From Erving Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New York: o!"leday, #$%&, ''. (()*+, ,+),&.

Front - have "een !sing the term .'erforman/e. to refer to all the a/tivity of an individ!al whi/h o//!rs d!ring a 'eriod marked "y his /ontin!o!s 'resen/e "efore a 'arti/!lar set of o"servers and whi/h has some infl!en/e on the o"servers. -t will "e /onvenient to la"el as .front. that 'art of the individ!al0s 'erforman/e whi/h reg!larly f!n/tions in a general and fi1ed fashion to define the sit!ation for those who o"serve the 'erforman/e. Front, then, is the e1'ressive e2!i'ment of a standard kind intentionally or !nwittingly em'loyed "y the individ!al d!ring his 'erforman/e. For 'reliminary '!r'oses, it will "e /onvenient to disting!ish and la"el what seem to "e the standard 'arts of front. First, there is the .setting,. involving f!rnit!re, de/or 'hysi/al layo!t, and other "a/kgro!nd items whi/h s!''ly the s/enery and stage 'ro's for the s'ate of h!man a/tion 'layed o!t "efore, within, or !'on it. 3 setting tends to stay '!t, geogra'hi/ally s'eaking, so that those who wo!ld !se a 'arti/!lar setting as 'art of their 'erforman/e /annot "egin their a/t !ntil they have "ro!ght themselves to the a''ro'riate 'la/e and m!st terminate their 'erforman/e when they leave it. -t is only in e1/e'tional /ir/!mstan/es that the setting follows along with the 'erformers4 we see this in the f!neral /ortege, the /ivi/ 'arade, and the dreamlike 'ro/essions that kings and 2!eens are made of. -n the main, these e1/e'tions seem to offer some kind of e1tra 'rote/tion for 'erformers who are, or who have momentarily "e/ome, highly sa/red. These worthies are to "e disting!ished, of /o!rse, from 2!ite 'rofane 'erformers of the 'eddler /lass who move their 'la/e of work "etween 'erforman/es, often "eing for/ed to do so. -n the matter of having one fi1ed 'la/e for one0s setting, a r!ler may "e too sa/red, a 'eddler too 'rofane. -n thinking a"o!t the s/eni/ as'e/ts of front, we tend to think of the living room in a 'arti/!lar ho!se and the small n!m"er of 'erformers who /an thoro!ghly identify themselves with it. 5e have given ins!ffi/ient attention to assem"lages of sign)e2!i'ment whi/h large n!m"ers of 'erformers /an /all their own for short 'eriods of time. -t is /hara/teristi/ of 5estern E!ro'ean /o!ntries, and no do!"t a so!r/e of sta"ility for them, that a large n!m"er of l!1!rio!s settings are availa"le for hire to anyone of the right kind who /an afford them. 6ne ill!stration of this may "e /ited from a st!dy of the higher /ivil servant in 7ritain: The 2!estion how far the men who rise to the to' in the 8ivil Servi/e take on the .tone. or ./olor. of a /lass other than that to whi/h they "elong "y "irth is deli/ate and diffi/!lt. The only definite information "earing on the 2!estion is the fig!res relating to the mem"ershi' of the great London /l!"s. 9ore than three)2!arters of o!r high administrative offi/ials "elong to one or more /l!"s of high stat!s and /onsidera"le l!1!ry, where the entran/e fee might "e twenty g!ineas or more, and the ann!al s!"s/ri'tion from twelve to twenty g!ineas. These instit!tions are of the !''er /lass :not even of the !''er)middle; in their 'remises, their e2!i'ment, the style of living 'ra/ti/ed there, their whole atmos'here. Tho!gh many of the mem"ers wo!ld not "e des/ri"ed as wealthy, only a wealthy man wo!ld !naided 'rovide for himself and his family s'a/e, food and drink, servi/e, and other amenities of life to the same standard as he will find at the <nion, the Travellers0, or the =eform. >#?

3nother e1am'le /an "e fo!nd in the re/ent develo'ment of the medi/al 'rofession where we find that it is in/reasingly im'ortant for a do/tor to have a//ess to the ela"orate s/ientifi/ stage 'rovided "y large hos'itals, so that fewer and fewer do/tors are a"le to feel that their setting is a 'la/e that they /an lo/k !' at night. >(? -f we take the term .setting. to refer to the s/eni/ 'arts of e1'ressive e2!i'ment, one may take the term .'ersonal front. to refer to the other items of e1'ressive e2!i'ment, the items that we most intimately identify with the 'erformer himself and that we nat!rally e1'e/t will follow the 'erformer wherever he goes. 3s 'art 6f 'ersonal front we may in/l!de: insignia of offi/e or rank4 /lothing4 se1, age, and ra/ial /hara/teristi/s4 si@e and looks4 'ost!re4 s'ee/h 'atterns4 fa/ial e1'ressions4 "odily gest!res4 and the like. Some of these vehi/les for /onveying signs, s!/h as ra/ial /hara/teristi/s, are relatively fi1ed and over a s'an of time do not vary for the individ!al from one sit!ation to another. 6n the other hand, some of these sign vehi/les are relatively mo"ile or transitory, s!/h as fa/ial e1'ression, and /an vary 4 d!ring a 'erforman/e from one moment to the ne1t. -t is sometimes /onvenient to divide the stim!li whi/h make !' 'ersonal front into .a''earan/e. and .manner,. a//ording to the f!n/tion 'erformed "y the information that these stim!li /onvey. .3''earan/e00 may "e taken to refer to those stim!li whi/h f!n/tion at the time to tell !s of the 'erformer0s so/ial stat!ses. These stim!li also tell !s of the individ!al0s tem'orary rit!al state, that is, whether he is engaging in formal so/ial a/tivity, work, or informal re/reation, whether or not he is /ele"rating a new 'hase in the season /y/le or in his life)/y/le. .9anner. may "e taken to refer to those stim!li whi/h f!n/tion at the time to warn !s of the intera/tion role the 'erformer will e1'e/t to 'lay in the on/oming sit!ation. Th!s a ha!ghty, aggressive manner may give the im'ression that the 'erformer e1'e/ts to "e the one who will initiate the ver"al intera/tion and dire/t its /o!rse. 3 meek, a'ologeti/ manner may give the im'ression that the 'erformer e1'e/ts to follow the lead of others, or at least that he /an "e led to do so. 5e often e1'e/t, of /o!rse, a /onfirming /onsisten/y "etween a''earan/e and manner4 we e1'e/t that the differen/es in so/ial stat!ses among the intera/tants will "e e1'ressed in some way "y /ongr!ent differen/es in the indi/ations that are made of an e1'e/ted intera/tion role. This ty'e of /oheren/e of front may "e ill!strated "y the following des/ri'tion of the 'ro/ession of a mandarin thro!gh a 8hinese /ity: 8oming /losely "ehind . . . the l!1!rio!s /hair of the mandarin, /arried "y eight "earers, fills the va/ant s'a/e in the street. Ae is mayor of the town, and for all 'ra/ti/al '!r'oses the s!'reme 'ower in it. Ae is an ideal)looking offi/ial, for he is large and massive in a''earan/e, whilst he has that stern and !n/om'romising look that is s!''osed to "e ne/essary in any magistrate who wo!ld ho'e to kee' his s!"Be/ts in order. Ae has a stern and for"idding as'e/t, as tho!gh he were on his way to the e1e/!tion gro!nd to have some /riminal de/a'itated. This is the kind of air that the mandarins '!t on when they a''ear in '!"li/. -n the /o!rse of many years0 e1'erien/e, - have never on/e seen any of them, from the highest to the lowest, with a smile on his fa/e or a look of sym'athy for the 'eo'le whilst he was "eing /arried offi/ially thro!gh the streets. >*? 7!t, of /o!rse, a''earan/e and manner may tend to /ontradi/t ea/h other, as when a 'erformer who a''ears to "e of higher estate than his a!dien/e a/ts in a manner that is !ne1'e/tedly

e2!alitarian, or intimate, or a'ologeti/, or when a 'erformer dressed in the garments of a high 'osition 'resents himself to an individ!al of even higher stat!s. -n addition to the e1'e/ted /onsisten/y "etween a''earan/e and manner, we e1'e/t, of /o!rse, some /oheren/e among setting, a''earan/e, and manner. >C? S!/h /oheren/e re'resents an ideal ty'e that 'rovides !s with a means of stim!lating o!r attention to and interest in e1/e'tions. -n this the st!dent is assisted "y the Bo!rnalist, for e1/e'tions to e1'e/ted /onsisten/y among setting, a''earan/e, and manner 'rovide the 'i2!an/y and glamor of many /areers and the sala"le a''eal of many maga@ine arti/les. For e1am'le, a New Yorker 'rofile on =oger Stevens :the real estate agent who engineered the sale of the Em'ire State 7!ilding; /omments on the startling fa/t that Stevens has a small ho!se, a meager offi/e, and no letterhead stationery. >%? -n order to e1'lore more f!lly the relations among the several 'arts of so/ial front, it will "e /onvenient to /onsider here a signifi/ant /hara/teristi/ of the information /onveyed "y front, namely, its a"stra/tness and generality. Aowever s'e/iali@ed and !ni2!e a ro!tine is, its so/ial front, with /ertain e1/e'tions, will tend to /laim fa/ts that /an "e e2!ally /laimed and asserted of other, somewhat different ro!tines. For e1am'le, many servi/e o//!'ations offer their /lients a 'erforman/e that is ill!minated with dramati/ e1'ressions of /leanliness, modernity, /om'eten/e, and integrity. 5hile in fa/t these a"stra/t standards have a different signifi/an/e in different o//!'ational 'erforman/es, the o"server is en/o!raged to stress the a"stra/t similarities. For the o"server this is a wonderf!l, tho!gh sometimes disastro!s, /onvenien/e. -nstead of having to maintain a different 'attern of e1'e/tation and res'onsive treatment for ea/h slightly different 'erformer and 'erforman/e, he /an 'la/e the sit!ation in a "road /ategory aro!nd whi/h it is easy for him to mo"ili@e his 'ast e1'erien/e and stereo)ty'i/al thinking. 6"servers then need only "e familiar with a small and hen/e managea"le vo/a"!lary of fronts and know how to res'ond to them, in order to orient themselves in a wide variety of sit!ations. Th!s in London the /!rrent tenden/y for /himney swee's >&? and 'erf!me /lerks to wear white la" /oats tends to 'rovide the /lient with an !nderstanding that the deli/ate tasks 'erformed "y these 'ersons will "e 'erformed in what has "e/ome a standardi@ed, /lini/al, /onfidential manner. There are gro!nds for "elieving that the tenden/y for a large n!m"er of different a/ts to "e 'resented from "ehind a small n!m"er of fronts is a nat!ral develo'ment in so/ial organi@ation. =ad/liffe)7rown has s!ggested this in his /laim that a .des/ri'tive. kinshi' system whi/h gives ea/h 'erson a !ni2!e 'la/e may work for very small /omm!nities, "!t, as the n!m"er of 'ersons "e/omes large, /lan segmentation "e/omes ne/essary as a means of 'roviding a less /om'li/ated system of identifi/ations and treatments. >,? 5e see this tenden/y ill!strated in fa/tories, "arra/ks, and other large so/ial esta"lishments. Those who organi@e these esta"lishments find it im'ossi"le to 'rovide a s'e/ial /afeteria, s'e/ial modes of 'ayment, s'e/ial va/ation rights, and s'e/ial sanitary fa/ilities for every line and staff stat!s /ategory in the organi@ation, and at the same time they feel that 'ersons of dissimilar stat!s o!ght not to "e indis/riminately thrown together or /lassified together. 3s a /om'romise, the f!ll range of diversity is /!t at a few /r!/ial 'oints, and all those within a given "ra/ket are allowed or o"liged to maintain the same so/ial front in /ertain sit!ations.

-n addition to the fa/t that different ro!tines may em'loy the same front, it is to "e noted that a given so/ial front tends to "e/ome instit!tionali@ed in terms of the a"stra/t stereoty'ed e1'e/tations to whi/h it gives rise, and tends to take on a meaning and sta"ility a'art from the s'e/ifi/ tasks whi/h ha''en at the time to "e 'erformed in its name. The front "e/omes a ./olle/tive re'resentation. and a fa/t in its own right. 5hen an a/tor takes on an esta"lished so/ial role, !s!ally he finds that a 'arti/!lar front has already "een esta"lished for it. 5hether his a/2!isition of the role was 'rimarily motivated "y a desire to 'erform the given task or "y a desire to maintain the /orres'onding front, the a/tor will find that he m!st do "oth. F!rther, if the individ!al takes on a task that is not only new to him "!t also !nesta"lished in the so/iety, or if he attem'ts to /hange the light in whi/h his task is viewed, he is likely to find that there are already several well)esta"lished fronts among whi/h he m!st /hoose. Th!s, when a task is given a new front we seldom find that the front it is given is itself new. Sin/e fronts tend to "e sele/ted, not /reated, we may e1'e/t tro!"le to arise when those who 'erform a given task are for/ed to sele/t a s!ita"le front for themselves from among several 2!ite dissimilar ones. Th!s, in military organi@ations, tasks are always develo'ing whi/h :it is felt; re2!ire too m!/h a!thority and skill to "e /arried o!t "ehind the front maintained "y one grade of 'ersonnel and too little a!thority and skill to "e /arried o!t "ehind the front maintained "y the ne1t grade in the hierar/hy. Sin/e there are relatively large B!m's "etween grades, the task will /ome to ./arry too m!/h rank. or to /arry too little. 3n interesting ill!stration of the dilemma of sele/ting an a''ro'riate front from several not 2!ite fitting ones may "e fo!nd today in 3meri/an medi/al organi@ations with res'e/t to the task of administering anesthesia. >D? -n some hos'itals anesthesia is still administered "y n!rses "ehind the front that n!rses are allowed to have in hos'itals regardless of the tasks they 'erform))a front involving /eremonial s!"ordination to do/tors and a relatively low rate of 'ay. -n order to esta"lish anesthesiology as a s'e/iality for grad!ate medi/al do/tors, interested 'ra/titioners have had to advo/ate strongly the idea that administering anesthesia is a s!ffi/iently /om'le1 and vital task to B!stify giving to those who 'erform it the /eremonial and finan/ial reward given to do/tors. The differen/e "etween the front maintained "y a n!rse and the front maintained "y a do/tor is great4 many things that are a//e'ta"le for n!rses are infra dignitatem for do/tors. Some medi/al 'eo'le have felt that a n!rse .!nder)ranked. for the task of administering anesthesia and that do/tors .over)ranked.4 were there - an esta"lished stat!s midway "etween n!rse and do/tor, an easier sol!tion to the 'ro"lem /o!ld 'erha's "e fo!nd. >$? Similarly, had the 8anadian 3rmy had a rank halfway "etween lie!tenant and /a'tain, two and a half 'i's instead of two or three, then ental 8or's /a'tains, many of them of a low ethni/ origin, /o!ld have "een given a rank that wo!ld 'erha's have "een more s!ita"le in the eyes of the 3rmy than the /a'tain/ies they were a/t!ally given. - do not mean here to stress the 'oint of view of a formal organi@ation or a so/iety4 the individ!al, as someone who 'ossesses a limited range of sign)e2!i'ment, m!st also make !nha''y /hoi/es. Th!s, in the /rofting /omm!nity st!died "y the writer, hosts often marked the visit of a friend "y offering him a shot of hard li2!or, a glass of wine, some home)made "rew, or

a /!' of tea. The higher the rank or tem'orary /eremonial stat!s of the visitor, the more likely he was to re/eive an offering near the li2!or end of the /ontin!!m. Now one 'ro"lem asso/iated with this range of sign)e2!i'ment was that some /rofters /o!ld not afford to kee' a "ottle of hard li2!or, so that wine tended to "e the most ind!lgent gest!re they /o!ld em'loy. 7!t 'erha's a more /ommon diffi/!lty was the fa/t that /ertain visitors, given their 'ermanent and tem'orary stat!s at the time, o!tranked one 'ota"le and !nder)ranked the ne1t one in line. There was often a danger that the visitor wo!ld feel B!st a little affronted or, on the other hand, that the host0s /ostly and limited sign)e2!i'ment wo!ld "e mis!sed. -n o!r middle /lasses a similar sit!ation arises when a hostess has to de/ide whether or not to !se the good silver, or whi/h wo!ld "e the more a''ro'riate to wear, her "est afternoon dress or her 'lainest evening gown. - have s!ggested that so/ial front /an "e divided into traditional 'arts, s!/h as setting, a''earan/e, and manner, and that :sin/e different ro!tines may "e 'resented from "ehind the same front; we may not find a 'erfe/t fit "etween the s'e/ifi/ /hara/ter of a 'erforman/e and the general so/iali@ed g!ise in whi/h it a''ears to !s. These two fa/ts, taken together, lead one to a''re/iate that items in the so/ial front of a 'arti/!lar ro!tine are not only fo!nd in the so/ial fronts of a whole range of ro!tines "!t also that the whole range of ro!tines in whi/h one item of sign)e2!i'ment is fo!nd will differ from the range of ro!tines in whi/h another item in the same so/ial front will "e fo!nd. Th!s, a lawyer may talk to a /lient in a so/ial setting that he em'loys only for this '!r'ose :or for a st!dy;, "!t the s!ita"le /lothes he wears on s!/h o//asions he will also em'loy, with e2!al s!ita"ility, at dinner with /olleag!es and at the theater with his wife. Similarly, the 'rints that hang on his wall and the /ar'et on his floor may "e fo!nd in domesti/ so/ial esta"lishments. 6f /o!rse, in highly /eremonial o//asions, setting, manner, and a''earan/e may all "e !ni2!e and s'e/ifi/, !sed only for 'erforman/es of a single ty'e of ro!tine, "!t s!/h e1/l!sive !se of sign)e2!i'ment is the e1/e'tion rather than the r!le. =eality and 8ontrivan/e -n o!r own 3nglo)3meri/an /!lt!re there seems to "e two /ommon)sense models a//ording to whi/h we form!late o!r /on/e'tions of "ehavior: the real, sin/ere, or honest 'erforman/e4 and the false one that thoro!gh fa"ri/ators assem"le for !s, whether meant to "e taken !nserio!sly, as in the work of stage a/tors, or serio!sly, as in the work of /onfiden/e men. 5e tend to see real 'erforman/es as something not '!r'osely '!t together at all, "eing an !nintentional 'rod!/t of the individ!als !nself)/ons/io!s res'onse to the fa/ts in his sit!ation. 3nd /ontrived 'erforman/es we tend to see as something 'ainstakingly 'asted together, one false item on another, sin/e there is no reality to whi/h the items of "ehavior /o!ld "e a dire/t res'onse. -t will "e ne/essary to see now that these di/hotomo!s /on/e'tions are "y way of "eing the ideology of honest 'erformers, 'roviding strength to the show they '!t on, "!t a 'oor analysis of it. First, let it "e said that there are many individ!als who sin/erely "elieve that the definition of the sit!ation they ha"it!ally 'roBe/t is the real reality. -n this re'ort - do not mean to 2!estion their 'ro'ortion in the 'o'!lation "!t rather the str!/t!ral relation of their sin/erity to the 'erforman/es they offer. -f a 'erforman/e is to /ome off, the witnesses "y and large m!st "e a"le to "elieve that the 'erformers are sin/ere. This is the str!/t!ral 'la/e of sin/erity in the drama of events. Performers may "e sin/ere))or "e insin/ere "!t sin/erely /onvin/ed of their own sin/erity ))"!t this kind of affe/tion for one0s 'art is not ne/essary for its /onvin/ing 'erforman/e. There

are not many Fren/h /ooks who are really =!ssian s'ies, and 'erha's there are not many women who 'lay the 'art of wife to one man and mistress to another4 "!t these d!'li/ities do o//!r, often "eing s!stained s!//essf!lly for long 'eriods of time. This s!ggests that while 'ersons !s!ally are what they a''ear to "e, s!/h a''earan/es /o!ld still have "een managed. There is, then, a statisti/al relation "etween a''earan/es and reality, not an intrinsi/ or ne/essary one. -n fa/t, given the !nanti/i'ated threats that 'lay !'on a 'erforman/e, and given the need :later to "e dis/!ssed; to maintain solidarity with one0s fellow 'erformers and some distan/e from the witnesses, we find that a rigid in/a'a/ity to de'art from one0s inward view of reality may at times endanger one0s 'erforman/e. Some 'erforman/es are /arried off s!//essf!lly with /om'lete dishonesty, others with /om'lete honesty4 "!t for 'erforman/es in general neither of these e1tremes is essential and neither, 'erha's, is dramat!rgi/ally advisa"le. The im'li/ation here is that an honest, sin/ere, serio!s 'erforman/e is less firmly /onne/ted with the solid world than one might first ass!me. 3nd this im'li/ation will "e strengthened if we look again at the distan/e !s!ally 'la/ed "etween 2!ite honest 'erforman/es and 2!ite /ontrived ones. -n this /onne/tion take, for e1am'le, the remarka"le 'henomenon of stage a/ting. -t does take dee' skill, long training, and 'sy/hologi/al /a'a/ity to "e/ome a good stage a/tor. 7!t this fa/t sho!ld not "lind !s to another one: that almost anyone /an 2!i/kly learn a s/ri't well eno!gh to give a /harita"le a!dien/e some sense of realness in what is "eing /ontrived "efore them. 3nd it seems this is so "e/a!se ordinary so/ial inter/o!rse is itself '!t together as a s/ene is '!t together, "y the e1/hange of dramati/ally inflated a/tions, /o!ntera/tions, and terminating re'lies. S/ri'ts even in the hands of !n'ra/ti/ed 'layers /an /ome to life "e/a!se life itself is a dramati/ally ena/ted thing. 3ll the world is not, of /o!rse, a stage, "!t the /r!/ial ways in whi/h it isn0t are not easy to s'e/ify. The re/ent !se of .'sy/hodrama. as a thera'e!ti/ te/hni2!e ill!strates a f!rther 'oint in this regard. -n these 'sy/hiatri/ally staged s/enes 'atients not only a/t o!t 'arts with some effe/tiveness, "!t em'loy no s/ri't in doing so. Their own 'ast is availa"le to them in a form whi/h allows them to stage a re/a'it!lation of it. 3''arently a 'art on/e 'layed honestly and in earnest leaves the 'erformer in a 'osition to /ontrive a showing of it later. F!rther, the 'arts that signifi/ant others 'layed to him in the 'ast also seem to "e availa"le, allowing him to swit/h from "eing the 'erson that he was to "eing the 'ersons that others were for him. This /a'a/ity to swit/h ena/ted roles when o"liged to do so /o!ld have "een 'redi/ted4 everyone a''arently /an do it. For in learning to 'erform o!r 'arts in real life we g!ide o!r own 'rod!/tions "y not too /ons/io!sly maintaining an in/i'ient familiarity with the ro!tine of those to whom we will address o!rselves. 3nd when we /ome to "e a"le 'ro'erly to manage a real ro!tine we are a"le to do this in 'art "e/a!se of .anti/i'atory so/iali@ation,. >#? having already "een s/hooled in the reality that is B!st /oming to "e real for !s. 5hen the individ!al does move into a new 'osition in so/iety and o"tains a new 'art to 'erform, he is not likely to "e told in f!ll detail how to /ond!/t himself, nor will the fa/ts of his new sit!ation 'ress s!ffi/iently on him from the start to determine his /ond!/t witho!t his f!rther giving tho!ght to it. 6rdinarily he will "e given only a few /!es, hints, and stage dire/tions, and it will "e ass!med that he already has in his re'ertoire a large n!m"er of "its and 'ie/es of 'erforman/es that will "e re2!ired in the new setting. The individ!al will already have a fair idea of what modesty, deferen/e, or righteo!s indignation looks like, and /an make a 'ass at 'laying

&

these "its when ne/essary. Ae may even "e a"le to 'lay o!t the 'art of a hy'noti/ s!"Be/t >(? or /ommit a ./om'!lsive. /rime >*? on the "asis of models for these a/tivities that he is already familiar with. 3 theatri/al 'erforman/e or a staged /onfiden/e game re2!ires a thoro!gh s/ri'ting of the s'oken /ontent of the ro!tine4 "!t the vast 'art involving .e1'ression given off. is often determined "y meager stage dire/tions. -t is e1'e/ted that the 'erformer of ill!sions will already know a good deal a"o!t how to manage his voi/e, his fa/e, and his "ody, altho!gh he))as well as any 'erson who dire/ts him)) may find it diffi/!lt indeed to 'rovide a detailed ver"al statement of this kind of knowledge. 3nd in this, of /o!rse, we a''roa/h the sit!ation of the straightforward man in the street. So/iali@ation may not so m!/h involve a learning of the many s'e/ifi/ details of a single /on/rete 'art))often there /o!ld not "e eno!gh time or energy for this. 5hat does seem to "e re2!ired of the individ!al is that he learn eno!gh 'ie/es of e1'ression to "e a"le to .fill in. and manage, more or less, any 'art that he is likely to "e given. The legitimate 'erforman/es of everyday life are not .a/ted. or .'!t on. in the sense that the 'erformer knows in advan/e B!st what he is going to do, and does this solely "e/a!se of the effe/t it is likely to have. The e1'ressions it is felt he is giving off will "e es'e/ially .ina//essi"le. to him. >C? 7!t as in the /ase of less legitimate 'erformers, the in/a'a/ity of the ordinary individ!al to form!late in advan/e the movements of his eyes and "ody does not mean that he will not e1'ress himself thro!gh these devi/es in a way that is dramati@ed and 're)formed in his re'ertoire of a/tions. -n short, we all a/t "etter than we know how. 5hen we wat/h a television wrestler go!ge, fo!l, and snarl at his o''onent we are 2!ite ready to see that, in s'ite of the d!st, he is, and knows he is, merely 'laying at "eing the .heavy,. and that in another mat/h he may "e given the other role, that of /lean)/!t wrestler, and 'erform this with e2!al verve and 'rofi/ien/y. 5e seem less ready to see, however, that while s!/h details as the n!m"er and /hara/ter of the falls may "e fi1ed "eforehand, the details of the e1'ressions and movements !sed do not /ome from a s/ri't "!t from /ommand of an idiom, a /ommand that is e1er/ised from moment to moment with little /al/!lation or foretho!ght. -n reading of 'ersons in the 5est -ndies who "e/ome the .horse. or the one 'ossessed of a voodoo s'irit, >%? it is enlightening to learn that the 'erson 'ossessed will "e a"le to 'rovide a /orre/t 'ortrayal of the god that has entered him "e/a!se of .the knowledge and memories a//!m!lated in a life s'ent visiting /ongregations of the /!lt.4 >&? that the 'erson 'ossessed will "e in B!st the right so/ial relation to those who are wat/hing4 that 'ossession o//!rs at B!st the right moment in the /eremonial !ndertakings, the 'ossessed one /arrying o!t his rit!al o"ligations to the 'oint of 'arti/i'ating in a kind of skit with 'ersons 'ossessed at the time with other s'irits. 7!t in learning this, it is im'ortant to see that this /onte1t!al str!/t!ring of the horse0s role still allows 'arti/i'ants in the /!lt to "elieve that 'ossession is a real thing and that 'ersons are 'ossessed at random "y gods whom they /annot sele/t. 3nd when we o"serve a yo!ng 3meri/an middle /lass girl 'laying d!m" for the "enefit of her "oy friend, we are ready to 'oint to items of g!ile and /ontrivan/e in her "ehavior. 7!t like herself and her "oy friend, we a//e't as an !n'erformed fa/t that this 'erformer is a yo!ng 3meri/an middle)/lass girl. 7!t s!rely here we negle/t the greater 'art of the 'erforman/e. -t is /ommon'la/e to say that different so/ial gro!'ings e1'ress in different ways s!/h attri"!tes as

age, se1, territory, and /lass stat!s, and that in ea/h /ase these "are attri"!tes are ela"orated "y means of a distin/tive /om'le1 /!lt!ral /onfig!ration of 'ro'er ways of /ond!/ting oneself. To "e a given kind of 'erson, then, is not merely to 'ossess the re2!ired attri"!tes, "!t also to s!stain the standards of /ond!/t and a''earan/e that one0s so/ial gro!'ing atta/hes thereto. The !nthinking ease with whi/h 'erformers /onsistently /arry off s!/h standard)maintaining ro!tines does not deny that a 'erforman/e has o//!rred, merely that the 'arti/i'ants have "een aware of it. 3 stat!s, a 'osition, a so/ial 'la/e is not a material thing, to "e 'ossessed and then dis'layed4 it is a 'attern of a''ro'riate /ond!/t, /oherent, em"ellished, and well arti/!lated. Performed with ease or /l!msiness, awareness or not, g!ile or good faith, it is none the less something that m!st "e ena/ted and 'ortrayed, something that m!st "e reali@ed. Sartre, here, 'rovides a good ill!stration: Let !s /onsider this waiter in the /afe. Ais movement is 2!i/k and forward, a little too 're/ise, a little too ra'id. Ae /omes toward the 'atrons with a ste' a little too 2!i/k. Ae "ends forward a little too eagerly4 his voi/e, his eyes e1'ress an interest a little too soli/ito!s for the order of the /!stomer. Finally there he ret!rns, trying to imitate in his walk the infle1i"le stiffness of some kind of a!tomaton while /arrying his tray with the re/klessness of a tightro'e)walker "y '!tting it in a 'er'et!ally !nsta"le, 'er'et!ally "roken e2!ili"ri!m whi/h he 'er'et!ally re)esta"lishes "y a light movement of the arm and hand. 3ll his "ehavior seems to !s a game. Ae a''lies himself to /haining his movements as if they were me/hanisms, the one reg!lating the other4 his gest!res and even his voi/e seem to "e me/hanisms4 he gives himself the 2!i/kness and 'itiless ra'idity of things. Ae is 'laying, he is am!sing himself. 7!t what is he 'layingE 5e need not wat/h long "efore we /an e1'lain it: he is 'laying at "eing a waiter in a /afe. There is nothing there to s!r'rise !s. The game is a kind of marking o!t and investigation. The /hild 'lays with his "ody in order to e1'lore it, to take inventory of it4 the waiter in the /afe 'lays with his /ondition in order to reali@e it. This o"ligation is not different from that whi/h is im'osed on all tradesmen. Their /ondition is wholly one of /eremony. The '!"li/ demands of them that they reali@e it as a /eremony4 there is the dan/e of the gro/er, of the tailor, of the a!/tioneer, "y whi/h they endeavor to 'ers!ade their /lientele that they are nothing "!t a gro/er, an a!/tioneer, a tailor. 3 gro/er who dreams is offensive to the "!yer, "e/a!se s!/h a gro/er is not wholly a gro/er. So/iety demands that he limit himself to his f!n/tion as a gro/er, B!st as the soldier at attention makes himself into a soldier)thing with a dire/t regard whi/h does not see at all, whi/h is not longer meant to see, sin/e it is the r!le and not the interest of the moment whi/h determines the 'oint he m!st fi1 his eyes on :the sight .fi1ed at ten 'a/es.;. There are indeed many 're/a!tions to im'rison a man in what he is, as if we lived in 'er'et!al fear that he might es/a'e from it, that he might "reak away and s!ddenly el!de his /ondition. >,?

)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))) EN N6TES: )))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))) #. A. E. ale, The Aigher 8ivil Servi/e of Great 7ritain :61ford: 61ford <niversity Press, #$C#;, '. %+. (. avid Solomon, .8areer 8ontingen/ies of 8hi/ago Physi/ians. :!n'!"lished Ph. . dissertation, e'artment of So/iology, <niversity of 8hi/ago, #$%(;, '. ,C. *. F. 9a/gowan, Sidelights on 8hinese Life :Philadel'hia: Li''in/ott, #$+D;, '. #D,. C. 8f. Genneth 7!rke0s /omments on the .s/ene)a/t)agent ratio,. 3 Grammar of 9otives :New York: Prenti/e)Aall, #$C%;, ''. &)$ %. E. F. Gahn, Fr., .8losings and 6'enings,. The New Yorker, Fe"r!ary #* and (+, #$%C. &. See 9ervyn Fones, .5hite as a Swee',. The New Statesman and Nation, e/em"er &, #$%(. ,. 3. =. =ad/liffe)7rown, .The So/ial 6rgani@ation of 3!stralian Tri"es.. 6/eania, -, CC+. D. See the thoro!gh treatment of this 'ro"lem in an 8. Lortie, . o/tors witho!t Patients: The 3nesthesiologist, a New 9edi/al S'e/ialty. :!n'!"lished 9aster0s thesis, e'artment of So/iology, <niversity of 8hi/ago, #$%+;. See also 9ark 9!r'hy0s three)'art Profile of r. =ovenstine, .3nesthesiologist,. The New Yorker, 6/to"er (%, Novem"er #, and Novem"er D, #$C,. $. -n some hos'itals the intern and the medi/al st!dent 'erform tasks that are "eneath a do/tor and a"ove a n!rse. Pres!ma"ly s!/h tasks do not re2!ire a large amo!nt of e1'erien/e and 'ra/ti/al training, for while this intermediate stat!s of do/tor)in)training is a 'ermanent 'art of hos'itals, all those who hold it do so tem'orarily.

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#. See =. G. 9erton, So/ial Theory and So/ial Str!/t!re :Glen/oe: The Free Press, revised and enlarged edition, #$%,;, '. (&%ff. (. This view of hy'nosis is neatly 'resented "y T. = Sar"in, .8ontri"!tions to =ole)Taking Theory. -: Ay'noti/ 7ehavior,. Psy/hologi/al =eview, %,, ''. (%%),+. *. See . =. 8ressey .The ifferential 3sso/iation Theory and 8om'!lsive 8rimes,. Fo!rnal of 8riminal Law, 8riminology and Poli/e S/ien/e, C%, ''. ($)C+. C. This /on/e't derives from T. =. Sar"in, .=ole Theory,. in Gardner Lind@ey, Aand"ook of So/ial Psy/hology :8am"ridge: 3ddison)5esley, #$%C;, Hol. #, ''. (*%)*&. %. See, for e1am'le, 3lfred 9etra!1, . ramati/ Elements in =it!al Possession,. iogenes, ##, ''. #D)*&. &. -"id., '. (C. ,. Sartre, o'. /it., '. %$.

7a/k to the So/ial Self

8ha'ter HTAE 3=TS 6F -9P=ESS-6N 93N3GE9ENT -n this /ha'ter - wo!ld like to "ring together what has "een said or im'lied a"o!t the attri"!tes that are re2!ired of a 'erformer for the work of s!//essf!lly staging a /hara/ter. 7rief referen/e will therefore "e made to some of the te/hni2!es of im'ression management in whi/h these attri"!tes are e1'ressed. -n 're'aration it may "e well to s!ggest, in some /ases for the se/ond time, some of the 'rin/i'al ty'es of 'erforman/e disr!'tions, for it is these disr!'tions whi/h the te/hni2!es of im'ression management f!n/tion to avoid -n the "eginning of this re'ort, in /onsidering the general /hara/teristi/s of 'erforman/es, it was s!ggested that the 'erformer m!st a/t with e1'ressive res'onsi"ility, sin/e4 many minor, inadvertent a/ts ha''en to "e well designed to /onvey im'ressions ina''ro'riate at the time. These events were /alled .!nmeant gest!res.. Ponson"y gives an ill!stration of how a dire/tor0s attem't to avoid an !nmeant gest!re led to the o//!rren/e of another. 6ne of the 3tta/hes from the Legation was to /arry the /!shion on whi/h the insignia were 'la/ed, and in order to 'revent their falling off - st!/k the 'in at the "a/k of the Star thro!gh the velvet /!shion. The 3tta/he, however, was not /ontent with this, "!t se/!red the end of the 'in "y the /at/h to make do!"ly s!re. The res!lt was that when Prin/e 3le1ander, having made a

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s!ita"le s'ee/h, tried to get hold of the Star, he fo!nd it firmly fi1ed to the /!shion and s'ent some time in getting it loose. This rather s'oilt the most im'ressive moment of the /eremony. >#? -t sho!ld "e added that the individ!al held res'onsi"le for /ontri"!ting an !nmeant gest!re may /hiefly dis/redit his own 'erforman/e "y this, a teammate0s 'erforman/e, or the 'erforman/e "eing staged "y his a!dien/e. 5hen an o!tsider a//identally enters a region in whi/h a 'erforman/e is "eing given, or when a mem"er of the a!dien/e inadvertently enters the "a/kstage, the intr!der is likely to /at/h those 'resent flagrante deli/to. Thro!gh no one0s intention, the 'ersons 'resent in the region may find that they have 'atently "een witnessed in a/tivity That is 2!ite in/om'ati"le with the im'ression that they are, for wider so/ial reasons, !nder o"ligation to maintain to the intr!der. 5e deal here with what are sometimes /alled .ino''ort!ne intr!sions.. The 'ast life and /!rrent ro!nd of a/tivity of a given 'erformer ty'i/ally /ontain at least a few fa/ts whi/h, if introd!/ed d!ring the 'erforman/e, wo!ld dis/redit or at least weaken the /laims a"o!t self that the 'erformer was attem'ting to 'roBe/t as 'art of the definition of the sit!ation. These fa/ts may involve well)ke't dark se/rets or negative)val!ed /hara/teristi/s that everyone /an see "!t no one refers to. 5hen s!/h fa/ts are introd!/ed, em"arrassment is the !s!al res!lt. These fa/ts /an, of /o!rse, "e "ro!ght to one0s attention "y !nmeant gest!res or ino''ort!ne intr!sions. Aowever, they are more fre2!ently introd!/ed "y intentional ver"al statements or non)ver"al a/ts whose f!ll signifi/an/e is not a''re/iated "y the individ!al who /ontri"!tes them to the intera/tion. Following /ommon !sage, s!/h disr!'tions of 'roBe/tions may "e /alled .fa!1 'as.. 5here a 'erformer !nthinkingly makes an intentional /ontri"!tion whi/h destroys his own team0s image we may s'eak of .gaffes. or ."oners.. 5here a 'erformer Beo'ardi@es the image of self 'roBe/ted "y the other tea Eti2!ette man!als 'rovide /lassi/ warnings against s!/h indis/retions: -f there is any one in the /om'any whom yo! do not know, "e /aref!l how yo! let off any e'igrams or 'leasant little sar/asms. m, we may s'eak of ."ri/ks. or of the 'erformer having .'!t his foot in it.. Yo! might "e very witty !'on halters to a man whose father had "een hanged. The first re2!isite for s!//essf!l /onversation is to know yo!r /om'any well. >(? -n meeting a friend whom yo! have not seen for some time, and of the state and history of whose family yo! have not "een re/ently or 'arti/!larly informed, yo! sho!ld avoid making en2!iries or all!sions in res'e/t to 'arti/!lar individ!als of his family, !ntil yo! have 'ossessed yo!rself of knowledge res'e/ting them. Some may "e dead4 others may have mis"ehaved, se'arated themselves, or fallen !nder some distressing /alamity. >*? <nmeant gest!res, ino''ort!ne intr!sions, and fa!1 'as are so!r/es of em"arrassment and dissonan/e whi/h are ty'i/ally !nintended "y the 'erson who is res'onsi"le for making them and whi/h wo!ld "e avoided were the individ!al to know in advan/e the /onse2!en/es of his a/tivity. Aowever there are sit!ations, often /alled .s/enes,. in whi/h an individ!al a/ts in s!/h a way as to destroy or serio!sly threaten the 'olite a''earan/e of /onsens!s, and while he may not a/t sim'ly in order to /reate s!/h dissonan/e, he a/ts with the knowledge that this kind of dissonan/e is likely to res!lt. The /ommon)sense 'hrase, ./reating a s/ene,. is a't "e/a!se, in effe/t, a new s/ene is /reated "y s!/h disr!'tions. The 'revio!s and e1'e/ted inter'lay "etween

##

the teams is s!ddenly for/ed aside and a new drama for/i"ly takes its 'la/e. Signifi/antly, this new s/ene often involves a s!dden resh!ffling and rea''ortioning of the 'revio!s team mem"ers into two new teams. Some s/enes o//!r when teammates /an no longer /o!ntenan/e ea/h other0s ine't 'erforman/e and "l!rt o!t immediate '!"li/ /riti/ism of the very individ!als with whom they o!ght to "e in dramat!rgi/al /o)o'eration. S!/h mis/ond!/t is often devastating to the 'erforman/e whi/h the dis'!tants o!ght to "e 'resenting4 one effe/t of the 2!arrel is to 'rovide the a!dien/e with a "a/kstage view, and another is to leave them with the feeling that something is s!rely s!s'i/io!s a"o!t a 'erforman/e when those who know it "est do not agree. 3nother ty'e of s/ene o//!rs when the a!dien/e de/ides it /an no longer 'lay the game of 'olite intera/tion, or that it no longer wants to do so, and so /onfronts the 'erformers with fa/ts or e1'ressive a/ts whi/h ea/h team knows will "e !na//e'ta"le. This is what ha''ens when an individ!al s/rews !' his so/ial /o!rage and de/ides to .have it o!t. with another or .really tell him off.. 8riminal trials have instit!tionali@ed this kind of o'en dis/ord, as has the last /ha'ter of m!rder mysteries, where an individ!al who has theretofore maintained a /onvin/ing 'ose of inno/en/e is /onfronted in the 'resen/e of others with !ndenia"le e1'ressive eviden/e that his 'ose is only a 'ose. 3nother kind of s/ene o//!rs when the intera/tion "etween two 'ersons "e/omes so lo!d, heated, or otherwise attention)getting, that near"y 'ersons engaged in their own /onversational intera/tion are for/ed to "e/ome witnesses or even to take sides and enter the fray. 3 final ty'e of s/ene may "e s!ggested. 5hen a 'erson a/ting as a one)man team /ommits himself in a serio!s way to a /laim or re2!est and leaves himself no way o!t sho!ld this "e denied "y the a!dien/e, he !s!ally makes s!re that his /laim or re2!est is the kind that is likely to "e a''roved and granted "y the a!dien/e. -f his motivation is strong, eno!gh, however, an individ!al may find himself making a /laim or an ass!m'tion whi/h he knows the a!dien/e may well reBe/t. Ae knowingly lowers his defenses in their 'resen/e, throwing himself, as we say, on their mer/y. 7y s!/h an a/t the individ!al makes a 'lea to the a!dien/e to treat themselves as 'art of his team or to allow him to treat himself as 'art of their team. This sort of thing is em"arrassing eno!gh, "!t when the !ng!arded re2!est is ref!sed to the individ!al0s fa/e, he s!ffers what is /alled h!miliation. - have /onsidered some maBor forms of 'erforman/e disr!'tion))!nmeant gest!res, ino''ort!ne intr!sions, fa!1 'as, and s/enes. These disr!'tions, in everyday terms, are often /alled .in/idents.. 5hen an in/ident o//!rs, the reality s'onsored "y the 'erformers is threatened. The 'ersons 'resent are likely to rea/t "y "e/oming fl!stered, ill at ease, em"arrassed, nervo!s, and the like. I!ite literally, the 'arti/i'ants may find themselves o!t of /o!ntenan/e. 5hen these fl!sterings or sym'toms of em"arrassment "e/ome 'er/eived, the reality that is s!''orted "y the 'erforman/e is likely to "e f!rther Beo'ardi@ed and weakened, for these signs of nervo!sness in most /ases are an as'e/t of the individ!al who 'resents a /hara/ter and not an as'e/t of the /hara/ter he 'roBe/ts, th!s for/ing !'on the a!dien/e an image of the man "ehind the mask. -n order to 'revent the o//!rren/e of in/idents and the em"arrassment /onse2!ent !'on them, it will "e ne/essary for all the 'arti/i'ants in the intera/tion, as well as those who do not 'arti/i'ate, to 'ossess /ertain attri"!tes and to e1'ress these attri"!tes in 'ra/ti/es em'loyed for saving the show. These attri"!tes and 'ra/ti/es will "e reviewed !nder three headings: the defensive meas!res !sed "y 'erformers to save their own show4 the 'rote/tive meas!res !sed "y a!dien/e and o!tsiders to assist the 'erformers in saving the 'erformers0 show4 and, finally, the

#(

meas!res the 'erformers m!st take in order to make it 'ossi"le for the a!dien/e and o!tsiders to em'loy 'rote/tive meas!res on the 'erformers0 "ehalf.

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Fisher, G. :#$$,; 0Lo/ating Frames in the is/!rsive <niverse0 So/iologi/al =esear/h 6nline, vol. (, no. *, Jhtt':KKwww.so/resonline.org.!kKso/resonlineK(K*KC.htmlL

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