes; Unaware, she called me her birdie and cuddled me close; Engaging in a horseplay, her inoncence revealed no lies; He who steals poems drinks a poisonous cup full of dose.

I kept her sweet messages in my beating heart; Away from greedy eyes to remind me of happy days; These were the days when we drove a country cart; Her stormy love in that foggy day put me in a maze.

My lady's long-waited messages set my heart on fire; each time she sends one, my body shakes without a fake; One day she will know I am not with her heart a player; When I love my love leaves a scar and takes no break.

Not anyone can experience true love; then, keep my word: true love remains and can be seen in each lover's dead eyes; At first, you feel a flame and then it burns; just listen my bird; fakers will be known to any loving heart without any lies.

She remained silent for a while and hopless I got no reply; If she were in my my shoes, she would feel a burning flame; She neither said yes or no and my sore throat became dry; I could say nothing to her , for she is not the one to blame.

He who loves must cross the sea and leave before daybreak; A pearly mermaid caught in the crossfire wagged her tiny tail; Wouldn't be foolhardy to sail if she left me with heartbreak? Not only would I be in despair, but I would also be in a gale.

For one heart-stopping moment, I took the hearty initiative; How could I have been so foolish as to fall in long-suffering love? My Michel's marital unhappiness made my longing heart to live; Not in fool's paradise, my love might bite her lips one day above.

How can I tame my wild and unsubmissive kitten with claws? Only if my poems reside in her veins, can she melt like snow; Then, her claws, will turn furry silk and rub my roundish jaws; Never will I sow my seeds on the grassy spot

I can see your beauty coming straight from your ardent eyes; For that is the doorway to your rapturous and veiled heart; The warm place where my insane love resides without lies; O my God make us two close lovebirds and never fall apart.

Her beauty spot on her fair and thin face awaken my senses;

Her shaped arms and laps are a plea for a sigh of mad ecstacy; In the sandy beach, her sunbathing beachwear builds no fences; Kneeling down barefoot, my bird is puuting me to her mercy;.

Her pinkish lips, reddish cheeks,smallish nose have greedy lust ; Her raised eyelids, soft tongue and pearly teeth are no fake ; Her arched eyebrows and large black eyes to look at is a must; Her icy apple blossom and thin belly are making a restless shake;

hugging voluptuously a forbbiden land is a hard game to play; My featherly pen and muse are my only trusthwordy weapon; Al long-waited nod from my bird and at my home I will not stay; I will join her in the Far East, and can such a thing really happen

Drink to me two cherry juice glasses and let them brim over; O! Do not wipe your cherry lips and give me mouth-to-mouth; Let your soul melt in my soul and bite my fair skin over and over; Set off my heart to the cozy fairyland in the East not the South.

Put my head on your shapely lap and tell me a loving fairy tale; Sing me your lulaby and hug me to smell your lingering scent; Roll me in your dove-white sheets away from the blowing gale; Kiss me good night, and please be at my bedside without fail.

A far-off Uzbekistan nightingale dwelt in my warm heart; On that summer hot night giving me a glimmer of hope; From the Far East I could feel her, but had I to take part? Hard to find, easy to lose; oh my God!with her how to cope?

Memories of her smashing photos made me a night owl; Classy, dressy, choosy,rosy, homey was my golden bird; Impedements she set: never could I meet her crying soul; For freedom she called for, and about that I often heard;

Smallish, youngish, , never would I forget that pinky rose bud; Skin-tight clothes fitted her in the breezy sea and moonlight; Killing me softly and softly, she made my face hide in a mud; Again and again, my heart in chains would be not out of sight.

O a farewell kiss from an aching heart wrapped up in sadness ; Though not oldish, heavy wrinkles dwelt in a bony pale face; My poor soul on the verge of raging thirst sent me to madness; Longing to see that rare bird, I set off to catch it at a gentle pace.

Had I but her featherly wings, I would not need a plane seat belt; In the Far East my heart would rest and build a warm homey nest; What was doing to me that stormy love at first sight and newly felt? A love bite on the net made me restless and put me to real test.

I remembered my lilly Leila and the innoncence of our past chilhood; In blossom my rose bud was in each spring when my heart stood; Looking at me with reddish lips, that natural blonde gave me food; Playing hop scotch, her blonde hair in pigtails, left me in good mood.

Years were gone and still my aching heart is kept in her firm hook; Stop my friends;let me weep over her death;I was her secret book; Agaisnt each greedy man I fought back and not with fear I shook; I swear never to forget you and at my hung sword I will not look.

English Consonants and Vowels Answer to Ex. 2.5: Reading Phonetic Transcription (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r) The road to Hell is paved with good intentions. Birds of a feather flock together. A rolling stone gathers no moss. A watched kettle never boils. Charity begins at home. Every cloud has a silver lining. Great minds run in the same channels. Many hands make light work. Still waters run deep. The early bird catches the worm. Time and tide wait for no man. Opportunity knocks but once. A fool and his money are soon parted. All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy. A stitch in time saves nine. It takes two to make a quarrel. You can't turn a sow's ear into a silk purse. An apple a day keeps the doctor away.

English Consonants and Vowels Exercise 2.5: Reading Phonetic Transcription Write out the following proverbial expressions, which are given in broad transcription.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

/rodthlzpevdwdntnnz/ /bdzvfrflktr/ /rolstonrznoms/ /wttktlnvrblz/ /tertibnzthom/ /vrikladhzslvrlan/ /retmandzrnnsemtnlz/

(h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r)

/mnihndzmeklatwrk/ /stlwtrzrndip/ /ilibdktzwrm/ /tamndtadwetfrnomn/ /prtuntinksbtwns/ /fulndhzmnirsunprtd/ /lwrkndnoplemeksdkdlb/ /sttntamsevznan/ /tekstutumekkwrl/ /yukntnszrntuslkps/ /npldekipsdktrwe/

English Consonants and Vowels Exercise 2.2: English Consonants 1. Give a complete description of the consonant sound represented by the symbol and then supply an English word containing the sound.

Example: Answer: Word: (a) (b) (c) (d) // // / / []

/t/ voiceless alveolopalatal affricate cherry (e) (f) (g) /r/ /j/ /g/

2. Give the phonetic symbol representing the consonant sound described and then supply an English word containing the sound.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

voiced alveolopalatal affricate aspirated voiceless bilabial stop alveolar flap dentalized alveolar nasal voiceless labiovelar fricative voiceless labiodental fricative voiceless glottal fricative or voiceless vowel

3. Of the sounds in questions (1) and (2)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)

Which never occur word initially in English? Which sound is replaced by a labiovelar glide by many speakers? Which occurs only word or syllable initially before a stressed vowel? Which sound replaces /t/ or /d/ between vowels for most North American speakers? Which occurs only before dental sounds? Which involves labialization? Which sound can also be analyzed as a complex sound? Which sound is produced only following vowels?

(i) (j)

Which are sibilants? Which never occur word finally in English?

4. Give the phonetic symbol for the initial consonant sound(s) in each of the following words.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

rhetoric one know (h)

(f) (g) unity

cereal jaguar (m)

(k) (l) chaste (n) shave

psalm

(p)

gnat wrong

chorus (q) (r) zero

Thomas (i) sure (j)

pheasant theme (o)

charade (t) science

(s)

ghost

5. Give the phonetic symbol for the medial consonant sound(s) in each of the following words.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

toughen visage alloy (g) (h)

(f)

away

(k)

listen

(p) (q) (r) future (t)

author lather psyche

errand (l) ocean (m)

plumber cupboard soften measure (s)

descent (i) azure (j)

adjourn (n) aghast (o)

lawyer

6. Give the phonetic symbol for the final consonant sound(s) in each of the following words.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

froth miss stomach indict ledge

(f) (g)

itch sign (h)

(k) (l) niche

phase lathe (m) (n)

(p) (q)

mall rough beige hopped

tongue (r) comb (s) solemn

(i) (j)

hiccough ooze (o)

brogue (t)

7. For the words anger, finger, wringer, as opposed to hanger, ringer, singer can you see a rule at work which determines whether the -g is pronounced or not? (Hint: Are the er's the same in all of the words?)

8.

(a)

In which of the following words is one of the stops likely to be unreleased? right leap accent carry scepter backpack

(b) In which of the following words is the /t/ or /d/ likely to be flapped in North American English? plotter pattern (c) In which of the following words is nasal or lateral release likely to occur? madness maudlin sideline ignore tippler madly filter muddy hidden middle middle

(d)

In which of the following words is the /l/ likely to be "dark" (velarized)? alive Carl pal kill play loom

English Consonants and Vowels Answer to Ex. 2.2: English Consonants 1. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) voiceless dental fricative velar nasal thing thesis

voiced alveolopalatal fricative measure velarized alveolar lateral alveolar retroflex rough pill

(f) palatal glide euphemism (g) 2. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) /f/ (g) 3. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) voiced velar stop /d/ [ph] [] *n+ [] fun /h/ harm jam apart pretty tenth which guilty

//, //, [], [+, *n+ [] [ph] [] *n+

(f) //, /r/, [] (g) (h) /d/ []

(i) /d/, // (j) /j/, [ph], [+, *n+, *], /h/ 4. (a) (b) (c) (d) /r/ /w/ /n/ /t/ (f) (g) (h) (i) /s/ /d/ /j/ /f/ (k) (l) (m) (n) /s/ /k/ /t/ / / (p) (q) (r) (s) /n/ /r/ /z/ //

(e) 5. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) 6. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

/ / /f/ /z/ /l/ /s/ / / // /s/ /k/ /t/ /d/

(j) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

// /w/ /r/ / / /d/ // /t/ /n/

(o) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (k) (l)

/ / /s/ /m/ /b/ /f/ // /z/ // (m) /m/ //

(t) (p) (q) (r) (s) (t) (p) (q) // (s) (t)

/s/ // // /k/ /t/ /j/ /l/ /f/ (r) /t/ /m/ / /

// or /t/ /p/ /z/ (n) (o)

7. In anger, finger, and wringer, the -er is part of the root of the word, whereas in hanger, ringer and singer, the -er is a derivational suffix added to hang, ring, and sing, where the ng is actually word final. 8. (a) (b) (c) (d) right leap accent scepter backpack

plotter muddy pattern madness Carl pal maudlin kill sideline madly

English Consonants and Vowels Exercise 2.3: English Vowels 1. Give a complete description of the vowel sound represented by the symbol and then supply an English word containing the sound.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

/u/ / / // // /a/

2. Give the phonetic symbol representing the vowel sound described and then supply an English word containing the sound.

(a) (b)

low front monophthong lower mid back monophthong

(c) (d) (e)

high front (lax) to high back (tense) diphthong (upper) mid front to high front (lax) diphthong upper mid central monophthong

3. Of the vowel sounds in questions (1) and (2)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)

Which never occur in a stressed open syllable? Which diphthong may be "raised" before voiceless consonants? Which may be replaced by // by some speakers? Which is a "reduced" vowel? Which are falling diphthongs? Which is a rising diphthong? Which diphthong is often monophthongized? Which involve labialization?

4. Give the phonetic symbol for the vowel sound in each of the following words.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

build

(h)

young (o) stop fruit wolf feud (m) flax (p) (q) (r) (s) vein (u)

mourn (v) style heart war (w) (x) (y)

throw (cc) slim (dd)

burn hook goose (ff) die toe blood

gauge (i) threat (j) plaid earn (k) (l)

weigh (ee) through their (gg)

proud (z) (t) cute

brought town (n)

break (aa) (bb) face

peace (hh) (ii) shoe

5. Transcribe the full vowel in the word in column A and the corresponding reduced vowel in column B. A (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) B diplomatic

diploma

assume assumption notify notification

migrate migratory implicit implication emphatic harmonic tempestuous emphasis harmony tempest

English Consonants and Vowels Answer to Ex. 2.3: English Vowels 1. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) 2. (a) (b) (c) 3. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) 4. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) 5. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) high back tense monophthong spoon lower mid front monophthong pet high front lax monophthong silly

(lower) mid back to high front (lax) diphthong soil low central to high back (lax) diphthong // // /u/ sand corn beauty (d) (e) /e/ // pale shirt mouse

//, //, //, // /a/ // // //, /a/, /e/ /u/ /u/ to /u/ /u/, //, /a/, /u/, // // /e/ // // // // /a/ A /o/ /()u/ /a/ /e/ // (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) B // // // // // // (o) // (p) // // /a/ /e/ /u/ (v) /a/ (x) (y) (z) (aa) (bb) /o/ (w) /e/ /u/ // /i/ /e/ (cc) // (ee) (ff) (gg) (hh) (ii) // (dd) /u/ // /a/ /o/ /u/ //

// or // /u/ // /u/ /e/ // (q) (r) (s) (t) (u)

(f) (g) (h)

// // //

// // //

English Consonants and Vowels Exercise 2.6: Transcription (Advanced) 1. Give broad transcriptions of the following words.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n)

parochial ineligible

(o) (p)

masculine debauchery sacrilegious deciduous authoritarian literature delinquent cucumber

(bb) (cc) (dd) (ee) (ff) (gg) (hh) (ii)

athletic moisturize accumulate gigantic jewelry masochism orthographic sanctuary molecular suggestion differentiate calculation therapeutic

quintessential (q) habitual squelched (r) (s)

parliamentary (t) hallucination infuriating (u) (v)

embarrassment(w) relaxation exploratory kaleidoscope exhaustion museums (x) (y) (z) (aa)

questionnaire (jj) psychological (kk) thankfully (ll)

awkwardness (mm) rectangular (nn)

2. Transcribe the following words using your normal pronunciation. If you know of any other pronunciations, give these as well. Then check your answers against the variant pronunciations given.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i)

again

(p)

been (q) (r) (s)

(ee)

stereo produce vase (hh) blouses

Tuesday progress schedule tomato (t) data aunt (u) (v)

process (ff) lever (gg)

genuine missile (jj) arctic

almond (ii) interesting bury (w) (kk)

asphalt

resources sorry (x)

species (ll) (mm)

vehicle luxury

longitude

(j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o)

placate (y) catch (z)

prestige garage (oo) (aa)

(nn) brooch

battery

tomorrow capsule (bb) route (cc) nuclear (dd)

offense (pp) apricot coupon leisure

bilingual

student (qq) without(rr) calm (ss)

English Consonants and Vowels Answer to Ex. 2.6: Transcription (Advanced) 1. (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) 2. (a) /prokil/ (p) (o) /mskjln/ (cc) (dd) (ee) (ff) (gg) (hh) (ii) (bb) /ltk/

/nldbl/

/dbtri/ /skrlds/ /dsdus/ /rtrin/ *lrtr+ /dlkwnt/ /kukmbr/ (w)

/mstraz/ /kumjlet/ /dantk/ /dulri/ /mskzm/ /rrfk/ /skturi/ (jj) /mlkulr/

/kwntsntl/ (q) /hbtu()l/ /skwltt/ (r) (s)

/prlmntri/ (t) /hlusnen/ (u) /nfuriet/ (v)

/mbrsmnt/ /rlksen/ /ksplrtri/ (x) (y)

/kwstnr/

/sakldkl/ (kk) /kfli/ /kwrdns/ (ll) (mm)

/s()dstn/ /dfrntiet/ /klkjlen/ /rputk/

/kladskop/ (z) /zstn/ /muzmz/ (a) /n/ /bn/ (ee) /strio/ /en/ (p) /bin/ (aa)

/rktjlr/ (nn)

/strio/

(b)

/tuzde/ (q) (ff) /prss/ /prod()us/ (N)

/tuzde/ /pross/

/prd()us/ (N) /prd()us/ (V) (c) /prrs/ (N)

/prors/ (N) /prgrs/ (V) (r) /livr/ /vz/ /vez/ (d) /skdl/ (s) /dnun/ /blasz/ (gg) /lvr/ /ves/

/dul/

/dnuan/ (hh) /blazz/ (e) [tmeo]

/tmto/ [tmo] /lmn(d)/ /mn(d)/ /msal/ (f) [d] [de] /nrst/ /sflt/ /flt/ (g) /nt/ (v) /rtk/ /bri/ (u) (jj) /nt()rst/ /sflt/ (ii) /msl/ (t) /mn(d)/

/nt/ /bi/ (kk) /rktk/ (h)

/rsrsz/

/risrsz/ /rzrsz/ /spisiz/ /vihkl/ (i) /sri/ /sri/ (x) /ltud/ /lri/ /lndt()ud/ (mm) /lkri/ (w) (ll) /spiiz/ /vikl/

(j)

/pleket/ /plket/ /prstd/ /btri/ (y) (nn) /prsti/ [bri]

(k)

/kt/ /gr/

/kt/ (z) /grd/ /grd/ /brot/ (l)

(oo)

/brut/

/tmro/ /tmro/ /ofns/ /balul/ (aa) (pp) /fns/ /balwl/

(m)

/kpsl/ (bb) /st()udnt/ (qq) /eprkt/

/kpsul/ /prkt/ (n) /rt/

/rat/ /wat/ (o)

(cc) (rr)

/wat/ /k()upn/

/n()uklir/ (dd) /k(l)m/ (ss) /lr/

/nukulr/ /lir/

English Consonants and Vowels Exercise 2.7: Distinctive Features An alternate way to analyze sounds makes use of the concept of binary or paired features (a concept that we will encounter again in semantics in Chapter 6) where there is an opposition between the presence or absence of a feature in a particular sound. A notation is used for features in which the name of the feature is capitalized and enclosed in square brackets, the presence of the feature is indicated by a plus sign and its absence by a minus sign. For example, if we consider the features of voicing and nasality:

/t/ is [VOICE] [NASAL] /d/ is [+VOICE] [NASAL]

/n/ is [+VOICE] [+NASAL]

Sometimes, a sound may or may not have a particular feature and is hence , e.g.:

/d/ is [SYLLABIC] // is [+SYLLABIC] /n/ is [SYLLABIC]

Sounds are analyzed in terms of a unique set, or bundle, of features. Each sound is distinguished from every other sound by a least one feature, e.g.:

/b/ [+VOICE] [+LABIAL] [NASAL]

/m/ [+VOICE] [+LABIAL] [+NASAL]

The sounds of a language can be arranged in a grid or matrix, in which the features are listed along one axis and the sounds along the other, as we shall see below. Phonological features are assumed to be universal; that is, there exists only a limited number of features, and languages select among the possible features and combine them in language-specific ways. The distinctiveness of the features lies in the fact that they combine both articulatory and acoustic information. In the speech situation, there is a balance between the needs of the hearer, who perceives only those features necessary for deciphering the sounds (overlooking many other features), and the needs of the speaker, who for ease of articulation often omits features of sounds. Distinctive features are, thus, those features required by both speaker and hearer.

While the inventory of features is continually undergoing revision, we may identify the following features of consonants, many of which we have encountered before:

[CONSONANTAL] made with closure in the vocal tract greater than that necessary for glides, resulting in an impediment in the flow of air [SONORANT] involving a regular pattern of vibration and lack of "noise", musical sounds that can be sung or held on pitch [SYLLABIC] functioning as the nucleus of a syllable and potentially carrying stress made with incomplete closure in the oral cavity

[CONTINUANT] [NASAL] [LATERAL] [VOICE]

made with the velum lowered made with the lateral flow of air made with vibration of the vocal cords

[SIBILANT] made with a groove or trough along the center line of the tongue, resulting in a strong hissing sound [DELAYED RELEASE] made with the slow release of a stop

For place of articulation, in order to establish a binary opposition, we must introduce some distinctions that differ from the traditional places such as alveolar or velar:

[ANTERIOR] [CORONAL] [HIGH] [BACK]

made on or in front of the alveolar ridge made with the tip or blade of the tongue raised made with the tongue raised in the palatal or velar regions articulated behind the palatal region

See the feature grid for English consonants below.

p z [SYLLABIC]

n t

k d

g l

f y

v w

s h

[CONSONANTAL] + + [SONORANT] [NASAL] [ANTERIOR] + [CORONAL] + [HIGH] [BACK] + + +

+ +

+ +

+ +

+ +

+ +

+ +

+ +

+ +

+ +

+ +

+ +

+ +

+ +

+ +

+ +

[CONTINUANT] + + +

+ +

+ +

[DELAYED RELEASE] [SIBILANT] + [VOICE] + [LATERAL] + +

+ +

+ +

+ +

+ +

+ +

Note that all consonants except the glides and /h/ are [+CONSONANTAL]. Nasals, liquids, and approximants are [+SONORANT], while fricatives, liquids, and approximants are [+CONTINUANT]. The four major classes of consonants can be differentiated as follows:

stops

[CONTINUANT] [SONORANT]

nasals [+SONORANT]

[CONTINUANT]

fricatives

[+CONTINUANT]

approximants

[+CONTINUANT]

[SONORANT]

[+SONORANT]

In respect to place of articulation, labials, labiodentals, dentals, and alveolars are [+ANTERIOR]; and dentals, alveolars, alveolopalatals are [+CORONAL]. A way of grouping consonants according to features is as follows:

For vowels, the following features may be identified, which are used along with the place features [HIGH] and [BACK]:

[LOW] [ROUND] [TENSE] [REDUCED]

made with the tongue lowered from the neutral, central position produced with lip rounding articulated with increased tension in the tongue //

See the feature grid for the basic English vowels below:

i [HIGH] + [LOW]

u +

[BACK] [ROUND] + [TENSE]+ [REDUCED]

+ +

+ +

+ +

+ +

Note that vowels are all [+VOCALIC] (an open oral cavity with voicing) as well as [CONSONANTAL, +SONORANT, +VOICE, +CONTINUANT]. The diphthongs /e, u, a, a, o, / cannot be distinguished by these features but must be treated as a combination of vowel + glide. A way of grouping vowels according to features is as follows:

Now try to do the following exercises:

1. What distinctive feature(s) do the sounds in each set have in common?

(a) (b) (c)

/k/, /u/, //, // /b/, //, //, // /f/, //, //, /j/ (f)

(d) (e)

/l/, //, /t/, /n/ /j/, /k/, /i/, /w/

/r/, //, //, //

2. What feature or features distinguish each of the following sets of sounds?

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

/v/, // (f) /f/, /v/ (g) /r/, /j/ (h) /f/, // (i) /e/, /o/ (j)

/i/, /j/ /u/, // /z/, // /g/, // /t/, /s/

3. Give a list of distinctive features for each of the following sounds. Which are necessary to distinguish the sound from all other sounds?

(a) (b)

/w/ /d/

(c) (d)

/l/ //

4. What sound or sounds have the following sets of distinctive features?

(a) (b)

[+CONSONANTAL, +HIGH, +SONORANT, +BACK] [CONSONANTAL, +HIGH, BACK, VOCALIC]

(c) (d)

[ROUND, +LOW, BACK] [+ANTERIOR, SIBILANT, +CORONAL, VOICE]

5. It could be argued that [NASAL] is a redundant feature since it is not required to distinguish /m, n, / from other sounds. Explain.

English Consonants and Vowels Answer to Ex. 2.7: Distinctive Features 1. (b) (c) (a) [+BACK] (e) (d) [+ANTERIOR], [+CONSONANTAL]

[+VOICE]

[+HIGH] (f) [+SONORANT], [+VOICE]

[+CONTINUANT]

2. (b) (c) (d) (e)

(a)

[REDUCED] (g)

(f)

[CONSONANTAL]

[VOICE]

[TENSE] (h) [SIBILANT]

[ANTERIOR], [SYLLABIC] [CORONAL] (i)

[SONORANT], [NASAL] (j) [CONTINUANT], [SIBILANT]

[BACK], [ROUND]

3. (a) [SYLLABIC, CONSONANTAL, +SONORANT, NASAL, ANTERIOR, CORONAL, +HIGH, +BACK, +CONTINUANT, DELAYED RELEASE, SIBILANT, +VOICE, LATERAL] (b) [SYLLABIC, +CONSONANTAL, SONORANT, NASAL, ANTERIOR, +CORONAL, BACK, HIGH, CONTINUANT, +DELAYED RELEASE, +SIBILANT, +VOICE, LATERAL] (c) [SYLLABIC, +CONSONANTAL, +SONORANT, NASAL, +ANTERIOR, +CORONAL,

BACK, HIGH, +CONINUANT, DELAYED RELEASE, SIBILANT, +VOICE, +LATERAL] (d) [CONSONANTAL, +SONORANT, +CONINUANT, +VOCALIC, +VOICE, HIGH, +LOW,

ROUNDED, +BACK, REDUCED] 4. (a) // (b) /w/ (c) // (d) //

5. Nasals are characterized by the combination of features [CONTINUANT] and [+SONORANT/. While stops are [CONTINUANT], they are [SONORANT] and while approximants are [+SONORANT], they are [+CONTINUANT].

English Consonants and Vowels Exercise 2.4: Transcription (Elementary) 1. Give complete (broad) transcriptions of the words in Exercise 2.2, questions 4, 5, and 6, and Exercise 2.3, question 4.

2. Give broad transcriptions of the following near homophones.

(a) clique tirade

click

(b) candied

candid (c) tarred

tired

(d) sweet

sweat (e) bad

bade

3. Give the two English words represented by each of the following transcriptions.

Example: /hr/ hair, hare

(a) (b) (c) (d)

/krt/(e) /frar/ (f) /krs/ (g) /dez/ (h)

/n/

(i)

/hstl/ /ret/ (k) /lr/ /tam/

/noz/ (j) /ron/ /ru/ (l)

4. Each of the following contains one error in transcription; i.e., it indicates an impossible pronunciation of the word for a native speaker of English. Give the word and supply the correct transcription.

Example: /pits/ (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) /siten/ /cntri/ /snflar/ /tomkt/ /strs/ /umbrla/

word: pizza (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l)

transcription: /pits/ (m) (n) /rpidk/ /puntv/

/mkl/ /sdn/ /brid/ (o) /strnk/ /fantli/ (q) /nebrhd/

/kwstn/ (p) /kstmri/

/prplkzt/ (r) /sfx/

English Consonants and Vowels Answer to Ex. 2.4: Transcription (Elementary) 1. (b) (c) (d) (e) (2.2) 4. (a) /rtrk/ (l) (f) /sril/ (k) /r/ /sm/ (p) /nt/

/wn/ (g) /no/ (h) /tms/ // (j)

/dwr/ /junti/ (m) (i)

/krs/ (q) /zro/

/test/ (r) (n) (t)

/fznt/ /ev/

/red/ (s) /sans/

/ost/

/im/ (o)

5. (b) (c) (d) (e)

(a)

/tfn/ (f) (g)

/we/ (k) /rnd/ (l)

/lsn/ (p) /plmr/ (r)

/r/ (q) /saki/ /futr/ /ljr/ /lr/

/vzd/ /l/ (h) /dsnt/ /r/ (j)

/on/ (m) (i)

/kbrd/ (n)

/dn/ (o)

/sfn/ (s) (t)

/st/

/mr/

6. (b) (c) (d) (e)

(a) /ms/

/fr/ (f) (g)

/t/

(k)

/fez/

(p) /rf/ /t/ /hpt/ (t)

/ml/

/san/ (l) (h)

/le/ (q) (m)

/stmk/ /ndat/ (i) /ld/ (j)

/n//nt/

(r)

/be/

/hkp/ (n) /uz/ (o)

/kom/ (s) /bro/

/slm/

(2.3 4.) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) /ed/ (k) /rt/ (l)

(a) /wlf/ /fud/ /ven/ /flks/ /mrn/ /stal/ /hrt/

/bld/ (t) (u) (v)

(j)

/frut/

(s) /bn/ /hk/ /gus/ /bld/ /da/ /to/ /u/

/prad/(bb)

/fes/

/brek/ (cc) /kut/ (dd) /ro/ (ee)

/pld/ (m) /n/ /brt/ (n) (o)

(w) /slm/ (ff) (x) (y) (z) /we/ (gg) /ru/ /r/ (hh) (ii)

/tan/ (p) /j/ /stp/ (q)

/stp/ 2. /klik/ /tared/ 3. (b) (c) (d) (a) (a)

(r) /klk/

/wr/ (b)

(aa) /pis/ /kndd/ /trd/ (c) /tard/(d) /swit/ /swt/ (e) /bd/ /bed/

/kndid/

carrot, carat, caret (f)

(e)

urn, earn (j) (k)

(i)

hostel, hostile (also /hstal/)

fryer, friar

knows, nose grown, groan

great, grate time, thyme logger, lager

course, coarse (g) daze, days (h)

through, threw (l)

4. Word

(a) (b)

citation (g) century (h)

magical (m) oxygen (n)

orthopedic punitive

(c) (d) (e) (f) Correction

sunflower tomcat (j) oysters (k) umbrella

(i)

breathed (p)

(o)

question

strength faintly (q) (l)

customary

perplexed sphinx

neighborhood (r)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

/saten/ /sntri/ /snflar/ /tmkt/ /strz/ /mbrl/

(g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l)

/mdkl/ /ksdn/ /brid/ (o) /strk/ /fentli/ (q) /nebrhd/

(m) (n)

/rpidk/ /puntv/

/kwstn/ (p) /kstmri/

/prplkst/ (r) /sfks/

English Consonants and Vowels Answer to Ex. 2.4: Transcription (Elementary) 1. (b) (c) (d) (e) (2.2) 4. (a) /rtrk/ (l) (f) /sril/ (k) /r/ /sm/ (p) /nt/

/wn/ (g) /no/ (h) /tms/ // (j)

/dwr/ /junti/ (m) (i)

/krs/ (q) /zro/

/test/ (r) (n) (t)

/fznt/ /ev/

/red/ (s) /sans/

/ost/

/im/ (o)

5. (b) (c) (d) (e)

(a)

/tfn/ (f) (g)

/we/ (k) /rnd/ (l)

/lsn/ (p) /plmr/ (r)

/r/ (q) /saki/ /futr/ /ljr/ /lr/

/vzd/ /l/ (h) /dsnt/ /r/ (j)

/on/ (m) (i)

/kbrd/ (n)

/dn/ (o)

/sfn/ (s) (t)

/st/

/mr/

6. (b) (c) (d) (e)

(a) /ms/

/fr/ (f) (g)

/t/

(k)

/fez/

(p) /rf/ /t/ /hpt/ (t)

/ml/

/san/ (l) (h)

/le/ (q) (m)

/stmk/ /ndat/ (i) /ld/ (j)

/n//nt/

(r)

/be/

/hkp/ (n) /uz/ (o)

/kom/ (s) /bro/

/slm/

(2.3 4.) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) /ed/ (k) /rt/ (l)

(a) /wlf/ /fud/ /ven/ /flks/ /mrn/ /stal/ /hrt/

/bld/ (t) (u) (v)

(j)

/frut/

(s) /bn/ /hk/ /gus/ /bld/ /da/ /to/ /u/

/prad/(bb)

/fes/

/brek/ (cc) /kut/ (dd) /ro/ (ee)

/pld/ (m) /n/ /brt/ (n) (o)

(w) /slm/ (ff) (x) (y) (z) /we/ (gg) /ru/ /r/ (hh) (ii)

/tan/ (p) /j/ /stp/ (q)

/stp/ 2. /klik/ /tared/ 3. (b) (c) (d) (a) (a)

(r) /klk/

/wr/ (b)

(aa) /pis/ /kndd/ /trd/ (c) /tard/(d) /swit/ /swt/ (e) /bd/ /bed/

/kndid/

carrot, carat, caret (f)

(e)

urn, earn (j) (k)

(i)

hostel, hostile (also /hstal/)

fryer, friar

knows, nose grown, groan

great, grate time, thyme logger, lager

course, coarse (g) daze, days (h)

through, threw (l)

4. Word

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) Correction

citation (g) century (h) sunflower tomcat (j) oysters (k) umbrella

magical (m) oxygen (n) (i)

orthopedic punitive (o) question

breathed (p)

strength faintly (q) (l)

customary

perplexed sphinx

neighborhood (r)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

/saten/ /sntri/ /snflar/ /tmkt/ /strz/ /mbrl/

(g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l)

/mdkl/ /ksdn/ /brid/ (o) /strk/ /fentli/ (q) /nebrhd/

(m) (n)

/rpidk/ /puntv/

/kwstn/ (p) /kstmri/

/prplkst/ (r) /sfks/

English Consonants and Vowels Answer to Ex. 2.3: English Vowels 1. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) 2. (a) (b) (c) 3. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) 4. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) 5. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) high back tense monophthong spoon lower mid front monophthong pet high front lax monophthong silly

(lower) mid back to high front (lax) diphthong soil low central to high back (lax) diphthong // // /u/ sand corn beauty (d) (e) /e/ // pale shirt mouse

//, //, //, // /a/ // // //, /a/, /e/ /u/ /u/ to /u/ /u/, //, /a/, /u/, // // /e/ // // // // /a/ A /o/ /()u/ /a/ /e/ // (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) B // // // // // // (o) // (p) // // /a/ /e/ /u/ (v) /a/ (x) (y) (z) (aa) (bb) /o/ (w) /e/ /u/ // /i/ /e/ (cc) // (ee) (ff) (gg) (hh) (ii) // (dd) /u/ // /a/ /o/ /u/ //

// or // /u/ // /u/ /e/ // (q) (r) (s) (t) (u)

(f) (g) (h)

// // //

// // //

English Phonology, Phonotactics, and Suprasegmentals Exercise 3.1: Phonemic Rules 1. Consider the following English words containing the phoneme //.

[lwun] [wot+ [lo+ [is]

[br+ [f]

*ir+ *n+ *fr+ *an+ *wr+

*r+ *r+ *red+

[wus+ *et+

(a) (b) (c)

List the allophones of //. State in words the environment in which each allophone is found. Write a phonemic rule for /g/, listing one allophone as "elsewhere".

2. Consider the following English words containing the phoneme /r/.

*fri+

*tra]

[mri] [rf] [brdr+ [pir]

[rwoz] *prfsr+

*hmr+ [raz] [rnr+ *flr+

[rwod] [rwut] [prt+

*brad+ *dren+ *srwo+

(a) (b) (c)

List the allophones of /r/. State in words the environment in which each allophone is found. Write a phonemic rule for /r/, listing one allophone as "elsewhere".

3. Consider the following English words containing the phoneme /k/.

[kpl] [k ten+ [kwot]*kem] [kwulr]

*mk t+ *kmr]

*skt+ *lokl+

[lk+ [ka] [kloz]

[msk] [skn] [skl]

(a) (b) (c)

List the allophones of /k/. State in words the environment in which each allophone is found. Write a phonemic rule for /k/, listing one allophone as "elsewhere".

4. Consider the following English words containing the phoneme /l/.

[pes] [ho+ *fem+ *lwtr+ [lwunr] [md] [lf] [v] [t]

*tn+

*mln+ [tl+

[lwon] [lem] [k] [lad] [jo] [ls] [hp]

[lav] [lt]

*klam] *slp+ [pk]

(a) (b) (c)

List the allophones of /l/. State in words the environment in which each allophone is found. Write a phonemic rule for /l/, listing one allophone as "elsewhere".

English Phonology, Phonotactics, and Suprasegmentals Answer to Ex. 3.1: Phonemic Rules 1. (a) (b) [w+ *+ *+ [w+ occurs before rounded vowels [] occcurs before front vowels

[+ occurs initially before consonants and central and back unrounded vowels, word medially and word finally (c) // [] [+ 2. (a) (b) *r+ *rw+ *r+ *r+ *r+ [rw] *r+ occurs following voiceless consonants occurs before rounded vowels occurs following consonants word finally [w+ / Vorounded

/ Vofront / elsewhere

[r] occurs before front and central vowels, word medially in the environment of front vowels, preconsonantally, and word finally (c) /r/ *r+ [rw] *r+ [r] 3. (a) (b) *kw+ *k + *k+ *k+ [kw] *k + occurs before rounded vowels occurs before other stops and word finally / vl / Vorounded / # / elsewhere

*k+ [k] following /s/

occurs before front vowels occurs initially and medially before central vowels and consonants and

(N. . We are ignoring aspiration here. All of the allophones with the exception of *k + would also be aspirated in the proper environment.) (c) /k/ [kw] *k + *k+ [k] 4. (a) (b) / Vorounded / #, Cstop / Vofront / elsewhere

[] [lw] [] [] [l] *l+ [lw] *l+ [] occurs following voiceless consonants occurs before rounded vowels occurs following obstruents and nasals word finally occurs following vowels and approximants, medially in the environment of

back vowels [l] front vowels (N.B. syllabic [] is probably "dark" as well, hence [].) (c) /l/ *l+ [lw] [] [] [l] / vl / Vorounded /C # /Vo , Approx. / elsewhere occurs before front and mid vowels, medially in the environment of mid and

English Phonology, Phonotactics, and Suprasegmentals Exercise 3.2: Phonological Processes 1. Write the word indicated by each transcription and identify the phonological process or change responsible for each pronunciation.

Example:

Transcription

Word Phonological Process

[phizmnt] (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) *twubr] *smfni] [ki] (p)

appeasement aspiration (n) (o) [ktls] *plrl] [bo] *landri+ [latnn+

[phntmnt] (q) *rp tr] (r)

(f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) 2.

*prri] (s) [tr+ (t) [k tps+ *pkek] [blt] (w)

*pnr] *dadstn+ (u) (v) *mai+ [lwtr]

[p tml+ [tr+ [hrdn+

*ktn] (x) [hli] (y) [tuzde] (a) (b)

Write a rule for the unreleasing of stops. Write a rule for the monophthongization of [u].

3. An advantage of distinctive features (discussed in Exercise 2.7) is that they enable us to recognize natural classes of sounds, sets of sounds all sharing a certain feature or features, for example, all sounds sharing the feature [+NASAL] or [+BACK]. Since natural classes behave the same way in respect to phonological processes and rules as well as nondistinctive variation, we are able to capture generalizations by the use of features. We are often able to supply the motivating force for variants or changes as well.

Try to express the 12 rules given in the section on Phonological Processes in the text in terms of distinctive features.

English Phonology, Phonotactics, and Suprasegmentals Answer to Ex. 3.2: Phonological Processes 1. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) Word Phonological Process labialization nasalization

toothbrush symphony curly

velarization aspiration

appointment

rapture unreleased/palatalization prairie totter octopus pancake devoicing flapping unreleased velarization

belittle syllabic consonant kitchen fronting healthy dentalization

(m) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r) (s) (t) (u) (v) (w) (x) (y) 2. (b) 3. (a)

Tuesday

monophthongization

laundry nasalization lightning nasal release

cutlass lateral release plural devoicing

bellow velarization panther digestion dentalization palatalization

mighty flapping loiter labialization

optimal unreleased guitar fronting

harden syllabic consonant stop / Cstop, #

[u+ *u+/ alveolar (1) *+ ONSONANTAL+ *+LA IALIZED+/ [+ROUND]

(2) [+CONSONANTAL, +SONORANT] *+SYLLA I +/*+ ONSONANTAL, SONORANT] #, [+NASAL] # (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) *+ ONSONANTAL, +ANTERIOR, + ORONAL+ *+DENTALIZED+/ [+DENTAL] *+SONORANT+ *VOICE]/[VOICE, +CONSONANTAL] *+ A K, + ONSONANT+ *BACK, ANTERIOR]/ [BACK, +VOCALIC] *+VO ALI + *+NASALIZED+/ [+NASAL] [+VOCALIC, A K+ *+RETRA TED+/ [+LATERAL]

(8) [+CONSONANTAL, CONTINUANT, NASAL, DELAYED RELEASE, VOI E+ [+ASPIRATED]/ # [+VOCALIC, +STRESS] (9) *+LATERAL+ *+VELARIZED]/ [+SONORANT, +CONTINUANT]

(10) [+CONSONANTAL, SONORANT, +ANTERIOR, + ORONAL+ *ANTERIOR]/ #[ CONSONANTAL, VOCALIC, +HIGH, BACK] (11) (12) [+VOCALIC, TENSE+ *+REDU ED+/*STRESS] *+REDU ED+ / #[+SONORANT, +ANTERIOR]

English Phonology, Phonotactics, and Suprasegmentals Exercise 3.3: Word Stress 1. Using acute and grave accents, mark primary and secondary stress (where present) in the following words.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)

papyrus feminine millionaire harmonica pelican (m) geometry vocabulary compliment

(i) (j) (k) (l)

pedigree hypotenuse summary

(q) (r) (s)

vigilante peripheral macaroni imperialism

memorandum (t) (u)

architecture (n) (o) (p)

satellite (v) (w) (x) characterize chromosome accidental

discipline caterpillar penetration

2. Transcribe the following sets of words and mark primary and secondary stress with Super- and subticks. Note the reduction of vowels in unstressed syllables.

(a)

catastrophe

catastrophic (b) synonym

synonymous (c) repeat

repetitive repetition How does stress affect the quality of the first t in repetitive and repetition? How does stress affect the quality of the p? (d) migrate

migratory migration (e) intellect

intellectual intelligent (f) apply

application

applicable applicability (g) exhibit

exhibition How does stress affect the voicing of the consonants in exhibit and exhibition? 3. How does stress differentiate these derivationally-related words?

(a)

proverb

proverbial

reflex reflexive (b) perfect perfection

tranquiltranquility (c) enter 4. injure injurious entertain (a) (b) Give strong and weak forms of that and show how they are used in a sentence. Give two sentences in which the word afternoon has a different syllable stressed.

English Phonology, Phonotactics, and Suprasegmentals Answer to Ex. 3.3: Word Stress 1. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) 2. (a) paprus fminine mllionire harmnic plican (m) gemetry vocbulry cmpliment /ktstrfi/ /ktstrfk/ (b) /snnm/ /snnms/ (c) /rpit/ /rpttv/ /rptn/ (i) (j) (k) (l) pdigre hyptense smmery mmorndum (u) (q) (r) (s) (t) vgilnte perpheral mcarni imprialsm

rchitcture (n) (o) (p)

stellte (v) (w) (x) chracterze chrmosme ccidntal

dscipline cterpillar pnetrtion

In repetitive, the first t is flapped [rptv] because the accent immediately precedes, but in repetition, flapping does not occur because the accent follows. In repeat [rpit+ and repetitive [rptv], the /p/ is aspirated because it occurs before a stressed vowel, but in repetition it is not aspirated. Note that the same principles for flapping and aspiration would apply in 2(a) and 2(e). Also, the same principle for aspiration would apply in 2(f).

(d)

/maret/ /martri/ /maren/

(e)

/ntlkt/ /ntlktul/ /ntldnt/

(f)

/pla/ /plken/ [plkb+ or *plkb] /plkblti/ or /plkblti/

(g)

/zbt/ /ksbn/

Voicing occurs when the consonants are not stressed. Compare of /v/, an unstressed preposition, and off /f/, a stressed adverb.

3. (a) The N has initial-syllable stress (prverb, rflex), while the A has stress on the second syllable (provrbial, reflxive). (b) The A has initial-syllable stress (prfect, trnquil), while the N has stress on the second syllable (perfction, tranqulity). (c) The V has initial-syllable stress (njure), nter, while the A has stress on the second syllable (injrious) or third syllable (entertin). 4. (a) strong: [t] I want that one. (demonstrative)

That is the best one. (pronoun) weak: [t] (b) I know that I am right. (conjunction)

I saw him this afternon. I attended an fternoon cncert.

English Phonology, Phonotactics, and Suprasegmentals Exercise 3.4: Intonation For each of the following sentences, identify

(a) (b) (c)

the number of tone group(s) the tonic syllable(s) in each tone group the intonation patterns of each tone group

1.

We went to a movie last night. (topic of conversation: last night's activities)

2.

We went to a movie last night. (topic of conversation: going to movies)

3.

Should we see a movie tonight? (topic of conversation: doing something tonight)

4.

Should we see the movie tonight? (topic of conversation: when we are seeing a movie)

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Should we see the movie tonight, or tomorrow? (two yes/no questions; see 3d, p. 73 in text) Should we see the movie tonight, or tomorrow? (alternative question; see 7a, p. 74 in text) We could see a movie tonight or go out for ice cream. We could visit a museum this afternoon or go to the zoo tomorrow. We could go to a movie, couldn't we? When should we go to a movie? (topic of conversation: our going to a movie)

11.

When should we go to a movie? (topic of conversation: our doing something)

12. 13.

You liked that movie, didn't you? (tag expressing real question; see 6a in text, p. 74) You liked that movie, didn't you? (tag eliciting confirmation; see 6b in text, p. 74)

English Phonology, Phonotactics, and Suprasegmentals Answer to Ex. 3.4: Intonation 1. (a) (b) one tone group stressed syllable in movie

(c) 2. (a) (b) (c) 3. (a) (b) (c) 4. (a) (b)

long falling one tone group stressed syllable in night long falling one tone group stressed syllable in movie long rising one tone group stressed syllable in tonight

(Note that the definite article with movie tells you that this is given information.) (c) 5. (a) (b) long rising two tone groups: should we see the movie tonight // or tomorrow stressed syllable in tonight stressed syllable in tomorrow (c) long rising short rising 6. (a) (b) two tone groups: should we see the movie tonight // or tomorrow stressed syllable in tonight stressed syllable in tomorrow (c) long rising short falling 7. (a) (b) two tone groups: we could see a movie tonight // or go out for ice cream stressed syllable in movie stressed syllable in ice cream (c) short rising long falling 8. (a) tomorrow (b) two tone groups: we could visit a museum this afternoon // or go to the zoo

stressed syllable in museum stressed syllable in zoo

(c)

short rising long falling

9.

(a)

two tone groups: we could go to a movie // couldn't we

(b)

stressed syllable in movie stressed syllable in couldn't

(c)

short falling short rising

10.

(a) (b) (c)

one tone group stressed syllable in when long falling one tone group stressed syllable in movie long falling two tone groups: you liked that movie // didn't you stressed syllable in movie stressed syllable in didn't

11.

(a) (b) (c)

12.

(a) (b)

(c)

long falling short rising

13.

(a) (b)

two tone groups: you liked that movie // didn't you stressed syllable in movie stressed syllable in didn't

(c)

long falling short falling

English Phonology, Phonotactics, and Suprasegmentals Exercise 3.5: Syllabification Syllabify the following words, using periods to indicate syllable breaks. Note ambisyllabicity.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

aroma

14.

seclusion arithmetic 16. 17. 18. discipline periodic banana

algebra 15. advocate kangaroo obstinate codify 19.

insinuate nightingale 21. instrument

altitude 20. duplicate

9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

geometry temperate whiskey integrity appropriate

22. 23. 24. 25.

exclamation already condemnation esthetic

English Phonology, Phonotactics, and Suprasegmentals Answer to Ex. 3.5: Syllabification 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. a.rom.a/a.ro.ma al.ge.bra (al.geb.ra) *lg not a possible initial cluster *dv not a possible initial cluster

ad.vo.cate (ad.voc.ate) kan.ga.roo

*ng not a possible initial cluster *bst not a possible initial cluster

ob.sti.nate (ob.stin.ate)

cod.i.fy/co.di.fy (co.dif.y/cod.if.y) al.ti.tude (al.tit.ude) *lt not a possible initial cluster

du.pli.cate/dup.li.cate (du.plic.ate/dup.lic.ate) ge.o.me.try/ge.om.e.try (ge.om.et.ry/ge.o.met.ry) tem.per.ate/tem.pe.rate whi.skey/whis.key in.teg.ri.ty/in.te.gri.ty (in.teg.rit.y/in.te.grit.y) a.ppro.pri.ate/a.pprop.ri.ate se.clu.sion/se.clus.ion a.rith.me.tic (a.rith.met.ic) *m not a possible initial cluster *mp not a possible initial cluster

di.sci.pline/disc.i.pline (di.scip.line/disc.ip.line) per.i.o.dic/pe.ri.o.dic (per.i.od.ic/pe.ri.od.ic) ba.na.na/ba.nan.a in.sin.u.ate/in.si.nu.ate nigh.ten.gale/night.en.gale in.stru.ment (in.strum.ent) *ns not a possible initial cluster *ng not a possible initial cluster *ns not a possible initial cluster

ek.skla.ma.tion/ek.skl.mat.ion (x = ks) al.rea.dy/al.read.y *lr not a possible initial cluster

con.dem.na.tion/con.dem.nat.ion es.thet.ic/es.the.tic *s not a possible initial cluster

The Internal Structure of Words and Processes of Word Formation in English Exercise 4.1: English Word Division Analyze the following words into morphs using the model given below:

Prefix(es) inequality in-

Root

Suffix(es)

equal -ity

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

hospitalization (k) invisibly (l)

disfunctional inconsiderate postcolonial unlikelihood (o) relationship

uninteresting (m) undercooked (n)

transcontinental ungrammatical (p) reinforcement (q) prototypical (r)

asymmetrical hypersensitivity unfriendliness interdependence monotheism

unforgettable (s) impropriety (t)

The Internal Structure of Words and Processes of Word Formation in English Answer to Ex. 4.1: English Word Division Prefix(es) (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) inunRoot Suffix(es) -ize -ation

hospital vis -ible -ly

interest -ing -ed -al -ic -al

under- cook

trans- continent ungrammar -ment -ic -al -able

re- in- force proto- type un- for- get imdis-

proper -ity function -al

(l) (m) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r) (s) (t)

inpostun-

consider colony -al like

-ate

-ly -hood

relate -ion -ship asymmetry -ic -al

hyper- sense -itive -ity unfriend -ly -ness

inter- depend -ence mono- the -ism

Note: It might be possible to break down some of these words further, especially if you have a knowledge of Latin, e.g.

(l') (o') (s')

in- con- sider relate

-ate -ion -ship pend -ence

inter- de-

If you do so, you will end up with bound roots in most cases.

The Internal Structure of Words and Processes of Word Formation in English Exercise 4.2: Inflectional Affixes For each of the bold words in the passage from Wallace Stegner's "The Dump Ground" below, label the inflectional suffix:

pres past

= =

present tense compr = past tense supl = poss =

comparative degree superlative degree = possessive case

prsprt = pstprt =

present participle past participle pl

plural number

The place fascinated us, as it should have. For this was the kitchen midden of all the civilization we knew. It gave us the most tantalizing glimpses into our neighbors' lives and our own; it provided an aesthetic distance from which to know ourselves.

The town dump was our poetry and our history. We took it home with us by the wagonload, bringing back into town the things the town had used and thrown away. Some little part of what we gathered, mainly bottles, we managed to bring back to usefulness, but most of our gleanings we left lying around barn or attic or cellar until in some renewed fury of spring cleanup our families carted them off to the dump again, to be rescued and briefly treasured by some other boy. Occasionally something we really valued with a passion was snatched from us in horror and returned at once. That happened to the mounted head of a white mountain goat, somebody's trophy from old times

and the far Rocky Mountains, that I brought home one day. My mother took one look and discovered that his beard was full of moths.

I remember that goat; I regret him yet. Poetry is seldom useful, but always memorable. If I were a sociologist anxious to study in detail the life of any community I would go very early to its refuse piles. For a community may be as well judged by what it throws away - what it has to throw away and what it chooses to - as by any other evidence. For whole civilizations we sometimes have no more of the poetry and little more of the history than this (from Wolf Willow 1955: 35-36).

The Internal Structure of Words and Processes of Word Formation in English Answer to Ex. 4.2: Inflectional Affixes should past most supl pl (+ poss)* pl

neighbors' ourselves took bringing used pstprt past

prsprt

gathered lying renewed families pl returned somebody's brought remember would its past poss prsprt

past

pstprt

pstprt poss past pres

judged pstprt chooses more compr pres

*There is really no inflection for case in the plural. In writing, the apostrophe indicates possessive. The Internal Structure of Words and Processes of Word Formation in English Exercise 4.3: Inflectional versus Derivational Affixes

Is -ly an inflectional or a derivational affix? Like an inflectional affix, it seems to attach to many (though not all) of the members of the class of adjective, as in quickly, helpfully, sadly, regrettably, softly, sharply, foolishly. If -ly is an inflectional suffix marking the grammatical category adverb, then it should meet the following criteria for inflectional suffixes:

(a) (b) (c)

never change the part of speech of a root, follow, not precede, any derivational suffixes, affix to virtually any member of the category adjective.

Does -ly meet these criteria? Try to think of examples which violate these principles. The Internal Structure of Words and Processes of Word Formation in English Answer to Ex. 4.3: Inflectional versus Derivational Affixes (a) NO: -ly changes the part of speech of the root, deriving adverbs from adjectives:

happily < happy oddly < odd strangely < strange rarely < rare loudly < loud

It may also derive adverbs from nouns:

weekly < week daily < day yearly < year

It can derive adjectives from nouns or other adjectives:

manly < man princely < prince lovely < love portly < port

sickly < sick goodly < good kindly < kind leisurely < leisure

It may also change the meaning of an adjective or adverb:

hardly/hard

lately/late

highly/high

(b)

NO: -ly normally follows derivational suffixes (adjectivalizers):

famously foolishly

woodenly acceptably

usefully

But -ly may precede certain derivational suffixes:

manliness loveliness

manlier princeliness lovelier kindliness

(Since no derivational suffix may be attached to an adverb, we cannot test to see whether adverbializer -ly can be followed by a derivational suffix.)

Although adverbs inflect for comparison (e.g. fast, faster, fastest or late, later, latest), adverbs in -ly form comparison with more and most. Hence, -ly is never followed by an inflection:

more usefully *usefullier most usefully *usefulliest (This is accounted for, though, by the fact that -er and -est are generally attached only to monosyllabic words.)

(c) just now

NO: many adverbs are not formed with -ly: tomorrow then late always here near fast cheap (or cheaply) hard

slow (or slowly)

Furthermore, many adjectives cannot take -ly:

tall blue little

*tally Canadian *bluely *littly this, my

*Canadianly *two-toedly

two-toed

*thisly, *myly

(It seems that when adjectives describe an intrinsic quality, they cannot take -ly because they cannot modify verbal action.) The Internal Structure of Words and Processes of Word Formation in English Exercise 4.4: Morphological and Morphemic Analysis 1. Divide the following words into morphs (use slashes) and then list the morphemes. Note that some words may require more than one analysis into morphemes. List the morphological realization rule(s) responsible for each formation.

Example: mice's Answer: mice/s {mouse} + {pl} + {poss} fusional and agglutinative

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

least set fish (l) (m)

(k) rings sayings broken these whose older her taken (t)

our

should (n) hoped (o) hearing (p) were elder must (q) (r) (s)

topmost

women's

2. (a) In the following sets of words, it might be said that the initial consonant cluster displays some sound symbolism or onomatopoeia. For example, the sn- cluster seems to refer to movement of the nose and mouth. These clusters have been given the name phonesthemes. Can you give meanings for the remaining clusters? Can you think of other clusters that function this way? sn-: sp-: fl-: gl-: snarl, sneer, snore, snigger, snub, snort, sneeze, sniff spatter, spew, spit, spout, spray, spurt, sputter flail, flap, flare, flee, flicker, float, flop, flume, flame, fluster, flux, flourish glance, glare, gleam, glimmer, gloat, glint, glisten, gloss, glory, globe, glaze, glamour

(b)

Certain final and medial syllables seem to have some symbolism as well:

-amble: scramble, shamble, ramble -ick: -udge: -ash: -ngle: [--]: pick, prick, kick, tick, flick, nick, click grudge, smudge, sludge, drudge, nudge, fudge mash, bash, slash, crash, flash, gash, smash tangle, mangle, dangle, jangle jerk, nerd, shirk, lurk, murder

What are the meanings of these forms? (c) not? Can these apparently meaningful units be analyzed as morphemes? Why or why

he Internal Structure of Words and Processes of Word Formation in English Answer to Ex. 4.4: Morphological and Morphemic Analysis 1. (b) (a) set least {LITTLE} + {supl}fusional

{SET} + {pres}

{SET} + {past} {SET} + {pstprt} {SET} + {sg} zero zero null realization (c) fish {FISH} + {sg} null realization

{FISH} + {pl} {FISH} + {pres} zero null realization (d) (e) should {SHALL} + {past} hop/ed {HOPE} + {past} agglutinative fusional null realization

{HOPE} + {pstprt} agglutinative (f) hear/ing

{HEAR} + {prsprt} agglutinative

{HEAR} + {gerund} + {sg} agglutinative and null (g) (h) were elder

{BE} + {past} + {pl} {OLD} + {compr} fusional

fusional

{ELDER} + {sg} null (i) must

{MUST} + {pres} null realization

{MUST} + {past} zero (j) (k) top/most our

{TOP} + {supl} agglutinative fusional

{1st} + {pl} + {poss}

(l)

ring/s {RING} + {pl} {RING} + {pres} null realization agglutinative

(m) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r)

say/ing/s brok/en

{SAY} + {gerund} + {pl} agglutinative {BREAK} + {pstprt} fusional fusional

these {THIS} + {pl}

who/se {WHO} + {poss} agglutinative old/er {OLD} + {compr} her agglutinative

{3rd} + {f} + {sg} + {poss} fusional

{3rd} + {f} + {sg} + {obj} fusional (s) (t)

tak/en {TAKE} + {pstprt} women/s

agglutinative fusional and agglutinative

{WOMAN} + {pl} + {poss}

2. (a) The sp- cluster refers to jet movement of water, the fl- cluster to flying or flowing movement, and the gl- cluster to shining light. Other clusters with phonesthemic force are sl-, str-, st, sw-, sm-, thr-. (b) -ick refers to sudden, sharp movement, -udge is slow, heavy material, -ash to a destructive force. (c) If these forms have the status of a morpheme, then one is left with strange residues which certainly are not morphemes, since they have no meaning and do not occur elsewhere, such as -arl, eer, -ore, -igger, -ub, -ort, -eeze, -iff in the case of sn-. Furthermore, the sound symbolism breaks down fairly quickly, since one can think of a number of counterexamples, words beginning with snwhich do not refer to movement of the nose or mouth, such as snatch, snare, snip, snake, or snail. These forms should, therefore, probably not be considered morphemes, but should be seen as resulting from processes of rhyme. The Internal Structure of Words and Processes of Word Formation in English Exercise 4.5: Writing Morphemic Rules 1. Examine the following past tense forms in English:

hated raided faded fitted mated loaded

pulled opened groomed mowed cried paid

roared hugged robbed bruised loved fetched judged

walked pushed missed hoped

laughed

(a)

Determine the allomorphs of this inflectional suffix.

(b)

Determine the conditioning environments for each of the allomorphs.

(c) Decide on the underlying (or "elsewhere") form of this morpheme from which the other allomorphs are derived. For what reasons did you choose this particular form as the base? (d) (e) Write a morphemic rule. Consider the following past tense forms. How are they conditioned? How are they realized?

sang rang

bought fought

cut put

went were

(f) How do you account for the following variants: learned/learnt, dreamed/dreamt, burned/burnt? 2. Consider the following words:

illegal

ineligible

inactive

imbalance indeterminate illogical imbalance ingrate immature irregular injudicious incongruous

irrelevant impossible immoral impatient

intolerant insecure infamous injury

(a) (b)

Determine the allomorphs of this derivational prefix. Determine the conditioning factors for each of the allomorphs.

(c) Decide on the underlying (or "elsewhere") form of this morpheme from which the other allomorphs are derived. Justify the base form. (d) (e) Write a morphemic rule. State the meaning of the morpheme.

(f) Why are the forms ignoble and ignominious, which presumably contain the same prefix, a problem? Try to account for this problem. (Hint: Look up the etymologies of these words.) 3. Consider the following words:

collect correct connect commute combat compute

cohabit coalesce collate commend contend consent

collide corrode confess cohere coexist coincide

compare

condemn

(a)

Determine the allomorphs of this derivational prefix.

(b) Write a morphemic rule, specifying the underlying form, allomorphs, and conditioning environments. (c) State the meaning of the morpheme, if possible.

4. Consider the following pairs of words:

sign design

signature designation

resign resignation

(a) (b)

What is the root allomorphy exhibited by all of the forms? Write a morphemic rule for the first set of words.

he Internal Structure of Words and Processes of Word Formation in English Answer to Ex. 4.5: Writing Morphemic Rules 1. (a) The allomorphs of the past tense all have the orthographic form -ed, but phonologically they are [d], [d], and [t]. (b) The [d] allomorph follows roots ending in [t] or [d]; the [t] allomorph follows roots ending in voiceless obstruents, and the [d] allomorph follows roots ending in voiced stops and fricatives, liquids, nasals, and vowels. (c) The underlying or "elsewhere" form is likely to be [d] since it is found after the greatest variety of sounds. In addition, it is easy to derive the other allomorphs from it by natural phonological processes: schwa insertion to break up a cluster of two alveolar stops will yield [d], and voice assimilation will yield [t]. (d) ,past- *d] / after alveolar stops [t] / after voiceless consonants [d] / elsewhere Note that the rule is read downward. Thus, since [t] and [d] occur in the first line, they are not included among the voiceless consonants in the second line or other sounds in the third line. (e) These forms are all grammatically rather than phonologically conditioned. Some are realized by a vowel change (sing/sang), some by a vowel change plus an inflectional ending (bring/brought), some by a zero morph (cut/cut), and some by a different form entirely (go/went). (f) These forms are in free variation.

2. (a) The allomorphs appear to be il-, ir-, im-, and in-. Note, however, that il- and ir- are both pronounced [], im- is pronounced [m], in- is pronounced [n] (in intolerant, insecure, infamous, etc.) but [+ in ingrate and incongruous.

(b) The [] allomorph is conditioned by a following liquid (as initial sound of the root), the [m] allomorph by a following bilabial, the [+ by a following velar stop, and *n] by a following vowel, or labiodental, alveolar, or alveopalatal consonants. (c) [n] appears to be the underlying form since it is found in the greatest variety of environments and is the form from which the other forms can be derived most easily: [m] and [+ by assimilation in place of articulation to the place of the following sound (with no change in manner of articulation), and [] by loss of the nasal. (d) ,IN- *] / before liquids [m] / before labials [+ / before velars [n] / elsewhere (e) The meaning is 'not'.

(f) The word ignoble comes from Latin gnbilis 'noble' (which later lost its initial consonant to give nbilis, hence noble). When in- was combined with gnobilis, the first n dropped out, giving English ignoble. The g is thus part of the root, not part of the prefix. The word ignominious comes from Latin nmen 'name'; it acquired a g by mistaken analogy with gnsco, a process called "contamination". 3. (a) Again, the orthography is a bit misleading. The allomorphs seem to be col-, cor-, con-, co-, and com-. However, the phonological forms are actually [k], [kn], [ko], and [km] since the [l] in col-, the [r] in cor-, the [n] in con- before the alveolar nasal, and the [m] in com- before the bilabial nasal is actually part of the root. (b) , ON- [k]/ before liquids and nasals

[kn]/ before dentals (alveolars and labiodentals) [km]/ before bilabial stops [ko]/ before vowels and [h] It is rather difficult to know which is the "elsewhere" form in this case. Historically, the com- [kom] form is original. If it is considered the underlying form, the [kn] form is derived by assimilation in place of articulation to the following stop with vowel reduction, the [k] form by reduction of the vowel and loss of the [m] before liquids and nasals, and the [ko] form by loss of the [m] and vowel shift. (c) The meaning is either associative 'with, together' as in compare, cohabit, coexist, collect, etc., or intensive 'completely', as in correct, contend, corrode, etc. 4. (a) In all of the words, the final syllable in the unsuffixed form is [an] and the same syllable in the suffixed form is [n]. (b) {SIGN} [sn] / derivational suffix

[san] / elsewhere

The Internal Structure of Words and Processes of Word Formation in English Exercise 4.6: Derivational Prefixes and Suffixes 1. Sort the prefixes in the words below into the following seven categories according to meaning:

a. b. c. d. e. f. g.

Time Number Place Degree Privative Negative, and Size

Each category has two prefixes. After you have classified the prefixes, use a dictionary to identify whether the prefix is native English, Latin, or Greek in origin.

postdate

maladjusted

macrocosm

forewarn

bifocal outdoor megawatt defrost

hyperactivity

demilitarize nonentity malpractice nonsmoker

polyglot macroeconomics postelection

disclose foreshadow polygon subway disarm ultraconservative

bisexual

megalosaur

outhouse subfloor ultraviolet

hyperthyroidism

2. Sort the suffixes in the words below according to their class-changing function. The categories include the following:

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

N>N V>N A>N N/A > V N>A V>A N/A > Adv

(There are two examples of each suffix.)

broaden participant rhetorician gangster twofold trial advisory conservatism inhabitant manifold

syntactic falsehood clockwise stardom accidental likelihood mobster

width idealism closure refusal warmth selfish friendless kingdom politician facilitate straighten vaccinate tireless

contradictory boyish seizure stepwise thankless global

historic penniless 3. (a) Can you think of a reason why -en may attach to some adjectives, but not to others, as shown below? blacken deafen *thinen *longen *nearen *highen broaden tighten *slimen *narrowen *noblen stiffen soften ripen loosen

*slowen *holyen

(b) Can you think of a reason why -ed may attach to some nouns, but not to others, as shown below?

brown-haired left-handed *brown-coated *one-childed

kind-hearted narrow-minded *heavy-pursed *two-catted

low-spirited strong-headed *long-skirted *silly-hatted

4. Which is the proper derivation of unknowledgeable? Explain.

(a)

(b)

(c)

The Internal Structure of Words and Processes of Word Formation in English Answer to Ex. 4.6: Derivational Prefixes and Suffixes 1. fore(a) Time post-

postdate, postelection

forewarn, foreshadow (b) polyNumber bifocal, bisexual bi-

polyglot, polygon (c) subPlace out-

outdoor, outhouse

subway, subfloor (d) ultraDegree hyper-

hyperactivity, hyperthyroidism

ultraviolet, ultraconservative (e) Privative de-

dis- demilitarize, defrost disclose, disarm (f) malNegative non-

nonentity, nonsmoker

maladjusted, malpractice

(g) macro-

Size

mega-

megawatt, megalosaur

macrocosm, macroeconomics English: fore-, outLatin: post-, bi-, sub-, ultra-, de-, dis-, non-, malGreek: poly-, hyper-, mega-, macro-

2. -ster -(ic)ian

(a)

N > N -dom

kingdom, stardom

gangster, mobster politician, rhetorician (b) -ant -ure refusal, trial V > N -al

inhabitant, participant seizure, closure (c) -ism -hood warmth, width conservatism, idealism falsehood, likelihood (d) -ate N/A > V -en A > N -th

broaden, straighten

facilitate, vaccinate (e) -less -ish historic, syntactic N > A -ic

friendless, penniless selfish, boyish (f) -less V > A -ory

advisory, contradictory

tireless, thankless

(g) -fold

N/A > Adv

-wise

stepwise, clockwise

twofold, manifold 3. (a) The reason here is phonological: -en may attach only to monosyllabic adjectives ending in obstruents (stops and fricatives), not to those ending in vowels, nasals, or liquids. (b) The reason here is semantic: -ed may attach only to adjectives denoting inalienable possession (things that are possessed intrinsically) and not to those denoting alienable possession (things that may be separated from the possessor). 4. (a) This is incorrect because un- does not attach to nouns; it produces the nonword of English *unknowledge. (b) This is correct; every stage in the derivation produces a word of English.

(c) This is incorrect because while un- does attach to verbs, this also produces the nonword of English *unknowledge. he Internal Structure of Words and Processes of Word Formation in English Exercise 4.7: Prefixation 1. Consider the following words:

disbelief discomfort disharmony disorder displeasure dishonest discharge

dishonorable

dislike

dispassionate disconnect dismissive disgraceful disorderly dissimilar disobey disclose disinfect disown discontinuous distrust

(a) (b)

What kinds of roots does the prefix dis- attach to? Explain. Is it a class-maintaining or class-changing prefix?

(c) What are the two meanings of the prefix? Name and give an example from the list above of each of the two meanings. (d) In addition to derivation, what process of word formation is involved in the formation of the following words?

disarm disband

distrust discolor

dismember discourage

disfigure disbar

(e)

What problem do the following words pose for morphological analysis? Explain.

discern disparage

disgust dismantle

dissipate dispel

disburse discreet

(f)

Would you say that the following words contain the dis- prefix or a different prefix? Explain.

denude deform detract

deforest degrade deflower

demerit denounce deflect

declassify decode defrost

(g) Analyze the following words into morphs and label each morph as R (= root), DP (= derivational prefix), DS (= derivational suffix), and IS (= inflectional suffix). Specify the grammatical function of the affixes and the part of speech of the root.

Example: DISCOURAGEMENT dis- (DP) + courage (R - noun) + -ment (DS - nominalizer)

disheartening disproportionately disqualification disenchantments disinterested

(h)

Draw a tree diagram showing the derivation of the word disreputable.

2. Consider the following words:

antisocial antibody anticlimax

antibacterial antinuclear antihero

antihistamine antihygienic antiseptic

(a) (b) (c) (d)

What kinds of roots does the prefix anti- attach to? Explain. Is the prefix class-changing or class-maintaining? Give the meaning of the prefix. What problem do the following words pose for morphological analysis? Explain.

antipathy

antidote

antithetic

antibiotic

(e) In addition to derivation, what process of word formation is involved in the formation of the following words?

antiwar antitrust

antifreeze antiknock

antislip antiwrinkle

(f)

What problem do the following words pose for morphemic analysis? Explain.

antacid

antarctic

antepileptic

(g)

Analyze the following words as in (1g) above:

antibacterial antiperspirant antirevolutionary anticommercialization antidisestablishmentarianism

(h)

Give a tree diagram showing the derivation of the word antidepressant.

The Internal Structure of Words and Processes of Word Formation in English Answer to Ex. 4.7: Prefixation 1. (a) dis- attaches only to noun and verb roots. The adjectives in the list given are all derived from nouns by the addition of adjectivalizers (-ate, -ive, -ful, -able, -ly). (b) The prefix is class-maintaining.

(c) The two meanings are privative (as in disconnect, disinfect) and negative (as in disharmony, disorder). (d) derivation. (e) All of these words involve a shift in the part of speech (from N to V) as well as

These words all contain bound roots.

(f) The prefixes de- and dis- may both derive from the Latin prefix dis-, or de- may derive from the Latin prefix d-; it is not entirely clear. In any case, like dis-, de -has the two meanings of privation (as in denude, deforest, deflower) and negation (as in denounce, deform, detract). The two prefixes are in competition with the native prefix un-, which likewise expresses privation (as in undo, unwrap) and negation (as in unfair, unhappy).

(g)

dis- (DP) +

heart (R - noun) +

-en (DS - verbalizer) + -ing (IS - prsprt) -ate (DS - adjectivalizer) + -ly (DS _

dis- (DP) + pro- (DP) + adverbializer) dis- (DP) + dis- (DP) + pl) dis- (DP) +

portion (R - noun) +

qual (R - noun) +

-ify (DS - verbalizer) + -cation (DS - nominalizer) -ment (DS - nominalizer)+ -s (IS -

en- (DP - verbalizer) + chant (R - noun) +

interest (R - noun) +

-ed (DS - adjectivalizer)

(h) 2. (a) anti -attaches only to noun roots. The adjectives in the list given are all derived from nouns by the addition of adjectivalizers (-al, -ic, -ar). (b) (c) (d) The prefix is class-maintaining. The meaning is 'counter, opposite, inverse'. These words all contain bound roots.

(e) These words all involve a conversion, either from N > A (antiwar, antitrust, antiwrinkle) or from V > N (antifreeze, antiknock, antislip). (f) These words show an allomorph ant- of the morpheme occurring with roots beginning in a vowel. However, this allomorph is not consistently used in this context, as evidenced by antiaircraft, antiallergenic, antienzyme, anti-inflammatory. (g) anti- (DP) + anti- (DP) + anti- (DP) + bacteria (R - noun) + perspire (R - verb) + revolve (R - verb) + -al (DS - adjectivalizer) -ant (DS - nominalizer) -ution (DS - nominalizer) + -ary (DS - adjectivalizer)

anti- (DP) + commerce (R - noun) + + -ation (DS - nominalizer)

-ial (DS - adjectivalizer) +

-ize (DS - verbalizer)

anti- (DP) + dis -(DP) + establish (R - verb) + adjectivalizer) + -ism (DS - nominalizer)

-ment (DS - nominalizer) +

-arian (DS -

The Internal Structure of Words and Processes of Word Formation in English Exercise 4.8: Compounding 1. Identify the syntactic pattern in each of the following compounds and express it in a lexical rule.

Example: gravedigger N + V + -er > N

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l)

hovercraft dairyman bath-towel goldfish inroads bystander setback meltdown blackout stand-in turnout money-hungry

(m) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r) (s) (t) (u) (v) (w)

dugout hardhearted homesick proofread overqualified overachieve badmouth redhead birth control breakfast thoroughgoing (x)

(y) (z) (aa) (bb) (cc) (dd) (ee) (ff) (gg) (hh)

lukewarm law-abiding far-reaching homemade clean-cut fighter-bomber earthenware driver's seat baking powder drip-coffee (ii) (jj) wisecrack snowplow

quick-change

2. The following words are compounds which also include derivational affixes. Analyze the words, identifying the roots and their parts of speech, as well all the affixes and their function as nominalizer, verbalizer, adjectivalizer, or adverbializer.

Example: housekeeper house (root - noun) + keep (root - verb) + -er (nominalizer)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

flightworthiness chatterbox owner-occupied freedom-loving handicraft broken-hearted safety-tested

(h) (i) (j) (k)

worldly-wise antiaircraft machine-readable chartered accountant

3. (a) Look at the following set of words naming berries. The second half of each is the recognizable root berry. Can you analyze these as compounds?

blueberry strawberry

blackberry raspberry

cranberry loganberry

marianberry

Does a more recent formation such as cranapple provide evidence for or against these forms as compounds? (b) A problem of morphological analysis arises for forms such as the following:

fish-monger gossip-monger scandal-monger ironmonger war-monger

broadcaster sportscaster newscaster

Are these forms compounds? The Internal Structure of Words and Processes of Word Formation in English Answer to Ex. 4.8: Compounding 1. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) V+N>N N+N>N N+N>N N+N>N Prt + N + -s > N Prt + V + -er > N V + Prt > N (conversion) V + Prt > N (conversion) V + Prt > N (conversion) V + Prt > N (conversion) V + Prt > N (conversion) N+A>A (dd) (s) (t) (u) (v) A + N > V (conversion) A+N>N N + N/V > N/A V+N>N (w) A + V + -ing > A (x) A + V > A (conversion) (y) (z) (aa) (bb) (cc) A+A>A N + V + -ing > A A + V + -ing > A N + V + -en > A A + V + -en > A

V + -er + V + -er > N

(m) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r) 2.

V + -en + Prt > N (conversion) A + N + -ed > A N+A>A N+V>V (ff) (gg) (hh) (ii)

(ee)

N + -en + N > N

V + -er + 's + N > N V + -ing + N > N V+N>N A + V > V/N

Prt + V + -en > V/A Prt + V > V (jj)

N + V/N > V/N

(a) (b)

flight (root - noun) + chat (root - verb) +

worth (root - noun) + -er (nominalizer) + -er (nominalizer) +

-y (adjectivalizer) + box (root - noun)

-ness (nominalizer)

(c) own (root - verb) + participle/adjectivalizer) (d) free (root - adjective) + participle/adjectivalizer) (e) hand (root - noun) +

occupy (root - verb) + -en (past

-dom (nominalizer) +

love (root - verb) +

-ing (present

-y (adjectivalizer) +

craft (root - noun) heart (root - noun) + -ed

(f) break (root - verb) + (adjectivalizer) (g) safe (root - adjective) + participle/adjectivalizer) (h) (i) (j) world (root - noun) +

-en (past participle/adjectivalizer) +

-ty (nominalizer) +

test (root - verb) +

-ed (past

-ly (adjectivalizer) +

wise (root - adjective)

anti -(prefix) + air (root - noun) + machine (root - noun) +

craft (root - noun) -able (suffix - adjectivalizer) account (root verb) + -ant (suffix -

read (root - verb) +

(k) charter (root - noun) + -ed (suffix - adjectivalizer) + nominalizer)

3. (a) blueberry, blackberry: the first parts of these compounds are clearly the morphemes {blue} and {black}. strawberry: the first part of this compound is straw, but it is uncertain whether this is the morpheme {straw}; the form apparently does not have its usual meaning here. raspberry: the first part of this compound is rasp, which is not a recognizable morpheme of English (it is not the verb rasp 'to scrap', which is pronounced [rsp], not [rz]). cranberry: the first part of this compound is cran, which is also not a clearly recognizable morpheme of English. loganberry, marianberry: the first parts of these compounds appear to be brand names. (There are various theories to account for the meaning of straw in strawberry, that it, for example, refers to the yellow flecks on strawberries, or to the use of straw in strawberry fields. Also, cran is sometimes related to crane; either the birds are thought to eat cranberries or the blossoms resemble the heads of cranes.)

If we treat forms such as raspberry and cranberry as true compounds analogous to blueberry and blackberry, then rasp and cran exist in only one word and are semantically rather opaque. Recent formations such as cranapple suggest that cran is becoming a recognizable morpheme, though it might be better to analyze such forms as blends (see below) since it still lacks an identifiable meaning. (b) Although historically monger is an independent form (deriving from Lating mang 'to peddle, deal'), it rarely occurs independently today. Therefore, would we be better to consider it a bound form, a suffix? The form caster never occurs independently. It appears that sportscaster and newscaster are blends based on broadcaster. The Internal Structure of Words and Processes of Word Formation in English Exercise 4.9: Minor Processes of Word Formation 1. Identify the process of word formation responsible for each of the following words. Try to determine the process before you consult a dictionary, though it may be necessary for you to do so.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i)

curio

(j)

serendipity (k) (l) (m) (n) diesel

(s)

guestimate (t) (u) (v) (w) canary brain-gain boojum gaffe-slack (x) (y) (z) bonfire psycho

(to) laze (to) network (to) cohere (a) sitcom (the) muppets (a) what-not margarine dystopia

(a) ha-ha (to) make up (to) total (o)

(the) hereafter

(p) (q) (r)

amphetamine (a) construct (the) chunnel

walkie-talkie

2. The words in column A have been created from the corresponding words in column B. Indicate the word formation process responsible for the creation of each word in column A.

Column A (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i)

Column B stagnation + inflation nosu + thyrl 'hole' (in Old English) bookmaker caravan American Indian compact disc random access memory television xeroxography

stagflation nostril bookie van Amerindian CD RAM televise xerox

(j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p)

telathon sci-fi elect deli scuba scavenge hazmat

television + marathon science fiction election delicatessen self-contained underwater breathing apparatus scavenger hazardous material

The Internal Structure of Words and Processes of Word Formation in English Answer to Ex. 4.9: Minor Processes of Word Formation 1. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r) (s) (t) (u) (v) (w) (x) clipping < curio(sity) back formation < lazy -y conversion N > V back formation < coherence -ence clipping < sit(uation) com(edy) blend < m(arionette) (p)uppets phrasal compound clipping < (oleo)margarine (N.B. oleo is an alternate clipped form) false morphological division < dis- + -topia < u/topia literary coinage (by Horace Walpole) commonization < Rudolf Diesel reduplication < French phrasal verb conversion N > V compounding, conversion Prt + Prt > N acronym < a(lpha) m(ethyl) phe(ngl) t(hyl)amine conversion V > N blend < ch(annel) (t)unnel blend < gu(ess) + estimate or guess + (es)timate commonization < Canary Islands reduplication root creation (used by physicist N. David Mermin following creation by Lewis Carroll) reduplication clipping < psycho(path)

(y) (z) 2. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p)

reduplication, diminutive, conversion amalgamated compound < bn' 'bone' + fyr 'fire' in Old English) blending amalgamated compound clipping, diminutive clipping blending initialism acronym back formation clipping, commonization blending, false morphological analysis clipping back formation clipping, false morphological analysis (delicat/essen) acronym back formation clipping

Grammatical Categories and Word Classes Exercise 5.1: Nominal Categories 1. Identify the meaning or function of the genitive in each of the following.

Example: the children's education Answer: objective genitive

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

my parents' car the hostages' release the prisoners' escape workers' rights the sayings of Mao many hours' delay

(g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l)

a relative of my mother's the cover of the book a member of the class a week's vacation the boys' singing a group of reporters

2. Identify the meaning or function of the underlined definite/indefinite article in each of the following.

Example: It was a week after Christmas Answer: a = 'one'

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)

The wind is whistling around the house. The door flew open. The gray cat from next door ran into the house. A cat is trapped in the cellar. Yesterday I saw a cat. The cat was wearing a collar. I like a long-haired cat. A cat makes a good companion. The "Puss" I know lives across the street.

3. Discuss what each of the following words shows concerning the formal expression of gender in nouns.

Example: George/Georgina Answer: separate words for m/f, but also derivationally related

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

count/countess dog/bitch male nurse king/queen/monarch assistant boyfriend

4. Discuss what each of the following words shows concerning the formal expression of degree in adjectives.

Example: more sensuous Answer: periphrastic comparison with polysyllabic word

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

little/less/least *more open/*opener best of health prettiest twin abler/ablest late/latter/last

Grammatical Categories and Word Classes Answer to Ex. 5.1: Nominal Categories 1. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) 2. (a) (b) (c) (d) 3. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) 4. (a) (b) (c) (d) possessive objective subjective descriptive origin measure generally known immediate context modifying expression (k) (g) (h) (i) (j) partitive (double genitive) descriptive partitive measure

subjective (l) descriptive (e) (f) (g) first mention/previous mention generic a = 'any' (h) proper > common

no identification possible

derivational affix for feminine gender separate forms for masculine/feminine; masculine used for common gender compounding separate words for masculine/feminine/common gender common gender derivational affix compounding suppletive incomparable adjective superlative used for high degree = 'very' superlative used for two things, where comparative expected

(e) (f)

inflection with disyllabic adjective ending in -le latter no longer comparative, last no longer superlative

Grammatical Categories and Word Classes Exercise 5.2: Verbal Categories 1. Identify the meaning or function of the present tense in each of the following sentences.

Example: The chemical composition of water is H2O. Answer: timeless statement

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l)

Still waters run deep. Classes end November 30. Janet bites her nails. I think he was wrong. Anna Karenina commits suicide. Yesterday, I'm in a store and it's held up. The earth revolves around the sun. We hear that you are going to be a grandparent soon. The early bird catches the worm. I know the answer. Napier passes the ball to Jones. Phyllis teaches elementary school.

2. Identify each perfect aspect in the following as continuative or resultative in meaning.

Example: A car accident has just occurred at the corner. Answer: resultative

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

I have found some money. We have walked around the entire lake. I have forgotten your name. She has sneezed all morning. Climbers have reached the summit all day. We have known each other since we were children.

3. Identify the meaning or function of the progressive aspect in each of the following sentences.

Example: Someone is firing a gun. Answer: iterative activity

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

Rosa is getting dressed. The child is waking up. It's snowing. I'm forgetting things recently. He's writing a paper. They're all laughing.

4. Discuss what each of the following sentences shows concerning the formal expression of the passive.

Example: The balloons were released. Answer: agentless be-passive

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

The kite got tangled in the tree. The dried mud will brush off. Your shoes need polishing. You should brace yourself for the worst. That is being taken care of. The dog became confused by the loud noises.

5. Discuss what each of the following sentences shows concerning the formal expression of the subjunctive.

Example: Heaven preserve us. Answer: inflected subjunctive in main clause

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

I suggest that she take another course. If I were going, I could take you. I was thinking of asking you to help. This might do the trick. The news is probably bad.

(f)

You're right, I'm sure.

Grammatical Categories and Word Classes Answer to Ex. 5.2: Verbal Categories 1. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) 2. (a) (b) (c) 3. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) 4. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) 5. (a) (b) gnomic (proverbial) statement future statement habit state plot summary narration in the present timeless statement information present gnomic statement state instantaneous present habit resultative resultative resultative (d) (e) (f) continuative continuative continuative

continuous activity - endpoint not reached process leading to an endpoint continuous activity - no necessary endpoint iterative activity continuous activity - endpoint not reached continuous activity - no necessary endpoint agentless get-passive notional passive = 'is capable of being brushed off' active participle with passive meaning = 'need to be polished' middle/reflexive progressive passive, agentless become stative form inflected subjunctive following suggest inflected subjunctive in if- clause, modal auxiliary in main-clause

(c) (d) (e) (f)

past tense used for politeness modal auxiliary modal adverb parenthetical clause

Grammatical Categories and Word Classes Exercise 5.3: Grammatical Categories 1. Name and give concrete examples of three different formal means for expressing each of the following grammatical distinctions in English on the part of speech indicated.

Example: Answer: a+N Ns

generic number in nouns the + N The cat is an independent animal.

A cat is an independent animal. Cats are independent animals.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

genitive case in nouns passive voice in verbs future tense in verbs dative case in nouns

2. Identify the grammatical distinction exemplified by the underlined word or phrase and explain its meaning.

Example: person: You never can tell. Answer: 2nd person used for generic purposes

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i)

case: tense:

The building's collapse was impressive. The moon circles the earth.

aspect: We have argued since we were children. tense: My parents are going to visit next weekend. I wonder where the remote control is. Rattlesnakes live in the desert.

definiteness: number:

gender: Who is it at the door? voice: tense: The dog's tail got caught in the door. All's well that ends well.

(j) (k)

case:

You should have given Jack the opportunity to answer.

person: She let me copy her class notes.

3. Identify the grammatical distinction exemplified by the underlined word or phrase and explain its form.

Example: person: He claims to have been caught in traffic. Answer: inflection

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)

aspect: He has forgotten her birthday. mood: The engineer recommended that the street be widened.

gender: The audience gave the pianist a standing ovation. definiteness: mood: I just had a very strange experience.

Let's begin the meeting.

gender: We consider Pat someone to reckon with. aspect: The alarm has been sounding for several minutes. tense: She might have seen the movie already.

4. Name all of the grammatical distinction(s) expressed by each of the underlined forms. Then describe the means used to express this distinction (periphrasis, inflection, word order, etc.).

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i)

He is seeing her these days. That bicycle is mine. Give me a hand here. She granted the student an extension. He had forgotten her birthday. Janice has several boyfriends. I was pleased to be promoted. The weather is pleasant today. You could make this paper better less verbose, clearer, and more coherent.

Grammatical Categories and Word Classes Answer to Ex. 5.3: Grammatical Categories 1. (a) inflection: the student's paper

periphrasis:

the title page of the paper one of the student's papers

inflection and periphrasis:

(b)

periphrasis:

be + pstprt - The tree was felled.

get + pstprt - The roof got damaged. inflection: (c) notional passive - This fabric holds up well. will - I will help you.

periphrases:

will + progressive - I will be working tomorrow. be going to - I am going to look into the problem. progressive - I am running a race this weekend. inflection: (d) simple present - I finish my job tomorrow. to - I gave the food to the dog.

periphrases:

for - I made a house for the dog. word order: 2. (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) 3. (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) 4. (a) I made the dog a house. genitive case subjective

present tense perfect aspect future tense definiteness plural number neuter gender passive voice present tense dative case first person (a)

timeless statement continuative present intention immediate context generic expedient actional (get-passive) gnomic indirect object speaker periphrasis inflection derivational affix covert periphrasis lexical periphrasis

perfect aspect

subjunctive mood common gender indefiniteness 1st p imperative common gender

perfect-progressive aspect past tense (a) inflection

progressive aspect

expressed by periphrasis

present tense expressed by inflection of auxiliary 3rd p sg expressed by inflection

indicative mood, active voice (b) (c) (d)

expressed by inflection

genitive case, 1st person, and singular number expressed by inflected form of pronoun imperative mood expressed by syntactic form

objective case expressed by word order singular number expressed by zero inflection on noun

neuter gender expressed covertly indefiniteness expressed by indefinite article, expressed covertly on noun by cooccurrence (e) perfect aspect expressed by periphrasis past tense 3rd p sg expressed by inflection of auxiliary expressed by inflection expressed by inflection

indicative mood, active voice (f)

plural number expressed by inflection on noun masculine gender expressed by compounded form of noun

objective case expressed by word order indefiniteness expressed covertly (g) (h) (i) passive voice definiteness expressed by periphrasis expressed by definite article, expressed covertly on noun by cooccurrence expressed by suppletion (better)

comparative degree

periphrasis (less verbose, more coherent) inflection (clearer)

Grammatical Categories and Word Classes Exercise 5.4: Distributional and Inflectional Tests for the Category Auxiliary The following words are generally considered to constitute the category of auxiliary verbs:

the modal auxiliaries will, shall, can, may, must the "dummy" auxiliary do the primary auxiliaries have, be

The auxiliary verbs (or "helping verbs") cannot stand alone in a sentence, but must always be accompanied by a main verb. Given the (incomplete) data below, determine whether auxiliaries actually belong to the category Verb, or whether they should be put into a separate category Auxiliary (Aux). Part 1 below applies the inflectional tests for verbs to the auxiliaries. Do they work? Part 2 shows the syntactic distribution of auxiliaries. First, determine what the distribution is in each case and then decide whether auxiliaries have the same distribution as verbs.

Not all auxiliaries will meet every test. Make note of any exceptions. You should be aware that be, have, and do may also function as main verbs, as in the following sentences:

Mary is happy about her promotion. John has enough money to buy a car. Bill does the dishes every evening.

Decide when main verb be, have, and do behave like auxiliaries and when they do not.

1. Inflection of auxiliaries

(a)

He said that he could/would/should/might/must help. He had gone. He was going. He did go.

(b)

He *cans/*wills/*shalls/*mays/*musts leave. He has gone. He is going. He does go.

(c) (d) (e)

*maying/*willing/*shalling/*musting/*canning/being/having/doing been/had/done *to may/*to will/*to shall/*to must/*to can/to be/to have/to do

2. Distribution of auxiliaries

(a)

She is not taking the exam. John had not seen the stop sign. She can/will/should/might not leave.

(b)

I have too paid. I can so see the ocean. She is so talking too much. He did so turn in his paper.

(c)

She isn't taking the exam. John hadn't seen the stop sign. She can't/won't/shouldn't/?mightn't leave.

(d)

She's not taking the exam.

She'll leave tomorrow. He'd better leave tomorrow. (e) Can/will/must he help? Is she working? Has she worked for long? (f) Hasn't he answered your letter? Can't she see me now? *Has not he answered your letter? *Can not she see me now? (g) He des know the answer. (contrastive emphasis) She wll help, if she can.

You might also consider the following:

(h)

She will know the answer and so will he. She will know the answer and he will too. John can go, but you can't. Burt won't attend, but I will. She will help, won't she? He left, didn't he?

Grammatical Categories and Word Classes Answer to Ex. 5.4: Distributional and Inflectional Tests for the Category Auxiliary The data in (1a) show that the modals, be, have, and do are all inflected for the past tense, though the forms are quite irregular. The data in (1b) show that be, have, and do, but not the modals, take the -s 3rd p sg pres ending. The data in (1c) show that be, have, and do be, but not the modals take the -ing present participle, and the same forms have past participle forms, as shown in (1d). (1e) shows that be, have, and do, but not the modals may follow the infinitive marker to. Thus, the inflectional evidence is somewhat ambivalent. The forms that can function as main verbs as well as auxiliaries are inflected like verbs, but the forms that cannot function as main verbs (the modals) take the past tense inflection but no others.

The data in (2) show the following distribution for auxiliaries:

(a) (b) (c)

___ not V

(i.e., preceding not) (i.e., emphatic)

___ Emp (so, too) V ___ -n't V

(i.e., contracted with not)

(d) (e) (f) (g) (h)

Su-___ V ___ Su V ___-n't Su V

(i.e., contracted with subject) (i.e., preceding subject) (i.e., contracted with not preceding subject)

V (i.e., carrying contrastive stress) and so ___ Su

and Su ___ too but Su ___ (-n't) ___ (-n't) Su? (i.e., in tags)

Main verbs cannot appear in any of these positions. Thus, by distributional criteria, we must establish auxiliaries as a separate category. The only exceptions are main verb be and, for some speakers, main verb have, which may behave as auxiliaries:

She isn't happy about her promotion.

She is so happy about her promotion.

Is she happy about her promotion?

Isn't she happy about her promotion?

He hasn't enough money to buy a car.

(OR He doesn't have enough money to buy a car.)

Has he enough money to buy a car?

(OR Does he have enough money to buy a car?)

Hasn't he enough money to buy a car?

(OR Doesn't he have enough money to buy a car?)

Main verb do always behaves as a main verb:

*He doesn't the dishes every night.

*Does he the dishes every night?

Note that these tests also work in reverse for verbs:

Aux not/-n't ___

Aux Emp ___

Aux (-n't) Subject ___

Grammatical Categories and Word Classes Exercise 5.6: Subcategorization and Recategorization 1. Using inflectional and distributional tests, determine the word class of the underlined words in each set (a)-(d). How do you account for the fact that the same lexical items can meet the tests for membership in more than one word class, as shown by the more usual word-class usage in (a')-(d'):

(a)

The car idles too fast. (a')

My time is idle. Here is an empty box.

She emptied the trash. They are bettering us. The work has wearied her. (b) a newspaper reporter (b')

Here is a better answer. She is very weary. the Sunday newspaper

a seaside resort an office building a concrete building

the beautiful seaside the home office the wet concrete

(Note: One can say a concrete office building but not *an office concrete building. Why might this be?) (c) You must up the ante. Down your drink! The gangster was offed. (d) a juvenile a private a natural (d') (c') The audience stood up. The child fell down. The handle fell off.

a juvenile offender a private ceremony a natural product

a daily

a daily paper

2.(a) What do the following acceptable and unacceptable forms show you about the subcategorization of adjectives in English? smaller *rounder *aliver *mainer the small plate the round plate *the alive cat the plate is small the plate is round the cat is alive *the problem is main

the main problem

(b) What do the following acceptable and unacceptable forms show you about the subcategorization of nouns in English?

a pencil *a wheat *a goodness *a New York *a trousers a herd *a cosmetics

the pencil the wheat

two pencils *two wheats

the goodness *two goodnesses *the New York the trousers *the herd the cosmetics *two New Yorks ?two trousers two herds *two cosmetics

(c) Given the following behavior, how would you subcategorize the noun pastry and the noun bread?

pastry the pastry more pastry

pastries a pastry

bread breads the bread ?a bread ?more breads ?five breads ?a

more pastries more bread five pastries

a piece of pastry

a piece of bread

a large amount ___of pastry a large number ___of pastries a large amount ___of bread large number ___of breads

Grammatical Categories and Word Classes Answer to Ex. 5.6: Subcategorization and Recategorization 1. (a) The words meet the inflectional test for verbs:

3rd p sg pres -s

idles, empties, betters, wearies

past -ed prsprt -ing pstprt -en

idled, emptied, bettered, wearied idling, emptying, bettering, wearying idled, emptied, bettered, wearied

The words meet the distributional tests for verbs

_____ NP _____ # to _____ Aux (not) _____

empty, better, weary idle (to) idle, empty, better, weary (will not) idle, empty, better, weary

These words, which are otherwise A, have been recategorized as V, assuming all of the inflectional and distributional characteristics of the class. Some may even take the agentive affix -er (idler, emptier, ?betterer, ?wearier).

(b) These words do not meet the inflectional tests for adjectives because of their phonological shape. While they meet the test Det _____ N for adjectives, they also do not meet the other distributional tests for adjectives:

very _____

*very newspaper, *very concrete, *very office *more seaside, *most office

more/most ______ Vcop_____

*the reporter is newspaper, ?the resort is seaside

*the building is office, but the building is concrete

Additionally, they may not take the derivational affix -ly (*seasidely, *newspaperly, *officely, concretely). It is likely that the nouns in this case are functioning syntactically as adjectives, but have not been recategorized as adjectives, since they do not have the other requisite properties of adjectives other than the ability to precede nouns. Office building seems to form a compound noun; thus, it is internally indivisible.

(c)

The words meet the inflectional tests for verbs:

3rd p sg pres -s past -ed prsprt -ing pstprt -en

ups, downs, offs upped, downed, offed upping, downing offing upped, downed, offed

The words meet the distributional tests for verbs

_____ NP to _____ Aux (not)____

up, down, off (to) up, down, off (will not) up, down, off

These words, which are otherwise Prt, have been recategorized as V, assuming all of the inflectional and distributional characteristics of the class.

(d)

These words meet the inflectional tests for noun:

plural -s possessive -s

juveniles, privates, naturals, dailies juvenile's, private's, natural's, daily's

In addition, they appear to meet the other distributional tests for noun:

A _____

scared juveniles, happy privates, unknown naturals, bankrupt dailies

Det A _____ the convicted juvenile, that discouraged private, which newly-discovered natural, the widely-circulating daily

These words, which are originally A, appear to be recategorized as N. However, while they meet the inflectional and distributional tests for nouns, they do so rather awkwardly in some cases. 2. (a) The inflectional and distributional tests suggest four separate subcategories:

A. meets All three tests B. cannot take -er (for semantic, not phonological reasons) C. cannot take -er, cannot be attributive D. cannot take -er, cannot be predicative (b) The cooccurrence of the noun with a determiner as well as its ability to pluralize determines the following classes: A. follows a/the, pluralizes: i.e., pencil (count), herd (collective)

B. follows the, does not follow a, does not pluralize: i.e., wheat (mass), goodness (abstract), cosmetics (collective) C. D. does not follow a/the, does not pluralize: i.e., New York (proper) follows the, does not follow a, awkwardly pluralizes: i.e., trousers (bipartite item)

(c) The noun pastry is a mass noun (meaning 'dough') which has been recategorized as a count noun (meaning 'baked food made with pastry'). It behaves equally well as a mass noun - occurring with article, with the, with more in the sense of 'greater quantity', and with the mass quantifier a large amount of - and as a count noun - pluralizing, occurring with a, with more in the sense of 'greater amount', with a numeral, and with the count quantifier a large number of. The noun bread can occur as a mass noun and as a count noun (in the plural meaning 'types of bread' or perhaps 'loaves of bread'). However, it is odd in most of the count constructions, suggesting that this is not a case of complete recategorization. Lexical Semantics Exercise 6.1: Traditional Semantics 1. (a) Consult a number of dictionaries on the meaning of the word hero. Then consider the meaning of the word in contemporary usage (in magazines, newspapers, and casual conversation). Does the dictionary meaning reflect the current meaning, or would you say that the meaning has changed and that dictionaries have not kept pace with this change?

(b) Some dictionaries list the meaning of decimate as 'kill or remove one in every ten of', while most speakers of English would argue that it means 'destroy a large proportion of'. How do you account for this discrepancy?

2. For the following words, explain the background or contextual information which is necessary to understand the meaning of the word.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

reconcile generous procrastinate patient reputation

3. Discuss the following expressions in respect to the concepts of extension and intension:

(a) (b) (c)

the instructor of Linguistics 101 the day before yesterday the capital of Brazil

Lexical Semantics Answer to Ex. 6.1: Traditional Semantics 1. (a) A hero is generally defined as a person who exhibits extraordinary bravery or greatness of soul and who is admired for his or her achievements and noble qualities. Furthermore, this bravery is usually in the face of danger and is selfless. Does this definition seem to coincide with the use of the word in contexts such as "sports hero"? How would the definition need to be modified?

(b) The meaning derives from the meaning of the Latin word which forms the basis of decimate, namely decimare 'take the tenth man' (from the root meaning 'ten'; cf. decimal). 2. (a) reconcile: once there was a friendly relationship between two or more parties; something happened to create a rift or distancing; now this rift has healed (through some action of the parties) and they are once more close. (b) generous: describes a person who is willing to give or share; this giving or sharing is perhaps above the norm of what is expected; this quality is considered a virtue or a sign of nobility of character. (c) procrastinate: describes the tendency to put off something or delay in doing something; the thing delayed is unpleasant in some way but is deemed necessary or is expected; procrastination is often habitual and is seen as resulting from carelessness or laziness; hence, procrastinating is judged negatively or is seen as a character defect. (d) patient: describes the quality of enduring or bearing something with equanimity or calmness; this something is unpleasant (pain, difficulty, deprivation, etc.) but unavoidable; patience is seen as a positive characteristic, a virtue. (e) reputation: describes the quality of being well (or ill) thought of; this recognition must be generally acknowledged and must be the result of actions over an extended period of time. 3. (a) The phrase "the instructor of Linguistics 101" has a single intension, but different extensions, as different people may teach this course from year to year or even in any given year. (b) The phrase "the day before yesterday" has a single intension as well, but the actual day referred to differs depending upon which day this phrase is spoken. (c) The phrase "the capital of Brazil" has a single intension, but in fairly recent history the extension has changed from Rio de Janeiro to Braslia

exical Semantics Exercise 6.2: Basic Semantic Concepts 1. For the following words, list as many synonyms as you can think of and discuss the connotations that these synonyms have.

(a) (b)

frugal thin (of a person)

2. Fill in the columns below with the appropriate synonym. In each case, the word in column A is of English origin and the word in column B is of French or Latin origin. Can you make a general statement about the connotations of the words in columns A and B?

A feed

B ____________ conceal people

____________ ____________ begin

____________

____________ mistake

aid/assist

____________ labor vision

____________ ____________ middle

____________ altitude

____________

3. Describe the semantic relationship expressed by each of the following sentences.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r) (s) (t) (u) (v) (w)

I'm allergic to nuts. There are walnuts in the cookies. Flight 2048 arrives and departs at 8:00 a.m. George is a pig. That is a large bat. I appreciate your help. You helped me. That is a well-known club. My brother married a doctor. My male sibling joined in wedlock with a physician. In walked the corpse. The corpse is alive. Professor Mulhausen went to his office. Professor Mulhausen went to the university. He cleaned the legs of the piano. They have a love-hate relationship. The escaping convict accidentally assassinated the guard. Jane ate a piece of chicken. Jane ate a piece of poultry. My husband is living. I am a widow. She stepped on an idea. Edith amused the salad. My brother is an only child. He unintentionally committed perjury. She wore a colorless pink dress. He dusted the plants. Othello killed Desdemona. Desdemona died. He descended from the ground floor to the attic.

4. Determine whether the following are cases of homonymy or polysemy.

(a)

fine

'superior in quality'

'a sum of money paid as a penalty' (b) bank 'an incline of land adjoining a river'

'a financial institution' (c) monitor 'a pupil who assists a teacher'

'a device that receives video signals from a computer' (d) tattoo 'a permanent design on the skin'

'a military exercise' (e) school 'an institution for instruction'

'a large group of fish' (f) leech 'a physician' 'a hanger-on, a sycophant' (g) horn 'a structure projecting from the head of an animal' 'a bloodsucking worm'

'a musical instrument' (h) ear 'the organ for hearing'

'the seed-bearing spike of a cereal plant' (i) spell 'to name or write the order of the letters in a word'

'a magical formula' 'a period of time' (j) butt 'to hit with the head'

'a target (for jokes)' 'the larger or thicker end of an object' (k) pilot 'one who operates an aircraft or ship'

'a television program produced as a prototype of a series' 5. Say what is presupposed by each of the following sentences.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

Is Frank playing that loud music? What I want for my birthday is a new computer. Alistair didn't go to work today. Grace stopped playing the piano several years ago. When did Tara go back to school? Sally renewed her subscription to People magazine.

6. Which of the following are factive and which nonfactive?

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

John criticized Mark for not working hard enough. John acknowledged that Mark was not working hard enough. I was hoping that the game was cancelled. It turns out that the game was cancelled. The student forgot that the assignment was due today. The student assumed that the assignment was due today. It's nice that you could get away. It's nice to get away. I realized that he had stolen the money. I suspected that he had stolen the money.

Lexical Semantics Answer to Ex. 6.2: Basic Semantic Concepts 1. scotch (a) neutral to positive in connotation: careful (with one's money), prudent, thrifty,

negative in connotation: stingy, penny-pinching, tight (wad), parsimonious, miserly (b) neutral to positive in connotation: slender, lean, slim, twiggy, delicate, lanky, slight, spare, lightweight, svelt negative in connotation: skinny, scrawny, skeletal, puny, underweight, spindly, gangly, anorexic, wasted, emaciated 2. A feed hide folk begin help mistake work sight middle height altitude labor vision center B nourish conceal people commence aid/assist error

The words in Column B all have a more "elevated" or more positive connotation than the words in Column A.

3.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r) (s) (t) (u) (v) (w)

inclusion contradiction ambiguity literal/metaphorical ambiguity homonymy presupposition ambiguity polysemy paraphrase anomaly contradiction entailment metaphor (the levers on a piano are not literally keys, but resemble them) contradiction anomaly entailment contradiction anomaly anomaly contradiction contradiction contradiction ambiguity polysemy entailment contradiction homonomy homonomy polysemy homonomy homonomy polysemy polysemy homonomy homonomy

4.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i)

(Actually, the first two definitions are part of the same word, though they are now so far removed from one another in meaning that they are listed as separate words in the dictionary.) (j) (k) 5. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) 6. homonomy polysemy Someone is playing loud music. I want something for my birthday. Normally Alistair goes to work on this day. Grace used to play the piano. Tara went back to school. Sally already had a subscription, and it had run out or was about to run out.

Factive: (b), (d), (e), (g), (i) Nonfactive: (a), (c), (f), (h), (j)

Lexical Semantics Exercise 6.3: Structural Semantics 1. Identify the superordinate term in each set.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

house, shed, building, garage, cottage, hut plate, saucer, cup, soup bowl, dish, serving bowl stream, river, rivulet, creek, brook, tributary glance, peep, stare, leer, look (at), view, watch hurricane, tornado, gale, storm, typhoon

2. Identify the relationship of oppositeness expressed in the following sentences.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)

The window pane is open, but it should be shut. This class is better than last year's class. This painting is similar to that one. He pushed the lever forwards instead of backwards. This plant was sick, but now it's healthy. My poor relatives envy my rich relatives. He ordered a sweet and sour dish. It is better to give than to receive.

3. Below is one member of a set of scalar adjectives. Identify the other member of the set; if an alternative member exists (in a different context), list that as well.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

hard strong short happy light cheap

4. Give the end-of-scale equivalents for these normal scalar adjectives.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

tired wet poor sad hot

5. Name the structural relation expressed by each of the following pairs of words.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m)

casual/informal (n) parent/offspring university/college right/wrong right/left odd/even odd/unusual bring/take rude/polite wind/breeze moist/damp (q) (r) (s) (t) (u) (v) (w) (x)

intelligent/smart (o) (p) employ/use mathematics/history

glass/tumbler doctor/patient own/belong to ancestor/descendant predator/prey benefactor/donor enter/leave rise/fall dress/undress

present/absent (y) fair/foul (ball)

6. Identify whether the following pairs are examples of antonymy or complementarity. Are these concepts gradable?

(a)

clean/dirty

(b) (c)

drunk/sober fresh/stale

Lexical Semantics Answer to Ex. 6.3: Structural Semantics 1. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) 2. (a) (b) (c) (d) 3. (a) building dish river look (at) storm complementarity converseness (f) symmetry (g) (e) complementarity

antonymy antonymy converseness

converseness (h) hard: soft

(as in hard/soft bed) (as in hard/easy question)

hard (= 'difficult'): easy hard is unmarked

(Soft is in opposition to loud when referring to a sound or voice.) (b) strong : weak (as in strong/weak person or tea) strong : mild (as in strong/mild cheese)

strong is unmarked (c) short : long short : tall short is marked (d) happy : sad/unhappy happy is unmarked (e) light : dark light : heavy light is marked (f) cheap/inexpensive : expensive cheap is marked 4. (a) (b) (c) exhausted (d) despondent (e) scorching (as in light/dark color) (as in light/heavy box or housework) (as in short/long rope or novel) (as in short/tall person or building)

drenched, soaking destitute

5.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m)

synomymy

(n)

synonymy synonymy cohyponyms (q) superordinate hyponym

converseness (o) cohyponyms (p)

complementarity converseness (r) complementarity synonymy (t)

converseness (s) converseness

converseness converseness synonymy (w) converseness (reversive)

converseness (u) antonymy (v)

superordinate hyponym synonymy (x)

converseness (reversive) (y) converseness (reversive)

complementarity complementarity

6. All would appear to be examples of antonymy since they are gradable: very {clean, drunk, fresh} or cleaner, drunker, fresher. However, we might also conceive of these as complementary concepts in some contexts: e.g., a dish is either clean or not, and legally, one is either drunk or not.

Lexical Semantics Exercise 6.4: Lexical Fields Related to the concept of hyponymy, but more loosely defined, is the notion of a lexical field. A lexical field denotes a segment of reality symbolized by a set of related words. The words in a semantic field share a common semantic property. Most often, fields are defined by subject matter, such as body parts, landforms, diseases, colors, foods, or kinship relations. Internally, these may be organized as a hierarchy (e.g. royalty, military ranks), as a meronymy (e.g. body parts), as a sequence (e.g. numbers), or as a cycle (e.g. days of the week, months of the year), as well as with no discernible order. A thesaurus is generally organized according to substantive fields (although it also makes use of hyponymy and synonymy).

The words which are part of a lexical field enter into sense or meaning relationships with one another. Each word delimits the meaning of the next word in the field and is delimited by it; that is, it marks off an area or range within the semantic domain. However, there may be a fair amount of overlap in meaning between words in a domain, and it is often difficult to find mutually delimiting terms. Within a domain, some words are marked, while some are unmarked; the unmarked members are more frequent, more basic, broader in meaning, easier to learn and remember, not metaphorical, and typically one morpheme or single lexical item. The marked members often consist of more than one lexical item and may denote a subtype of the unmarked member.

Let's consider some examples of lexical fields. The field of "parts of the face" (see the table below, part a) is a substantive field of part to whole. Terms within the field are arranged spatially and quite clearly delimited, though there is some overlap between terms such as forehead and temple. Terms such as bridge of the nose or eyelids would constitute marked members of the field. The field of

"stages of life" (see b) is arranged sequentially, though there is considerable overlap between terms (e.g. child, toddler) as well as some apparent gaps (e.g. there are no simple terms for the different stages of adulthood). Note that a term such a minor or juvenile belongs to a technical register, a term such as kid or tot to a colloquial register, and a term such as sexagenarian or octogenarian to a more formal register. The semantic field of "water" (see c) could be divided into a number of subfields; in addition, there would appear to be a great deal of overlap between terms such as sound/fjord or cove/harbor/bay. The semantic field of "clothing" (see d) is a particularly rich one, with many unmarked terms (such as dress or pants) as well as many marked terms (such as pedal-pushers or smoking jacket). The field of clothing might be organized in many different ways by sex of wearer, by occasion of wearing, by body part covered, and so on. Finally, the field of "jewelry" (see e) would seem to include quite well-delimited terms, with a number of unmarked terms.

Examples of lexical fields: (a) Parts of the Face, (b) Stages of Life, (c) Water, (d) Clothing, and (e) Jewelry

(a)

parts of the face brow temples bridge/tip of the nose mouth lips eyebrows cheeks eyelids jaw jowls eyelashes

forehead nose septum eyes chin nostrils

(b)

stages of life new-born infant adult grown up person middle aged person senior citizen mature person aged person senior citizen, senior old {lady, man, person} sexagenarian septuagenarian octogenarian nonagenarian centenarian young adult

nursling, suckling baby, babe child, kid toddler, tot preschooler youngster adolescent youth lad/lass preteen teenager, teen juvenile, minor

(c) water forms: ice, water, steam, vapor, sleet, rain, snow, hail bodies of water: ditch, slough, swamp, narrows, strait, inlet, bight, ___bayou, brine, deep, firth, loch, tarn, well, reservoir, firth, pool, sea, ___ocean, lake, pond, bay, inlet, estuary, fjord, sound, gulf, lagoon, ___cove, harbor water in motion: creek, river, waves, billows, stream, rain, brook, ___rivulet, tributary, spring frozen water: ice, snow, crystal, sleet, hail, icicle, iceberg, rime, ___hoarfrost, glacier gas: vapor, steam

(d) clothing dress (cocktail-, strapless-, shirtwaist-) toga shift jumpsuit jumper smock suit pantsuit nightgown shirt sports coat smoking jacket blouse trousers gown (evening-, ball-)

vest pajamas bathrobe undershirt shorts culottes underwear hat cap toque belt tie

tee-shirt turtleneck knickers skirt

pants/slacks cut-offs skorts

peddle-pushers bloomers girdle

panties brassire beret scarf tam headband

earmuffs

suspenders

gaiters, spats stockings muffler

socks tights pantyhose gloves shawl jacket sweater mittens muff cape

coat (sports-, rain-, over-, top-, lab-)

parka wind-breaker anorak pullover cardigan apron

(e) jewelry ring watch pin crown earring nose-ring wristwatch pendant tiara brooch stud

pocket-watch choker anklet

necklace bracelet

cufflinks

stick-pin

tie-clasp

belt buckle

Now try to list the possible members of the following semantic fields:

1. 2. 3.

vocalization types of roads personality traits

Lexical Semantics Answer to Ex. 6.4: Lexical Fields 1. whisper, yell, growl, murmur, cry, shout, bellow, whine, shriek, bark, roar, grunt, groan, call, bawl, whoop, howl, scream, squeal, grumble, screech, shriek, pipe, holler, etc.

2. street, alley, lane, path, avenue, way, cul-de-sac, bay, thoroughfare, freeway, highway, carriageway, expressway, toll road, interstate, secondary road, back-road, etc.

3. friendly, sullen, morose, cheerful, reserved, depressed, compulsive, obsessive, prissy, prudish, affected, snobbish, conceited, sociable, vain, vivacious, gregarious, sensitive, self-confident, selfcentered, vicious, spiteful, duplicitous, sneaky, repressed, mean, nasty, pretentious, kind, straightforward, extroverted, introverted, etc. Lexical Semantics Exercise 6.5: Semantic Features (Nouns) 1. Using the inherent features of nouns discussed in the chapter, analyze the underlined noun in each of the following sentences:

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

Have you made plans for tonight? He had the flu last week. The group made its way through the forest. He has a very healthy appetite. We have managed to stay within our budget. She spilled the coffee grounds on the floor. Have you any grounds for making such a claim? After the long boat trip, it felt good to stand on solid ground. Do you like seafood? My grandparents are coming for visit.

(k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r) (s) (t)

A herd of caribou crossed the road. Our vacation begins next week. She has symptoms of the flu. You should take responsibility for the planning. The scenery here is so beautiful. Where is the receiver? My clothes need to ironed. The doctor prescribed bed rest. The scissors are missing. Are there any requirements for this course?

2. Give two different feature analyses for each of the following.

(a) (b)

bank response

Lexical Semantics Answer to Ex. 6.5: Semantic Features (Nouns) 1. (a) (b) plans [+COMMON] [+COUNT] [CONCRETE] [COLLECTIVE] flu [+COMMON] [COUNT] [CONCRETE] [COLLECTIVE]

(c) group [+COMMON] [+COUNT] [+CONCRETE] [+ANIMATE] [HUMAN] [MALE] [+COLLECTIVE] (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) appetite budget grounds grounds ground seafood [+COMMON] [COUNT] [CONCRETE] [COLLECTIVE] [+COMMON] [+COUNT] [CONCRETE] [COLLECTIVE] [+COMMON] [COUNT] [+CONCRETE] [ANIMATE] [COLLECTIVE] [+COMMON] [COUNT] [CONCRETE] [COLLECTIVE] [+COMMON] [COUNT] [+CONCRETE] [ANIMATE] [COLLECTIVE] [+COMMON] [COUNT] [+CONCRETE] [ANIMATE] [+COLLECTIVE]

(j) grandparents [+COMMON] [+COUNT] [+CONCRETE] [+ANIMATE] [+HUMAN] [MALE] [COLLECTIVE] (k) herd [+COMMON] [+COUNT] [+CONCRETE] [+ANIMATE] [HUMAN] [MALE] [+COLLECTIVE] (l) (m) vacation symptoms or [+COMMON] [+COUNT] [CONCRETE] [COLLECTIVE] [+COMMON] [+COUNT] [+CONCRETE] [ANIMATE]

[COUNT] [+COLLECTIVE]

(n) (o) (p)

responsibility [+COMMON] [COUNT] [CONCRETE] [COLLECTIVE] scenery receiver or [+COMMON] [COUNT] [+CONCRETE] [COLLECTIVE] [+COMMON] [+COUNT] [+CONCRETE] [ANIMATE] [COLLECTIVE]

[+ANIMATE] [HUMAN] [MALE] [+COMMON] [COUNT] [+CONCRETE] [ANIMATE] [+COLLECTIVE] [+COMMON] [COUNT] [CONCRETE] [COLLECTIVE] [+COMMON] [COUNT] [+CONCRETE] [ANIMATE] [COLLECTIVE]

(q) (r) (s) (t) 2. (a)

clothes bedrest scissors

requirements [+COMMON] [+COUNT] [CONCRETE] [COLLECTIVE] bank (institution) [+COMMON] [+COUNT] [CONCRETE] bank (building) [+COMMON] [+COUNT] [+CONCRETE] [ANIMATE] bank (river bank) [+COMMON] [+COUNT] [+CONCRETE] [ANIMATE]

(b)

response (verbal/written) [+COMMON] [+COUNT] [+CONCRETE] [ANIMATE] response (reaction) [+COMMON] [COUNT] [CONCRETE]

Lexical Semantics Exercise 6.6: Semantic Features (Verbs) 1. Analyze the predicates in the following sentences using the inherent verbal features [STATIVE] [DURATIVE] [TELIC] [VOLUNTARY]

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n)

The skaters are practicing. She skated around the rink. She skates gracefully. She bumped into another skater. He polished her skates for her. Pam has a cold. Pam recently recovered from her illness. Pam caught a cold last week. Pam was coughing loudly. Pam cured herself with large doses of vitamin C. Charles and Julia got married yesterday. The ceremony lasted an hour. They have been engaged a long time. Julia's mother was crying.

(o) (p) (q) (r) (s)

He studied for the test. The test began at 9:00. While studying, he drank lots of coffee. He is happy with the results. After the exam, he got drunk.

2. Often the same verb can denote a number of different situations. Below are verbs used in several different ways. Analyze using the four inherent features of verbs.

(a)

HEAR I heard a strange noise.

I hear well. I heard a Mozart symphony last night. I hear the waves. (b) LIE The book is lying on the desk.

He is lying on the bed. Then he lay down. (c) HELP She is helping him.

She is helping him wash the car. (d) IDENTIFY He finally identified the insect.

She identifies with her idol. (e) DRESS She dresses well.

It took ten minutes for her to dress. (f) SINK The house is sinking.

The ship is sinking. (g) REGRETShe regrets her words.

She regretted it as soon as she said it. (h) TASTE The dinner tastes good.

He bent over and tasted the soup. Then he tasted the mint in the drink. 3. Any particular verb may fit into a number of different syntactic contexts, and as a result may form different situation types. For example, the verb write may appear in a sentence of the form N V (He is writing) or N V N (He writes songs), both of which are activities. Or it may appear in a sentence of the form N V PP (He writes on the board), which is likewise an activity.

Answer the following using the verb play.

(a)

(i) (ii) (iii)

Give a sentence of the form N V ( N) which is an activity. Give a sentence of the form N V PP which is an activity. Give a sentence of the form N V Prt which is an activity.

(b) (i) Give a sentence of the form N V N [+COUNT] [+SINGULAR] which is an accomplishment. (ii) Give a sentence of the form N V N [+COUNT] [+PLURAL] which is an accomplishment. (iii) (c) Give a sentence of the form N V PP which is an accomplishment. Give a sentence of the form N V N [COUNT] which is an activity.

4. Answer the questions in (3) in respect to the verb read. Lexical Semantics Answer to Ex. 6.6: Semantic Features (Verbs) 1. (a) (b) (c) (d) [STATIVE] [STATIVE] [+STATIVE] [STATIVE] [+DURATIVE] [+DURATIVE] [+DURATIVE] [DURATIVE] [TELIC] [+TELIC] [TELIC] [+TELIC] [+VOLUNTARY] [+VOLUNTARY] [VOLUNTARY] [VOLUNTARY]

(bumping may be either intentional or not) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) [STATIVE] [+STATIVE] [STATIVE] [STATIVE] [STATIVE] [+DURATIVE] [+DURATIVE] [+DURATIVE] [DURATIVE] [+DURATIVE] [+TELIC] [TELIC] [+TELIC] [+TELIC] [TELIC] [+VOLUNTARY] [VOLUNTARY] [VOLUNTARY] [VOLUNTARY] [VOLUNTARY]

(Presumably, coughing is involuntary in this case, though in He coughed to catch her attention, it is voluntary.) (j) (k) (l) (m) [STATIVE] [STATIVE] [STATIVE] [+STATIVE] [+DURATIVE] [DURATIVE] [+DURATIVE] [+DURATIVE] [+TELIC] [+TELIC] [+TELIC] [TELIC] [+VOLUNTARY] [+VOLUNTARY] [VOLUNTARY] [VOLUNTARY]

(Engagement might seem [+TELIC] since it leads up to marriage, but even if marriage does not occur, the couple can be said to have been engaged.) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r) [STATIVE] [STATIVE] [STATIVE] [STATIVE] [+STATIVE] [+DURATIVE] [+DURATIVE] [DURATIVE] [+DURATIVE] [+DURATIVE] [TELIC] [+TELIC] [+TELIC] [TELIC] [TELIC] [VOLUNTARY] [+VOLUNTARY] [VOLUNTARY] [+VOLUNTARY] [VOLUNTARY]

(s)

[STATIVE]

[+DURATIVE]

[+TELIC]

[VOLUNTARY]

(Although drinking (to excess) is voluntary and durative, getting drunk is not really voluntary but is a change of state that simply happens.) 2. (a) [STATIVE] [+STATIVE] [STATIVE] [STATIVE] (b) [+STATIVE] [STATIVE] [STATIVE] (c) [STATIVE] [STATIVE] (d) [STATIVE] [+STATIVE] (e) [+STATIVE] [STATIVE] (f) [STATIVE] [STATIVE] (g) [+STATIVE] [STATIVE] (h) [+STATIVE] [STATIVE] [STATIVE] 3. (a) (i) (ii) (iii) (b) (i) (ii) (iii) (c) 4. (a) [DURATIVE] [+DURATIVE] [+DURATIVE] [+DURATIVE] [+DURATIVE] [+DURATIVE] [DURATIVE] [+DURATIVE] [+DURATIVE] [DURATIVE] [+DURATIVE] [+DURATIVE] [+DURATIVE] [+DURATIVE] [+DURATIVE] [+DURATIVE] [DURATIVE] [+DURATIVE] [DURATIVE] [DURATIVE] [+TELIC] [TELIC] [+TELIC] [TELIC] [TELIC] [TELIC] [+TELIC] [TELIC] [+TELIC] [+TELIC] [TELIC] [TELIC] [+TELIC] [TELIC] [+TELIC] [TELIC] [+TELIC] [TELIC] [+TELIC] [+TELIC] [VOLUNTARY] [VOLUNTARY] [+VOLUNTARY] [VOLUNTARY] [VOLUNTARY] [+VOLUNTARY] [+VOLUNTARY] [+VOLUNTARY] [+VOLUNTARY] [+VOLUNTARY] [VOLUNTARY] [VOLUNTARY] [+VOLUNTARY] [VOLUNTARY] [VOLUNTARY] [VOLUNTARY] [VOLUNTARY] [VOLUNTARY] [+VOLUNTARY] [VOLUNTARY]

Adele is playing (the piano). Adele played on the piano. Adele played on. Adele played a game of chess. Adele played two sets of tennis. Adele played from 3 o'clock to 4 o'clock.

Adele played popular music on the piano. (i) (ii) (iii) Adrian read yesterday. Adrian read in the novel. Adrian read on.

(b)

(i) (ii) (iii)

Adrian read a novel. Adrian read two novels. Adrian read to the end of the novel. Adrian read out the words. (actually N - V - Prt - N)

(c)

Adrian read science fiction.

Lexical Semantics Exercise 6.7: Modal Auxiliaries 1. Determine whether the following sentences with modal expressions, in normal readings, have deontic or epistemic meaning or are ambiguous:

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r) (s) (t) (u) (v)

I must be getting sick. You may be pregnant. Nitric acid will dissolve zinc. John must leave now. He can miss the class. You could clean your room. He must have passed the examination. You might have fallen. Cocktail parties can be boring. She could be discouraged. I will marry her. You ought to be ashamed of yourself. You can't be serious. Harris has to retire next year. He might try a bit harder to pass the course. She can be very obstinate. Guests may not use their cellular phones in the restaurant. Only experts can advance to the next stage of the competition. She must be careful with her money. Grant is in New York now, I guess. The movie shouldn't be violent. The revised paper could be better.

(w)

My uncle can wiggle his ears.

2. Identify and name the modal element in each of the following and say whether it is [+EPISTEMIC] or [+DEONTIC]. (a) (b) (c) (d) It's not likely that he will want to help. There isn't any necessity to tell her the results. The event will have to be cancelled, I guess. I insist that you are guilty.

Lexical Semantics Answer to Ex. 6.7: Modal Auxiliaries 1. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) [+EPISTEMIC] It is possible that I am getting sick. [+EPISTEMIC] It is possible that you are pregnant; I think you are. [+EPISTEMIC] It is certain that nitric acid dissolves zinc; I know it does. [+DEONTIC] [+DEONTIC] [+DEONTIC] John is obliged to leave now; he has reasons to do so. He has permission to miss class or he is able to miss class. You are obliged to clean your room; I want you to do so.

[+EPISTEMIC] It is likely that he did pass the examination.

It may also be possible to get a *+DEONTI + reading here, namely, It is necessary that he have passed the examination in order to graduate. ut it would be more common in this case to say He must pass the exam.) (h) (i) (j) [+EPISTEMIC] It is possible that you could have fallen. [+EPISTEMIC] Cocktail parties are likely to be boring. Ambiguous We could do something to discourage her ([+DEONTIC]).

It is possible that she is discouraged ([+EPISTEMIC]). (k) [+DEONTIC] I intend to marry her. (This is the strict reading. The sentence has a looser meaning of prediction, hence an epistemic reading.) (l) (m) (n) (o) [+DEONTIC] It is your obligation to be ashamed of yourself.

[+EPISTEMIC] It is not possible that you are being serious. [+DEONTIC] Ambiguous Harris is obliged to retire. It is possible that he will try harder ([+EPISTEMIC]).

He is obliged to try harder (+DEONTIC). (p) (q) [+EPISTEMIC] It is possible for her to be very obstinate. [+DEONTIC] Guests are not permitted to use their cellular phones. Only experts have permission [+DEONTIC] or have the ability

(r) Ambiguous [+EPISTEMIC] to advance. (s) Ambiguous

She is obliged to be careful with her money. ([+DEONTIC])

From appearances, I deduce that she is careful ([+EPISTEMIC]). (t) (u) [+EPISTEMIC] It is likely that Grant is in New York. Ambiguous It is possible that the movie won't be violent ([+EPISTEMIC]).

I am requiring that the movie not be violent ([+DEONTIC]). (v) [+EPISTEMIC] It is possible that the revised paper will be better ([+EPISTEMIC]). I don't think that the revised paper is not as good as it should or could be ([+EPISTEMIC]). (w) 2. (a) (b) (c) (d) [+EPISTEMIC] My uncle has the ability to wiggle his ears. modal adjective [+EPISTEMIC] modal noun [+DEONTIC] epistemic parenthetical [+EPISTEMIC] modal verb [+EPISTEMIC]

Lexical Semantics Exercise 6.8: Prototypes 1. For the concept of furniture, list the core, or prototypical, members and the peripheral members. Justify your distinction between core and periphery. What are the defining characteristics of this concept?

2. Among the terms in the following, name the basic level term(s) and the lower-level terms in each case.

car, hearse, fire engine, jeep, station wagon, van, truck, pick-up truck, tow truck, delivery van, humvee, semi-trailer truck, diesel bus, flatbed truck, bus, taxi(cab), cement mixer, tanker truck, sports utility vehicle (SUV), hybrid, dump truck, garbage truck, sports car, convertible, sedan, coupe, roadster, minivan, school bus, trolley bus, panel truck, camper van, recreational vehicle (RV)

Lexical Semantics Answer to Ex. 6.8: Prototypes 1.

core members:

chair (rocking-, arm-, easy-), sofa (couch, ottoman, loveseat, chaise longue, divan), stool (foot-), bench, bed (day-, cot, crib, cradle), recliner, table (coffee-, dining, end-, side-), desk, console, bookcase, stereo/t.v. cabinet, sideboard, buffet, dresser, bureau, chest, wardrobe, coat rack, hat rack, umbrella stand

peripheral members:

throne, dais, cupboard, cabinet, counter, bunk, stretcher, hammock, altar, pulpit, lectern, podium, workbench, sink, toilet, lamp, mirror, carpet, picture, drapes, blinds, dishwasher, washing machine, dryer, picnic table, lawn chair (may be core?)

Core members must be moveable, not built in, used inside the home for everyday use.

lectern, podium, pulpit, altar not used in the home

cabinet, cupboard, workbench, altar, sink, toilet not moveable

throne, dais, stretcher not for everyday use

hammock, workbench, picnic table, lawn chair not used inside the home

sink, toilet not moveable, would be considered "fixtures"

mirror, lamp, picture, carpet, drapes, blinds would be considered "furnishings"

dishwasher, washing machine, dryer not moveable, would be considered "appliances"

2. The basic level terms would likely be car, truck, van, and bus.

car (station wagon, jeep, humvee, taxi(cab), SUV, hybrid, sports car, convertible, sedan, coupe, roadster, hearse)

van (delivery van, camper van, minivan, RV?)

truck (pick-up, semi-trailer truck, tow truck, panel truck, flatbed truck, fire engine, garbage truck, dump truck, cement mixer, tanker truck)

bus (school bus, trolley bus, diesel bus)

It might be possible to combine "van" and "truck", but what would the basic level term be?

Lexical Semantics Exercise 6.9: Figurative Language 1. Give the selectional restrictions for the following words:

(a) (b) (c) (d)

study surprise slither invest

2. Identify the type of figurative expression in each of the following:

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r) (s) (t) (u) (v)

a smooth wine an autobiography of her life passive aggressive wildlife management Orders are orders. an endowed chair a hard-hitting report the paper a loud color a new initiative The pen is mightier than the sword. a new set of wheels "Death, thou shalt die". (John Donne) a bitter reproach the hands of a clock blood, sweat, and tears an on-off relationship The traffic is crawling. search one's soul Enough is enough. room and board live on borrowed time

(w) (x) (y) (z) (aa) (bb) (cc) (dd) (ee)

table linen an aide The law is the law. be under the weather sell for money circumnavigate around working vacation close proximity extinct life

3. Explain what is "wrong" with each of the following expressions using semantic features and the notion of selectional restrictions.

Example: a fatherless orphan

Answer: fatherless has the feature [FATHER], while orphan also has the feature [FATHER]; thus, this expression is tautological.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

pregnant pause eloquent silence misery loves company bitter reproach joint partnership

4. Give a focus and vehicle interpretation of the following metaphors.

(a) (b)

"My thoughts are ripe in mischief". (Shakespeare) "But ye lovers that bathen in gladnesse". (Chaucer)

(c) "That time of year thou mayst in me behold / When yellow leaves, or none, or few, do hang / Upon the boughs ..." (Shakespeare) 5. State the image schema upon which each of the following metaphors is based. (Do not simply paraphrase the metaphors.)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

That's food for thought. He is a giant among film directors. Let me put in my two cent's worth. She is a member of the upper class.

(e) (f) (g)

His health is declining. His mood is down/depressed. One can't predict what Wall Street will do.

6. What is the one image schema underlying these metaphors?

to be in the thick of things fall outside my realm of experience be in sight, go out of view be in love/out of love be in a rage/in a funk/in a good mood Lexical Semantics Answer to Ex. 6.9: Figurative Language 1. (a) (b) (c) (d) 2. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) (q) study requires [+HUMAN] subject surprise requires [+ANIMATE] object slither requires [+SNAKE] or [+WORM] subject invest requires [+HUMAN] subject and [+MONETARY] object synesthesia tautology oxymoron oxymoron apparent tautology metonymy (= 'a professorship') personification synecdoche synesthesia tautology metonymy (pen = 'writing'; sword = 'fighting') synecdoche (= 'a car') personification/tautology synesthesia metaphor metonymy (= 'great effort, hard work') oxymoron

(r) (s) (t) (u) (v) (w) (x) (y) (z) (aa) (bb) (cc) (dd) (ee)

metaphor metaphor apparent tautology metonymy (board = 'food') metaphor synecdoche (However, table linen is often not made of linen anymore.) metonymy apparent tautology metaphor tautology tautology oxymoron tautology oxymoron

3. (a) The adjective pregnant has the restriction that it cooccur with a noun that is [ MALE]; pause is [ANIMATE], and the feature of maleness is hence not relevant. In this case, it is the secondary feature of [+EXPECTANT] in pregnant which seems to be in the forefront. The expression is metaphorical. (b) Eloquent has the restriction that it cooccur with a noun with the feature [+SPEECH] or at least [+ORAL]; silence is [ORAL]. Therefore, this expression is an oxymoron. (c) The verb love selects a subject which is [+ANIMATE], and probably [+HUMAN] as well. The noun misery is [CONCRETE], hence [ANIMATE]. In this case, however, misery seems to have taken on the feature [+ANIMATE] by a process of personification. (d) Bitter selects a noun which is [+GUSTATORY], while reproach is [+SPEECH]; hence, this expression is a case of synesthesia. (e) tautological. 4. (a) Both joint and partnership contain the notion of [+JOINING]; thus, this expression is

focus interpretation: the thoughts are fully formed or developed (like ripe fruit)

vehicle interpretation: the thoughts are like fruit/vegetables organic, capable of growth to maturity, nourishing, perhaps even on the verge of rotting if not eaten (acted upon). (b) focus interpretation: the lovers are luxuriating in, indulging, enjoying their happiness (as one does water in a bath) vehicle interpretation: "gladnesse", or lovers' happiness, is like bath water soothing, warming, cleansing, revitalizing, restoring (c) focus interpretation: one can see in the poet the effects of aging

vehicle interpretation: the effects of aging resemble a tree in the late fall barren, desolate, stark, depleted, reduced from some prior, richer state. 5. (a) Metaphor: Ideas are food to be consumed.

(b) (c)

Metaphor: Reputation/renown is equated with physical size. Metaphor: Ideas are equated to money. A conversation is like a container which collects things.

(d) (e) (f) (g)

Metaphor: Social rank is equated to height on a vertical scale. Metaphor: Physical well-being is equated to height on a vertical scale. Metaphor: Emotional well-being is equated to height on a vertical scale. Metonymy: Place represents the institution

6. An image of a container. Phrasal Structure and Verb Complementation Exercise 7.1: Constituent Structure 1. Specific constituency tests include the following:

(1) Pronominalization: a complete constituent is replaceable by a single word (a pro-form or word of the same category):

(a)

a personal pronoun replaces a noun phrase:

The fat man ate a hamburger, didn't he? (b) the dummy verb do replaces a verb phrase:

Jacques likes hamburgers, and Monique does too. *Jacques likes hamburgers, and Monique does fries too. (c) the adverbs there and then replace prepositional phrases:

Dylan went to the store after school and Dudley went there then too. (2) Interrogation: a complete constituent serves as an answer to a wh-question:

(a)

a noun phrase:

What did Jacques eat for dinner? A large, juicy hamburger. *A large, juicy. Who ate a hamburger for dinner? Jacques. *The fat. (b) a prepositional phrase or adverbial phrase:

When did Jacques eat a hamburger? At noon/yesterday. Why did Jacques eat a hamburger? Because he was hungry. (c) sometimes a verb phrase (this is not a particularly good test):

What did Jacques do? ?Ate a hamburger. (3) Movement: a complete constituent can be moved or can occur in different positions in a sentence, but it retains its integrity or configuration; its unity cannot be disrupted. If we begin with

the sentence Jacques ate a hamburger for dinner, the following types of permutations can occur (these will be studied in more detail in Chapters 8, 9, and 11):

(a)

fronting (preposing) of a noun phrase or an adverbial prepositional phrase:

A hamburger, Jacques ate for dinner (not a steak). For dinner, Jacques ate a hamburger. (b) movement of noun phrases in a passive sentence:

A hamburger was eaten by Jacques. cf. The man rang the bell of the church.

The bell of the church was rung by the man. *The bell was rung of the church by the man. (c) inversion of the subject noun phrase and the auxiliary verb in a question:

Did Jacques eat a hamburger for dinner? (d) focusing of a noun phrase or an adverbial prepositional phrase in a "cleft sentence":

It was Jacques who ate a hamburger for dinner. It was a hamburger that Jacques ate for dinner. It was for dinner that Jacques ate a hamburger. cf. It was the bell of the church that the man rang.

*It was the bell that the man rang of the church. *It was of the church that the man rang the bell. (e) focusing of a noun phrase or a verb phrase in a "pseudocleft sentence":

What Jacques ate for dinner was a hamburger. What Jacques did was eat a hamburger for dinner. What Jacques did for dinner was eat a hamburger. cf. What the man rang was the bell of the church.

*What the man rang of the church was the bell. What the man did was ring the bell of the church. (4) Omission: a complete constituent, if it is optional, may be deleted, but not all constituents are optional:

Jacques ate (a hamburger) (for dinner). *Jacques ate a (hamburger) for (dinner). (5) Conjunction: complete constituents are joined by conjunctions such as and or or:

The cat and the mouse ran away. She read the newspaper and ate lunch. The quite large and smoothly rounded stone He runs very quickly and extremely gracefully. Using these tests, determine whether the underlined sequences are constituents or not. (Not all tests will work in each case, nor will any one test necessarily be conclusive.) Compare (a) and (b) and then compare (c) and (d)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

The workers lowered the desk from the balcony. The workers lowered the desk from the estate auction. She worked with two other people on the project. She worked with great diligence on the project.

2. Determine the function (Modifier, Head, Governor, Complement) of each of the underlined constituents and indicate which other constituent it functions in relation to.

Example: She got a disappointingly low grade on her paper. Answer: Modifier in relation to the head low.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)

He is afraid of heights. He didn't feel very confident. He was worried about avalanches. He checked with the weather office daily. The approaching storm clouds looked ominous. He asked his companions what they wanted to do. They decided to cancel the climb. They agreed to climb another mountain in the same area.

3. Explain the ambiguity of the following expressions in terms of the modifier-head relation:

(a) (b)

new boy's shirt red cedar shingle

Phrasal Structure and Verb Complementation Answer to Ex. 7.1: Constituent Structure 1. Comparing (a) and (b), we find that the tests work for the sequence in (b) but not for that in (a):

Pronominalization: The workers lowered it (= the desk from the estate auction, not the desk from the balcony).

Interrogation: What did the workers lower? The desk from the estate auction. *The desk from the balcony.

Movement:

Fronting:

The desk from the estate auction, the workers lowered.

*The desk from the balcony, the workers lowered. Passive: The desk from the estate auction was lowered by the workers.

*The desk from the balcony was lowered by the workers. Question: Was the desk from the estate auction lowered by the workers?

*Was the desk from the balcony lowered by the workers? Cleft: It was the desk from the estate auction the workers lowered.

*It was the desk from the balcony the workers lowered. Pseudocleft: What the workers lowered was the desk from the estate auction.

*What the workers lowered was the desk from the balcony. cf. What the workers lowered from the balcony was the desk.

Omission: (not relevant)

All of the tests for constituency fail for (a) except possibly conjunction: The workers lowered the desk from the estate auction and the chair from the furniture store. ?The workers lowered the desk from the balcony and the chimney from the roof.

Comparing (c) and (d), we find that the tests work for the sequence in (d) but not for that in (c):

Pronominalization: (not relevant)

Interrogation: How did she work on the project? With great diligence. *With two other people. (The latter answers the question "With whom did she work?")

Movement:

Fronting:

With great diligence, she worked on the project.

*With two other people she worked on the project. Passive: Question: (not relevant since these are not transitive sentences) (not relevant since the test identifies only constituents serving as subject)

Cleft: It was with great diligence that she worked on the project. *It was with two other people that she worked on the project. Pseudocleft: (not relevant since this test isolates noun phrases and verb phrases, but not prepositional phrases) Omission: Omitting the phrase in (c) changes the meaning, whereas doing so in (d) does not.

2. (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)

(a)

Complement in relation to governor afraid

Complement in relation to governor feel Complement in relation to governor about Modifier in relation to head checked Modifier in relation to head storm clouds Complement in relation to governor asked Complement in relation to governor decided Modifier in relation to head mountain

3. (a) Either boy's modifies shirt and new modifies boy's shirt ('a boy's shirt which is new') or new modifies boy, and new boy modifies shirt ('shirt which belongs to the new boy'). (b) Either cedar modifies shingle and red modifies cedar shingle ('cedar shingle which is (painted) red') or red modifies cedar and red cedar modifies shingle ('shingle which is made of red cedar'). Note that the structurally similar expression red traffic signal would have a structure like the former ('traffic signal which is red', i.e., traffic modifies signal and red modifies traffic signal), not like the latter (not 'signal which is red traffic'). Phrasal Structure and Verb Complementation Exercise 7.2: The Form of Phrase Structure Rules 1. For each of the following phrase structure rules, write out the possible sequences that each rule generates:

Example: A ( D) E Answer: A E ABCDE

(a) (b) (c)

A ( ) D (E) A ( ) (D) E A , , D- ,E, F, H- G

(d)

2. For the following phrase structure rule, write out all the possible sequences that the rule generates.

3. Given the following tree diagram, write the phrase structure rules that generated it.

4. Consider the following hypothetical phrase structure grammar:

H x R (S) R k m (,n, o-) mP kv S ,y, z- (H)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

What is the initial symbol? What are the terminal symbols? What is the recursive symbol? i. ii. List the nonbranching nodes List the branching nodes Are S and k sister nodes? Are z and v sister nodes? Are m and n sister nodes? Are R and S sister nodes? Which node may immediately dominate S? Which nodes may S immediately dominate?

(e)

i. ii. iii. iv.

(f)

i. ii.

(g)

In this grammar: i. ii. iii. iv. v. Can the sequence k and m form a constituent? Can k, m, and o? Can m and n? Can R and S? Can y?

(h) Indicate which of the following trees are generated by this grammar. Explain what is wrong with the unacceptable trees.

(i)

(ii)

(ii)

(iv)

(v)

Phrasal Structure and Verb Complementation Answer to Ex. 7.2: The Form of Phrase Structure Rules 1. (a) A A A (b) A A A A (c) A A A A A A (d) A A A 2. S S S S S 3. S ABCE AD AE FG G SA A BCD BDE BCDE BE BCE BDE BCDE BCFG BCEG BCHG BDFG BDEG BDHG BE BCE BDE ABCD BD

Note that from the evidence of one tree, you cannot determine which elements are optional. For example, B may be optional.

D , , A4. (a) H

(b) (c) (d)

x, n, o, P, v, y, z H i. ii. m, k H, S, R No (S is the "aunt" of k) No (they are "cousins") Yesboth are dominated by R Yesboth are dominated by S H y, z, H Yes, of R Yes, of R No, k must be present No, x must be present Yes, of S not acceptableH must dominate x acceptable not acceptableR must dominate m not acceptableS can dominate y or z, but not both acceptable

(e)

i. ii. iii. iv.

(f)

i. ii.

(g)

i. ii. iii. iv. v.

(h)

i. ii. iii. iv. v.

Phrasal Structure and Verb Complementation Exercise 7.3: Noun Phrases 1. Identify the subject and the predicate in each of the following sentences:

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

Every evening this week, there will be a different movie. Running the race exhausted him. The boxes in the back room are to remain. That I am not pleased with the findings must be obvious. Last winter in Vancouver, it didn't snow. Ketchup on French fries I find disgusting.

2. Provide tree diagrams (phrase markers) for the following NPs.

(a)

a white dress with a dropped waistline

(b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l)

the east gate of the park those large paintings by Renoir the rather frightening bats up under the eaves a tall, bald man with a bushy moustache a long vacation on the Caribbean island of Trinidad or Jamaica his most recent, very provocative novel your very much deserved success in your career a very long and boring modern novel the weather in Vancouver on any given day in winter the high wooden fence around our yard a serious conversation with Sharon about her problems

3. (a) Explain the ambiguity of more detailed plans. Draw tree diagrams for the two different readings. (b) Do the same for rebellious boys and girls.

Phrasal Structure and Verb Complementation Answer to Ex. 7.3: Noun Phrases 1. The subject is within square brackets, the predicate is underlined:

(a)

Every evening this week, [there] will be a different movie.

Question test: Will [there] be a different movie every evening this week? Tag test: [There] will be a different movie every evening this week, won't [there]? (b) [Running the race] exhausted him.

Question test: Did [running the race] exhaust him? Tag test: [Running the race] exhausted him, didn't [it]? (It replaces running the race.) (c) [The boxes in the back room] are to remain.

Question test: Are [the boxes in the back room] to remain? Tag test: [The boxes in the back room] are to remain, aren't [they]? (They replaces the boxes in the back room.) (d) [That I am not pleased with the findings] must be obvious.

Question test: *Must [that I am not pleased with the findings] be obvious? (The difficulty arises from the fact that the subject is an entire clause. Note that when it is moved to the end and replaced by it the question form is fine: Must it be obvious that I am not pleased with the findings?) Tag test: ?[That I am not pleased with the findings] must be obvious, mustn't [it]? (It replaces That. The awkwardness results from the use of must in the tag.)

(e)

Last winter in Vancouver, [it] didn't snow.

Question test: Didn't [it] snow last winter in Vancouver? Tag test: [It] didn't snow last winter in Vancouver, did it? (f) Ketchup on French fries [I] find disgusting.

Question test: Do [I] find ketchup on French fries disgusting? (Semantically this is odd since one doesn't usually question one's own likes, but syntactically fine.) Tag test: [I] find ketchup on French fries disgusting, don't [I]?

2.

(a)

(b)

c)

(d)

e)

f)

(f)

g)

h)

i)

Note that "modern novel" forms a semantic and syntactic unit with internal coherence: you can't have *modern boring novel. (j) One possible answer is the following:

However, in the tree above, the PN (Vancouver) is shown as being modified by a PP (on any given day ...), in violation of our rules. More importantly, this analysis gives the reading 'the weather which is in Vancouver which is on any given day in winter', whereas the intended reading is 'the weather which is in Vancouver and which is on any given day in winter'. That is, "on any given day" modifies "weather", not "Vancouver". We could account for this structure in the same way that we accounted for a cat on the mat with long whiskers (in the text), as follows:

(k) There are several different ways to analyze this phrase. Generalized trees of the various interpretations are given:

'the wooden fence which is high and which is around our yard'

'the wooden fence around our yard which is high'

'the fence around our yard which is wooden and high'

There does not seem any compelling reason to choose one interpretation over another in this case, though the first tree seems the most plausible. (l) There are also several ways to interpret this phrase. Again, the structures are shown in generalized form:

'a conversation with Sharon which is about her problems and which is serious'

'a serious conversation which is with Sharon and which is about her problems

'a conversation with Sharon which is serious and which is about her problems'

Although the first tree would seem to be the most likely interpretation, the others are not impossible. Note that sometimes the different structures correspond to markedly different interpretations. The phrase the old Chinese history teacher has four different interpretations (the fourth being rather unnatural), represented by four different structures:

'history teacher who is old and Chinese'

'old teacher of Chinese history'

'teacher of old Chinese history'

'history teacher of old Chinese'

3. (a) One reading of more detailed plans is 'more plans which are detailed' (i), while the other reading is 'plans which are more detailed' (ii). The phrase structure trees corresponding to these readings are as follows:

In the first case, more is a quantifier, while in the second case, it is a degree word. (b) Either both the boys and the girls are rebellious (i) or just the boys are rebellious (ii):

Phrasal Structure and Verb Complementation Exercise 7.4: Verb Subcategorization 1. Identify the subclass of the verb in each of the sentences in the set, and then write a subcategorization frame for each set.

Example: APPEAR

(a) (b) (c)

The train appeared. Some clouds appeared in the sky. He appears healthy.

Answer:_____ ({AP, PP})

(a) (b) (c) SEEM

intrans prep cop

(a) SPREAD

He seems happy/in a hurry.

(a) (b)

She spread the butter. She spread the butter on the toast.

(c) (d) SMELL

The news spread quickly. The water spread to the far corner.

(a) (b) (c) PUZZLE

The room smells musty. The books smell. He smelled the flowers.

(a) LIE

The problem puzzled the detective.

(a) (b) (c) SHOOT

The child is lying on the bed. The crops are lying dormant now. He is lying down.

(a) (b) (c) (d) GROWL

The hunter shot the deer. The hunter shot the deer in the leg. The hunter shot at the deer. The hunter shoots expertly.

(a) (b) REMAIN

The animal growled fiercely. The dog growled at me.

(a) (b) (c) LIVE

Joseph remained angry all day. Only one cookie remains. He remained in the house.

(a)

She is still living.

(b) (c) (d) LOCK

He lives alone. He lives in town. She has lived a good life.

(a) (b) (c) EAT

He locked the door. She locked the jewels in the safe. This door doesn't lock.

(a) (b) WRITE

The child ate his dinner. When do we eat?

(a) (b) (c) (d) ARRIVE

He wrote me a letter. He wrote a letter to me. He writes well. He wrote a novel.

(a) (b)

The mail has not arrived. The train arrived at the station.

2. For each of the following verbs, write sentences exemplifying as many subclasses as you can think of. Then, for each verb, draw up a subcategorization frame.

Example:

STAND ____ (NP) PP

Jane stood the lamp in the corner. [complex trans]

The child stood on the ladder. [prep] ANTAGONIZE FIND GROW GIVE CRY DIE PASS HANG

BECOME

SEND

3. Using semantic and syntactic tests, decide whether the following contain ditransitive verbs:

(a) (b) (c)

Marianne returned the book to me. The library reserved the book for me. A friend lent it to me for a day.

4. Study the following sentences:

(a) (c) (d)

She gave the door a push. We gave the hitch-hiker a ride. Tammy didn't give her problems a thought.

Would you consider these sentences to contain ditransitive verbs? Do the direct objects is these sentences have any special semantic quality?

5. On the basis of the following example sentences, determine what verb subcategory pay belongs to. Consider whether any of the sentences might involve a latent (in)direct object.

We paid the wages to the carpenter. We paid the carpenter. We paid the bill. Will you pay?

Phrasal Structure and Verb Complementation Answer to Ex. 7.4: Verb Subcategorization 1. (a) cop SPREAD _____ (NP) (PP) (a) trans (b) complex trans (c) intrans (d) prep SMELL _____ ({AP, NP}) (a) cop (b) intrans SEEM _____ {AP, PP}

(c) trans PUZZLE _____ NP (a) trans LIE _____ ({PP, AP}) (a) prep (b) cop (c) intrans SHOOT _____ (NP) (PP) (a) trans (b) complex trans (c) prep (d) intrans GROWL _____ (PP) (a) intrans (b) prep REMAIN _____ ({AP, PP}) (a) cop (b) intrans (c) prep LIVE _____ ({NP, AP, PP}) (a) intrans (b) cop (c) prep (d) trans LOCK _____ (NP (PP)) (a) trans (b) complex trans (c) intrans EAT _____ (NP) (a) trans (b) intrans WRITE _____ (NP ({NP, PP})) (a) ditrans

(b) ditrans (c) intrans (d) trans ARRIVE _____ (PP) (a) intrans (b) prep 2. (Note that these are probably not the only possibilities. You may be able to think of other structures. But be careful to exclude adverbials, which do not figure in verb subcategorization.)

ANTAGONIZE _____ NP She antagonized him. [trans] FIND_____ NP We finally found the dog. [trans] GROW_____ ({AP, NP}) He grew fat. [cop] He grows roses. [trans] His influence is growing. [intrans] GIVE_____ (NP ({NP, PP})) The professor gave a lecture. [trans]

The professor gave the student a book. [ditrans] The professor gave a book to the student. [ditrans] He gives freely. [intrans] BECOME_____ {AP, NP}Moira became famous/a dean. [cop] HANG_____ (NP) (PP) He hung the door. [trans] He hung the picture on the wall. [complex trans] The curtains hang well. [intrans] The picture hangs in the gallery. [prep] CRY_____ ({NP, PP}) We all cried. [intrans]

He cried real tears. [trans] He cried for help. [prep] DIE_____ (NP) She died yesterday. [intrans] She died a rich woman. [cop] PASS_____ (NP ({NP, PP})) Pass the salt to me. [ditrans] I passed the car quickly. [trans] Time passes slowly. [intrans] SEND_____ NP ({NP, PP}) He sent his boss the report. [ditrans] Pass me the salt. [ditrans]

He sent the report to his boss. [ditrans] He sent flowers. [trans] 3. Semantic test: Is the purported indirect object animate? Yes, it is the personal pronoun "me" in each case. Syntactic test: Can "indirect object movement" be performed?

(a) (b) (c)

*Marianne returned me the book. *The library reserved me the book. *A friend lent me it for a day.

It would appear from the syntactic test that none of the sentences contains a ditransitive verb. However, we must remember that there are restrictions with indirect object movement when pronouns are involved. If we replace "me" and "it" with noun phrases, we get the following results:

(a) (b) (c)

*Marianne returned the woman the book. *The library reserved the woman the book. A friend lent the woman the book.

Therefore, we conclude that (c) contains a ditransitive verb since it meets both the semantic and the syntactic test.

4. In many, but not all, cases these sentences allows indirect object movement:

?He gave a tune-up to the engine. She gave a push to the door. We gave a ride to the hitch-hiker. Tammy didn't give a thought to her problems.

But note that the indirect object is often not animate (engine, door, problems). The direct object always expresses an event rather than an object (tune-up, push, ride, thought) and the verb + object construction is often equivalent to a simple verb identical or related in form to the direct object:

He tuned up the engine. She pushed the door. *We rode the hitch-hiker. Tammy didn't think about his problems.

These collocations have been called "complex/composite predicates". They are commonly formed with the verbs have (have a bath), take (take a walk), and make (make a decision) as well as give.

5. In the examples given, the first is ditransitive, the second is transitive, the third is transitive, and the fourth is intransitive. The second sentence would appear to have a latent object, however, since "salary" or "wages" must be understood from context. The third sentence does not appear to have a latent indirect object, since bills need not be paid to someone (though they may be). The fourth sentence does appear to have a latent object since Bert paid is not equivalent to Bert is a payer. Thus, it can be concluded that pay is monotransitive and ditransitive.

Phrasal Structure and Verb Complementation Exercise 7.5: Phrase Structure and Function 1. Label the phrasal category of each underlined phrase. Then name its function.

Example: he gave the dog a hesitant, reassuring pat (coca:mag). Answer: Category: NP Function: iO

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p)

Your article gave readers a glimpse of the truth. (coca:mag) I relied upon knowledge, imagination, observation, and visual memory. (coca:mag) Kids' shoes are a quickly expanding market. (coca:mag) For many years I taught an introductory theology course for undergraduates. (coca:mag) In a sense it was similar to e-mail today. (coca:mag) His colleagues all thought him quite mad. (coca:mag) Praise even came from the other side of the world. (coca:mag) We're more fixated on the radiant glow that moms-to-be exude. (coca:mag) It taught me 16-hour days and multitasking. (coca:mag) It was in an advanced state of disrepair, every window broken. (coca:mag) I chose him as a subject of my test. (coca:mag) They sounded hauntingly familiar to me. (coca:mag) Relativity became the paradigm of the atomic age. (coca:mag) Mary was leaning over on her elbow. (coca:mag) All of the rest of the good-paying jobs are gone. (coca:mag) The legacy built by the baby boomers is in danger. (coca:mag)

2. Identify the verb type in each sentence. Then give tree diagrams for the following sentences:

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

Those useful items are in very high demand. She followed the detailed instructions on the back of the box. We put the books with torn pages under the counter. The doctor administered the shot to the crying child. The students concentrated on the assignment for the next day's class. My aunt is quite allergic to the roses in the garden. Those other people are very distantly related to us. We went to our relatives' cabin in the mountains. The manager discounted the very slightly damaged goods. They pushed the table right up against the back wall.

Phrasal Structure and Verb Complementation Answer to Ex. 7.5: Phrase Structure and Function 1. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) 2. Category NP PP AdvP NP AP AP PP AP NP NP PP PP NP PP AP PP dO pC of V Mod of A Su sC oC Mod of N Mod of N iO OP oC pC of A sC pC of P Mod of N sC Function

Verb type: (a) copulative

(b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

(mono)transitive complex transitive complex transitive prepositional copulative copulative prepositional (mono)transitive complex transitive

The tree diagrams for (2) are given below. (a)

b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)

(j)

Adverbials, Auxiliaries, and Sentence Types Exercise 8.1: Types of Adverbials 1. Identify the adverbial(s) in each of the following sentences. Label the phrasal category and identify the type of adverbial.

Example: There's a Kid Rock concert tomorrow night in San Diego. (coca:mag)

Category Answer:

Type NP aA

tomorrow night in San Diego PP aA

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Unfortunately, Frontier got caught in those cross hairs. (coca:news) That includes, by the way, all personal pronouns and proper names. (coca:news) To my annoyance, tears came to my eyes. (coca:fic) Independence was finally brokered in 1960. (coca:acad) Finally, the festival of Holiya draws to a close with the dawn prayer. (coca:acad)

(f) A wickedly high heel is key to cranking up the sex quotient of an otherwise tame outfit. (coca:mag) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) Otherwise, all government officials would emigrate. (coca:mag) The cows might tell you otherwise. (coca:mag) I stupidly blurted a sentry's challenge. (coca:fic) It all makes me stupidly happy. (coca:mag) Stupidly, I left some bags laying next to the pack. (coca:mag)

2. Linguistic purists often argue that hopefully should not be used as in (a) but only as in (b):

(a)

Hopefully, the day will come when Turkey takes its place in the EU. (coca:acad)

(b) the kind of clinching evidence that Lowe could not uncover but that Kent hopefully anticipates finding. (coca:acad) What are the different uses exemplified above and what is the meaning of hopefully in each? How could you argue that both uses should be permissible.

Adverbials, Auxiliaries, and Sentence Types Answer to Ex. 8.1: Types of Adverbials 1. (a) (b) (c) (d) Category unfortunately AdvP by the way PP Type of Adverb dA cA PP dA

to my annoyance finally AdvP in 1960 aA PP cA

aA

(e)

finally AdvP

with the dawn prayer PP (f) wickedly otherwise (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) otherwise otherwise stupidly stupidly stupidly AdvP AdvP AdvP AdvP AdvP AdvP AdvP

aA

Mod of A high Mod of A tame cA aA aA Mod of A happy dA

2. In (a), hopefully means 'I am hopeful that' and functions as a disjunct adverbial. In (b), hopefully means 'with hope' and functions as an adjunct adverbial (a manner adverb). One could point to a number of other adverbs which have dual functions and are fully acceptable in both (for example, frankly or stupidly). Adverbials, Auxiliaries, and Sentence Types Exercise 8.2: Postverbal PPs 1. For each postverbal PP in the following sentences, name its function (pC, aA, dA, cA, iO, oC, sC, comp of A, Mod). Be sure to distinguish particles of phrasal verbs (Prt).

Example:

I gave money to refugees on September 27th

Answer:

to refugees iO

on September 27th aA (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l)

She had just opened the door for me. (coca:fic) Sometimes we work for several hours in the studio. (coca:mag) He turned a family pet into a savage predator. (coca:spok) Tony Hayward turned on the charm. (coca:mag) And I was delighted with the verdict. (coca:spok) She returned the packet of cookies to the minifridge. (coca:fic) I looked up an adoption agency in the phone book. (coca:mag) He had hoped for a position at MIT. (coca:fic) It will be in operation before the end of this year. (coca:news) They went to Portugal with three children. (coca:spok) I wrote down a very detailed account of the dream. (coca:fic) He sent a report back to the Pentagon. (coca:mag)

(m) Cinderella's stepmother likely put on a dazzling gown for the prince's ball. (coca:fic) (n) (o) My skin looks like an oil slick in the summer. (coca:mag) More and more people are becoming aware of the need for change. (coca:mag)

2. Explain the ambiguity of the following sentences. Draw generalized phrase structure trees.

(a) (b) (c)

I asked about the book in the library. We passed over the site. Verna wrote the paper for Marylou.

3. Discuss the function of up in the following sentences:

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

They were able to look up the street at the mountains above town. (coca:acad) We had just put up a trampoline in our yard. (coca:news) Up the road, we dined at Mariscos Polo, sharing fresh seafood and limonadas. (coca:mag) That's when the defense is turned up. (coca:news) Hundreds of them rose up in an agitated circular flight. (coca:news) Betsy told me you were up. (coca:fic)

Adverbials, Auxiliaries, and Sentence Types

Answer to Ex. 8.2: Postverbal PPs 1. (a) (b) for me oC for several hours in the studio (c) (d) (e) (f) aA aA

into a savage predator oC on Prt comp of A Mod of N oC (pC)

with the verdict of cookies

to the minifridge (g) up Prt

in the phone book (h) for a position pC

oC (pC)

at MIT Mod of N (i) in operation before the end of the year (j) to Portugal sC aA Mod of N pC pC

with three children (k) down Prt of the dream (l) back Prt

Mod of N

to the Pentagon (m) on Prt

oC (pC)

for the prince's ball (n) like an oil slick sC in the summer aA (o) of the need for change

aA

comp of A Mod of N

2.

(a)

3.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

up is a preposition, part of the prepositional complement up the street. up is a particle, part of the transitive phrasal verb put up. up is a preposition, part of the adjunct adverbial up a steep grade up is an particle, part of the intransitive phrasal verb turn up. up is an adjunct adverbial. up is an adjective functioning as subject complement.

Exercise 8.3: Aux 1. Give the relevant expansion of Aux for each of the following sentences. Use tree diagrams. Then describe the verb group.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)

Having younger brothers has been a positive experience for her two older sons. (coca:mag) I was being unrealistic. (coca:mag) I have been having a good deal of difficulty getting into my trousers lately. (coca:mag) I should have been eating enough protein. (coca:mag) You will be paying off this debt over 30 years. (coca:mag) You could have been playing college football. (coca:mag) I might have overlooked it, too. (coca:mag) You must be earning a certain minimum amount. (coca:mag)

(i) (j)

The competition should have been postponed. (coca:mag) A traveling edition of the exhibition is being arranged by WARP. (coca:mag)

Example: She had been visiting her sister Pearl's family in San Jose, California. (coca:mag) Answer: past perfect progressive of visit

2. In the following passage, identify one example of each of the auxiliary phrases listed below:

This book is about human language. Unlike most books with "language" in the title, it will not chide you about proper usage ... For I will be writing not about the English language or any other language, but about something much more basic: the instinct to learn, speak, and understand language. For the first time in history there is something to write about it. Some thirty-five years ago a new science was born. Now called "cognitive science" ... the science of language, in particular, has seen spectacular advances in the years since. There are many phenomena of language that we are coming to understand nearly as well as we understand how a camera works or what the spleen is for. (Pinker, 1994, p. 17)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

present modal progressive

______________________________________

present perfect _______________________________________ past passive _______________________________________ _______________________________________

present progressive

3. Using the verb sing, provide the following verb phrases:

present modal passive past modal progressive past modal perfect

_____________________________________ _____________________________________

_____________________________________ _____________________________________

present progressive passive Answer to Ex. 8.3: Aux 1. (a)

present perfect of be

(b)

past progressive of be

(c)

present perfect progressive of have

d)

past modal perfect progressive of eat

(e)

present modal progressive of pay

(f)

past modal perfect progressive of play

(g)

past modal perfect of overlooked

(h)

(past) modal progressive of earn

(i)

past modal perfect passive of postpone

j)

present progressive passive of arrange

2.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

will be writing has seen was born are coming {will, can, may, shall} be sung {would, could, might, should} be singing {has, have} sung {am, is, are} being sung

3.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Adverbials, Auxiliaries, and Sentence Types Exercise 8.4: Active, Declarative Sentences

Give tree diagrams of the following sentences using the rules that are given in the textbook. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. The very famous director will hold a private showing for us in his home tomorrow. The activists are striving for peace in the world. He put the tools in the drawer in the garage. The children stayed in the house yesterday. The corrupt official offered him money for the documents. The strong winds toppled the tree in the front yard of our house. He became a respected member of the firm. Her parents depend on her now. They considered him very lucky. He consulted with his colleagues about the plans for the party on Tuesday. The teacher reminded the students of the assignment. The musician composed the symphony in his summer house last year. Harold fought the Danes successfully in the north in September. We made him spokesperson of our group before the meeting. She touched him on the shoulder lightly. The workmen are looking into the problem with the lights. He ran after dinner. He ran after the thief. The papers belong in the top drawer. They worked in the garden today.

Answer to Ex. 8.4: Active, Declarative Sentences

1.

2.

The first tree represents the interpretation: 'he put the tools in the drawer which is in the garage'. The second (generalized) tree represents the interpretation: 'he put the tools which are in the drawer in the garage'. The third (generalized) tree represents the interpretation: 'while (standing) in the garage, he put the tools in the drawer'.

4.

5.

10

OR

The first tree represents the interpretation: 'he consulted with his colleagues about the plans for Tuesday's party'. The second (partial) tree represents the interpretation: 'on Tuesday, he consulted with his colleagues about the plans for (some other day's) party'

11

12

13

14

15

16

The first tree represents the interpretation: 'the workmen are looking into the problem which concerns the lights'. The second (partial, generalized) tree represents the interpretation: 'using lights, the workmen are looking into some problem'.

17

18

19

20

Adverbials, Auxiliaries, and Sentence Types Exercise 8.5: Passive Sentences 1. Give tree diagrams of the Dstructures for the following sentences. Assume that D structure strings are active, not passive.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

The editor was handed the article by the reporter. A bottle was thrown at the umpire by a fan after the game. Drugs are sold to some students by pushers. He had been offered an ambassadorship by the prime minister before the election. Those women may have been asked the questions by the interviewer. The report on the budget was handed to the committee before the meeting. The student should have been given encouragement concerning his work. The university library was given the entire collection. This car must have been serviced by the manufacturer before shipment. Fortunately, the sinking ship's signals of distress were picked up by a passing ship.

2. Explain why each of the following sentences cannot be passivized. What type of verb does each contain?

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Clyde is standing on a ladder. The bedrooms are upstairs. My neighbors own a cabin on an island. She left this morning. Phyllis is becoming an airplane pilot.

(f)

We hiked ten miles yesterday.

3. It might be possible to account for passive sentences without invoking the concept of a transformation. A passive sentence such as Clara was addressed by James is structurally very similar to a stative sentence such as Rita was angry at Rudolph or Rita was amazed at/by Rudolph. Note that in the last sentence a past participle (amazed) is functioning as an adjective. Thus all three might be seen as having the structure V AP PP.

There is a good argument for not doing so, however, because of the ambiguity of a sentence such as The food was frozen yesterday. Remember that a structurally ambiguous sentence must have two Dstructures (each of which is unambiguous). The reading (a) 'The food was in a frozen state yesterday' does indeed have the Dstructure V AP AdvP, but the other reading (b) 'Someone froze the food yesterday' must be analyzed as a passive with an active Dstructure. The Dstructures for the two readings are shown below:

Via the passive transformation, the second sentence arrives at the same structure as the first. (In some languages, such as German, the two readings are distinguished by the use of different auxiliaries: the first uses the verb 'to be' and the second uses the verb 'to become'.)

Therefore, it seems preferable to derive surface passive sentences from Dstructure active sentences.

Explain the ambiguity of The house was sold on Friday. Use generalized phrase structure trees.

Answer to Ex. 8.5: Passive Sentences 1. (a

1.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f) (f)

(g)

(h

(i)

(j)

2. (a) The verb is prepositional-locative. Generally only nonlocative prepositional verbs can be passivized. (b) object. (c) (d) (e) a direct object. (f) The verb is intransitive, and ten miles is adverbial. The verb is stative; hence my neighbors are not agents. The verb is intransitive. This morning is adverbial. The verb is copulative, with an airplane pilot being a subject complement, not The verb is copulative, with upstairs being a subject complement, not a direct

3. Either 'the house is in a sold state on Friday (having been sold sometime earlier)' or 'the house underwent a sale on Friday'. The first is stative (see a) and the second is an agentless passive, with the Dstructure shown in (b), which then undergoes a passive transformation.

Adverbials, Auxiliaries, and Sentence Types Exercise 8.6: Questions and Negative Sentences Give tree diagrams of the Dstructures for the following sentences. Assume that D structure strings are positive, active, and declarative, and that the dummy auxiliary do is added later.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. soon?

Should Canada sell Russia some wheat this year? Are faculty trusted by the students? Do you agree with the president? Does the university grant students fellowships? Didn't he tell his colleagues the news? He wasn't sad about the news. Is she being interviewed tonight on the evening news? Could you have answered the questions at the end of the chapter? Isn't the government changing those rather outdated and complicated regulations

Example: Hasn't the bridge been repaired since the earthquake?

(Hint: You should begin by making the sentence nonnegative, nonpassive, and noninterrogative.)

Answer:

1.

Exercise 8.7: Tag Questions and Imperatives 1. Below are two sentences which look very much like imperatives. Using the tests discussed in the text - the reflexive test and the tag questions test - determine whether they are or not.

Damn him.

Bless you.

Can you think of other sentences of this type?

2. If auxiliary have and be cannot occur in the imperative, explain why the following sentences, which seem to contain the perfect and passive auxiliaries, are fully acceptable in the imperative:

Have your work done by the time I get back! Be dressed by the time I get back! Answer to Ex. 8.7: Tag Questions and Imperatives 1. The reflexive test shows us that although you can find the reflexive form yourself, as in Bless yourself, you can also find the nonreflexive form you, as in Bless you, and these two structures have very different meanings. As is the case with true imperatives, other pronominal forms can occur (Bless {him, her, us}) and non 2nd p. reflexives cannot occur (*Bless {himself, herself}). A tag question test can be appended in one of the meanings (Bless him, won't you) but not in the other. We must conclude that there are two different structures here. The one that takes yourself and permits tags is a true imperative. The one that permits you and does not allow a tag is an old subjunctive form, meaning 'May God bless you'. Note the difference below:

Bless yourself in the chapel. *Bless you in the chapel.

Both the true imperative and the old subjunctive permit other pronoun forms (e.g., Bless them), but have quite different meanings.

2. These are actually main verb instances of have and be followed by participles functioning as adjectives. Furthermore, have and be have nonstative meaning here ('do such things so that you will {have the work done, be dressed} by the time I get back').

Finite and Nonfinite Clauses Exercise 9.1: That-Clauses 1. Give generalized tree diagrams for sentences 3 through 6 in Table 9.1 in the text.

(3) (4) (5) (6)

He told his mother that coffee grows in Brazil. My understanding is that coffee grows in Brazil. He is certain that coffee grows in Brazil. His claim that coffee grows in Brazil is correct.

2. Bracket the that-clause in each of the following and identify its function (Su, sC, dO, comp of A, comp of , or eSu).

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

The employee complaint that triggered the investigation was retracted. (coca:news) That he is gone seems unnatural. (coca:fic) My guess is that he has a plan. (coca:news) It was apparent that the waiters know the kitchen and the wine list. (coca:news) She is confident that the Sioux will one day own the Black Hills again. (coca:news) We know it's created a tremendous amount of fear. (coca:news) We were just happy he didn't get in. (coca:news) The news that others are finding similar data is extremely exciting. (coca:mag) The blast of heat told her that the lightning had struck nearby. (coca:fic) It was outrageous that they e-mailed those things here. (coca:spok)

Answer to Ex. 9.1: That Clauses

1.

(3)

1 (4)

1 (5)

1 (6)

2.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

that triggered the investigation That he is gone that he has a plan Su sC

comp of N

that the waiters know the kitchen and the wine list that the Sioux will one day own the Black Hills again it's created a tremendous amount of fear he didn't get in comp of A comp of N dO eSu dO

eSu comp of A

that others are finding similar data that the lightning had struck nearby that they e-mailed those things here

Exercise 9.2: Nominal and Adverbial Clauses 1. Give Dstructure trees for the following sentences.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) thirty. (f) the office. (g) (h) one. (i) (j) (k) (l)

That Nestor made that mistake is rather worrying. It is rather unlikely that he will propose to her soon. I hope they will visit me when I am in hospital. Claude thinks that Stan and Louise would make a nice couple. My brother said that the man became a millionaire before he reached the age of

The manager locked the safe because he was concerned that someone might enter

Although the economy is improving, it is not clear that we will see growth this year. His opinion is that you should take another course after you have completed this

Unfortunately, we can't have our picnic if it rains tomorrow. He said he knew before he had completed the deal that he would be cheated. It is obvious to everyone that he has been telling the prosecutors lies. Can the absurd rumor that he will resign be true?

(m) Did he tell the premier that he shouldn't be nervous about the disclosures? (n) (o) (p) (q) (r) Could the professor have said that the essay by Swift was ironic? He was upset by the announcement that the plane would be delayed. I will explain it to him that honest politicians are a rarity. Sherrill spread the news around the department that Sarah likes tofu. The owner said that you should use extreme caution when approaching the dog.

2. Explicate the two readings of the following sentence and then give Dstructures to disambiguate the "squinting modifier":

She said when she was with him she was happy.

Answer to Ex. 9.2: Nominal and Adverbial Clauses

1.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)

(j)

(k)

(l)

(m)

(n)

(o)

(p)

(q)

(r)

2. (a) being with him and being happy cooccur: She said that when she was with him she was happy. The adverbial clause when she was with him is fronted.

b) saying and being with him cooccur: She said when she was with him that she was happy. The that-clause she was happy is moved to the right.

b) saying and being with him cooccur: She said when she was with him that she was happy. The that-clause she was happy is moved to the right.

Exercise 9.3: Wh-Questions 1. For the following wh-questions, indicate the extraction site of the wh-word or phrase and specify its type and function.

Example: Answer:

What do they know about their mom's mysterious disappearance? (coca:spok) What do they know [t] about their mom's mysterious disappearance?

Type: interrogative pronoun Function: dO (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) When did you realize that you were very sexy? (coca:spok) What song made the greatest impression on you? (coca:spok) How soon can you be here? (coca:spok) Where did you learn English? (coca:fic) What did you say your name was? (coca:fic) What happened to the weapons of mass destruction? (coca:spok) Whom does Ms. Dickson find exciting? (coca:news) Who did you introduce him to? (coca:spok) Which one have you mastered? (coca:mag) How many lawyers does he have in Aruba? (coca:spok) Why is it recommended that arthritis sufferers exercise? (coca:acad) How did they imagine that an eleven-year-old would amuse herself? (coca:fic)

2. Explain the ambiguity of the following sentence and give generalized Dstructure trees for the two readings: Why did Ruth say she likes fondue?

Answer to Ex. 9.3: Wh-Questions 1. (a) When did you realize [t] that you were very sexy? Type: interrogative adverb Function: aA (b) What song [t] made the greatest impression on you? Type: interrogative determiner Function: specifier of N song (what song is Su) (c) How soon can you be here [t]? Type: interrogative degree word Function: specifier of Adv soon (how soon is aA) (d) Where did you learn English [t]? Type: interrogative adverb Function: aA

(e)

What did you say your name was [t]? Type: interrogative pronoun Function: sC

(f)

What [t] happened to the weapons of mass destruction? Type: interrogative pronoun Function: Su

(g)

Whom does Ms. Dickson find [t] exciting? Type: interrogative pronoun Function: dO

(h)

Who did you introduce him to [t]? Type: interrogative pronoun Function: OP

(i)

Which one have you mastered [t]? Type: interrogative determiner Function: specifier of N one (which one is dO)

(j)

How many lawyers does he have [t] in Aruba? Type: interrogative degree word Function: specifier of A many (how many lawyers is dO)

(k)

Why is it recommended [t] that arthritis sufferers exercise? Type: interrogative adverb Function: aA

(l)

How did they imagine that an eleven-year-old would amuse herself [t]? Type: interrogative adverb Function: aA

(This sentence is ambiguous: it is either "how did they imagine" or "how would an eleven-year-old amuse herself"; that is, how modifies either the verb in the higher S (how imagine) or it modifies the verb in the lower S (how amuse).) 2. (a) Why may be a modifier of say, that is, sister of the V 'say that she likes fondue'.

b) Alternatively, why may be a modifier of like, that is, sister of the V 'likes fondue

Exercise 9.4: Relative Clauses 1. Determine the type of relative clause (restrictive relative, nonrestrictive relative, free (headless) relative, indefinite relative, sentential relative) in each of the following:

(a) There was a huge whirlpool tub and a sauna shower, both of which we used multiple times a day. (coca:mag) (b) (c) (d) (e) We are all in support of whoever is on. (coca:news) Anyone who doesn't get bored in an audition is a liar. (coca:news) I felt happy with what I had done and accomplished. (coca:news) The waiter brought us the bill, which surprised me. (coca:fic)

(f) Even in a place like Seattle, which is not known for sunny weather, overexposure to UV rays can pose a potentially life-threatening danger. (coca:mag) (g) But probably they have no attachments, which helps. (coca:fic)

(h)

What she really wanted was to take ballet lessons. (coca:fic)

(i) The meals which formerly he forgot, or ate absentmindedly, now claimed his attention. (coca:fic) (j) Whoever dominates the line of scrimmage will win the game. (coca:news)

2. In the following relative clauses, indicate the extraction site of the wh-word or phrase and specify its type and function (use the model of question 1 in Exercise 9.3).

(a)

It was my mother who kept the reins on our family finances. (coca:fic)

(b) Qualified dividends, which include most dividends from stocks, are taxed at 15 percent. (coca:news) (c) (d) (e) (f) Five minutes passed, during which neither the woman nor the student returned. (coca:fic) The dining room is the reason why we bought the home. (coca:news) He quit one day when his parking pass was revoked. (coca:news) The store had an employee whose job was to deal just with celebrities. (coca:news)

(g) My other obsession was Woody Allen, whom I saw from time to time speed walking on Fifth Avenue. (coca:acad) (h) (i) (j) That's the only part of the book that Ron is in. (coca:spok) The party we were planning is off. (coca:spok) The building where Seamus lived was silent and dark. (coca:fic)

3. Explain the ambiguity of the following sentence and draw generalized Dstructure trees for the two readings:

The fact that I heard disturbed me.

Answer to Ex. 9.4: Relative Clauses 1. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) nonrestrictive indefinite restrictive headless sentential nonrestrictive sentential headless restrictive indefinite

2.

(a)

It was my mother who [t] kept the reins on our family finances. Type: relative pronoun Function: Su

(b) percent.

Qualified dividends, which [t] include most dividends from stocks, are taxed at 15

Type: relative pronoun Function: Su (c) Five minutes passed, during which neither the woman nor the student returned [t]. Type: relative pronoun Function: oP (d) The dining room is the reason why we bought the home [t]. Type: relative adverb Function: aA (e) He quit one day when his parking pass was revoked [t]. Type: relative adverb Function: aA (f) The store had an employee whose job [t] was to deal just with celebrities. Type: relative determiner Function: specifier of N job (whose job is Su) (g) My other obsession was Woody Allen, whom I saw [t] from time to time speed walking on Fifth Avenue. Type: relative pronoun Function: dO (h) That's the only part of the book that Ron is in [t]. Type: relative pronoun Function: OP (i) The party we were planning [t] is off. Type: (relative pronoun) Function: dO (j) The building where Seamus lived [t] was silent and dark. Type: relative adverb Function: pC (complement of V lived) 3. (a) that-clause: my hearing it was disturbing (that I heard was disturbing)

(b)

relative clause: the fact was disturbing (I heard the fact)

Exercise 9.5: Wh-Clauses 1. Bracket the wh-clause in each case, and identify the type and function of the clause.

Example: And girls have the additional pressure of their appearance, which boys suffer from less than girls (coca:spok) Answer: which boys suffer from less than girls.

Type: nonrestrictive relative Function: Mod of their appearance (a) The plaintiffs' lawyers questioned them about how well they've kept those promises (coca:spok)

(b)

There came a time when I stopped trying. (coca:news)

(c) A century ago a physicist named Enrico Fermi wondered why there were no obvious aliens around. (coca:fic) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) My question is why they didn't shut down the campus. (coca:spol) He was a person to whom other people gravitated. (coca:spok) He works very hard at whatever he does. (coca:news) My favorite is skiing to places where hardly anyone else goes. (coca:news) What you eat now will affect you as you head into your 40s and 50s. (coca:mag)

(i) Light aircraft carry us over Olduvai Gorge, where the archaeologists Louis and Mary Leakey worked for decades. (coca:acad) (j) I posted an ad on-line that I thought was quite creative. (coca:mag)

2. Name the type of the underlined complementizer. If the complementizer is base-generated in Comp, call it a "pure complementizer".

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l)

I don't know whose fault it is. (coca:spok) I came with a sushi-loving friend whose mother is Japanese. (coca:news) Sigmund Freud could have explained what he was doing. (coca:fic) I worry about whether we'll fall out of love. (coca:fic) I don't know how quickly we can change cooking habits here. (coca:mag) A house where they could relax on weekends was their goal. (coca:mag) I'm sure they were glad when I left. (coca:news) Whenever I sense I'm in danger my ear throbs. (coca:spok) Do you know which bus we take? (coca:spok) Ask your best friend on which day of the week she or he was born. (coca:acad) How do you spend your days off? (coca:news) Writers inevitably write what they know. (coca:acad)

3. Give Dstructure trees for the following sentences.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

Why wasn't Edward happy with his paycheck? What did you listen to on the weekend? Which government official was handed a note by the terrorists? How quickly could you type this letter for me? What did Norman say he would be putting in the mail today? You should consult a book which could give you the answers to those questions.

(g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l)

I was amused by the stories that Alf told me last night. I must sell my car, which my parents gave me when I graduated. This is the time during term when students are most frantic. The man we have been waiting for has arrived. I met the woman whose house I am renting. I am sure that he will tell you what he knows.

(m) I asked whether the rumor that Elvis was alive was true. (n) (o) (p) He answered my question about who was responsible. He doesn't recall when Susan said she was leaving for Europe. Do you remember whether it is important that we know the material in the textbook?

Answer to Ex. 9.5: Wh-Clauses 1. (a) how well they've kept those promises Type: indirect question (b) when I stopped trying Type: restrictive relative (c) Function: Mod of time Function: OP

why there were no obvious aliens around Type: indirect question Function: dO

(d)

why they didn't shut down the campus Type: indirect question Function: sC

(e)

to whom other people gravitated Type: restrictive relative Function: Mod of person

(f)

whatever he does Type: indefinite relative Function: OP

(g)

where hardly anyone else goes Type: restrictive relative Function: Mod of places

(h)

What you eat now will affect you as you head into your 40s and 50s. Type: headless relative Function: Su

(i)

where the archaeologists Louis and Mary Leakey worked for decades Type: nonrestrictive relative Function: Mod of Olduvai Gorge

(j)

that I thought was quite creative Type: restrictive relative restrictive relative

2.

(a) (b)

interrogative determiner relative determiner

(c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l)

relative pronoun pure complementizer interrogative degree word relative adverb pure complementizer pure complementizer interrogative determiner relative adverb interrogative adverb relative pronoun

3.

(a) a

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

g h

o The sentence has a second reading. Can you give the tree for it?

Exercise 9.6: The Form of Nonfinite Clauses 1. Give Dstructure trees for the nonfinite Aux + V in the following sentences (but do not change passive to active).

(a) (b) (c)

Williams continued driving to the corner. (coca:news) Mr. Shapiro clearly wants to be running this defense team. (coca:spok) Julie admits having stolen her father's money. (coca:fic)

(d) Having been elected as a champion of the "forgotten middle class", Clinton will immediately bump up against unpleasant realities. (coca:news) (e) I don't recall having asked for you, Peter! (coca:fic)

(f) One of them even reported his having been seen off the coast of the British Zone on a red yacht. (coca:acad) (g) I much preferred to be thought of as a stylish dowager. (coca:fic)

(h) (i) (j) (k) (l)

He'd never before heard her say anything remotely like okey-dokey. (coca:fic) All the birds seem to have disappeared from the city. (coca:fic) New York City's budget crisis appeared to have been settled. (coca:news) The young star wanted to strike out on his own. (coca:mag) Removed from the ocean, Sarbin's slick skin would quickly dry out and crack. (coca:fic)

. Draw Dstructure trees for the embedded s in each of the following (but do not change passive to active). For each PRO, say whether it is controlled or indefinite; if controlled, say what in the matrix clause controls it.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

I asked my professor what books to read for the course. I was sad to have been ignored by my friend. Coconuts are difficult to crack open. We enjoyed the music performed in the park last night. The trick is how to install the software. Some tablets written in cuneiform were found in Turkey. He didn't know whether to be included in the project. This sentence is easy to parse. We found that program very enjoyable to watch. Mountain climbing is a dangerous sport for Robert to take up.

Answer to Ex. 9.6: The Form of Nonfinite Clauses 1-a

2 asubject PRO controlled by subject of matrix clause

(b)

subject PRO controlled by subject of matrix clause

(c)

indefinite subject PRO object PRO controlled by subject of matrix clause

(d)

subject PRO controlled by object of matrix clause

(e)

indefinite subject PRO

(f)

subject PRO controlled by subject of matrix clause

g)

subject PRO controlled by subject of matrix clause

(h)

indefinite subject PRO object PRO controlled by subject of matrix clause

(i)

subject PRO controlled by subject of matrix clause object PRO controlled by object of matrix clause

(j)

object PRO controlled by subject of matrix clause

1. Identify the type and function of each nonfinite clause.

Example: Answer:

I plan to make some Mint Juleps. (coca:news) to make some Mint Juleps

Type: to-infinitive Function: dO (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) There was still one last task for him to achieve. (coca:fic) Anderson and his son had often talked about hiking to Shoshone Lake. (coca:mag) We've had to hire people to answer the phones. (coca:spok) My parents asked me where to eat lunch. (coca:fic) The patient had earlier denied having been bitten or scratched by a cat. (coca:acad) A bank employee loudly turned down her application to open an account. (coca:mag) Worried about his future, he went to college. (coca:mag) Judging from the online photos, the place looked adorable. (coca:mag) He asked her what made her think she could paint. (coca:fic) Yet he remained committed to Irish republicanism. (coca:fic) We think that's not the best idea, to raffle off guns. (coca:news) Half the money spent on a political campaign is wasted. (coca:spok)

(m) Having been founded by the Saracens in the ninth century, Nettuno still attracts tourists. (coca:mag) (n) Consumed by a sudden curiosity, Buridan follows. (coca:fic)

(o)

It's hard to know where to draw the line. (coca:mag)

2. Determine whether the matrix verb in each of the following sentences belongs to the expect-type, the want-type, or the persuade-type class of verbs.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i)

Our parents helped us pay for school. (coca:news) He intends it to stand on its own. (coca:acad) So students got the media involved. (coca:mag) Her steady gaze almost compelled him to apologize. (coca:fic) I quickly found myself caught up in the fraternity rush. (coca:mag) She overheard them arguing a few nights ago. (coca:news) They also watched her park her car in the tiny lot outside. (coca:news) He got me to shoot it a few times. (coca:fic) I just want to urge you to keep your spirits up. (coca:spok)

3. Identify the function of the italicized nonfinite clause in each sentence. Then give a D-structure tree for the entire sentence.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l)

He is anxious to be getting away. I was surprised at Sid's criticizing my work. For them to lose their son was a great tragedy. Do we have the money to buy that car? We were pleased to be seeing our old friends. It is very tedious writing papers. He has been warned about taking on that job. I will write the manager to get my money back. Where is the best place to buy fish? We regretted his decision to leave university. We were not able to get away until now. Anyone not registered in this course must leave.

(m) To tell you the truth, I don't know. (n) (o) He is the person wanting to see you. Wanting to see him, I visited his office.

Answer to Ex. 9.7: The Function of Nonfinite Clauses 1. (a) There was still one last task for him to achieve. Type: for-infinitive Function: Mod of task

(b)

hiking to Shoshone Lake Type: -ing participle Function: OP

(c)

to answer the phones Type: to-Infinitive Function: Mod of people

(d)

where to eat lunch Type: wh-infinitive Function: dO

(e)

having been bitten or scratched by a cat Type: -ing participle Function: dO

(f)

to open an account Type: to-infinitive Function: comp of N (her application)

(g)

Worried about his future Type: -en participle Function: aA

(h)

Judging from the online photos Type: -ing participle Function: dA

(i)

think she could paint Type: bare infinitive Function: oC

(j)

committed to Irish republicanism Type: -en participle Function: sC

(k)

to raffle off guns Type: to-infinitive Function: comp to N (the best idea)

(l)

spent on a political campaign Type: -en participle Function: Mod of money

(m)

Having been founded by the Saracens in the ninth century Type: -ing participle Function: Mod of Nettuno

(n)

Consumed by a sudden curiosity Type: -en participle Function: aA (or Mod of Buridan)

(o)

to know Type: to-infinitive where to draw the line Type: wh-infinitive Function: dO Function: eSu

2.

expect-type: (a), (e), (f) want-type: (b), (c), (g) persuade-type: (d), (h), (i)

3.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)

complement of A object of P subject (k) modifier of N (j)

(i)

modifier of N

complement of N

complement of A (l) modifier of N (m) (n) disjunct adverbial modifier of N

complement of A extraposed subject object of P (o)

adjunct adverbial

adjunct adverbial

Exercise 9.8: Finite and Nonfinite Clauses in a Prose Passage In the following prose passage from the conclusion of George Orwell's "Why I Write" (1946: 316), identify the form and function of all finite and nonfinite clauses:

Looking back through the last page or two, I see that I have made it appear as though my motives in writing were wholly public-spirited. I don't want to leave that as the final impression. All writers are vain, selfish and lazy, and at the very bottom of their motives there lies a mystery. Writing a book is a horrible, exhausting struggle, like a long bout of some painful illness. One would never undertake such a thing if one were not driven on by some demon whom one can neither resist nor understand. For all one knows that demon is simply the same instinct that makes a baby squall for attention. And yet it is also true that one can write nothing readable unless one constantly struggles to efface one's own personality. Good prose is like a window pane. I cannot say with certainty which of my motives are the strongest, but I know which of them deserve to be followed. And looking back through my work, I see that it is invariably where I lacked a political purpose that I wrote lifeless books and was betrayed into purple passages, sentences without meaning, decorative adjectives and humbug generally.

Answer to Ex. 9.8: Finite and Nonfinite Clauses in a Prose Passage looking back ... that I have made ... appear Form: -ing participle Form: that-clause Function: Mod of I Function: dO

Form: bare infinitive

Function: oC

as though my motives ... to leave that ...

Form: adverbial clause Function: aA Function: dO

Form: to-infinitive

writing a book Form: -ing participle if one were not driven ... whom one can ... one knows

Function: Su

Form: adverbial clause Function: aA Function: Mod of demon

Form: relative clause

Form: relative clause

Function: Mod of all Function: Mod of instinct Function: eSu

that makes a baby ... that one can write ...

Form: relative clause Form: that-clause

unless one constantly ...

Form: adverbial clause Function: aA Function: aA Function: dO Function: dO

to efface one's own ... Form: to-infinitive which of my motives ... which of them deserve ...

Form: free relative Form: free relative Function: dO

to be followed Form: to-infinitive looking back ...

Form: -ing participle

Function: Mod of I

that it is invariably ... where I lacked ...

Form: that-clause

Function: dO

Form: adverbial clause Function: aA Function: sC

that I wrote lifeless ... Form: that-clause

Sentence Semantics

Exercise 10.1: Propositional Analysis 1. Give propositional analyses of the following sentences, ignoring adverbials and other optional modifiers.

Example: Answer:

After a long trial, the court sentenced him to three years. arguments: the court, him, three years

predicate: sentence to (3-place) (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) The fair will last a week. Last week, his house burned down. Carolyn threw the ball into the garden. Carolyn threw the ball in the garden. The committee is aware of the problem. There are three food outlets on campus. It's very foggy. Two police officers are in the bank. The victim is finally conscious. Shirley is the new dean. He was afraid of snakes when young. We contributed our time for the cause. She swam from one side of the pool to the other. My brother resembled me as a child.

2. When there is a dependent nominal clause, the entire clause itself a proposition serves as an argument of the upper proposition. The dependent clause is further analyzed into a predicate and argument(s), as in the sentence Ian hopes that the baby is sleeping or Ian is glad that the baby is sleeping

The following sentences would have a structure similar to that given above: Ian asked if the baby was sleeping, Ian expects the baby to wake up, The baby's waking up cut short my reading, I watched Ian diapering the baby (try drawing trees for these). When there is a dependent adverbial clause, the complementizer is the predicate, with the rest of the dependent clause one argument, and the main clause a second argument, as in the sentence After Stone arrived, the party began:

Give propositional analyses for the following complex sentences, working from the main proposition to the embedded proposition.

Example: Answer:

I hope that Ken succeeds. S1: arguments: I, S2 predicate: hope

S2: arguments: Ken predicate: succeed (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) John promised to be silent. Frank asked me whether Clara had returned. Bill forced him to withdraw from the competition. Chrissy's smoking bothers me. Herbert plans to visit England. The clerk told me to fill out the forms. It is best to do it yourself. It is impossible for me to find a nanny.

3. In a sentence such as Patsy is knitting a sweater in the living room, the adverbial preposition is itself analyzed as a predicate, its complement (or object) as one argument and the rest of the clause as another argument

This sentence is paraphrasable as 'It is in the living room that Patsy is knitting the sweater'. A preposition, like a verb, sets into relation elements within a sentence.

Draw propositional trees for the following sentences:

(a) (b)

I am going away on the weekend. After I finish, I will help you

Answer to Ex. 10.1: Propositional Analysis 1. (a) arguments: the fair, a week predicate: last (2-place) (b) arguments: his house predicate: burn down (1-place) (c) arguments: Carolyn, the ball, the garden predicate: throw into (3-place) (d) arguments: Carolyn, the ball predicate: throw (2-place) (e) arguments: the committee, the problem predicate: be aware of (2-place) (f) arguments: three food outlets predicate: be (1-place) (g) arguments: predicate: be foggy (-place) (h) arguments: two police officers, bank predicate: be in (2-place) (i) arguments: the victim

predicate: be conscious (1-place) (j) arguments: Shirley, the new dean predicate: be (2-place) (k) arguments: he, snakes predicate: be afraid of (2-place) (l) arguments: we, our time, the cause predicate: contribute for (3-place) (m) arguments: she, one side of the pool, the other predicate: swim from to (3-place) (n) arguments: my brother, me predicate: resemble (2-place) 2. (a) S1: arguments: John, S2 predicate: promise

S2: arguments: John predicate: be silent (b)

S1: arguments: Frank, me S2 predicate: ask

S2: arguments: Clara predicate: return (c)

S1: arguments: Bill, him, S2

S2: arguments: he, competition predicate: force predicate: withdraw from (d) S1: arguments: S2, me

S2: arguments: Chrissy predicate: bother predicate: smoke (e) S1: arguments: Herbert, S2 predicate: plan

S2: arguments: Herbert, England predicate: visit (f)

S1: arguments: the clerk, me, S2 predicate: tell

S2: arguments: I, the form predicate: fill out (g)

S1: arguments: S2

S2: arguments: (you), it predicate: be best predicate: do (h) S1: arguments: S2

S2: arguments: me, a nanny predicate: find

predicate: be impossible

3a

Exercise 10.2: Thematic Roles 1. Identify the thematic role(s) of each of the underlined expressions in the following sentences. Note any dual roles.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l)

We persuaded Mary to apply for the job as bus driver. He supplied the reporters with information. Earle has been earning money through his poetry. We were playing a game of monopoly for relaxation. Angela was reading stories to the children this morning. The police suspected him of committing the crime. The climber finally reached the summit of the mountain. The captain of the swim team swam 20 laps. I checked a book out of the library yesterday. We had to carry the couch up three flights of stairs to Jerry's apartment. The accountant made a mistake in the calculations. Jane envies my success.

(m) I saw Margaret's friend at the party. (n) He lent his friend some money.

(o) (p) (q) (r) (s) (t) (u) (v)

The news about Jesse consoled me. He visited California before his marriage. He is lifting weights for his health. The hurricane destroyed the house. His cleverness never ceases to amaze me. The coach had the player fumble the ball. A virus got into the computer. The trees lost their leaves.

(w) A blood clot killed the patient. (x) (y) (z) They filled the pool with water. Father wrote a check for me. This shoe hurts my foot.

2. Give an active (not passive) sentence where the verb burn occurs with a subject which is:

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Agent Patient Instrument Force Neutral

Label the thematic roles of the accompanying arguments. Then write a thematic grid for burn.

3. Given the following sentences, write a thematic grid for the verb smell.

The room smelled musty. I smelled the fragrance of flowers in the air. Will you smell the milk to see if it is sour? The clothes smelled fresh. 4. Which of the following sentences has the implication of 'total affectedness' or 'completeness'? Explain using the notion of thematic roles. What test might you use to make your determination?

I showed the problem to Michael. I showed Michael the problem. 5. Sort the following verbs into three types based on the thematic roles that they assign. Give a thematic role grid for each type.

heal pass donate depart

soothe escape

approach contribute reach beat up waken console supply deliver

bequeath

(Hint: One type has So/Ag as subject; one type has So/Th as subject, and one type has Ag as subject.) Answer to Ex. 10.2: Thematic Roles 1. (a) we Mary the job bus driver (b) He Agent Theme/Agent Goal Role

Agent/Source Agent Source Agent Goal Agent Range or Factitive Factitive or Goal Goal/Theme Neutral

the reporters information (c) Earle money poetry (d) We

a game of monopoly relaxation (e) Angela stories the children this morning (f) The police him Theme

Goal Location Experiencer

Source/Agent Factitive Agent/Theme Goal Location Role/Agent

the crime (g) The climber the summit

the mountain (h) The captain

20 laps (i) I

Range

Agent/Goal Theme Agent Theme Path or Range Source Location

a book the library yesterday (j) We

the couch

three flights of stairs Jerry's apartment (k) The accountant a mistake the calculations (l) Jane my success (m) I

Possessor Goal Role

Factitive Range

Experiencer Possessor Source

Experiencer Neutral Location Possessor

Margaret's friend the party (n) He

Agent/Source Goal/Theme Range Experiencer Agent Location Location Neutral Source

friend some money (o) The news Jesse me (p) He

California marriage (q) He

Agent/Patient Goal Force Patient

health (r)

The hurricane the house

(s)

His

Possessor Source

cleverness me (t)

Experiencer Force Goal Source Agent/Role Theme/Agent Theme

The coach the player the ball

(u)

A virus

the computer (v) The trees leaves (w) A blood clot the patient (x) They Theme Agent Theme Agent

Force Patient

the pool water (y) Father a check me (z)

Location/Patient

Factitive or Patient

Benefactive or Goal (ambiguous) Patient Instrument

This shoe foot

2.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Agent: Hannah (Agent) burned the leaves (Patient). Patient: The leaves (Patient) burned. Instrument: The iron (Instrument) burned his hand (Patient). Force: The wind (Force) burned her face (Patient). Neutral: Paper (Neutral) burns easily. thematic grid: Patient or Neutral + (Agent (Instrument) or Force)

3.

The room (Location) smelled musty. I (Experiencer) smelled the fragrance of flowers (Neutral) in the air. Will you (Agent) smell the milk (Goal) to see if it is sour? The clothes (Neutral) smelled fresh. thematic grid: Location or Neutral or Goal + (Experiencer or Agent)

4. The second sentence I showed Michael the problem has the implication of completeness since "Michael" occupies the position immediately following the verb and thus has the role of Theme as well as that of Goal. Note that while it is possible to say I showed the problem to Michael, but he

didn't see it, it is odd to say I showed Michael the problem, but he didn't see it, since this second sentence implies that "Michael" has been completely affected by the action. 5. Type A:So/Ag + Th + Go supply deliver contribute bequeath donate heal beat up soothe waken console depart escape reach approach pass Type B:Ag + Pa or Ex Type C:Ag/Th + So or Go

Exercise 10.3: Predication Analysis 1. Using the features DO, CAUSE, COME, COINCIDE, NEG, and any necessary state verbs, analyze the following predicates.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l)

Ralph silenced the children. The sunlight warmed the room. Because of the upcoming examination, the student didn't stay calm. Despite the approaching storm, the water remained calm. A bottle floated to shore. Jane floated to the side of the pool. Lars waxed his skis. The tree shades the garden. The film depressed Nat. The fire burned all the company's records. We store our boat in the shed. Sharon wrung the water out of the clothes.

(m) The snake shed its skin. (n) (o) (p) (q) (r) (s) (t) I didn't learn his name. I didn't forget his name. I didn't remember his name. We entered the auditorium. She entered university. The news alarmed us. The bouncer shoved the patron outside.

(u) (v)

The children pinned the tail on the donkey. He bicycled to town.

(w) Marny didn't put the car in the garage. (x) (y) (z) We are converting the garage into a den. The recent rains flooded our basement. The delay prevented him from getting home for Christmas.

2. Explain the different uses of the verb drop using predication analysis and thematic roles of subject and object, if relevant.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i)

When shot, he dropped to the ground. He dropped to the ground when he heard gunfire. I dropped the noodles into the boiling water. I dropped my favorite vase. The apples dropped from the tree. The sick plant dropped all its leaves. The swing dropped to the ground. She dropped the fish into the tank. The slippery soap dropped from my hands into the bathtub.

3. Explain the differences between sentences such as those found in the sets below:

(a)

She bakes bread.

She baked the bread. (b) He drives a race car.

He drove a race car. 4. For the verbs expressing sitting, lying, falling, and rising, state the ingressive form, the causative form, and the stative form in each case. Answer to Ex. 10.3: Predication Analysis 1. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) Ralph DO CAUSE the children COME BE silent The sunlight CAUSE the room COME BE warm the student COME NEG BE calm the water NEG COME NEG BE calm A bottle COME COINCIDE shore Jane (DO CAUSE) herself COME COINCIDE the side of the pool Lars DO CAUSE wax COME COINCIDE his skis

OR Lars DO CAUSE his skis COME BE waxed (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) The tree CAUSE the shade COME COINCIDE the garden The film CAUSE Nat COME BE depressed The fire CAUSE the company's records COME BE burned We DO CAUSE NEG COME NEG our boat COINCIDE the shed Sharon DO CAUSE the water COME NEG COINCIDE the clothes The snake COME NEG COINCIDE its skin I NEG (DO CAUSE myself) COME know his name I (DO CAUSE myself) NEG COME NEG know his name I COME NEG know his name

(While not learning and not forgetting may be either intentional actions or not, not remembering is only nonintentional.) (q) (r) (s) (t) (u) (v) (w) (x) (y) We DO CAUSE ourselves COME COINCIDE the auditorium She DO CAUSE herself COME BE a university student The news CAUSE us COME BE alarmed The bouncer DO CAUSE the patron COME NEG COINCIDE inside The children DO CAUSE the tail COME COINCIDE the donkey (by pinning) He DO CAUSE himself COME COINCIDE town (by bicycling) Marny NEG DO CAUSE the car COME COINCIDE the garage We DO CAUSE the garage COME BE a den The recent rains CAUSE water COME COINCIDE our basement OR the recent rains CAUSE our basement COME BE flooded (z) 2. (a) (b) (c) The delay CAUSE him NEG COME COINCIDE home he (Th) COME COINCIDE the ground (Go) He (Ag) DO CAUSE himself (Th) COME COINCIDE ground (Go) I (Ag) DO CAUSE the noodles (Th) COME COINCIDE the boiling water (Go)

(d) I (Fo) CAUSE my favorite vase (Th) COME COINCIDE the ground (Go) (Goal is understood here) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) bathtub (Go) The apples (Th) COME NEG COINCIDE tree (So) The sick plant (Fo, Pa) CAUSE the leaves (Th) COME NEG COINCIDE itself (So) The swing (Th) COME COINCIDE ground (Go) She (Ag) DO CAUSE the fish (Th) COME COINCIDE the tank (Go) The slippery soap (Th) COME NEG COINCIDE my hands (So) and COME COINCIDE the

The verb drop may occur with an Agent subject, one which acts on itself (b) or on another entity, either inanimate (c) or animate (h); in this case Theme and Goal roles also appear. The subject may be a Force, when the dropping is unintentional (d, f), with either an implicit Goal (d) or a Source (f). Drop may also occur with a Theme subject, either animate (a) or inanimate (e, g); the accompanying role may be Goal (a, g) or Source (e), the latter requiring a NEG feature in its predication analysis. Where both Source and Goal are expressed (i), it appears necessary to postulate a compound analysis.

3. The first sentence in each set expresses a habitual or generic situation. Here the Agent operates on itself, causing itself to have a certain status. Thus, the predication analysis would be the following:

(a) (b)

She (Ag) DO CAUSE herself BE a baker (Ro). He (Ag) DO CAUSE himself BE a race car driver (Ro).

In the second sentence, the Agent operates on something else, causing a change in it: (a) (b) 4. Stative seated fallen lying risen She (Ag) DO CAUSE the bread (Fa) COME BE baked He (Ag) DO CAUSE a race car (Th) COME BE driven Ingressive sit fall lie rise Causative set fell lay raise