June 2013

Chief Editor : Rajesh K. Jha Senior Editor : Shyamala M. Iyer Editor : Manogyan R. Pal

Vol 57
Joint Director (Production) : V.K. Meena Cover Design : Gajanan P. Dhope E-mail (Editorial) : yojanace@gmail.com (Circulation) : pdjucir@gmail.com Website : www.yojana.gov.in

Let noble thoughts come to us from all sides

Rig Veda

CONTENTS

Integrating Sustainability into Indian Planning Ashish Kothari...................................................................................5 Climate risk: Critical Challenges Anil Kumar Gupta. ...........................................................................11 Changing Dynamics of Centre-State Financial Relations Pravakar Sahoo, Amrita Sarkar........................................................18 do yoU knoW?. .......................................................................24 Constructing Change by AdVancing Energy Efficiency Radhika Khosla................................................................................26 Indias urban enVironmental challenges: Land use, solid waste and sanitation Kala Seetharam Sridhar, Surender Kumar.......................................30

Western Ghats and Wild Life PreserVation P K Sujathan. ....................................................................................36 Problems in Flood-Prone RiVer Basins Dinesh Kumar Mishra......................................................................41 Best practices Pipes of prosperity Ranjan K Panda. ...............................................................................46 Urban BiodiVersity : Growth and DeVelopment of Nct Delhi Meenakshi Dhote.............................................................................49 North east diary PanidihingA Paradise of Birds Mouchumi Gogoi.............................................................................55 Protect Indigenous BiodiVersity and Knowledge Vandana Shiva ................................................................................60

Our Representatives : Ahmedabad: Amita Maru, Bangalore: B.S. Meenakshi, Chennai: A. Elangovan, Guwahati: Anupoma Das, Hyderabad: S. Dharmapuri, Kolkata: Antara Ghosh, Mumbai: Dipali Durge, Thiruvananthapuram: R.K. Pillai. YOJANA seeks to carry the message of the Plan to all sections of the people and promote a more earnest discussion on problems of social and economic development. Although published by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Yojana is not restricted to expressing the official point of view. Yojana is published in Assamese, Bengali, English, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu. EDITORIAL OFFICE : Yojana Bhavan, Sansad Marg, New Delhi-110001 Tel.: 23096738, 23042511. Tlgm.: Yojana. Business Manager (Hqs.) : Ph :24367260, 24365609, 24365610 For new subscriptions, renewals, enquiries please contact : Business Manager (Circulation & Advt.), Publications Division, Min. of I&B, East Block-IV, Level-VII, R.K. Puram, New Delhi-110066, Tel.: 26100207, Telegram : Soochprakasan and Sales Emporia : Publications Division: *Soochna Bhavan, CGO Complex, Lodhi Road, New Delhi -110003 (Ph 24365610) *Hall No.196, Old Secretariat, Delhi 110054(Ph 23890205) * 701, B Wing, 7th Floor, Kendriya Sadan, Belapur, Navi Mumbai 400614 (Ph 27570686)*8, Esplanade East, Kolkata-700069 (Ph 22488030) *A Wing, Rajaji Bhawan, Basant Nagar, Chennai-600090 (Ph 24917673) *Press road, Near Govt. Press, Thiruvananthapuram-695001 (Ph 2330650) *Block No.4, 1st Floor, Gruhakalpa Complex, M G Road, Nampally, Hyderabad-500001 (Ph 24605383) *1st Floor, F Wing, Kendriya Sadan, Koramangala, Bangalore-560034 (Ph 25537244) *Bihar State Co-operative Bank Building, Ashoka Rajpath, Patna-800004 (Ph 2683407) *Hall No 1, 2nd floor, Kendriya Bhawan, Sector-H, Aliganj, Lucknow-226024(Ph 2225455) *Ambica Complex, 1st Floor, above UCO Bank, Paldi, Ahmedabad-380007 (Ph 26588669) *KKB Road, New Colony, House No.7, Chenikuthi, Guwahati 781003 (Ph 2665090) SUBSCRIPTION : 1 year Rs. 100, 2 years Rs. 180, 3 years Rs. 250. For SAARC countries by Air Mail Rs. 530 yearly; for European and other countries Rs. 730 yearly. No. of Pages : 68 Disclaimer : l The views expressed in various articles are those of the authors and not necessarily of the government. l The readers are requested to verify the claims made in the advertisements regarding career guidance books/institutions. Yojana does not own responsibility regarding the contents of the advertisements.

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You are, Therefore I am

t may be a little surprising to know that the first civilisation in the world to collapse due to ecological factors was Sumer in Mesopotamia more than 4000 years ago. You may perhaps be thinking that it was some natural disaster that led to the extinguishing of the Sumerian civilisation. But the reality is different. In fact it was ,in a great measure, a man made catastrophe caused by the increasing salinity in the extensive irrigation channels built by the Sumers for cultivation. Indeed historical and archaeological evidence points out that ecological factors played a crucial role in the collapse of a number of ancient civilisations like the Indus Valley, Greek, Phoenician, Roman and the Mayan. Today again, a similar possibility is staring us in the face threatening to begin the Endgame.

Apparently, the mankind has come a full-circle over this period so far as its relationship with nature and the surroundings is concerned. It has been argued that the chief causes of the environmental destruction do not lie in individual choices like higher consumption. These are rooted in the social and historical realities arising out of the specificities of the modern industrial world and the gamut of economic relations arising out of it between individuals and the nations at large. Whatever view you may hold about the causes of the environmental crisis we face today, there is no doubt that in the modern quest for conquering the earth we are clearly in the danger of overstepping the critical thresh holds whether it is the fossil fuel consumption, exploitation of rivers and under-ground water, Green House Gases emission and similar other indicators. Environment is an issue that does not really obey the boundaries we have erected on the map. The interconnectedness of the human existence on the earth is most clearly reflected when we discuss questions of environment and ecology. The long debate about environment and development is not yet settled even while the nations struggle to find a model of sustainable development without destroying the ecology. Despite the universal nature of environmental issues, when it comes to equitable burden sharing of the carbon footprint left by the countries, the debate between per capita emission approach and the total emission approach continues to be deeply contentious. It becomes an important fact in international climate change negotiations when we find that the developed western countries contribute more than 50 percent to the total carbon emission in the world. It is difficult to convince a developing nation not to invest in setting up factories and industries to improve the living standards of its citizens in the name of environmental concerns alone. The range of issues concerning environment and ecology is truly complex and bewildering. From the existing economic structures to our consumption choices, tribal rights over natural resources to imperatives of economic development, common environmental resources of the mankind vs national priorities all have trade-offs and require choices to be made for which there exists no consensus. The policy responses to these issues are often difficult to make and involve a long and arduous process of consultation with the stake holders at multiple levels. The multitude of movements, many of which are political and some times violent also, centred around the issues of environment reflect on the one hand the lack of consensus on these issue and on the other, the vibrancy and resilience of India as a democratic nation. While we ponder over the issue of environment and sustainable ecology, we realise that the scale of transformation of nature by man has been unprecedented, its rate of change staggering. The great thinker and proponent of intermediate Technology E.F. Schumacher asserted that the problem of environmental deterioration is not just technical but it stems from the life cycle of the modern world, its most basic beliefs-its metaphysics. We must realise the essential unity of the universe and the interconnectedness of the existence of all life forms, indeed all of nature. It is the time we adopted the Zulu philosophy of Ubuntu which translates into You are, therefore I am.  q YOJANA June 2013 3

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EnvironmentAL pLAnning
poLicY

Integrating Sustainability into Indian Planning

Ashish Kothari
ndias attempts at integrating environmental sustainability into economic planning have so far been piecemeal and hesitant. They have done little to stem the rapid slide into ecological devastation and consequent livelihood, cultural, and economic disruption. At the root of this lies the stubborn adherence to a model of economic growth that is fundamentally unsustainable and inequitable, even more so in its globalised form in the last two decades. environmentally responsible and community-based, moving towards low-carbon strategies, and protecting the commons (lands and waters that are used by the public), giving communities more secure rights to use and manage these. Yet the Plan falls far short of significant reorientation, mostly staying within the confines of assuming that more growth will help achieve these goals. It does not use any available framework of sustainable development, including the targets that India agreed to at the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesberg). It does not contain indicators to gauge whether India is moving towards sustainability, e.g. improvement in per capita availability of natural forests, reduction in the levels of various kinds of pollution, improved access to nutritious food and clean water, or enhanced availability of public transport. Environmental considerations do not yet permeate each economic sector. There is in fact a palpable lack of urgency with regard to the ecological crisis we are already

Peoples movements, civil society organizations, academic thinktanks, and progressive political leaders will have to lead the way, both by resisting todays destructive processes and by building on existing alternatives

The 12 th Plan process could have been an opportunity to change course, especially given its explicit commitment to sustainability, inclusiveness and equity. Indeed there are some glimpses of a different approach, e.g. making economic activities more responsible in their use of resources and in the wastes they produce, promoting urban water harvesting and public transport, providing organic inputs to agriculture use, encouraging recycling, making tourism more

The author is Founder-member of Indian environmental group Kalpavriksh, and coordinated Indias National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan process, has served on Greenpeace International and India Boards, He is also the author or editor (singly or jointly with others) of over 30 books, the latest a detailed analysis of globalisation and its alternatives. YOJANA June 2013 5

in. Natural ecosystems are under stress and decline across most of the country; some 10% of the countrys wildlife is threatened with extinction; agricultural biodiversity has declined by over 90% in many regions; well over half the available waterbodies are polluted beyond drinking and often beyond even agricultural use; two-thirds of the land is degraded to various levels of sub-optimal productivity; air pollution in several cities is amongst the worlds worst; modern wastes including electronic and chemical are bring produced at rates far exceeding our capacity to recycle or manage. Annual Economic Surveys of Government of India, and the Ministry of Environment and Forests annual State of Environment reports occasionally acknowledge the widespread environmental damage; more is found in independent reports such as the State of Indias Environment reports by Centre for Science and Environment. A 2008 report by the Global Footprint Network and Confederation of Indian Industries suggests that India has the worlds third biggest ecological footprint, that its resource use is already twice of its bio-capacity, and that this biocapacity itself has declined by half in the last few decades. Economic globalisation since 1991 has significantly increased rates of diversion of natural ecosytems for developmental purposes, and rates of resource exploitation for domestic use and exports. Climate change impacts are being felt in terms of erratic weather and coastal erosion, and the country has little in the way of climate preparedness especially for the poor who will be worst affected.
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Projections based on the historic trend of materials and energy use in India also point to serious levels of domestic and global impact on the environment, if India continues it current development trajectory modeled on already industrialized countries. One opening provided by the 2013 Economic Survey towards redressing the situation is the following paragraph: From Indias point of view, Sustainable Development Goals need to bring together development and environment into a single set of targets. The fault line, as ever in global conferences, is the inappropriate balance between environment and developmentwe could also view the SDGs and the post 2015 agenda as an opportunity for revisiting and fine-tuning the MDG framework and sustainably regaining focus on developmental issues. Framed in 2000, the MDGs set ambitious targets for tackling poverty, hunger, thirst, illiteracy, womens exploitation, child mortality, disease, and environmental destruction. They are supposed to have guided the developmental and welfare policies and programmes of governments. Countries are individually, and collectively through the United Nations, reviewing progress made in achieving the MDGs. Simultaneously discussions have been initiated towards new development frameworks that could more effectively lead to human well-being while ensuring ecological sustainability. India too needs to engage in a full-scale review of its achievements (or failures), which can become an opportunity

to work out a new framework for the post-2015 process, best suited to Indian conditions. Here are some ideas on what such a framework could look like. Elements of a New Global Framework A fundamentally different framework of well-being has to be built on the tenets of ecological sustainability, as much as of equity. This is clearly pointed to in the outcome document of the UN Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20) of 2012. A new set of global goals could include: (1) E n s u r i n g e c o l o g i c a l conservation and resilience, and the basis of equitable access to nature and natural resources to all peoples and communities (respecting natures own rights) (an expansion of current MDG 7); (2) P r o v i d i n g a d e q u a t e a n d nutritious food for all, through production and distribution systems that are ecologically sustainable and equitable (currently part of MDG 1); (3) Ensuring adequate and safe water for all, through harvesting and distribution systems that are ecologically sustainable and equitable (currently part of MDG 7); (4) Safeguarding conditions for prevention of disease, and maintenance of good health, for all, in ways that are ecologically sustainable and equitable (currently partly in MDG 6) (5) Providing equitable access to energy sources in ways that
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are ecologically sustainable (as much as technically and economically viable) (currently missing from the MDGs); (6) Facilitating equitable access to learning and education for all, in ways that enhance ecological sensitivity and knowledge (as much as cultural, technical, technological, socioeconomic, and other aspects) (an expansion of MDG 2); (7) E n s u r i n g s e c u r e , s a f e , sustainable, and equitable settlements for all, including adequate and appropriate shelter, sanitation, civic facilities, public transportation (currently partly in MDG 7, partly missing) In all the above, the special needs of women and children will need to be secured, through rights-based and empowerment approaches (currently in MDGs 3,4,5). Such a framework needs to be based on a set of universal principles, including: l The functional integrity and resilience of the ecological processes and biological diversity underlying all life on earth, respecting which entails a realization of the ecological limits of human activity, and enshrining the right of nature and all species to survive and thrive in the conditions in which they have evolved. l E q u i t a b l e a c c e s s o f a l l people, in current and future generations, to the conditions needed for human well-being (socio-cultural, economic, political, ecological, and in particular food, water, shelter,
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clothing, energy, healthy living, and socio-cultural sustenance); equity between humans and other elements of nature; and social, economic, and environmental justice for all.
l

on the socio-cultural, economic, and ecological commons, respecting both common custodianship and individual freedoms and innovations within such collectivities.
l

The right of each person and community to participate meaningfully in crucial decisions affecting her/his/ its life, and to the conditions that provide the ability for such participation, as part of a radical, participatory democracy. Linked to the above, governance based on subsidiarity and ecoregionalism, with local rural and urban communities (small enough for all members to take part in face-to-face decisionmaking) as the fundamental unit of governance, linked with each other at bioregional, ecoregional and cultural levels into landscape/seascape institutions that are answerable to these basic units. The responsibility of each citizen and community to ensure meaningful decisionmaking that is based on the twin principles of ecological integrity and socio-economic equity.

The ability of communities and humanity as a whole, to respond, adapt and sustain the resilience needed to maintain ecological sustainability and equity in the face of external and internal forces of change. T h e i n e x t r i c a b l e i n t e rconnectedness amongst various aspects of human civilisation, and therefore amongst any set of development or wellbeing goals: environmental, economic, social, cultural, and political.

A Framework for India Following from the above, the following goals would comprise a new sustainability framework of planning for India: Macro-economic policy: The macro-economic framework must be radically altered to put ecological sustainability, human well-being, and socio-economic equity at the core. This would include development of macro-economic theories and concepts that put at their core the twin imperatives of ecological limits and socioeconomic equity. It would also entail reorienting financial measures such as taxation, subsidies, and other fiscal incentives/disincentives to support ecological sustainability and related human security and equity goals. A long-term national land and water use plan needs to be framed, based on decentralised and participatory processes. Also
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Respect for the diversity of environments and ecologies, species and genes, cultures, ways of living, knowledge systems, values, economies and livelihoods, and polities, in so far as they are in consonance with the principles of sustainability and equity. l Collective and co-operative thinking and working founded

needed are human well-being indicators, through appropriate tools, to replace the current GDP and economic growth-related ones. Political governance: Equally important as above, a new polity is needed. Principles and practice of radical or participatory democracy need to infuse all decision-making, with the smallest rural and urban settlements as the basic units, and landscape level institutions building on these. Panchayat, urban ward, and tribal council institutions would need not only strengthening but modifications to ensure they are functioning at these basic units in which all residents/members can take part. Ways to ensure accountability of representatives (e.g. through right to recall) at larger levels, upto the national level, have to be built in. An immediate step could be creating institutions of independent oversight on environmental matters, such as an office of an Environment (or Sustainable Well-Being) Commissioner who has a Constitutional status similar to the CAG or Chief Election Commissioner. Safeguarding the natural basis of life: The integrity of natural ecosystems, wildlife populations, a n d b i o d i v e r s i t y, m u s t b e safeguarded , by reducing and eventually eliminating resource and biodiversity loss, and regenerating degraded ecosystems and populations. This would include providing rights to nature and nonhuman species in the Constitution; expanding the coverage of areas specially dedicated to or helping to
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achieve biodiversity conservation through fully participatory and democratic means; integrating conservation principles and practices in land/water use activities across the board, in both rural and urban areas; and phasing out the use of chemicals in agriculture, industry, and settlements, that lead to irreversible ecological degradation and the poisoning of wildlife. Ensuring basic needs for all: All people must have access to safe and adequate resources to fulfill basic needs, in ways that are ecologically sustainable and c ultur a l l y a p p ro p r i a t e . This includes safe and adequate drinking water to all, largely through decentralised harvesting and distribution systems; safe and adequate food to all, focusing primarily on agro-ecologically sound practices and localized production/distribution systems including localized procurement for the Public Distribution System and other food schemes for the poor; unpolluted air and safe sound levels for all; safe, adequate and sustainable shelter/housing to all, facilitating community-based, locally appropriate methods; energy security for all, optimizing existing production sources and distribution channels, regulating demand (denying, especially, luxury demand), and focusing most new production on decentralised, renewable sources; and adequate sanitation facilities to all families and communities. Ensuring universal employment and livelihoods : All families and communities must have access to dignified

livelihoods that are ecologically sustainable and culturally a p p ro p r i a t e . T h i s i n c l u d e s encouraging natural resource based livelihoods (forest-based, fisheries, pastoralism, agriculture, crafts, and quarrying) that are already ecologically sustainable; replacing unsustainable, unsafe and undignified livelihoods in all sectors by dignified, green jobs (which according to ILO would yield more employment than conventional sectors); and investing heavily in livelihoods relating to ecological regeneration and restoration. Ensuring sustainable production and consumption: All production and consumption must be ecologically sustainable and socio-economically equitable, using a mix of incentives and disincentives. This means converting and replacing unsustainable agricultural, fisheries, mining, industrial, and other production processes to sustainable ones; ensuring extended producer responsibility for sustainability at all stages from raw materials to disposal/recycling/ reuse, through incentives and legislation; curbing unsustainable consumption including advertising that encourages such consumption (perhaps creating an Above Consumption Line measure as counterpoint to Below Poverty Line measure; encouraging innovations in, and making mandatory the use of, technologies of sustainability including those that reduce resource-intensity of products and processes, and discourage
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(eventually eliminating) those that are inherently unsustainable and inequitable; and moving towards a zero-waste society. Ensuring sustainable infrastructure: All infrastructure development must be ecologically sustainable and socio-economically equitable. This entails integrating practices of sustainability into existing infrastructure, replacing unsustainable practices with sustainable ones (e.g. focus on public instead of private transportation); and ensuring all new infrastructure is built on principles of ecological sustainability. Ensuring sustainability in services and welfare: All service and welfare sectors must integrate principles and practices of ecological sustainability. Health services should focus on preventing ill-health due to environmental degradation (e.g. unsafe or inadequate food and water), and on curative practices that are ecologically sound (including nature-based indigenous systems). Local and wider ecological, cultural, and knowledge systems need to be integrated into education policies and practices, ensuring that ecological sensitivity becomes a part of every subject. Tourism and visitation need to be converted to practices that are ecologically sustainable, culturally appropriate, and local community driven. Each of these goals will contain specific targets and actions, and indicators to assess levels of success and failure. A set of tools are also needed that can help in the assessments. There are already several sets of indicators
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and tools being used or proposed around the world (including within India), from which we could develop a set of indexes that is robust, relatively easy to calculate, amenable to public understanding and participation, and capable of integrating complexity and nuances. Some of the exciting new work being done outside India, such as the Happy Planet Index proposed by the New Economics Foundation, Bhutans Gross National Happiness, Environment Vulnerability Index, and others could be examined. Tools such as Ecological/Carbon Footprints, National Accounts of Well-being, Environmental Accounting and Budgeting, and so on could be combined to assess progress towards sustainability and equity. But this should not simply become an exercise in numerical target-setting, and mechanical enumeration of what targets have been met; it needs to integrate into a holistic vision that has sustainability, equity, and wellbeing as its pillars. Overcoming the hurdles There are several hurdles to achieving the above: inadequate understanding of the impacts of human activities on the environment, continuing tension between various knowledge systems hampering synergistic innovation, a political leadership that for the most part lacks ecological literacy, unaccountable corporate and military power, and a feeling of helplessness or apathy amongst the general public. If we are to surmount these hurdles, we have to support and learn from alternatives already existing on the ground or in policy,

in India or globally. Information already available on trends in sustainability and unsustainability should be collated, and further information generated to fill gaps in understanding. Public discussions and consultations, involving all sections and in particular local communities in rural and urban areas, should be initiated on the contours of a new framework of well-being. Such a framework should underlie the 13th 5-Year plan. Of course, this will not happen if left to todays political and bureaucratic leadership, though undoubtedly their role is vital. Most crucial is public and political mobilization and pressure. Peoples movements, civil society organizations, academic thinktanks, and progressive political leaders will have to lead the way, both by resisting todays destructive processes and by building on existing alternatives. Partnerships with similar sectors in other countries will help. India already has thousands of initiatives at solving food, water, energy, health and other problems through sustainable means; it also has crucial policy breakthroughs like the Right to Information Act. But these are dispersed and often isolated, not yet forming a critical mass sufficient to bring about fundamental changes in the system. A framework vision of the kind outlined above is beginning to emerge from, and could help bind together, these currently dispersed processes.  q
(E-mail :ashishkothari@vsnl.com)

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Environment And SUstAinABLe EcoLogY

cHALLenges

Climate risk: Critical Challenges

Anil Kumar Gupta
There are significant efforts to promote green cover in urban areas with noted success, but at the same time vast tracts of natural green cover of forests and rural areas have been lost owing to increasing biotic pressure, low regeneration and devastating side effects of poorly planned developmental projects. India has a new water policy of 2012 now, but without subjecting it to a formal system of environmental assessment, despite having globally accepted tool strategic environmental assessment (EIA of policies and plans) in practice. I wrote in Yojana May, 2000 on water policy and integrated water management calling for a system approach, which in turn also calls for coherence of water, land, energy and forest related policies with the broad environment policy. Fortunately the environment policy of 2006 at least mentioned this. The recent reinforced calls at global level to integrate disaster risk reduction and climate change issues within the broad umbrella of environmental management for sustainability and inclusive growth has attained momentum with the UN led Partnership of Environment

No model of economic growth can sustain for long if it doesnt respect ecology in local and regional context, and at the same time the environment as broad concern including the inter-relationships of natural, human-made and socio-cultural environments

recall my first national publication in Yojana in June 1993 issue which reviewed the efficacy and status of Indias environmental legislation, following the strategic article by then Prime Minister Late Sri Narsimha Rao depicting the concern on environment and extrapolating it for sustainability of economic growth. India has a prestigious history on environmental fronts be it the Stockholm Conference in 1972 which was attended by Late Smt. Indira Gandhi, or the UN Conference on Environment and Development, 1992 at Brazil where Indias contribution and ecoconcerns also figured in shaping the historic Agenda 21. It was in 1991 that the Honble Supreme Court issued a directive for compulsory environmental studies in all undergraduate programmes in the country. It is regretable that it hasnt been uniformly implemented even with the passage of two decades. In another article on environmental policy concerns in Yojana in 1996 February, I tried help prioritize the issues for immediate concerns.

The author is Senior Associate Professor of Policy Planning at National Institute of Disaster Management, New Delhi, and President of Centre for Disaster Management, Environment and Sustainability, New Delhi. YOJANA June 2013 11

and Disaster Risk Reduction (UNPEDRR). C l i m a t e R i s k a n d I n d i a s Environment Whereas many regions are likely to experience adverse effects of climate change of which some are potentially irreversible, in some cases certain impacts are likely to be beneficial as well. The World Bank Study entitled Managing Climate Risk: Integrating Adaptation into World Bank Group Operations identified the result of environmental changes in South Asia as following: l Decreased water availability and water quality in many arid and semi-arid regions l Increased risk of floods, droughts, and water borne diseases / epidemics l Reduction of water regulation in mountain habitats l Decrease in reliability of hydropower and biomass production l Increased damages and deaths caused by extreme weather events l D e c r e a s e a g r i c u l t u r e productivity, in fisheries and sustainability of ecosystems The World Bank interpreted the consequences of these impacts in form of severe economic shocks, which will exacerbate existing social and environmental problems, and migration within and across national borders. So far most policy interventions related to climate change were mitigation centric and broadly based on geophysical parameters. However, the focus is now shifting towards vulnerability
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reduction centric and adaptation approach which at the same time facilitates climate change mitigation-adaptation convergence with disaster risk reduction. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) that emphasized livelihood and food security as key challenges of human vulnerability is an insight to understand the significant efforts of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), in particular the 4th Assessment Report and the recent Special Report on Extreme Weather Events (SREX) to draw the concerns for South Asia and more particularly for India. A 4x4 assessment of climate change impacts on India, organized by Ministry of Environment & Forests (2010) has concluded with serious concerns on impacts on agriculture, water security, health and forests, more particularly in Himalayan region and coastal areas. The impacts have been observed in terms of changing rainfall patterns, intensity, number of rainy days, hottest and coldest days, hot/cold waves, sea level rise, cyclonic storms, etc., whereas improper land use coupled with ecological degradation has aggravated peoples vulnerability to these climatic and the other geophysical disasters like earthquake, landslides, etc. Besides the availability concern, quality of water (be it ground or surface waters) is critical in health and agriculture. Air quality is deteriorating despite the efforts governments made over past decades. Waste management situation in many cities of the country has improved but is far from satisfactory, and urban flooding has become a common annual menace.

Ecosystem Services: Economy and Livelihoods The environmental problems in India are growing rapidly. The increasing economic development and a rapidly growing population that has taken the country from 300 million people in 1947 to more than one billion people today is putting a strain on the environment, infrastructure, and the countrys natural resources. The Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction: Risk and Poverty in a Changing Climate (2009) identifies ecosystem decline as a key driver in exacerbating natural hazards in the future. Indian economy is likely to grow at 6.4 per cent rate in 2013 outpacing the 6 per cent expansion in developing Asia-Pacific economies in the same period. However, the current projected growth is below its own pace of the past. The global economic slowdown starting 2008 has made us to review on the limitations our ecological systems and non-renewable resources pose to our economic growth. We need to analyze our fiscal balance sheets again for expenditures on managing the challenges arising as a consequence of environmental degradation on different timescales. India is now the worlds third biggest carbon dioxide emitting nation after China and the US. The new emission data from the United Nations published in early October 2010 is a probable cause of worry for Indias climate negations in the future. The ecosystem based approaches for adaptation and mitigation are the noble options we still have. We need to evolve approaches where we have mitigation values for the adaptation options and strategies as well,
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and at the same time disaster risk reduction as the benefit. We have not only spoiled our wetlands and river systems, but the entire landsoil system, making it chemical intensive in its composition in quest of immediate high returns. Green revolution was needed as India then needed food to feed the people. Now the concept of 2 nd green revolution has to be built up with great caution and concerns for sustainability. Natural resource related activities form major livelihood for Indias population. Land, water and bio-productivity cannot be dealt in isolation. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) refers to natural systems as humanitys life support system providing essential ecosystem services for existence and socioeconomic well being. Twenty four services are classified under major four categories: a) Provisioning services, the material that people extract directly from ecosystems such as food, water, and forest products; b) Regulating services, which modulate changes in climate and regulate floods, drought, disease, waste and water quality; c) Cultural services, which consists of recreational (tourism), aesthetic and spiritual benefits, and d) Supporting services, such as soil formation, photosynthesis (food production, oxygen generation) and nutrient recycling. Human Security and Disaster Management The World Summit on Social
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Development (2005) noted the reconciliation of environmental, social equity and economic demands as the three pillars of sustainability. An imbalance in one or more of these may exacerbate the impact of a natural or impending humanitarian crisis, resulting in a disaster like situation. The challenges of naxalism may be understood in ecological terms of forests, people and livelihoods, which due to our failure to address, have grown up to emergent state in such areas. Environmental refugees from the regions affected by natural calamities, insurgencies, or due to developmental interventions like in case of large dams, or migrants for livelihoods are one of key humanitarian concerns worldwide as well as in India. P o o r, d o w n t r o d d e n a n d marginalized people, landless, or those occupying low cost but hazardous locations for their housing and occupations, are the ones most and worst affected by natural disasters like earthquake, floods, drought, cyclone and diseases. Relationships between environment and disasters are inextricable. We need to understand the ecology of conflicts, vulnerability, human behavior, and thereby of the disasters, for their effective and preventive management. It is worthwhile to mention that our initiative in India during 2008-9 on integrated environment and disaster risk management, when noticed by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), was followed by a high level meeting at the UN Campus Bonn in Germany, to evolve a UN Partnership of Environment and Disaster Risk Reduction. First capacity building programme on

Ecosystem Approach to Disaster Risk Reduction (ecoDRR) was piloted in Sri Lanka and followed by New Delhi in 2011 itself. Recent release of Disaster Management and Risk Reduction (2013) as follow up to the Government of India publication (NIDM) on Ecosystem Approach to Disaster Risk Reduction (2013), that related to United Nations University (UNU) bringing a special volume entitled Role of Ecosystems in Disaster Risk Reduction. Issues of Critical Concern Looking to the present state of Indias environment and context of climate-change, disasters and corporate environmental governance, following issues have been identified for critical concern in academia and policy planning: 1. N a t u r a l d i s a s t e r management: Number of natural disasters continue to rise in India and the region, with heavy toll on human lives, environment and economies. Losses due to water and climate related disasters far exceed that of purely geophysical ones. On the other hand, chemical intensive economic development has increased the risk of industrial-chemical disasters. Disaster management needs to be a priority subject for intervention as it has great humanitarian aspects. 2. E n v i ro n m e n t a l - H e a l t h : Despite the need, the aspects of environmental health including those related with water, sanitation, waste management, t o x i c o l o g y, h a s b e e n inadequately addressed due to lack of policy intervention. We need to have integrated
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policy direction on preventive and social health issues in the country. 3. Natural Resource Systems: Be it a river, a wetland, forest, land or soil, urban area or a crop field, the management of natural resources need to be evolved with consideration of these as system and with the scientific understanding of resource rather than treating them primarily as source. 4. Environmental liability : Environmental policy implementation cannot be effective unless the concept of absolute liability is enforced not only in context of industrial hazards or pollution but equally in relation to ecosystem integrity, sustainability and natural resources. Liability should be integrated with accountability and must also include the Government, monitoring agencies and decision makers. 5. State/District Environmental Action Plans: We have national Environmental Protection Act (1986) but could not regulate the mandate for environmental action plan at state, district and local levels. This is an emergent need. Plan should have a time frame, 6. EIA and SEA improvements: Environmental impact assessment is an effective and noble instrument of policy and legal enforcement but, however, is under question in India due to its marketplace image. It requires scientific and academic community to come forward together to intervene and take up research studies on validation
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of such reports. Another approach where EIAs are done by Government agencies responsible for decision making may also be thought of, but with fixing accountability for their interpretations. Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) is a recognized tool for environmental screening of policies, plans and programmes in practice in particular in advanced countries. On initiative of UNU and UNEP, we have worked out a protocol for EIA and SEA application in disaster management. Recently, Sri Lanka carried out an SEA of its North Province before launching post-conflict developmental plan. We need to learn and evolve to scrutinize our economic and other strategic decisions for their impacts on different aspects of environmental quality and resources. 7. E n v i r o n m e n t a l A u d i t : Environmental audit in mandatory terms is a formal procedure in India, except big industries and corporations conducting detailed audits v o l u n t a r i l y. P r a c t i c e o f comprehensive environmental auditing must be compulsory for all industries, establishments including housing complexes, municipalities, and institutions with significant water, energy and material balance or involving hazards. 8. N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e Accounting: The concept and practice of natural resource accounting or green accounting was mooted and pilot studies undertaken during 1990s.

However, the practice didnt continue to grow. The concept of green accounting and green GDP must be integrated with national and state environmental action planning as well as with developmental planning. 9. Economic evaluation of environmental impacts: In the absence of proper economic evaluation, environmental impacts and hazards are not given due importance in planning and decision making. For example, the environmental damages and losses due to disasters and environmental needs following a disaster situation havent been evaluated on economic terms. This results in their undermining. The practice of ecological economics needs to be promoted in research, planning and monitoring of developmental plans and policies. 10. Ecological Auditing (EcoAudit): This is rather a new tool, extended from the principle evolved a decade ago. This focuses on auditing of natural resource systems and environmental quality aspects on ecosystem approach. This takes into account the ecosystem capacities, services and related sustainability parameters in the context of internal, external and humaninduced factors. Revisiting Economic Growth to Sustainability Sustainability is the capacity to endure. In ecology it describes how biological systems remain diverse and productive over time.
YOJANA June 2013

For humans, sustainability is the potential for long-term maintenance of well being, which has ecological, economic, political and cultural dimensions. Healthy ecosystems and environments are necessary to the survival and flourishing of humans and other organisms. Chennai based Centre for Development Finance has developed Environmental sustainability index 2011 for Indian states considering the achievements, challenges, priorities and present state of environment. The study found the north-eastern states as most sustainable whereas the least sustainable states are Bihar, Haryana, Gujarat, Punjab, Rajasthan & Uttar Pradesh. Poverty, disparity and inequality are key factors that aggravate peoples vulnerability to hazard be it of a natural, human-induced, technological or socio-political origin that may result in a devastating situation or crisis. These factors are in turn aggravated by ecological deprivation and poor management of natural resources, coupled with infrastructure disparities brought in by the techno-fiscal intensification. No model of economic growth can sustain for long if it doesnt respect ecology in local and regional context, and at the same time the environment as broad concern including the inter-relationships of natural, human-made and sociocultural environments. Unless we understand the ecological basis of conflicts and evolution of local/ regional terrorism, we often fail to find sustainable ceasefire solutions. Alternative models of sustainable land use economies need to be worked out taking care of climate change adaptation and disaster risk concerns as well. Sustainability interfaces with
YOJANA June 2013

economics through the social and environmental consequences of an economic activity. Sustainability economics involves ecological economics where socio-cultural, economic and health-related aspects are integrated. Now, in the times when we are calling for Integrated district planning process, we need to evolve the models and protocols for ecological compatible integrated planning at state, district and local levels. At the same time, it is important to recognize the ecosystem relations between urban, rural and industrial development planning. Figure 1 shows economics as a function within social arena of the environment as recognized by Scott Cato (Green Economics, 2009, Earthscan). Adams (2006) enumerated the pressure balance among environment, economics and social functions under a sustainability framework (International Union for Conservation of Nature, Figure 2). However, environmental economics new focus is on the economic valuation of ecosystem services

in immediate and long-term parameters that helps understand need for ecological sensitive developmental planning process. In India as well, the concept of Green GDP is upcoming which should help promote sustainability concerns into developmental economics as well. National Environmental Protection Agency Disaster management is a state subject, whereas environment is a broad concern divided and shared between central, states and concurrent lists, in the schedules of Indias Constitution. In most cases States enjoy the powers delegated by Central Government. Therefore, an apex agency should not be only an authority to develop broad policies and guidelines but also its own standards, and need to be responsible and accountable for their proper and effective implementation at the ground levels as well. We need to learn from the United States model of Environmental Protection Agency. Pollution Control Board concepts are obsolete and need to be abolished to bring a cultural change in environmental management, by replacing it with Environmental Protection Agencies with a uniform institutional framework at State, district and Urban local bodies level. It is also important that a standard ratio of scientific, technical and social experts is maintained in these agencies at all the levels. Policy Interventions: National Environmental Council Broad Paradigm Shift is needed from fragmented and spontaneous response or wait until emergent approach to accountability and liability based proactive culture of prevention and infused mitigation
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Figure 1: Economy as a function within society and environment

Figure 2: Sustainability challenge is of the balance in a win-win mode

approach on environmental protection affairs including climate-change, natural disaster management, chemical safety, environmental health and overall natural resource management system. Prime Ministers Council of Climate Change may be renamed as Prime Minister s National Environmental Council offering an umbrella coordination of Ministries like Environment and Forests, Earth Science, Science & Technology, environment related divisions of DST, ICAR, ICMR, DBT, CSIR, ICFRE, ICSSR, UGC, National Biodiversity Board, etc. and international organizations like UNEP, IPCC, WMO, WHO, UNDP, UNESCO, etc. Development and promotion of environmentally compatible models for inclusive growth and sustainable economic development at village, taluka and district levels may be a key objective. Intensive and effective drives of capacity building and awareness shall be needed to attain its objectives. A policy guideline on environmentally compatible integrated district-planning need to be developed. It is ironical to note that India as a country 'though loud enough in global platforms of Stockholm and Rio de Janeiro' has missed to represent ecology in its constitution of strategic and planning organizations like Planning Commission, National Disaster Management Authority, National Investment Agency, etc. The time has come when we need to be sensitive to own long-term sustainability and feel accountable for all our deeds. Education and Research Environmental research in the country is fragmented with much of duplicacy, gaps and sometime
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with conflicting conclusions. The proposed National Council and National University may be mandated to share the strategic responsibility of organizing and coordinating with the relevant agencies a broad network forum to avoid these challenges. Some of the states/UTs have integrated their science & technology councils with environment, and is a welcome move. University and college curriculum of environmental studies need to be diversified to meet specialized needs for professionals on its sub-disciplines, viz. environmental health, system ecology, climate change, disaster management, EIA, law & policy, environmental economics, industrial hazards, etc. Education and training in environmental studies need be diversified with specializations at University/college levels to focus on emergency issues and challenges. Our experts and Governments have taken a great steps towards environmental awareness of the masses including college youth and children, but could not mandate a compulsory orientation of our legislators and Government officials of all levels including sub-district and local levels who built up the administrative priorities of the governance. This is one reason of increasing conflicts between public or civil society and Government as their perceptions do not match at all. National University on Environment and Sustainability For more than two decades, there has been a demand for a central institution on environmental research and training which at the same time shall award degrees and professional certification in

the areas of environment. In the present times, when disasters, climate change and health risks are emergency challenges, a National University on Environment and Sustainability Studies (UNEST) need to be established by the Central Government to cater the needs of quality research, training and education leading to masters and research degrees, and will extend advisory support in assessments, planning and policy making. The institute may be mandated also to host a forum for organizations and institutions working on environment, climate change and disaster management issues in the country, to facilitate exchange of knowledge, skills, and professional value addition. University Grants Commission has supported Universities and institutions on innovative course and research programmes on concurrent issues in environmental sciences and notified a model curriculum on disaster management for all undergraduate course in the lines of compulsory environmental studies. Ministry of Environment and Forests and Ministry of Earth Sciences have also schemes to support environment and climate research. United Nations Environment Programme has expressed concern in promoting the ecoDRR curriculum in Indian Universities which has already been included in other countries. Recently, UNESCO has established a high level academic institute, first in Asia, Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Environment, Peace and Sustainability which will organize and conduct courses and research on environment, climate and disaster related issues of Asian q concern. 
(E-mail : envirosafe2007@gmail.com)

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Centre-StAte ReLAtions
speciAL ArticLe

Changing Dynamics of Centre-State Financial Relations

Pravakar Sahoo Amrita Sarkar
federal set up is considered to be an optimal form of government as it combines the strength of a unitary as well as a decentralized form of government. The essence of federalism lies in proper division of powers and functions among various levels of government to ensure adequate financial resources to each level of government to enable them to perform their exclusive functions. In a federation, both developed and underdeveloped federating units find it advantageous to remain within a federation due to various reasons like unified market facility, security and financial cooperation. In India, federalism has evolved from a highly centralized system under the British regime-Lord Mayo financial resolution of 1871, to a three-tier form of federation. Though the Government of India Act-1919 was a major breakthrough in the history of evolution of fiscal federalism in India, the Government of India Act-1935 established a clear-cut demarcation of subjects coming under the Centre, States and, both Centre and States. With the independence of the country, the federal status of India underwent a fundamental change with clear division of financial powers and expenditure responsibilities between Central and State governments in the Seventh schedule of the Indian constitution. The undivided Indian National Congress under Nehru (1947-66) in the first two decades led to a strong central leadership and the Centre developed the concept of a patriarch controlling the Indian federation. The Centre-state relations were simply a reflection of relations between the state branches of the congress party and its central leadership. However, over the last 60 years many changes have been incorporated in the Indian federation through different constitutional amendments,

India has evolved a noble kind of federation which is completely different from the accepted notion of federation. The evolved Indian federalism is very unique in character and the Unionstate relationship has also become extremely complex over the years

Evolution of Centre-States Relations The present federal fiscal system has not evolved in a day or two but over a long period of time starting from the late eighteenth century.

Pravakar Sahoo is an Associate Professor, Institute of Economic Growth, Delhi University. Amrita Sarkar is an intern with the Institute of Economic Growth, Delhi. 18 YOJANA June 2013

changes in criteria for devolution of resources etc to fulfill the objectives of fiscal federalism viz., reducing fiscal imbalances and ensuring provision of equal level of public services like education, health etc across all states at similar rate of taxes. The most important aspect of fiscal federalism is the division of resources and functions between different levels of governments. The existence of fiscal imbalances is inherent in most of the federations since the division of resources goes in favour of the central government to achieve the objectives of stabilization and distribution. Similar is the case of Indian federalism where there is a mismatch of resources and expenditure responsibilities at different layers of government. T h o u g h i n t e r- g o v e r n m e n t a l transfers take place to reduce fiscal imbalances and provide average level of public services across the sub-national governments, there exist fiscal imbalances and regional disparities across the states even after 60 years of independence. The transfers from Centre to

States take place through three channels, namely, Union Finance Commission (UFC), Planning Commission (PC) and Central Ministries, of which the transfers from FC are predominant. Gross devolution and transfers (GDT) comprises of States share in central taxes (SCT), grants-in-aid and gross loans from centre. Gross Transfers to the states have been rising over past decades except for a dip in 2011-12. The UFC and PC take equalization as the most important general objective while making federal fiscal transfers. Therefore as required from time to time, different UFCs and PCs keep changing the method of federal fiscal transfers to ensure the objective of equalization. Different approaches by different UFCs have differential impact on the resource transfers to the states. The tax sharing is based on the general criteria like population, geography, backwardness, poverty ratio, inverse per capita income, distance formula, revenue gap etc. After the seventh FC, the high (almost 90%) weightage given

to population has been gradually lowered and alternative measures such as inverse formula and distant formula have been given more importance in sharing both income and union excise duties. However, these criteria have been multiplied by the scale factor population thereby giving more importance to population. The dependence of states on Central transfers varies depending on the capacity of the states to generate own resources. For high income states it varies from one-fourth to one-sixth of their revenues, for middle-income states between one-third to one-fifth (except for Chhattisgarh and West Bengal where dependency is much higher, almost 40-50%) and for low-income states it is quiet high ranging from 42-80%. In case of Special Category States, these Central transfers are very high varying from 64.98% to almost 93% of their revenue receipts. Haryana is the least dependent State on central transfers, followed by Punjab, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Goa. Given the need of the states, FC has been trying to

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transfer more resources to the States. For example, the share of the States in the net proceeds of central taxes and duties have increased from 29.5% in 11th FC to 32% in 13th FC. Issues between Centre and States With the inception of economic reforms in 1991, the responsibility of the States has gone up substantially in meeting the increasing need of the basic services of the people. Over the years, the centre has become stronger in terms of higher revenue potential while states got burdened with greater functional responsibilities in the areas of education, health, economic and social infrastructure, social security and welfare. This has increased vertical fiscal imbalance and also horizontal fiscal imbalances due to differential performance of the states during post-reforms period. As a result inequality across the states and within the states has increased with respect to providing public services. Further, the enactment of Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act (FRBMA) by the Centre which directs States to bring in discipline in the management of public finances has added pressure, particularly in improving productive assets of the poorer States. The fiscal discipline, though necessary, has resulted in decline in the share of capital expenditures in most of the states, particularly backward states. As States are depending more and more on market borrowing on the face of declining central loans to states that has led to reductions of the tenure but increased the cost
20

of borrowing and worsening state debt burdens. In central government transfers/assistance, over the years, a substantial amount of resources has been transferred by the Planning Commission and other ministries in which an element of discretion exists. It has been observed that there has been increase in discretionary plan grants in plan transfers through Central Plan Schemes (CPS) and Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS) instead of increase in State Plan Schemes (SPS). But more plan grants under the state plan schemes would ease the burden on the states resources and at the same time enable them to have more of free outlay to allocate resources according to States priorities. The UFCs schemes of fiscal transfers over the years, held to serve the dual objectives of equity and efficiency within the framework of fiscal consolidation, have been unable to ensure a fair distribution of resources between Centre and States and among the States leading to increasing regional disparities. This regional disparity has been the basis of formulating the horizontal devolution (across states). The intra-state disparity on the other hand has been an area which lacks in-depth research and opinion is divided on whether FC should consider this dimension of disparity while designing the Centre-state transfers. Given the varying taxable capacity across states and high revenue expenditure (almost 80% of total expenditure) with rigid components like subsidies, pensions, salaries, wages, interest payments, UFCs keep a portion

of the revenues from union excise duties to distribute exclusively to the net deficit states even after devolution of taxes and grants-inaid which is an encouraging step, particularly for backward states. Generally, population and geography are considered as the most important criteria for tax devolution as it is perceived to be the most important indicator of the general need of a state. This approach is justified when there are very insignificant differences in area, distribution of population and per capita income among states. But, there are significant differences in these indicators among the States in India. Keeping this problem in view, more weightage has been given to distance and inverse formula in last few UFCs but population has been used as the scale factor. This high weightage given to population may not result in more transfers to states which are underdeveloped and having low population. The central plan assistance is being given on the basis of Gadgil formula (changes have been made since nineties), which takes population, per capita income, tax efforts and special problems into account. The criteria such as fiscal performance, tax efforts, prudent fiscal management, and elimination of illiteracy and successful implementation of land reforms etc over the time have not helped states with differential fiscal and administrative capabilities. Decentralization Issues Following the 73 rd and 74 th Amendments to the constitution, India has become a threetier multi-level federalism. Along with Central and State
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Governments, India has 2.5 lakh local governments, comprising over three million elected representatives which makes India the largest democratic and federal country. The significance of the local bodies is measured in terms of the percentage of local governments to total public sector expenditure and share of local government expenditure to GDP. Compared to other countries in the world, India stands at the lower end of the spectrum with a share of local governments at only 5.1% of total public sector expenditure (Brazil-15%; OECD-20 to 30%). In fact this share has declined by over 20% in last five years (from 6.4% in 1998-99). The constitution spells out the task to the State Fiscal Commission (SFCs) to provide recommendations for the PRI institutions, both urban and rural, so that the consolidated fund can be augmented accordingly. However, it appears that most SFCs do not take their instrumental role seriously in helping to provide the said services and in laying the foundations for participatory democracy in the country. All UFCs have indicated several shortcomings and omission and commission of the SFCs. The main reasons are non-synchronization of the period of recommendation of SFCs and UFCs; lack of clarity in respect of the assignment of powers, authority and responsibilities of the local government; absence of time limit to take appropriate action; etc. The 13 th UFC has made a significant change in the devolution of resources to the third tier by assigning a share of the divisible tax revenue. This share is on an average 1.93% of
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the divisible pool of taxes for the period 2010-15. However, this devolution is a weak surrogate to cover up the failure of 13th UFC to employ a comprehensive measure of decentralisation. The criticism of THFC is the use of census 2001 numbers for calculating population shares of local grants-in-aid. Though there is no substantial information available about the administrative and financial efficiency of the PRIs in the state to carry out the responsibilities, it is generally believed that PRIs cannot function on their own due to lack of administrative and infrastructural facilities. Given the expenditure decentralization ratio and revenue mobilization by PRIs in the state, local bodies are not in a position to carry out the assigned expenditure responsibilities. Since the amount of grants and share in the taxes given through SFCs is very low, central government needs to transfer more funds to the consolidated fund of the State to fulfill the needs of PRIs. At the same time, as more and more of the states expenditure of the rural/urban local government is met by transfers from central government the autonomy of the states diminish likewise showing clear signs of the dependency syndrome. The magnitude and trend of the percentage of the central transfers to expenditure of the local bodies in 2007-08 for a few of the states are as follows : Andhra Pradesh 51.8%; Assam87%; Bihar 90.7%; MP-65%; Orissa-71.6%; Tamil Nadu- 39.4% and West Bengal 47.8%. Regional Disparity There is wide variance in the provision of basic services like

education, medical and other infrastructural facilities leading to discrepancies in major socioeconomic indicators like literacy rate, infant mortality rate, poverty ratio, and life expectancy etc. For example the highest IMR (per 1000 births) can be seen in lower income states such as Madhya Pradesh (2009) 67, Orissa (65), UP (63), Assam (61), Rajasthan (59) respectively where as it is much better in middle income and higher income states. Similar is the case of life expectancy and maternal mortality rate. A few states were able to attract investment (both domestic and foreign) and do better due to market reforms as well as their fiscal abilities to provide incentives and other utilities during post reforms period. Moreover, substantial changes in sectoral origin of income without appropriate re-distribution of population has created inequality both across the states and also within the states. Infact, India is currently in the first phase, the phase of increasing income inequality, of the inverted U of Kuznets curve. Therefore the role of central transfers to states is very important for ensuring provision of public services at a similar rate of taxation. It seems that the central transfers or centre-states financial relations has not been very successful in fulfilling the the main objective .i.e. to ensure equal provision of public services across sub-national government by reducing fiscal imbalances. 13th Financial Commission With the increasing inequality and requirement for fiscal discipline and macroeconomic
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stability, the scope of the 13 th UFC was much wider than any of the preceding UFCs. Besides the usual tax devolution and grants to fill the gaps in non-plan budgetary expenditure, it was expected to recommend several other grants for local bodies, grants dealing with environmental and nonenvironmental issues, and also design and implementation of the GST. It has placed the centre and more so, the states, in a multitude of conditions to micro-manage their fiscal system. These include fiscal consolidation, disaster relief, design and implementation of GST and specific problems accruing to specific states. If properly implemented, the conditionalities can be very effective in rationalizing the spending priorities of the States to ensure provision of minimum amount and standard of public services. However, complying and enforcing the conditions is a major challenge and some states have questioned the conditionalities in terms of their fiscal autonomy. THFC has enhanced the vertical devolution from 30.5% to 32% of the divisible pool of taxes. The horizontal distribution of this transfer is categorized as area (10%), population(25%), fiscal capacity(47.5%) and index of fiscal discipline(17.5%). Even after attaching high weights to fiscal capacity index, the horizontal formula has failed to increase aggregate share of devolution to low-income states, which remains stagnant at around 54% over the period of past three UFCs. This is while the shares of middle-income states have declined from 29.28% in 11th UFC to 25.8% in 13th UFC and share of high-income has
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increased from 9.75% to 11.19% during the same period. Wi t h t h e o b j e c t i v e o f maintaining long term stability in the relative share of centre and states in the total revenues, 13th UFC have set the target for transfers from all sources at 39.5%, marginally higher than the 12th FC (38%) which would be close to 4% of the estimated GDP. The centre is receiving huge revenues from sources such as telecom auctions of which the states get no share. There is also increase in the number of centrally sponsored schemes involving huge expenditure which exceeds the set limit. All this is going to reduce the relative share of the states sharply (Rao, 2010). The approach followed by 13th UFC is not very different from the past UFCs as the recommendations are made on the basis of projections made on actual revenues and nonplan revenue expenditures on a base year rather than estimating the fiscal capacities and the needs of the state for determining the transfers, which is not right. Deviating from past UFCs, 13 th UFC estimate entitlements based on fiscal capacity accords the factor a weight of 47.55 of the total estimation. This approach does not solve the issues regarding the earlier gap-filling approach and in fact has both conceptual and methodical glitches. The arguments given by 13th UFC in this regard are not convincing and it could have done well by using a better measure of fiscal capacity than simply taking the average tax-GSDP ratio of the state as the norm (Rao, 2010).

The objective of the transfers is to enable the states to provide comparable levels of services at comparable tax rates. But the 13th UFC does not make enough efforts to fulfill this criteria and in fact continues with the gapfilling which has in the past always affected the equity and incentives of the states adversely. Unlike the recommendation of 12th UFC of debt write-offs and rescheduling linked to fiscal adjustment, 13th UFC conditions on the states do not entail any incentive payments except in the case of those that did not pass fiscal responsibility legislation as required by 12th FC. Thus there is a issue in design and implementation. Further, the 13 th UFC report and recommendations have been criticized on many grounds. 13th UFC has recommended different fiscal adjustment path for Kerala, Punjab, and West Bengal which are states with high fiscal deficits. Among the 11 special category states, different fiscal adjustments have been suggested for Jammu & Kashmir, Manipur, Nagaland, Sikkim, Uttarakhand and Mizoram. The 13 th UFC base year for estimating fiscal discipline path is selective which is not fair and subjective in nature (Rao, 2010). On the other hand, existence of fiscal capacity distance and an index of fiscal discipline in the same horizontal distribution formula is a contradiction to achieving horizontal equity. This is because while the first tries to increase the fiscal capacity of the states, the second limits their expenditure according to their revenue. 13 th UFC prescribes a GST model for the country which
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does not fall in finance commission domain. Further, it assumes that GST would be revenue neutral to both centre and states, thereby ignoring to incorporate the impact of GST on the rest of its recommendations. Fourteenth Finance Commission The role of 14 th UFC is mandated with more burdensome responsibilities in fiscal, economic and social areas. The 14th UFC has been asked even to suggest measures to raise tax ratios of both Centre and States, improve performance of public sector enterprises, tackle challenges in ecology, environment and climate change. Also it is supposed to suggest measures to amend the FRBMA keeping in view its shortcomings. It has to address the rising trend of widening inequality in government spending across states and take action towards fiscal autonomy, which has been substantially eroded over the years by the implementation of fiscal consolidation path since the 10th UFC. It has got the job to assess the impact of GST and device a compensation mechanism for both centre and states and take the states in confidence, so that it can have higher acceptability. Overall, though efforts have been made towards a full-fledged federation, India continues to have greater vertical fiscal imbalances at different levels of governments and horizontal fiscal imbalance across the levels of governments. India has evolved a noble kind of federation which is completely different from the accepted notion of federation. The evolved Indian federalism is very unique in character and the Union-state relationship has also become extremely complex over the years. The role of PC, constitutional mechanism and working of various institutions will determine the future of Indian federation. The rising inequality in an increasingly market economy demands scientific approach for fiscal transfers from Centre to states so that the objectives of fiscal federalism of equality and the provision of providing public goods across states is ensured. There are few issues which remain in the domain of centre-states financial relations such as multiple channels of transfer; limited scope of UFC transfers; methodological weakness and too much reliance on the gap-filling approach, and multiplicity of objectives failing to focus on main objective of reducing disparities.  q
(E-mail :pravakarfirst@gmail.com pooja_amrita@ymail.com)
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do YoU know?
What is carbon trading? Carbon Trading refers to the buying and selling of the right to release carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases into the environment by various countries. The carbon trade across the world began in 1997 with the signing of Kyoto protocol in Japan by 180 countries. The Kyoto protocol called for 38 industrialised countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emission. Growing environmental pollution across the world has been a cause of concern to everyone. Rapid development and industrialisation have only added to the problem. Carbon is an element stored in fossil fuels such as coal and oil when these fuels are burnt, carbon dioxide is released. Carbon trading is like any other market trading. Carbon has been given economic value allowing people, companies or nations to trade it. If a company purchases carbon, it gets the right to burn it. Similarly, the country selling it, gives up the right to burn it. The carbons value is based on the ability of the carbon owning country to store it and prevent it from release into the atmosphere What is Participatory Note? Participatory Note (PN) is an instrument issued by registered Foreign Institutional Investor (FII) to investors abroad, who want to invest in Indian stock Markets without registering themselves with the market regulator, the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI). Trading through PN is easy because these are like contract notes which are transferred through endorsement and delivery. PN are said to constitute 15-20 percent of cumulative investments by FIIs. In 2007 SEBI had proposed curbs on PNs. This led to immediate reaction and the markets came cradling down. In view of this sharp reaction, the proposal was shelved. PNs are mostly used by overseas High Net worth Individuals (HNIs), hedge funds and other foreign institutions. These instruments allow them to invest in Indian markets through registered. Foreign Institutional Investors. (FIIs). These save time and costs associated with direct registrations According to a news agency report, SEBI data shows foreign investment into Indian markets through PNs rose to 1.64 lakh crore rupees (USD 30 billion) in February 2013. In January 2013 PN investment in Indian market was 1.62 lakh crore rupees. Investment into Indian shares through PN was Rs 1.77 lakh crore rupees in November 2012 and 1.75 lakh crore rupees in October 2012 on policy reform measures taken by the government and its initiative to address tax related issues. The quantum of FII investment through PNs increased to six month high at 12.33 percent in February 2013 from 11.83 percent in previous month. This was the highest figure since August 2012. Until recently PNs used to account for more than 50 percent of total FII investments but their share has fallen after SEBI tightened its disclosure and other regulations for such investment. Since 2009 PNs constitute 15-20 percent of FII holdings in India, while it used to be 25 to 40 percent in 2008. During 2007 PNs share was as high as 50 percent. q
(Compiled by Hasan Zia, Editor, Yojana, Urdu)

Young biologist wins Green Oscar for saving Arunachal hornbills

A young wildlife biologist who converted bird hunters into their saviours in remote forests of Arunachal Pradesh was awarded the 2013 Whitley Award, also known as Green Oscar, in London on Thursday. Aparajit Datta was among the eight conservationists from across the world to win the prestigious award and shared 2,95,000 pounds as the prize money. Datta leads a programme to conserve hornbills in the Indian Eastern Himalaya at the Nature Conservation Foundation (NCF), an NGO established in 1996 to promote science-based wildlife conservation in India, said a statement by the Whitley Fund for Nature. Hornbills are prominent birds of Asian tropical forests and Arunachal is home to five hornbill species. But their killing by locals for meat and habitat loss because of shifting cultivation had threatened their existence deep inside forests. Many tribals were not aware that due to their predominantly frugivorous diet, the brightly coloured birds with loud calls have always been considered important agents of seed dispersal in the tropical forest. A small and poor tribal group in Namdapha National Park, called Lisu, were hunting the birds and logging for their fuel needs. 24 YOJANA June 2013

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energY And EcoLogY

perspective

Constructing Change by Advancing Energy Efficiency

Radhika Khosla
watershed event in human history took place in 2008, when the urban population of the world outnumbered that of the rural. Cities, which occupy a miniscule 0.05 percent of the earths surface, are projected to hold an immense 80 percent of the worlds total population by the end of the twenty-first century. In India too, the rate of urbanization is unprecedented and two-thirds of the commercial and high-rise residential structures that will exist in the country in 2030 are yet to be built. This urban sprawl is creating unique challenges related to the natural environment. As a result, to prepare for the coming decades, policy makers need to think innovatively about planning for and taking action on a range of issues from ecological and energy implications to protecting public health. The current urban sprawl and unparalleled demand for the construction of buildings is also creating vast opportunities. Buildings already account for more than 30 percent of Indias total electricity consumption. Looking ahead, Indias building sector is expected to increase five-fold from 2005 to 2050. India is thus at a

unique crossroads with a singular opportunity to lock in energy and cost savings for the next several decadesby implementing energy efficiency in buildings that are being constructed now. The imperative for efficient construction is much more crucial than the individual savings from which owners and end-users benefit. Indias total energy requirement is projected to grow at 6.5 percent per year between 2010-11 and 2016-17, to support the countrys projected 9 percent growth rate. The meeting of this energy demand, however, is fraught with the challenges of peak electricity demand shortages, dependence on energy imports and vulnerability to the volatility in international energy prices. Furthermore, India is en route to becoming the worlds second largest emitter of greenhouse gases and is already experiencing the adverse impacts of climate change. Each of these challenges can be addressed significantly and effectively by making energy efficiency a central plank in the countrys long-term growth planning. To create this transformation in Indias building sector, action is required by a variety of public and

In a power-deficit country like India, energy efficiency can be a new kind of power plant that provides energy to millions who do not have access to it, and where economic growth can be driven by the savings from energy efficiency

The author is with India Initiative, Natural Resource Defence Council (NRDC). she has worked on Urban Climatology and building energy efficiency at the university of chicago for her Ph.D. 26 YOJANA June 2013

private decision makers. Two groups in particular are critical to this effort: state and local governments, and real estate developers. First, in the current policy climate, state and local governments are beginning to promote energy efficiency initiatives. Indias National Action Plan on Climate Change (2008) points to building efficiency measures as essential to carbon emission reduction. Several national missions that focus on scaling building efficiency have also been initiated, such as the National Mission on Sustainable Habitat and National Mission on Enhanced Energy Efficiency. Effective execution of these national and state level programs will be the key determinants of their success. State and local governments are vital for setting standards and supporting market leaders to accelerate energy efficiency. States across India are recognizing the importance of taking steps in this direction, for instance, by advancing plans to make building energy codes operational. The Bureau of Energy Efficiency launched the Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) for India in 2007. The ECBC establishes minimum requirements for energyefficient design and construction for buildings with a connected load of 100 kW/120 kVA or more and provides guidelines for building design, including the building envelope (walls, windows), lighting, heating, air-conditioning and electrical systems.States such as Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, New Delhi, Odisha, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal have all committed to advancing plans to make the ECBC operational in 2013 for new construction. Across the country,
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the tremendous benefits to be gained from ECBC adoption are being recognized by these states, as seen in the following graphic. Clear frameworks such as the ECBC can provide a necessary baseline for measuring energy efficiency benefits and success at the state and country level. Leadership by state and local governments is crucial to effectively overcome barriers and transform the building market to be cost-saving. Making the ECBC mandatory and implementing an effective compliance mechanism will ensure that all newly constructed energyguzzling buildings meet at least a minimum level of efficiency in their energy use. Along with the adoption of the building energy code, an enabling environment for code implementation and compliance is equally important. This is particularly relevant for the India. State governments can create environments that are conducive to code compliance by following a number of best practices. For example, the ECBC can be adapted to the states local climate conditions, so that it is applicable

to the climactic conditions of the geography in which it is being implemented. States can also form local steering committees that oversee ECBC implementation and ensure that the code is incorporated into the regions local laws. Another key factor is creating a skilled workforce with the knowledge base needed to check for quality control and effective building energy code implementation. States can develop this human capital by training municipal officers and empanelling professionals such as architects and engineers on code technicalities. Universities, professional organizations and nonprofit groups can assist in providing such training. Government agencies can also award developers with the most efficient building to drive market competition, and consider providing policy incentives to both developers and tenants or buyers who implement energy efficiency in new or retrofitted construction. In all cases, having structures in place for monitoring energy use and code-implementation are key to the successful uptake of efficient construction by the community.

Several states have announced plans to make the ECBC operational by 2012 for all new commercial construction, including: Andhra Pradesh, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal.
Haryana New Delhi Uttar Pradesh Rajasthan

Gujarat

West Bengal Orissa Andhra Pradesh Karnataka Tamil Nadu

Maharashtra

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Second, on the business side, real estate developers drive the demand for building construction. As coordinators of property developmentfrom purchasing land, financing deals and contracting with builders developers have a large influence over the markets adoption of efficiency practices. By becoming spokespersons for the business case of energy efficiency and through showcasing their firsthand experience of energy savings from buildings, developers will enable other builders across Indias booming cities to benefit from cost and energy savings for the coming decades. Real estate market players across the globe are recognizing the opportunities from energy efficiency and the increasing market demand for green buildings. The benefits to developers from investing in energy efficiency are also becoming more prevalent. These include: the energy and cost savings from reduced utility bills and reduced installations of diesel generators for back-up power; increased tenant demand by customers who are willing to pay higher rents for efficient buildings; and market leadership opportunities for developers who are ahead of the curve as local efficiency codes (such as the ECBC) become mandatory in the next two years. Indias real estate developers increasingly recognize the opportunities from being part of this forward-looking trend that demands world-class energy-savings in commercial and residential spaces. Currently, real estate developers at the local and national level lack awareness about the substantial financial and competitiveedge benefits to them from energy efficiency. This is one of the primary obstacles to rapid
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efficiency adoption. To move the market towards energy-saving buildings, developers can take action steps such as building awareness about the cost saving and market advantage opportunities from efficiency through peerto-peer education amongst their community. D evelopers are ultimately driven by the financial advantage, and champion developers canshowcase the business case for energy efficiency through joint case studies with developer associations and independent third-party organizations. Such studies can analyze the measured energy savings after an energyefficiency upgrade in buildings or portfolios of buildings. On the financing front, developers can leverage their relationships with financial institutions and banks to create and publicize financing mechanisms that incentivize energy efficiency investment by developers and end-users during building construction, purchase and upgrade. This is important since the higher upfront cost of energy efficiency investments can often be a deterrent to builders, even though the investment pays for itself over time and eventually results in higher cumulative savings. Developers can also work with local governments on policies to provide regulatory incentives to the real estate community that will encourage them to make efficiency investments. This includes creating innovative energy-aligned leases that equally distribute the savings from energy efficiency between the landlord and tenant, so that the savings from efficiency are reaped by the investor. Internationally, progressive developers are signing such energy-aligned or green leases with their tenants, which results in both parties benefiting from reduced

costs. Overall, having energyefficiency spokespersons from the real estate community is crucial to helping India achieve a reliable energy future while simultaneously significantly befitting the developer community. As India builds at an unprecedented rate in next few decades, there will be increasing demands for new infrastructure that is energy efficient, high performing and cost-saving. At the same time, the demand for energy will continue to rise, increasing the pressure on the already strained electricity infrastructure. Learning from the worst power crisis in history during the summer of 2012,the national and state governments are ramping up support of clean investment, including in buildings, to enable effective responses to Indias energy crisis. By implementing smart design features, better lighting, energy-efficient air conditioning and other cost-effective technologies, state governments and real estate developers can become champions that make businesses and homeowners realize measurable savings on their energy bills. It is important that stakeholders across the board recognize that energy efficiency is not just about saving energy, it is a new kind of energy source. In a power-deficit country like India, energy efficiency can be a new kind of power plant that provides energy to millions who do not have access to it, and where economic growth can be driven by the savings from energy efficiency. It is crucial to tap into this invisible resource of energy efficiency which will not only increase Indias energy security and save money but also help fight climate change, protect communities and the environment.  q
(E-mail :rkhosla@nrdc.org)

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UrBAn Environment
DiscUssion

Indias urban environmental challenges: Land use, solid waste and sanitation
Kala Seetharam Sridhar Surender Kumar
t is expected that by 2030 about half of the Indian population will be residing in urban areas. This pace of urbanization is already being accompanied by problems of water supply, sewage disposal, municipal waste, the lack of open landscaped spaces, air and water pollution, and public transport, along with others. Most of these environmental problems have their origin in unplanned development of cities leading to higher use of resources such as land and water. Many times, there is not even consensus as to which challenges are more important and need to be addressed. It is therefore necessary to have an understanding of Indias serious urban environmental challenges along with empirical evidence, to enable policymakers to examine them. grasslands ploughed or grazed, wetlands drained and croplands are encroached upon due to expanding cities. This is a challenge because it reduces green covers and increases the consumption of fossil fuels and GHGs emissions, and leads to increase in surface temperature 2. S o l i d w a s t e g e n e r a t i o n , collection and its management: This is a major challenge because a large amount of solid waste is left by the side of streets, to decay, which is a major source of health concerns. Further, there are no appropriate mechanisms to collect and dispose off the waste thus generated. 3. Poor sanitation: This is a challenge because there is still a large proportion of population which practices open defecation; hence this plays a role in the pollution of surface and groundwater sources. seriousness of the challenges Changes in land use/land cover: There is some evidence that there is steady erosion in the

each state and city needs to formulate its own sanitation strategy and their respective city sanitation plan respectively in overall conformity to the national policy

Leading urban environmental challenges India faces major environmental challenges in Indian cities as follows: 1. Changes in land use/land cover: As urban population increases, the demand of land for various urban activities also increases. Forests need to be cleared,

Kala Seetharam Sridhar is with the Public Affairs Centre, Bangalore and Surender Kumar with the Department of Business Economics, South Campus, University of Delhi 30 YOJANA June 2013

land cover of some cities in the country such as Bangalore. Kumar, Mukhopadyay and Ramachandra (2009) find a 46% increase in the built-up area of Bangalore from 1973-2007 leading to a sharp decline of 61% area in water bodies mostly due to the intense urbanization process. They also find that there was a decrease in the proportion of vegetation in the city from 68% in 1973 to only 25% in 2007, with progression in built area. Similar evidences are available from Delhi. The city is developing very rapidly mainly in the west, south-west and eastern sides. There was a reduction (17%) in agricultural land because of urban expansion in the fringe areas (Rahman et al (2009)). The study shows that out of Delhis total area of 148,375 ha, agriculture constituted 65,114 ha in 1992, and this declined by 12% to 54,153 ha by 2004. The major cause of this unprecedented decline in area under agriculture was due to an increase in urban area. There was also a considerable decrease in the ridge area, considered as the lungs of Delhi, from 6.7% in 1992 to 5.5% in 2004, because of continuous illegal tree cutting, quarrying and construction activity. Solid waste management Solid waste is a major source of environmental pollution in Indian cities and towns. The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) has estimated that by 2047, waste generation in Indian cities will increase five-fold to touch 260 million tonne per year, implying that the current solid waste generation is over 50 million tonne per year (Asnani 2006). A study by the World Bank (2006) puts Indias annual generation of municipal solid waste to be somewhat lower,
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i.e. in the range of 35 to 45 million tonne, amounting to about 100,000 to 120,000 metric tonnes every day. Asnani (2006) estimates the annual increase in the quantity of solid waste in Indias cities to be at the rate of 5 per cent per annum. Further, disposal practices at the solid waste open dumping sites are highly unsatisfactory. The poor management of solid waste has led to contamination of groundwater and surface water through leachate and pollution of air through unregulated burning of waste. Unscientific practices in processing and disposal compound the environmental hazards posed by solid waste. It is estimated that anywhere between 30-35 percent of the total waste remains uncollected from the city roads; similarly, the waste disposal services in most cities and towns are archaic and inadequate, and carry high environmental risks. The combined effect of the inefficiencies in collection, and inadequate and unsafe disposal is evident in widespread insanitation, contaminated water and high incidence of chronic respiratory and communicable diseases found in Indias cities. Table presents a distribution of the number of cities by the amount of solid waste that is generated. A more recent analysis of the trend in waste disposal in 22 of Indias cities by the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry shows that 14 out of the 22 cities send more than 75% of their waste to dumpsites, constituting a total of 15,785 tonnes per day of solid waste, indicating a lack of adequate treatment and disposal facilities. Even larger cities like Delhi and Mumbai which

ought to have better and more scientific treatment facilities have resorted to unscientific dumping of waste. In fact, Mumbai sends 100% of its waste to dumpsites while Delhi dumps 94% of its waste. In cities like Delhi, Faridabad, Greater Mumbai, Jaipur, Lucknow, Ludhiana, Pune and Surat which are at the higher end of the waste generation spectrum, more than 80% of the waste is disposed off in landfills. Sanitation Open defecation is widespread in urban areas of India. This situation is typical of India as well as other developing countries. In India, roughly 12.04 million (7.87%) urban households do not have access to latrines and defecate in the open (National Urban Sanitation Policy). Approximately 5.48 million (8.13%) urban households use community latrines and 13.4 million households (19.49%) use shared latrines. The status with respect to the urban poor is even worse. The percentage of notified and non-notified slums without latrines is 17 percent and 51 percent respectively. In respect of septic latrines the availability is 66 percent and 35 percent. More than 37% of the total human excreta generated in urban India, is unsafely disposed. This imposes significant public health and environmental costs to urban areas that contribute more than 60% of the countrys GDP. Impacts of poor sanitation are especially significant for the urban poor (22% of total urban population), women, children and the elderly. The loss due to diseases caused by poor sanitation for children under 14 years alone in urban areas amounts to Rs.500 crore at 2001 prices (Planning Commission-United Nations
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Number of Indian Cities by Per Capita Waste Generation Kg per capita < 0.20 0.20 0.30 0.30 0.40 0.40 0.50 0.75 1.00 > 1.00 Total NCU estimate (1988) 9 21 8 7 45 ORG estimate (1989) 4 6 11 8 2 1 35 CPCB estimate (2004-05) 4 13 16 12 1 0 59

Source: Sridhar and Mathur (2009)

International Children Emergency Fund (UNICEF), 2006). Policies to address the challenges Land use: A Task Force on Governance, Transparency and Participation in the Environment and Forests sector was set up by the Planning Commission in August 2006. One of the major recommendations of this Task Force was that the Government of India should immediately activate or re-constitute the National Land Use Board and charge it with the responsibility of developing a policy and long-term perspective plans, which guides the process of conservation and sustainable use of land and water across the country. Such a National Policy and Perspective Plan on Land and Water Use (NPPPLWU) should be mandated by an appropriate law and specify and map lands/water for specific uses, including biodiversity conservation, subsistence and domestic use by local communities, commercial use by communities, and industrial/urban use. Clear priority needs to be given to ensuring ecological security and the livelihood security of those most dependent on biodiversity. This policy should aim towards a demarcation of the following
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categories (of which categories a to d should not be subjected to largescale industrial, infrastructural, or commercial development, but focus on the provision of basic livelihood and developmental amenities to resident communities): a) A r e a s c r i t i c a l f o r w i l d biodiversity conservation (e.g. most current protected areas, community conserved areas, biosphere reserves, ecologically sensitive areas); b) Areas critical for domesticated biodiversity conservation, sustainable agricultural systems; and local/national food security. c) Areas c r i t i c a l f o r o t h e r ecosystem benefits, such as water flows and recharge, soil fertility, coastal protection, and others (including, for instance, all sources of major rivers, immediate catchments of lakes, mangroves/coral reefs, relatively intact forests and grasslands with high water retention and absorption abilities); d) Areas critical for sustainable extraction and use of natural resources and cultural/ livelihood security, including forest, wetland, marine, grassland, agricultural/pastoral and other ecosystems, with

primacy given to the domestic and livelihood needs of traditional local communities; these would to some extent overlap with the above three categories; e) Areas other than the above, which can be used for producing industrial raw materials, locating industries, urban expansion, infrastructural development, and other such land/water uses; f) Large ecoregions demarcated on biodiversity and cultural criteria, cutting across various land/water uses and some across state political borders, for integrated planning purposes, including Biosphere Reserves, river basins. These areas should be demarcated clearly at national and state levels, and an overall land/ water use atlas depicting them should be produced. It should be noted that there will be some overlap amongst categories (a) to (d) and (f) above. g) The NPPPLWU should be evolved through a widespread process of consultation with diverse stakeholders and rightholders. At both micro and macro level, it should encourage a combination of community-based natural resource mapping incorporating cultural and customary rights, and perspectives with modern scientific tools and understanding. Solid waste: As far as a desired level of service is concerned with respect to solid waste, various committees have recommended 100 percent collection of the generated waste, with its proper disposal. For instance, see the Report of the Third Working Group on Norms
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and Standards for Provision of Basic Infrastructure and Services, prepared for State Finance Commissions, 1995. To implement this 100 percent norm, Indias urban local bodies are guided by the directives in the Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 2000, issued by the Ministry of Environment and Forest, government of India. These directives are as follows (see Asnani, 2006): a. Prohibit littering on the streets by ensuring storage of waste at source in two bins (one for biodegradable waste and another for recyclable material); b. Primary collection of biodegradable and nonbiodegradable waste from the doorstep at pre-informed timings on a day-to-day basis. c. Street sweeping covering all residential and commercial areas on all days. d. Replacement of open waste storage containers with closed ones. e. Transportation of waste in covered vehicles on a day to day basis. f. Treatment of biodegradable waste. g. Minimize the waste going to the landfill. According to a study by Da Zhu et al (2008) of the World Bank, the composition of Indian waste is such that close to 55% is organic and can be converted into compost and another 15 percent is recyclable. modern waste-toenergy plants in other countries have been providing sustainable means of waste management, with minimum side effects on the environment. One example is of SEMASS, a waste-to-energy
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facility in Massachusetts, in the US, which uses 1 million tonnes of municipal solid waste to generate 600 million kilowatt-hours of electricity every year and recycles 40,000 tonnes of metals. The annual toxic emission is less than half a gram annually. This seems like a win-win situation for everyone, which Indian cities should more proactively adopt. Sanitation: The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) enjoin upon the signatory nations to extend access to improved sanitation to at least half the urban population by 2015, and 100% access by 2025. This implies extending coverage to households without improved sanitation, and providing proper sanitation facilities in public places to make cities open defecation free. The overall goal of the National Urban Sanitation policy is to transform Urban India into community-driven, totally sanitized, healthy and liveable cities and towns. The specific goals of this policy are: A. Awareness Generation and Behaviour Change B. Open Defecation Free Cities In order to achieve this goal, the following activities have been proposed: a. Promoting access to households with safe sanitation facilities (including proper disposal arrangements); b. P r o m o t i n g c o m m u n i t y planned and managed toilets wherever necessary, for groups of households who have constraints of space, tenure or economic constraints in gaining access to individual facilities; c. Adequate availability and 100 % upkeep and management

of public sanitation facilities in all urban areas, to rid them of open defecation and environmental hazards; C. I n t e g r a t e d C i t y - W i d e Sanitation Re-Orienting Institutions and Mainstreaming Sanitation a. Mainstream thinking, planning and implementing measures related to sanitation in all sectors and departmental domains as a cross-cutting issue, especially in all urban management endeavours; b. Strengthening national, state, city and local institutions (public, private and community) to accord priority to sanitation provision, including planning, implementation and O&M management; c. Extending access to proper sanitation facilities for poor communities and other unserved settlements; Sanitary and Safe Disposal 100 % of human excreta and liquid wastes from all sanitation facilities including toilets must be disposed of safely. In order to achieve this goal, the following activities shall be undertaken: a. Promoting proper functioning of network-based sewerage systems and ensuring connections of households to them wherever possible; b. Promoting recycle and reuse of treated waste water for non potable applications wherever possible will be encouraged. c. Promoting proper disposal and treatment of sludge from onsite installations (septic tanks, pit latrines, etc.); d. Ensuring that all the human wastes are collected safely
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confined and disposed of after treatment so as not to cause any hazard to public health or the environment. Proper Operation & Maintenance of all Sanitary Installations a. Promoting proper usage, regular upkeep and maintenance of household, community and public sanitation facilities; b. Strengthening ULBs to provide or cause to provide, sustainable sanitation services delivery; The Government of India recognizes that sanitation is a state subject and on-ground implementation and sustenance of public health and environmental
References

outcomes requires strong city level institutions and stakeholders. Although there are some common elements across urban areas of India, there are a number of factors, constraints and opportunities that are peculiar to specific situation of states and cities with respect to sanitation, climate, physiographic factors, economic, social and political parameters, and institutional variables. Therefore each state and city needs to formulate its own sanitation strategy and their respective city sanitation plan respectively in overall conformity to the national policy. Summary and conclusions Overall, summarizing, we find that Indias major urban

environmental concerns pertain to changes in land use cover, solid waste management and better management of sanitation to make cities open defecation free. Based on the estimates of the high-powered expert committee on urban infrastructure, finances still are the biggest constraint to management of Indias urban environmental concerns. However, there is hope. There are a large number of win-win situations such as roping in private sector partners for better solid waste management q and sanitation. 
(E-mail : kalaseetharam@gmail.com surendekumar@gmail.com)

Asnani, P.U. (2006) Solid Waste Management, in India Infrastructure Report 2006: Urban Infrastructure, Kumar, Uttam, C.Mukhopadhyay and T.V.Ramachandra (2009) Spatial data mining and modeling for visualization of rapid urbanization, SCIT Journal, Vol.9, August. Rahman et al., 2009. de Sherbiniin, A., A. Rahman, A Barbieri, J.C. Fotso, and Y. Zhu (eds.). Urban Population Environment Dynamics in the Developing World: Case Studies and Lessons Learned. Zhu, Da., P.U.Asnani, Chris Zurbrug, Sebastian Anapolsky, Shyamala Mani, (2008) Improving solid waste management in India: Source book for policy makers and practitioners, World Bank Institute, Washington, DC.

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wiLdLiFe And EcoLogY

recommendAtion

Western Ghats and Wild Life Preservation

P K Sujathan
What I would like to say is scripted by God in trees, flowers and clouds. So, I will not desist from planting trees for fear that the universe is nearing its end. -Martin Luther King

Above all, Social forestry with a stress on exploitation of renewable forest resources may also be encouraged. Earnest efforts should also be taken to minimise the fragmentation of wild life habitat

estern Ghats, as the name implies, refers to the impregnable Ghats located at the western side of India. It is the beautiful, critical and invaluable bounty of nature. It is believed that Western Ghats is roughly 500-700 lakh years old i.e older than the Great Himalaya. It is the habitat and biological hotspot of 5000 flora, 16 never ever seen endemic birds, 179 omnivorous species and 191 pure water fishes. It is 1600 km in length and 900 meters in height and stretches from Thapthi river of Gujarat to Kanyakumari of TamilNadu. It is pervasive throughout 6 states of India viz Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The toppest peak of Western Ghats is Anamudi found in the Idukki District of Kerala. The major seven clusters of Western Ghats are Agasthyamala, Periyar, Anamala, Nilagiri, Thalakkaveri, Kudhramukh and Sahyadri. The direct and indirect needs of around thirty crore people of these six states for drinking water and irrigation are invariably met by Western Ghats.

Ta k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e ecological mainstay and traditional significance, Western Ghats have been added to the enviable list of UNESCOs world heritage sites on July 1, 2012 at a meeting in the Russian city of St. Petersburg. Being a treasure trove of biodiversity, the Ghats irrevocably needs tender treatment and unfailing protection. Thirty nine sites of the Ghats have been selected as heritage sites by the World Heritage Committee. The Committee viewed that the Ghats represents geomorphic features of immense importance with unique biophysical and ecological processes. However, it is dolesome to note that the Ghats is subjected to rigorous exploitation of mankind. The ecological imbalance and the irregular rhythm of nature is mainly attributed to the unfettered axing of trees and thus paving the way for the desertification of the zone. The concomitant occurrence of flood and drought, soil erosion, landmining etc are the deleterious fall-outs of the deforestation drive of mankind. The Red Data published in 2012 signal that the flora and

The author is Research Officer, District Planning Office, Civil Station Palakkad, Kerala 36 YOJANA June 2013

fauna of the Ghats is increasingly depleted and decimated over the years. Silent Valley, one of the must see destinations in a mans life also belongs to the Ghats and is on the verge of premature death. The major threats are a. Unscientific methods of fishing such as electro fishing, dynamiting, industrial effluents, introduction of exotic species (the food preference of exotic species is similar to that of endemic species and will adversely affect the progeny of endemic species.) b. I l l e g a l m i n i n g i s f o u n d rampant especially in Goa and Karnataka. Mining activities badly necessitate enormous quantum of water which in turn causes siphoning off water into mining pits. Naturally, there is dearth of water for farming and drinking. c. Indiscriminate sand mining and the profiteering of sand mafia also tell upon the health of the Ghats. d. The large scale thermal plants such as cement, iron and steel in the states of the Ghats heighten the temperature of

nearby regions by dissolving toxic chemicals from air. In addition, thermal power plants emit Fly ash containing lead and mercury which is deposited in river and thereby turn detrimental to the reproductive cycle of fishes. e. N o t s u r p r i s i n g l y, t h e unprecedented increase in farm houses in the hill become more consumers of energy as construction fervor is on the upbeat in the Ghats region. f. As a result of the aforesaid nefarious activities, sacred groves are malevolently weeded out and thus displacing and dispossessing the tribals. Western Ghats Development Programme Having understood that preservation of the Ghats and its wildlife is the need of the hour, the Govt of India, following the mandate of the National Development Council, promulgated the execution of the Western Ghats Development Programme in the Fifth FYP (1974-79). Although, at the outset, emphasis on and priority for was accorded to the expansion

of economic activities, there was a paradigm shift from the Nineth FYP onwards wherein watershed based development approach became the watchword. The key objectives, therefore included a. To make use of land and water in the vicinity in a judicious manner so as to tide over soil erosion, drought etc and thereby improve availability of water, food, fodder and fuel. b. To execute in letter and spirit watershed based development programmes with the help of watershed society. c. To select a vibrant Programme Implementing Agency to prioritise the implementation of locally felt needs. d. To optimize the use of natural resources and assure the safety of forest. e. To establish proper linkage between watershed committee and Financial Institutions. f. To assure equality and social justice for the destitute and women. g. To foster watershed based research programmes. h. To bring about entry point activities such as protection of pond and water tank, infrastructure development, construction of food bridge, digging common well, electrification, construction of open auditorium, irrigation pumpset, drainage etc. Modus operandi implementation of

As part of its execution, a watershed committee comprising of the president of the local body concerned as the chairman or the chairperson and agriculture
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officer as the convener would be constituted. The committee is required to gather information on the watershed with the help of the resource map of the Panchayat. Thereafter the problems of the watershed area such as poverty eradication, improvement in infrastructure, trends in agriculture production etc and their suggestions and solutions would be charted out on a priority basis with the help of local people. On this basis, a draft action plan comprising the following areas would be prepared threadbare. a. Why action Plan? b. Information on the watershed area such as its total length, location, features of the soil, slope of the land etc.

c. Major objectives of the scheme. d. Tr a in in g a n d a w a r e n e s s programmes, administrative expenses etc e. Preparation of watershed master plan, topo sheets, cadastral map etc f. Period of implementation (usually three years) g. Approval of the governing body of the respective local bodies. Finally the District Level Coordination Committee, the apex committee at the district level under the chairmanship of the District Collector would accord final endorsement for the action plan. Out of the

total outlay, 80% would be the share of WGDP, 10% is the contribution from local body and the remaining 10% would be the contribution of the beneficiaries. It is also possible to construct footbridges the cost of which, should not exceed Rs2 lakh. Madhav Gadgil Committee Report Madhav Gadgil, famous ecologist, was deputed to be the chairman of Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel. The main objective of the Committee is to study the ecological and environmental issues hovering around Western Ghats and give salutary recommendations. Prof Gadgil submitted the report in August 2011 to the Union Ministry

Ecologically Sensitive Zone (ESZ) Zone #1 Zone #2 Do not give new licenses for mining. Mining Where mining exists, it should be phased out in 5 years. Existing mines should be under strict regulation and social audit.

Zone #3 Allow New mining license only ifscarce minerals not available on the plains. Existing mines should be under strict regulation and social audit. Allow new industries but with strict regulation and social audit.

Polluting Industry (Red/ Orange) Non polluting industry (green/blue) River projects/dams

Do not allow new industries. Existing industries must switch to zero pollution by 2016 or else close them down. Allow, but with strict regulation and social audit No river projects higher than 3 meters. Not higher than 15m

Power plants

Do not allow new power plants.

Any height allowed but with detailed environmental impact assessment. Existing power plants may be allowed with strict regulation and social audit. New plants allowed only if theyve zero pollution. Allowed, but only with strict regulation and social audit.

Transport Tourism
www.mrunal.org

No new railway lines and major roads, except where it is highly essential (e.g Goa),

Avoid new highways, Expressways Waste management, traffic, water and energy use to be strictly regulated.

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of Environment and Forest. He submitted Ecologically Sensitive Zones (ESZ) into three zones. Zone 1: Needs highest protection. Zone 2: Needs intermediate protection. Zone 3: Needs moderate protection. The Committee recommended to constitute Western Ghats Ecology Authority. This will have jurisdiction over the Western Ghats districts in six states i.e. Karnataka, Maharashtra, T. Nadu, Goa, Gujarat and Kerala. Kasthurirangan Committee The Kasthurirangan panel was set up by GOI to study the Gadgil committee report on Western Ghats. The Committees report was brought to light on 18/04/2013. Some of the crucial recommendations are a. There should be complete ban on mining activities in Ecologically Sensitive Areas (ESA). b. The ongoing mining activities should be banned within 5 years or as and when mining lease is expired. c. 90% of the natural forests left in the Ghats to be conserved under the ESA provisions. d. The Panel did not recommend an outright rejection of the Athirapally hydroelectric project in Karnataka and Gundiya Dam in Karnataka. e. The forest area falling within the ESA covers 4156 villages and so the villagers should be involved in decision making on the future projects. f. The township or construction over the size of 20,000 sqm in the ESA to be banned. Conclusion Establishment of National Parks and National Sanctuaries is the best way to foster ecofriendship and develop green growth. Above all, Social forestry with a stress on exploitation of renewable forest resources may also be encouraged. Ernest efforts should also be taken to minimise the fragmentation of wild life q habitat. 
(E-mail : idofsujathanpk@gmail.com)

YOJANA June 2013

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YE-41/2013

Batch Begins
Almost all selected students with Philosophy optional (Hindi or Eng. Med.) are related with 'PATANJALI'

A Tradition of Excellent Results

M.A. (Eco.)

M.A.

M.A.

M.B.B.S.

L.L.B (Hons.)

B.Tech (Chem. Engg.)

S. Sathish Kumar

Rank-137

Smriti Tripathi
M.A. (Eco.)

Rank-151

B.Tech-M.Tech

B.Tech (Elec.Engg.)

Saurabh Gupta
B.Tech.

Rank-360

BATCH BEGINS

Philosophy has played pivotal role in the final selection of a large number of students in comparison to so called other popular subjects.

N IO S IS M PEN D A O
YE-42/2013

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YOJANA June 2013

Environment And river sYstem

stAte-speciFic

Problems in Flood-Prone River Basins

Dinesh Kumar Mishra

It was imperative on the part of the government to work on improving the drainage, widening the span of culverts and bridges and remove impediments to the flow of water to the extent possible

ater logging is one of the major problems of land degradation in India. Unscientific management of soil, water and crops in irrigated lands and obstruction of natural drainage systems by various developmental activities are the main factors responsible for disrupting the balance of inflow and outflow of water, leading to water logging. While irrigation has increased by leaps and bounds, its attendant problem of water logging is now plaguing substantial area of agricultural lands. says the Report of the Report of the Working Group on Flood Management and Region Specific Issues for XII th Plan. Water logging is a problem that has not received the attention it deserves leading to the loss of agriculture, one of the major employment source in the flood prone areas of India. We shall go into some details of the problem with special reference to Bihar.

density of 1102 persons per sq.km. It is rated one of the highest flood prone state in India with normal rainfall of 1205 mm and 53 rainy days annually. Water logged North Bihar North Bihar, the plains located north of the Ganga in Bihar, is interspersed with eight major river basins; the Ghaghra, the Gandak, the Burhi Gandak, the Bagmati, the Adhwara group of rivers, the Kamala, the Kosi, and the Mahananda. The Ghaghra and the Mahananda enter the state from Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal respectively. All other rivers entering North Bihar, with the exception of the Burhi Gandak, come from Nepal. This river too has considerable catchment area in Nepal. The flat terrain and the huge variations in water volume in the rivers cause extensive flooding in the North Bihar plains. Ground slopes vary from 22 centimeters per kilometer near the Indo-Nepal boundary to 7.5 centimeters per kilometer near the confluence of the rivers with the Ganga. The difference between minimum and

BiharA Profile Bihar (population of 103.8 million-2011 Census) with a geographical area of 94,163 sq km has a population

The author is Convenor, Barh Mukti Abhiyan, Bihar and an expert on India's river system. YOJANA June 2013 41

maximum flows in Himalayan rivers is high. During normal years, the rivers carry between 10 and 20 times more water during the monsoon than in winter, but during times of intense rainfall in the catchment areas they may increase in size a hundred-fold. water logging raises its head himalayan rivers contain large amounts of sediment during the monsoon. The heavy downpours in the mountains scour the slopes and turn the swift waters into a muddy brew. As they reach the plains and lose momentum, the rivers deposit their loads and begin to meander. Rivers like the Kosi have been notorious for changing course. Available records suggest that the river was flowing about 160 km east of its present course some 200 years ago. The lateral movements of rivers cause erosion and loss of land, formation of land depressions called chaurs that remain water logged for years before they become productive. There is a series of 49 chaurs in East and West Champaran running from northwest to southeast suggesting that the Great Gandak must have been passing through that route in past. The case of the Bagmati, the Kamala and the Mahananda is no different either. This has made a considerable portion of the land in Bihar waterlogged, a phenomenon that has been exacerbated by development. Natural drainage has been impeded by embankments, canals, roads and railway tracks. Official records suggest that nearly 9.42 lakh hectares (lha) of land in Bihar, 8.36 lha of which is located in North Bihar, suffers from water
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logging. This constitutes about 16 per cent of the total area of North Bihar which has a population of 66.09 million people (2011 Census) and an area of 52,312 sq km implying a population density of 1263 persons per sq. km. It also implies that over 10 million people are hit by water logging even if the rainfall in the state is normal or deficient. Economy of North Bihar is predominantly agricultural and if the land remains water logged, it cannot be ploughed and if it cannot be ploughed no agriculture is possible over it. This throws the farmers engaged in agriculture out of employment and it results in massive migration to greener pastures within the country and abroad. British Legacy: developing irrigation, ignoring Water logging:development of irrigation in early nineteenth century in India by the British had shown good results to start with in drought prone areas of the country. They tried to develop the same in the flood prone areas also. They wanted to control floods in the first instance and once flood is controlled, spilling of water through river banks would be checked and that will create the need for irrigation. They wanted to make money on both the counts, providing flood protection followed by agriculture, so as to maximize profits. They failed, however, miserably in Orissa and in Bengal. Attempts to tame the Damodar in mid-1850s by embanking the river led to the rise of the river bed, water logging on the flood protected countryside, drainage congestion,

malaria and frequent breaches in the embankments. They found that if an embankment protects the countryside, say for ten years, and breaches in the eleventh; all the benefits accrued over ten years are offset by that single incident in the form of relief and rehabilitation. They never ventured to control any heavily silt laden river thereafter. Failure of providing irrigation in flooded basins cautioned the British about venturing in irrigation. In 1871-72, the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal summarily rejected the proposal for an inundation canal from the Gandak in Champaran citing example of tampering with the Damodar in Burdwan district saying that the proposed canal would add to water logging and spread malaria, the farmers will use the canal water only at the time of scarcities which were not very common in Champaran those days, the canal was unlikely to meet its expenses and the interest over the capital might not return. This proposal was put once again before him during the famine of 1874 but he did not concede the demand. However, some smaller projects like the Saran Canals and Teur Canal were taken up following the famine of 1874. Even these canals could not be run profitably as elsewhere because water was not needed in all the years and there was no reason for the farmers to pay for the services they were not availing. Embankments along the rivers put by zamindars along these rivers were also causing obstruction to free passage of water into the rivers and subsequent water
YOJANA June 2013

logging. Two more canals were taken up in North Bihar following the famine of 1896, the Tribeni Canal and the Dhaka Canal, both in Champaran, and they never met the expectation that they were built for. These canals were laid in west to east direction while the land sloped from north to south. The result was that the canals caused extensive water logging if they remained in place during the rainy season and caused huge damages if they breached. There was no third course available. The British only expressed their concern over water logging in the flood-prone areas but they never took up the issue seriously to find a remedy as it was not rewarding to them. So much so that when Robert Green Kennedy, a young engineer working with the irrigation establishment of the British (west Punjab-now in Pakistan), found in 1873 that only 28 per cent of canal water released from headwork reaches fields and the remaining 72 per cent seeps into the ground and raises water table and resulting in water logging. He was transferred to the battle fields of Afghanistan for revealing state secrets. The tradition continues No lessons were learnt from those projects and when projects like the one on the Kosi and the Gandak were taken up in the middle of 1950s and 1960s respectively resulted in same miseries that were faced by the British over hundred years ago. Water Resources Department (WRD) of Bihar suggests that 1.82 lha of land is waterlogged east of the eastern Kosi Embankment.
YOJANA June 2013

Another report of the Special Task Force on Water logging (1988) of GoB says that 90,450 hectares land below the 145 feet contour line is waterlogged west of the western embankment of the Kosi. North of this contour line another 33,749 hectares is reported to be waterlogged in Saharsa, Samastipur, Darbhanga and Madhubani districts. This figure does not include chaurs ( land depressions) measuring less than 50 acres (20 hectares). Thus, a total of 1.24 lha of land is waterlogged west of western Kosi embankment bringing the total water logged land in the Kosi basin alone to 3.06 lha. The Kosi Project (1953) had an irrigation target of 7.12 lha but it never irrigated more than 2.13 lha of land and this happened only once in 198384. A recent study conducted at IIT Mumbai suggests that 2.11 lha of land is water logged under the Gandak Command. Second Irrigation Commission of Bihar (1994) feels that out of the total water logged area of 9.42 lha in the state, 2.5 lha is beyond redemption. There is not much of difference between the approach of the British and the post-independence scene as far as water logging is concerned. This is not the case with Bihar alone. The other states like Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Assam, West Bengal, coastal Odisha etc are equal sufferers of this menace. What water logging means to people In technical terms, when the water table in the ground rises so high as to reach the suction zone of the roots of plants, oxygen

supply to the plant is cut off, its growth is hampered and output dwindles. The roots also suck the salts that are dissolved in water. Most of the water sucked up by the roots is transpired by the leaves leaving the salts known as reh on the earths surface rendering it unfit for cultivation. This is what water logging does to the land. But unwanted water does much more. It converts fertile land into stagnant pools of water. Water encircles and engulfs villages, making them inaccessible and unapproachable: boats must replace bicycles and bullock carts as the mode of transportation. It reduces a landlord into the owner of a waste land cast with water. It converts rice crop into a crop of frogs, crabs and snails. It turns a farmer into a daily wage manual worker, and the manual worker to an unemployed destitute and edges him out of his village to look for employment elsewhere. It pushes the family into an endless wait for money orders from distant places. It deprives parents of the care they are entitled to from their sons. Massive migration of labour and all the problems related to such migrations are an obvious corollary to this situation. Can something be done to face the problem? Clearing water logging is not as glamorous job as providing irrigation. While dealing with water logging one has to accept that the problem is man-made as drainage has always suffered the cost of unplanned development as all the economy in any building work is observed in providing drainage. Construction
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of roads, railways, embankments, canals, encroachment of flood plains etc goes on unhindered and by the time the problem manifests, it is already too late. The flood of 2007 in Bihar is a classic example of evading the problem and not analyzing the problem in right perspective. The state suffered one of the worst floods in recent past as detailed below. The Bagmati Floods of 2007: The rains that started on the 1 st July, continued till 2 nd August and disrupted the life of the people in the entire North Bihar. Despite prolonged rains and subsequent flooding no major river of North Bihar touched the recorded highest flood level (HFL). In the event the damages caused by the floods should have been less, but that was not to be. The floods were accompanied with large number of breaches in the embankments, canals, roads and railway lines that led to moderation of floods and its levels but further drainage congestion prevented the moderated floodwaters from flowing out for over two and a half months. This years floods had hit 22 districts, 264 blocks, 12,610 villages, and a population of 2.48 crores, according to official sources. The flood ruined standing crops over an area of 16.63 lakh hectares, destroyed 7.37 lakh houses, killed 960 human beings and 1006 animals.

Water Resource Department of GoB had constructed 3430 kilometers long embankments till then along the Bihar rivers (it has 3629 kilometers long embankments at the moment 2012 figures) through which it intends to protect its 29 out of 69 lakh hectare of flood prone area. These structures, on which the GoB had so much faith as a barrier between the people and the river, breached at 32 places. National and State Highways had breached at 54 places in this flood while there were 829 breaches in the village roads. Besides, 1353 bridges and culvers were destroyed in the floods this year. Faulty Priorities It was imperative on the part of the government to work on improving the drainage, widening the span of culverts and bridges and remove impediments to the flow of water to the extent possible. But it chose to raise and strengthen the embankments along the rivers instead of allowing flood water to flow as freely as possible. But is raising the height of the embankments any solution to the problem facing the flood victims? Will it, anyway, reduce the discharge or the sediments coming between the embankments? Will it prevent the rising levels of the riverbed between the embankments? Will there be any

reduction in seepage through the embankments or betterment in the water logging conditions outside of the embankments? Will any engineer guarantee that such raised and sturdy embankments would not breach in future? The answer to all these questions is a big no. Stronger and higher the embankments, greater would be the risk on to the population in the countryside. Raising and strengthening of the embankments can only improve the road communication till such time they exist and not washed away due to a breach in the embankment. To attain this, it is being propagated that this is done to control floods because that is what sells. Providing for irrigation has, of course, been an all time agenda, the success of which has been questionable but its evil effects are not. One can only hope that the problem gets adequate appreciation of the powers that be. It would be better to evaluate the impact of all these developmental works and proceed accordingly. The British had demolished a large part of embankments on the Damodar in the later half of 1860s without making it a prestige issue when they found that the structures did not perform a according to expectations. Can we take some lessons and proceed in right q direction? 
(E-mail :dkmishra108@gmail.com)

Yojana Web- Exclusives Yojana announces the launch of a new service named 'Web-Exclusives' for the benefit of its readers under which selected articles would be put up on the website of Yojana : www.yojana.gov.in. Announcement about the articles under the Web-Exclusives section would be carried in the Yojana magazine of the month but these articles would not be carried in the paper version of Yojana. We are carrying the following articles under the Web-Exclusives section of Yojana on its website: 1. Reaping the Information Dividend through Social Media- Dr. Sanjay Tiwari 2. Citizen Voices to Promote Environmental Governance: Towards an Equitable and Inclusive Development- Arvind L Sha & J Jangal Please send in your comments and suggestions to us on yojanace@gmail.com 44 YOJANA June 2013

YOJANA June 2013

45

YE-38/2013

Best prActices

Pipes of prosperity
Ranjan K Panda

udhuram Paharia of Bainsadani village in Odishas Nuapada district is scripting a success story. He, along with his villagers have set an example that makes them proud. They have shown how, with minimum encouragement of support, such so called backward villagers can do wonders. They have fought a perennial drought with their community efforts.

family get the nutritional security, says a happy Budhuram. Yet to recover from a horrifying past, he now hopes things will take a happy turn. My eighteen year old daughter migrated to Hyderabad last year and earned seven thousand rupees. Her marriage was due but she wanted to buy a piece of gold for her before getting married. However, it was not possible even with what she had earned. For a minimum of half tola of gold we needed eighteen thousand rupees and I had to sell almost all of my paddy to fetch that, said Budhuram for whom giving a minimum amount of gold to daughters is must as per their existing community practices. My daughter got married but I had to borrow money. I hope with the improved production I can repay the debts and also earn a dignified living, says he. Each of the eighty families of the village have such stories to share. All of them have benefitted from this initiative and are happy. A remote village with acute crisis Bhainsadani village is located at about a distance of hundred kilometers from the remote district of Nuapada in Odisha. The village, as almost all other villages of this parched district, is known for acute water scarcity. They have as much as five tube wells but none
YOJANA June 2013

Livelihood options in the farm sector were diversified due to the action taken by the people. One small outlet of the pipe is feeding 24 hours water to one of the WHS and the WHS is having water all over the year now

Budhuram has a meagre two acres of medium quality land where he cultivates paddy. This year, as he expected, he got 30 quintals of harvest from these two acres, a record of life time. But it was not the case before one year says Budhuram. I was waiting for the rain for tilling of the land and to sow seed. If the rain arrived late or there was a dry spell during the cropping season, the crop used to fail. Usually, I was getting less than 8 quintals previously he adds. Budhuram is responsible for this positive change. He and fellow villagers, with help of local NGOs, decided to divert the water of a nearby stream through PVC pipes. Budhurams two acres got irrigated and the production increased dramatically. Now he gets a second crop as well. I have taken up vegetables as second crop which will help my

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fetch water beyond December. Even the five tanks and four other water harvesting structures dont yield much. In fact, this part of Odisha is showing rapid trends of desertification. The government has spent crores of rupees in the village but nothing has worked in bringing water to this village. The government programmes have always been planned from outside and have failed for various reasons including corruption, says Ajit Kumar Panda, a leading social worker of the district. In fact, quantity alone is not a problem here. Quality is also a major issue. Water quality in the hand pumps is not good due to iron content. So even during rainy season, when water is available, they are not potable, informs Panda. The villagers thus have to depend on two open wells which are their main source of drinking water from January to July. There are two open wells in the village which are the main sources of drinking water from July to January. One of the open wells is located below a pond a traditional water harvesting structure (WHS). As soon as the WHS dries, the open well also dries. The villagers then depend on a stream for 5 months. The stream is perennial and kilometers away. Scarcity always made the people think about diverting water from the stream and they had approached the government officials several times, to no avail. The government helped in taking other measures but the idea of tapping stream water did not catch their imagination. But then things changed as an NGO called Vikash intervened. Government came to rescue, NGO helped in irrigation The villagers had been approaching the Block Development Officer (BDO) regularly seeking support for provisioning water for the village. They also went to the
YOJANA June 2013

District Collector but nothing was moving forward. Whenever we went to the BDO he would say he will talk to the officials of the drinking water supply department. In fact the BDO talked to the officials and instructed them to provide drinking water in tankers, said Bhudhuram adding, He also instructed the Executive Officer of the Panchayat office to take permission of the Palli Sabha and Gram Sabha for renovation of the existing ponds and tanks under MGNREGS. Things materialized and the RWSS department provided drinking water in the tankers. Subsequently, funds were provided under MGNREGS for renovation of existing water bodies in the village during 2008-09. Two new farm ponds were also dug during 2010-11. But, the situation did not change. Crops failed during 201011 due to dry spell. The tankers provided relief from drinking water woes but irrigation was still eluding. It is then Vikash, an NGO came to know about this village and started interacting with the villagers. Vikash believed in participatory planning and local based solutions and hence decided to consider the suggestions of the villagers in the diversion of the stream water. Nabpallav, another local NGO, also joined hands in this. Through a series of meetings the villagers and NGO personnel devised a plan. It was decided that the stream water will be brought through PVC pipes to the water harvesting structures and the agriculture fields. We decided to approach a donor agency for supporting the purchase of PVC pipes and the villagers decided to do the entire work by donating their labour free of cost, informed Panda. We managed the support from JRD Tata Trust and the entire work was over in three months, added he.

Micro support, macro impacts The result was visible in no time. The villagers got irrigation facilities in both Rabi and Kharif seasons. The crops in the village were primarily dependent upon rainfall. The soil structure in the village is such that, the farm lands dry suddenly if there is no rain for 7 to 8 days leading to crops failure. This was a permanent problem for the people of Bhainsadani village. But after effort was taken, the people have now access to irrigation for 166 acres during Kharif and 20 acres during Rabi. Drinking water is available for all the households. There are water pots is all the hamlets of the village. The targeted households are cultivating vegetables and maize during Rabi season apart from doing paddy during the Kharif in 168 acres of land. An important change in the cropping pattern is marked. Almost all the households were cultivating paddy by direct seed distribution. But, when water is available now, most of them have taken paddy transplantation. The farmers are also using water for cultivating vegetables in the backyard of their homes. Here, in Bhaisadani, not only water security was attained but food security followed. Livelihood options in the farm sector were diversified due to the action taken by the people. One small outlet of the pipe is feeding 24 hours water to one of the WHS and the WHS is having water all over the year now. The well below the WHS, that used to dry up in summer, is now holding water round the year. The efforts have shown tremendous results in short span of time. The villagers are determined to sustain this. Budhuram and fellow villagers are planning to take several new initiatives to make their village a model of development in this q underdeveloped region. 
(E-mail : ranjanpanda@gmail.com)

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YOJANA June 2013

YE-35/2013

BiodiversitY And deveLopment

wAY ForwArd

Urban Biodiversity : Growth and Development of Nct Delhi

Meenakshi Dhote
elhi stretches along the banks o f Ya m u n a r i v e r between 2812N 2853N and7650E - 7723E latitudes and longitudes respectively. Located in the SemiArid Biogeographic zone; the natural vegetation of this zone consists primarily of Tropical Thorn Forests. Delhi is also situated on the water divide (i.e. the Aravallis) dividing the two mighty river systems- the Ganga draining into the Bay of Bengal and the Indus falling in the Arabian Sea. It is therefore not surprising that Delhi has not only been strategically important but also physiographically important. a river ecosystem The Yamuna River, 51km. length in NCT, Delhi; and 9700 ha of floodplain. Growth of the city up to First Master Plan The Aryans who entered India from the steppes of Southern Russia and Central Asia in the second millennium B.C. had a capital named Indraprastha, which tradition and archaeology have identified with Delhi.. Dating from 1000B.C. the epic Mahabharata recounts the capital city of Pandavas Indraprastha. B.B.Dutt in his book, Town Planning in Ancient India mentions the high level of importance given to choice and placement of flora and associated fauna in the cities of this era. The Mughals laid down a number of their beautiful gardens in Delhi, six of which exist even today - five in Old Delhi and one in New Delhi. The Jahanara Garden or Queens Garden around Town Hall. Qudsia Bagh near the Interstate Bus Terminus (ISBT), Roshanara Gardens near Shakti Nagar. Shalimar Bagh and Beriwala Bagh

Growth and development of an urban area modifies and creates a biodiversity; and the capital city of India, makes a good example for a study of Urban Biodiversity

Growth and development of an urban area modifies and creates a biodiversity; and the capital city of India, makes a good example for a study of Urban Biodiversity, as inspite of rapid urban growth it still retains a large area (19% of developed area under planned green and also, within the heart of its urban area lies a forest ecosystem The Ridge, 7782 ha of Arid scrub forest,

The author is Professor of Environmental Planning & Co-ordinator, ENVIS Center on Human Settlements, Department of Environmental Planning, School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi. YOJANA June 2013 49

near Azad Market. The Jahanara Garden is a typical specimen of a Mughal garden, replete with a pond and water channels. There are some ancient date palms growing along with other species of trees. The Talkatora Gardens in New Delhi, and Old Mughal Garden laid out by Shahjahan, has a few 300 year old tamarind trees, in addition to many other beautiful trees. When Lutyens was entrusted to take the stupendous task of planning the Imperial city of Delhi; familiarization with the terrain was the first task. In one of his many sojourns north and south of Shahajahanabad and the east bank of the Jamuna, he notes Buck of all sorts, baboons,monk eys,jackals,hare,porcupine,water snakes, great fish, great tortoises which eat babies,snake,bats,flying fox,vultures,weird birds and many lovely ones, a lizard of sorts, yellow and dry and three feet long. The advent of the British and the subsequent shift of the capital to Delhi in 1912 changed the landscape of Delhi. The city was planned to accommodate 30,000 to 57,000 persons in ten square miles.A meticulous plan was made for lining the avenues and setting gardens in consonance with Lutyens design of New Delhi. Their tree-planting efforts road by road, which extended through the winter of 1919 up to 1924,consisted of a list of 121, of which the British chose only a handful. The choice was based on what was indigenous; shade giving, stately and long lived, in that order of preference. Species planted included Neem, Tamarind, Jamun, Arjun, Banyan, Peepul, Siris, and Pilkhan and Willow fig.
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The British period spans the settlement development stage of industrial society and classical age. Here, both the ecosystem diversity and organismal diversity were modified. Also, emergence of the biodiversity which are vectors of diseases, pests started increasing in a large way. As part of classical planning, avenue plantation, large expanses of formal greens, manicured garden estates created protected areas for a few species of flora and fauna. These were modified ecosystems and species/ organismal diversity compared to the original ecosystems. The number of exotic species and domesticated fauna grew steadily. Stray animals were seen frequently as human settlements started becoming sources of food,which was increasingly unavailable due to modification of habitats in the surrounding hinterland. Following the British planning of Delhi the next major spurt of development occurred during the partition. Growth towards the west of the Ridge occurred during this time. Prime agricultural land was taken up for urbanization. Many orchards were razed to accommodate residential areas. After independence the city grew steadily and in 1962 the first Master Plan for Delhi was notified .The work studies have recorded the landuse and environs in 1958-9. These indicate that urban area of Delhi constituted about 11.7% of the total union territory.The major natural features includedThe ridge,the Yamuna river,the Najafgarh Lake and drain.The northern and eastern parts were

dotted with marshy areas.Most of the streams flowing from the ridge in south Delhi were also present. We can infer that most of the natural features were present till the independence. Biodiversity status upto 1962 An overview of the data sources indicate that at the level of ecosystems, there is representation of ecosystems that are characteristic of semi-arid biogeographic regions. The listing of species indicates that large to small fauna were present in the terrestrial and aquatic habitats. Introduction of exotic species in fruit gardens and gardens attached to large residences and public buildings had begun. Avenue plantation, consciously propagating native species is a gift of the planning exercise of the British. Proliferation of stray animals in dense settings also seems to be fallout of the citys expansion. Growth of Delhi from 1962 to present During the British Regime, Delhi was a District in Delhi Division of the North West Province of Punjab. After independence it was accorded the status of Union Territory, presently called the National Capital Territory of Delhi. Subsequently, the urban area has increased from 17,290 Ha to 58,285 Ha from 1958 to 2001 i.e. from 11.7% of the Union Territory to almost 40%. By 2021 the urban sprawl would be almost 56.5% according to the development plan and by the speculation trends it would be almost 66%,i.e.98,054 ha (DDA estimates)
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The 1958 landuse classification indicates area under agriculture, urban,ridge and orchards,waterbody and flood plains of river. In 1996 this classification constituted urban, agriculture,forest,river/waterbody, wasteland, farmhouses, open land, plantation, open scrub, quarry, wildlife sanctuary and roads. Here again the major transformation has been the conversion of cropland to urban built up area. Attempt has been made to maintain the forest cover quantitatively ,however qualitatively the density has gone down. Some agricultural lands have been sold to make farmhouses, where a large variety of exotic species thrive. Documentation of flora and fauna during this period indicates introduction of exotics and hardy species. Prolifiration of smaller and hardy mammals seem to have started. Master Plans of Delhi The Master plans of Delhi both 1962 and 1981 had also proposed a network of green spaces within the urban limits to meet the recreation needs of the people and to function as lung spaces. These had their genesis in the London County Plan prepared by Sir Abercrombie and Haussmanns plan for Paris and Ebenezer Havards garden city. MPD-2001 had proposed 8,722 ha as area under recreation which was @ 9.7 sq.m per person. Further conversion of recreational areas to other uses could only be carried out under special circumstances. Although, the green area in Delhi is managed by different agencies, DDA has the largest role to play with over 5050 ha (aprox.) under
YOJANA June 2013

its jurisdiction. The green cover in the capital is 19% of the total area which is much larger than other cities. The level of hierarchies in the planning of greens by DDA as per PDP 2001 are Regional Parks, District Parks, Neighbourhood Parks, City Forests, Historical Landscapes, Sport Complexes, Landmark Greens, Green Belts, Tot Lots etc. In planning and development of Regional Parks, City Parks care has been taken to reduce all artificial landscaping; therefore areas under the Ridge and areas possessing remnants of natural growth come under this category. The other categories of greens work towards creating an overall socio-physical environment for the city serene gardens, bustling picnic huts, lively musical fountains and joyous play fields along with childrens parks. E c o s y s t e m a n d O rg a n i s m a l Diversity of Delhi Delhis Ecosystem Diversity can be classified into a variety of ecosystems. The ecosystem diversity has been based on the physiographic characteristic of

Delhi and has been divided into six categories detailed in the table-1: The process of urbanization has modified most of the above ecosystems- lowlands have been encroached by urban development, natural forests have been denuded, many storm water drains have been covered up or stopped abruptly, and lakes and ponds have been filled upon or converted into garbage dumps. Apart from the modification of the spatial extents of these ecosystems, qualitatively the ecosystems have degraded. The species composition and vegetation densities in the forests have changed. The water quality of existing lakes, drains have deteriorated. Infact the water quality of River Yamuna has been classified as E (CPCBs nomenclature for Designated best use, indicating the river water to be unfit for any use). Interestingly enough, it is observed that of the recorded Delhi fauna, there are 24 species belonging to Schedule I of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 and 15 species of these also feature under Appendix I of CITES. All these belong to vertebrates except one-which is an invertebrate (Lepidoptera).

Table-1 1. LOWLANDS - Flat agricultural/ horticulture, grazing lands 2. HILLS, - R o c k y o u t c r o p s w i t h a r i d vegetation 3. FOREST ECOSYSTEMS - Dry deciduous arid forest of the Ridge. 4. VALLEYS - Natural storm water drains. 5. FRESHWATER WETLANDS - Lakes and ponds. 6. RIVERINE ECOSYSTEM - River and flood plains
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Among the vertebrates 6 species were Mammals, 11 species of birds and 6 species of reptiles-belonging to Schedule-II. This is itself is sufficient to be more conscious of Delhi environment and conserve the bio-diversity wealth. Delhi has the distinction of possessing the largest number of bird species compared to other metropolitan cities in India. This could be also due to the presence of the major Asian flypath of birds along the River Yamuna. Habitat Scales for Biodiversity Assessment

Table -2: Landuse and habitats (meso scale)

S.No. Use Zone Habitat ** Category 1 RESEDENTIAL Primary Residential Zone Open scrub Mixed Residential Zone Unplanned/Informal Residential Zone 2 COMMERCIAL Retail Shopping Zone General Business Commercial District/ Cliff &caves centers

Wholesale, Godown, Warehousing, Regulated Markets.

3 MANUFACTURING Service and Light industry Open scrub Extensive &Heavy Industry Special Industrial Zone Hazardous, Chemical and Noxious PUBLIC &SEMI-PUBLIC Govt./Semi Govt./Public Offices Cliff &caves Govt. Land(Use Undetermined) Open scrub to woodland Educational &Research Open scrub to woodland Medical &Health Open scrub to woodland Social, Cultural& Religious Open scrub Utilities &Services Open scrub Cremation &Burial Grounds Open scrub to woodland RECREATION Playgrounds, Stadium, Sports Complex Open scrub to woodland Parks &Gardens (Public open spaces) Open scrub to woodland Multipurpose Open Space (Maidan) Open scrub to woodland TRANSPORTATION &COMMUNICATION Roads Railways Airport Open scrub Sea port &Dockyards Bus Depots Truck Terminal & Freight Complexes. Transmission &Communication AGRICULTURE Agriculture Open scrub Forest Woodland Brick Kilns &Extractive Area Water Bodies Wetland SPECIAL AREA Old Built-up Areas Heritage & Conservation Scenic Value Areas Open scrub to woodland Village Settlement Other Uses

Habitat disaggregation would vary depending on the scale of the study. The area of NCT Delhi is 1483 sq.km., which is a meso habitat. The urban area of Delhi is 582.85 sq.kms.; is also a meso habitat. At the scale of NCT Delhi, only major ecosystems can be identified and assessed or their biodiversity value. However, at the scale of urban Delhi and planning zone level i.e. Zone A to P (11.6 sq. km.to 229.8 sq.km.), which are also meso habitats, landscape elements such as patch; corridor and matrix can be recorded. Landuse and Habitats At the NCT level (Meso habitat) and Urban Area level (Meso habitat ) the landuses can be further classified into habitats (Table-2). The landuse of urban area of Delhi, is available from the master plans. A review of the Master Plan approach, in 1996, brought about the Urban Development plans formulation & implementation guidelines (UDPFI Guidelines). The landuse classification as suggested there
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Source; UDPFI guidelines** This classification is subject to change depending on availability of scientific data. At present it is somewhat subjective

YOJANA June 2013

in have been analysed to arrive at habitat typology. It has been observed that habitat quality within similar landuse zones varies with respect to
l

Table-3 Air pollution sinks within open and green spaces (performed by parks, city forests ) Regulation Functions Control of runoff and flooding. (performed by open spaces and wetlands) Regulation of the hydrologic cycles (performed by open spaces and water bodies) Supports the biological diversity in the city in many areas. (parks, open spaces, water bodies, certain built up areas) Prevents soil erosion and sedimentation in certain areas (planted areas) Regulation of the local and global climate (planted areas) Carrier Functions Provides food and raw materials in terms of vegetables, flowers, fruits .(Agricultural fields ,orchards, gardens) Conservation of energy in the city through controlling the micro climatic variations (parks, forests and waterbodies.) Provides recreation and tourism in many areas. (parks, water bodies) Integrates urban man to the nature Produces oxygen (green areas.) Production Functions Recharges the ground water tables in many areas. (open spaces in potential recharge zones) Provides medical resources. (many trees, plants used as home remedies) Produces raw materials for some of the human activity, Aesthetic information. Information Functions Spiritual and religious information Cultural and artistic inspiration. Scientific and educational information source.

Density of Development eg. Single family residential (bunglows, plots) or Multi family residential (flats, group housing) Ground Coverage of Buildings i.e. the effective open soil/ unpaved area available as habitat for flora and fauna. Age of the locality - Preindependence development has mature trees, native species, Post 1962 Master Plan developments have quick growing, flowering trees and exotics. Size of the Landuse Zone since each landuse is a Patch as per landscape element classification, landscape metrics, such as patch size, perimeter to area ratio etc. would effect the species composition therein.

Urban Open/ Green Spaces Of Delhi

Environmental role of Habitats In the case of Delhi, if we analyze the natural resource profile to understand the extent to which they contribute to environmental protection, the role of urban open spaces seems to be most important, as indicated in table-3: It follows therefore, that detailed analysis would be required to estimate the contribution made by various types of open/green spaces.

A preliminary exercise to the above would be an understanding of the attributes of various landuses and their potential to contribute to the above functions. It would also be worthwhile to attempt to study the species richness and biodiversity

index of some of them, to appreciate their biodiversity status and corelate the same to environmental quality and thereby making a case q for their conservation. 
(E-mail:meenakshidhote@gmail.com)

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NortH eAst diArY

PanidihingA Paradise of Birds

Mouchumi Gogoi

iodi V ersity pro V ides material and nonmaterial wealth in the form of food, fiber, medicine, happiness, peace, and so on for human communities. Loss of biodiversity means jeopardize of prospect and progress of human society.

Assam is a part of global biodiversity hotspots, rich with innumerable biotic diversity. Panidihing (270 4.5/ N to 270 10/ N latitudes and 940 25/ E to 940 40/ E longitudes) - a unique and important bird area is a Protected Area (PA) situated in Sibsagar district of Assam. The Bird Sanctuary (BS) was constituted with a total area of 33.93 sq. km. The location of the sanctuary is 19 km northeast of the Sibsagar town. The National Highway-37 is running just 9km south of Panidihing. And the nearest airport Rowriah (Jorhat) is about 75 km towards east. It is surrounded east, north and south by peopled villages. The Brahmaputra River flows in the north-western side of the PA. On the other hand river Dishang flows in the southern part of the PA. Panidihing Bird

Sanctuary established on 10 th August, 1999 by a State Government Notification. The sanctuary is well known for many bird species which are very endangered and enlisted in the threatened species list. It is important to note that this bird sanctuary has also been revealing ecological and geotourism value. But it is observed that this biologically rich sanctuary has lost its earlier status of ecological and geotourism significance in recent years due to misuse and unwise use

has significant geo-ecological, economic and social importance in North-East India in general and Assam in particular. What Panidihing is Famous For? At present, there are 21 important protected areas and 46 IBAs in Assam. It is known that 820 bird species are observed in different parts of the state, which include 280 migratory species. Panidihing sanctuary is very rich in biotic diversity as mainly because of congenial climates, flat fertile alluvial plain and water bodies. The geographical position of the sanctuary is in between the Kaziganga National Park and Dibru-Saikhowa Biosphere Reserve; as a result the migratory birds at the time of their journey get rest, find foods and shelters here. The sanctuary is well known for mainly for water birds. Panidihing was once the home of around 165 birds species, of which 96 were identified as local and 69 were listed as migratory species. But, in recent past the numbers of species have been seen in the sanctuary surprisingly gone down for many reasons. Important bird species

of its biodiversity. The problems of channel shifting and bank erosion of the river Dishang are the major problems for the Sanctuary the past years. Therefore, for the sustainable development of the sanctuary, it is high time to take some positive and serious steps to protect the biodiversity of the area, specially the birds diversity. Panidihing

The author is Assistant Professor of Geography, Moran College, Assam. Dr. K. Kalita is Assistant Professor of Geography Tinsukia College, Assam YOJANA June 2013 55

observed in Panidihing are-White Stork, Black Necked Stork, Lesser Adjacent Stork, White Breasted, Fishing Eagle, Common Crane, House Crow, Jungle Crow, Open Billed Stork, Paddy Bird, Spotted Billed Pelican, Gray Heron, Barn Owl, Spotted Owl, Small Blue King Fisher, Common Gray Horn Billed, King Crow, Black Crown Night Heron, Yellow Bittern, Red Headed Vulture and White Goose etc. On the other hand, a number of threatened species are also observed in Panidihing (Table). B e s i d e s , b i r d s s p e c i e s Panidihing Sanctuary is also rich for its local fishes (viz. Amphipnous cucia, Channa striatus, Channa orientalis, Channa amphibian, Channa marulius, Colisa lalius, Channa punctata), trees (viz. Dalbergia sissoo, Bombax ceiba,, Lagerstroemia speciosa, Dillenia indica, Barringtonia acutangula, Zizyphus jujube, Acacia catechu) and grasses (viz. Erianthus ravaneae, Phragmites kerka, Imperata arundinacea, Imperata cylindrical, Typha elephantine, and Meyraudia reynaudiana). It is important to note that the sanctuary is also famous for its wetlands. Some
Sl.no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Species Endangered Critically Endangered Vulnerable

of the important wetlands (locally known as Beel) are located inside Panidihing are-Phulai, Balijan, Ghoka, Singorajan, Dighali, Jorjoria, Gela Demow, Uzantoli, Lalitankur, Sogunpara, Kandulijan, Goroimari and Kekurakhati. These beels are the congenial habitat for the waterfowls. The Mising, Kalita, Nepali, Ahom, Deori, Mazdur and Koibarta communities of the surrounding villages (Majumelia Gaon, Somorajan, Sorogua Gaon, Bakulduba, Demowmukh, Lepai Gaon, Samukjan, Dighaldariali, Milankur ,Uzantoli, etc) are some way depend on their livelihood on the Sanctuary. However, it does not imply that they are totally dependent on Panidihing. Fishing Communities, animal rarer and the firewood collectors are some way rely on the sanctuary. The villagers in and around of the sanctuary play impotent role in maintenance and balancing the sensitive ecology of the area. Panidihing Needs Attention! Panidihing is the home of as many as 165 species of birds species is facing a numbers of problems in recent years.
Name Greater Adjutant Oriental White-black Vulture Slender-billed Vulture Spot-billed Pelican Lesser Adjutant Black-breasted Parrot bill Swamp Florican Greater Spotted Eagle Pallass Fish Eagle Bears Pochard Darter Black-neck Stork Ferruginous Pochard

As many as thirteen (13) species of Panidihing are enlisted in the threatened species list. Of which, Greater Adjutant is listed as endangered species and Oriental White Black Vulture and Slender-billed Vulture are listed as critically endangered species. Panidihing is mainly famous for waterfowls, because of its congenial habitat and availability of substantial wetlands. About 12% are of the PA is covered with wetlands. It is found that there are fourteen (14) numbers of Beels (wetlands) located inside PA, which is of different size and depth. These beels are also the home of different variety of local fish, which are the important sources of food for the waterfowls. Easy and economic mode of communications are still lacking in Panidihing for better monitoring, management and implementation of plans, policies and procedures. Floods, siltation and erosion are the recurring phenomenon of the sanctuary; hence, it is disturbing and also slowly altering the ecology of the sanctuary. Grazing, firing and illegal fishing inside the PA is common scene in Panidihing. As many animal rearing, milk producing and fishing communities are living around the PA, therefore, grazing and illegal fishing are still common practices inside the sanctuary Encroachment of many pockets of the sanctuary for agriculture and shelter is still going on. This practice is yet to be
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Threatened Species of Panidihing

Near Threatened

Source: Field data & different literatures

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controlled by the authority in strong hands. Hunting and poaching are still practiced in near and far areas in the Sanctuary. Birds of the area are primarily hunted and poached for food, fun and trade. Man-power i.e. staff for smooth management of the sanctuary is not enough to look after the Sanctuary. Panidihing can be developed as one of the important tourist spots of Assam, which is yet to be developed. As Sibsagar district has enough scope for develop a Geotourism Circuit, Panidihing can also be brought under the same umbrella. What can be done in Future? The following important steps can be underscored for the future wellbeing of the sanctuary. The clear cut demarcation and well-fencing boundary by all sides and zoning of the sanctuary asi) Core Zone or Natural zone ii) Buffer & Restoration zone and iii) Transitional zone Infrastructure development for overall development of the sanctuary is the urgent need of the sanctuary. Good approached roads may be constructed according to the need and demand of different parts of the PA. Small wooden boats are the only means of communication in Panidihing particularly during the rainy seasons. Therefore, electronic pollution free motor launcher and mobile vans can be used for the easy and speedy mode of communication and protection of the sanctuary.
YOJANA June 2013

The administrative set-up of the sanctuary must be improved to a considerable extent. The existing wildlife camps at Sorogua, Chitolia and Desangmuhk are not enough for the regular looking after the sanctuary. Besides, adequate numbers of forest guards and trained staff may be urgently recruited for the proper protection and management of the sanctuary. Hazards as floods, erosion and siltation are the common in Panidihing. Flood water enters inside the PA almost every year and inundated different parts very badly. Along with the flood water heavy siltation also taken place in beels. As a result, few beels of the sanctuary have been reduced its sizes in the past few years. This situation directly hampered the avifauna and other wildlife of the PA. On the other hand, shifting of channels and bank erosion of the rivers drains in the PA also put tremendous pressure on the PA. Therefore, it is very urgent to take necessary steps to reduce the entry of flood water during the rainy seasons. Besides, the excessive water should be draining out from the PA through proper channel systems. The wetlands of Panidihing are the home of hundred species of waterfowls such as Crane, Heron, and Egrets etc. Important to note that out of total 138 threatened birds species in India, more than 55 depend on the wetlands. It also provides food and shelters for many other wildlife. Monitoring and the assessment of different wetlands of the PA in time to time will help to observe the process of changes

taking place in ecological character in the wetlands over a period of time. Hence, proper management of these wetlands needs urgent attention from concern counters. Although, Panidihing is famous for waterfowls, but the grasses of different parts of PA has always been providing foods and shelters for many grassland birds and mammal species. It is observed that about 70% of Panidihing is covered by grasslands. But, due to grazing, fire and collection of thatches by the villagers put the grassland tremendous pressure on it. Therefore, to manage the grasslands of the sanctuary it is important step for protection of the sanctuary. The luxurious growth of water hyacinth and other harmful weeds should be stopped to manage the grassland of the area. Research, monitoring and development of overall conservation and management are the vital aspect of the sanctuary. Without proper research activities it is not at all possible to take any necessary steps towards the scientific management of Panidihing. However, all the scientific endeavors of Panidihing should be need- based and result oriented. The authority of the sanctuary should provide the maximum research facilities to the individual researchers also, so that they can progress their research without any difficulties. T h e t o u r i s t p r o d u c t s o f Panidihing can be easily promoted in the near future, if it is taken into serious consideration. A comprehensive tourist circuit
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can be developed by linking the important tourists spots of Sibsagar district with Panidihing to boost-up the wildlife & of the area. For promotion of tourism of the area, state government should take different steps to promote tourism of the area with the help of local people of the area. Prints, electronic and other media services could be used to highlight tourism of the area. Allocation of sufficient funds by the State & Central Government, Government undertakings, Industrial Farms, Wildlife Funding Agencies, Private Enterprises and NGOs can support directly or indirectly for the proper management of the Sanctuary.

The Oil, Tea, Timbers and Coals Companies of the area may take some bold steps towards the development of the sanctuary. P u b l i c a w a r e n e s s a n d education regarding wildlife conservation is need for biodiversity conservation. Public awareness can be imparted through organization of public meeting, awareness camps, street play, movie show, various competitions among school childrens and popular talks etc. The government organization, agencies and the NGOs of the area may take various programmes in this regards. The increase of rapid population and the lack of their

proper knowledge about the importance of biotic diversity have been threatening the biotic diversity in many parts of the world. The protected areas of the world are facing numbers of problems day by day mainly due to natural and anthropogenic causes. However, every problem has also their solutions along with them. Panidihing Bird Sanctuary is also going through certain problems in past years. Its avifauna is also not out of danger from various corners. However, to preserve and conserve the avifauna, particularly the waterfowls of Panidihing, implementation of scientific management strategies and research activities are the need of q the hour. 
(E-mail :Dr.Moug@rediffmail.com)

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All India Rank 32 in UPSC - 2012

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YE-36/2013

indigenoUs knowLedge
coUnterpoint

Protect Indigenous Biodiversity and Knowledge

Vandana Shiva
t is estimated that 2 billion people worldwide are iron deficient, including 1 billion people who have iron deficiency anemia (IDA) In India75% of the children <5 y old and 60% of young women have anemia regulation of body temperature, muscle activity, and catecholamine metabolism. Lack of iron directly affects the immune systemdiminishes the number of T-cells and the production of antibodies. Deficiency of iron in diet leads to Iron deficiency anemia. Iron deficiency in pregnant women is a major cause of maternal mortality and childbirth deaths. Destruction of Biodiversity and iron deficiency Nature has given us a cornucopia of biodiversity, rich in nutrients. Malnutrition and nutrient deficiency results from destroying biodiversity, and with it rich sources of nutrition. Our indigenous biodiversity offers rich sources of iron. Amaranth has 11.0 mg per 100gm of food, Moringa (Sahjan or drumstick) 28.26, buckwheat has 15.5,neem has 25.3,bajra has 8.0,rice bran 35.0,rice flakes 20.0bengal gram roasted 9.5,Bengal gram leaves 23.8, cowpea 8.6,horse gram6.77, amaranth greens have 38.5, karonda 39.1,lotus stem 60.6, coconut meal 69.4,niger seeds 56.7,cloves 11.7,cumin seeds 11.7.mace 12.3,mango powder (amchur) 45.2,pippali 62.1,poppy seeds 15.9,tamarind pulp 17.0,turmeric 67.8,raisins 7.7.. Iron absorbtion is increased with vit C, that is why we have always eaten chutneys with our meals. Cooking in iron vessels increases the iron content of food. The Green Revolution has spread monocultures of chemical rice and wheat, driving out biodiversity from our farms and diets. And what survived as spontaneous crops like the amaranth greens and chenopodium (bathua)

Iron Deficiency: A Public health Emergency Iron is necessary for many vital functions in the body including formation of haemoglobin, brain development and function,

Recommended Daily Dietary Allowance for Iron Men Women Adult Adult (age 50 on) Adult (ages 19 to 50) Pregnant Lactating Adolescents (ages 9 to 18) Children (birth to age 8) Girls Boys Ages 4 to 8 Ages 1 to 3 Infants (7 months to 1 year) Infants (birth to 6 months) www.bcguidelines.ca/pdf/iron_deficiency.pdf 8 mg 8 mg 18 mg 27 mg 9 mg to 10 mg 8 mg to 15 mg 8 mg to 11 mg 10 mg 7 mg 11 mg 0.27 mg

The author is with Navdanya/Research Foundation for Science Technology & Ecology, New Delhi. 60 YOJANA June 2013

Incidence of Anemia In India

STATE India Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam Bihar Chhattisgarh Goa Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu & Kashmir Jharkhand Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Orissa Punjab Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu Tripura Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand West Bengal A & N Islands Chandigarh D & N Haveli Daman & Diu Delhi Lakshadweep Puducherry 1 69.5 70.8 56.9 69.6 78 71.2 38.2 67.7 72.3 54.7 58.6 70.3 70.4 44.5 74.1 63.4 41.1 64.4 44.2 65 66.4 69.7 59.2 64.2 62.9 73.9 61.4 61 57 2 55.3 62.9 50.6 69.5 67.4 57.5 38 55.3 56.1 43.3 53.1 69.5 51.5 32.8 56 48.4 35.7 47.2 38.6 61.2 38 53.1 60 53.2 65.1 40.9 55.2 63.2 44.3 3 57.8 56.4 49.2 72 60.2 63.1 36.9 60.8 69.7 37 54 68.4 59.5 33.1 57.9 57.8 36.4 56.1 49.3 68.1 41.6 61.2 53.1 53.3 57.6 51.6 45.2 62.6 29.9 4 24.2 23.3 28 39.6 34.3 27 10.4 22.2 19.2 18.9 19.5 36.5 19.1 8 25.6 16.8 11.4 36.7 19.4 33.9 13.6 23.6 25 16.5 35.5 24.3 29.2 32.3 17.8

which are rich in iron were sprayed with poisons and herbicides. Instead of being seen as iron rich and vitamin rich gifts, they were treated as weeds. As the Monoculture of the Mind took over, biodiversity disappeared from our farms and our food. The destruction of biodiverse rich cultivation and diets has given us the malnutrition crisis, with 75% women now suffering from iron deficiency. Many of our iron rich foods are becoming Forgotten Foods. Banana : The Kalpatharu, the Food of the Wise India is considered as one of the centres of diversity and origin of the banana. Banana is referred as Kalpatharu (The Divine Tree of Life or Wish Fulfilling Tree) due to its multifaceted uses in food, medicine, culture.. India is the largest producer of banana in the world and also in Asia, and contributes 22.15 percent to global production from 7.4 % area (2009) Banana flowers are one of the most important forage for Bees. Indigenous bee colonies thrive and develop on Banana crop. The main advantage is that the banana crop is a continuous process and there are always flowers that support bees, even during monsoons. However, the modern varieties like cavendish that are grown on mono cultures for which they destroy the flowers to get higher size and yield of Banana, that is dangerous to bees. Like GM crops that have posed dangers to bees, the GM Banana would be causing double damage to the bees in India as they are the major food source. What kind of impact the GM banana will have on bee biology and what kind of traces
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1-Percentage of Children of age 6-59 months who are anemic 2-Percentage of ever married woman of age 15-49 years who are anemic 3-Percentage of pregnant woman of age 15-49 years who are anemic 4-Percentage of ever married men of age 15-49 years who are anemic Source: http://www.medindia.net/health_statistics/diseases/Anaemia.asp

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will be found in honey is a matter of great concern that has greater impact on ecology, biodiversity and human health. The Bee is a indicator of diversity and GM banana can lead to destruction of honey bees. Already 75% honey bees have disappeared. Einstein had warned that when the last bee disappears, humans will disappear. Considering the nutritive value and fruit value of bananas, it is the cheapest among all other fruits in the country. Banana is the most important fruit crop in India and accounts for 31.7 per cent of the total fruit production. Health benefits of banana (without genetic engineering) l Bananas are rich source of energy since it contains sugars such as fructose, glucose and sucrose. l Because of its fiber (pectin) content it relieves constipation and diarrhoea. Banana with Curd is recommended for Diarrhea because it provides energy , has Kaolin Pectin, while curd has natural Lactobacillus , both acting synergistically It maintains electrolyte balance of the body because of its content of potassium. l It is found from research that bananas can prevent age related loss of sight to a certain degree. l Bananas help absorption of calcium from the gut thereby preventing osteoporosis. l They maintain kidney health and help in prevention of cancer of the kidney. l Bananas control hyper acidity and heart burn.
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GMO bananas are a waste of time and money , an unnecessary risk and a strategy to take control of the banana in its centre of diversity and in the region with highest production and consumption The Indian Department of Biotechnology has signed an agreement with the University of Queensland to do research/ field trials to develop GMO bananas for saving Indian women from childbirth death due to iron deficiency over the next 4-5 years and launch the GM bananas within 6 to 10 years in India. Partners for the GM banana project will also include Australias National Agri-Food Biotechnology Institute, Indias National Research Centre for Bananas, the Indian Institute of Horticulture Research, the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre and Tamil Nadu Agricultural University. Indias Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council (BIRAC) will provide AUD$1.4 million (US$1.44 million) towards the QUT component of the project and INR80 million (US$1.43 million) towards the cost of the Indian component. Bananas are rich in nutrition but have only 0.44mg of iron per 100 grams of edible portion. All the effort to increase iron content of bananas will fall short the iron content of our indigenous biodiversity. According to the BARC scientists, they can achieve a 6 fold increase in iron content in GMO bananas. This makes it 2.6mg, which is 3000% less than iron in turmeric, or niger ,or lotus stem, 2000% less than Amchur (mango powder). The safe, biodiverse alternatives are multifold.

Given the public health emergency of iron deficiency, and the inefficacy of the GM banana in providing adequate iron compared to indigenous biodiverse alternatives, the GMO banana project is an irresponsible waste of money, and a waste of time. It will take 10 years and millions of dollars to complete the research to not reach anywhere close to the options biodiversity gives us today. But meantime, governments, research agencies, scientists will be diverted from biodiversity based, women centred, low cost, safe, time tested, democratic alternatives. The National Banana Research Centre has already put GM bananas in its 2030 vision ! While the GM banana brings no benefits, it does bring numerous risks and costs. First, the GM banana ,if adopted, will be grown as large monocultures, like GM Bt cotton, and the banana plantations in the banana republics of Central America. Since government and Aid agencies will push this false solution, as has happened with every miracle in agriculture ,our biodiversity of iron rich foods will disappear. This will further destroy biodiversity, and further aggravate malnutrition of different kinds. The idea of nutrient farming of a few nutrients in monocultures of a few crops has already started to be pushed at the policy level. The finance Minister announced a Rs 200 crore project for nutri farms in his 2013 budget speech. Humans need a biodiversity of nutrients, ,including a full range of micronutrients and trace
YOJANA June 2013

elements from a biodiversity of crops and foods. These come from healthy soils and biodiversity based farming systems. For this we need biodiverse organic agriculture based on principles of agro ecology. Second, our native banana varieties will be displaced, and contaminated. There is a perverse urge among the biotechnology brigade to declare war against biodiversity in its centre of origin. An attempt was made to introduce Bt brinjal into India which is the centre of diversity for Brinjal. GM corn is being introduced in Mexico, the centre of diversity of corn. The GM banana is being introduced to the two countries where banana is a significant crop and has large diversity. One is India, the other is Uganda, the only country where banana is a staple.

Third, Australian scientists are using a virus that infects the banana as a promoter. This could spread through horizontal gene transfer. All genetic engineering uses genes from bacteria and viruses. Independent studies have shown that there are health risks associated with GM foods. The GMO banana project also risks the Biopiracy of our rich banana diversity. There is no need for introducing genetically engineered banana , which is a sacred plant and sacred food in India, when banana brings us many health benefits and we have so many affordable, accessible, safe and diverse options for meeting our nutritional needs of iron. We have to grow nutrition by growing biodiversity, not industrially fortify nutritionally empty food at high cost, or put one

or two nutrients into genetically engineered crops. As the Navdanya report Health per Acre shows when an acre of farmland is used for organic mixed cropping in place of conventional mono cropping, 39 g of extra iron is produced. This amount is sufficient to nourish 16,250 lactating mothers with iron for a day. On a national scale, the extra amount of iron produced organically would be sufficient to meet the requirement of 20 billion hypothetical lactating mothers. Even if only part of this iron is absorbed, biodiversity offers us the potential of ending iron deficiency anemia, not just in India, but across the world. There need be no iron deficiency if we intensify biodiversity in our farms and gardens and food. q
(E-mail :Vandana.shiva@gmail.com)

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