CONTENTS

Introduction History of bricks Characteristics of good bricks Types of bricks Basic Terminologies Types of bonds Raw materials Manufacturing of bricks Properties of bricks Basic Advantages of Bricks Various Tests on Bricks

Declaration

This is to certified that the work submitted comprises my original work towards the Degree of Bachelor in Civil Engineering, Jodhpur National University and not been submitted elsewhere for a degree.

Date: - 01/04/2013

Signature of Student GANPAT Roll No. 0906010 Enrollment No. - JNU0906010

INTRODUCTION:Bricks are obtain by moulding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size and then drying and
burning these blocks. These well burnt rectangular clay blocks are called bricks.

A brick is a block or a single unit of a ceramic material used in masonry construction. Typically bricks are stacked together or laid as brickwork using various kinds of mortar to hold the bricks together and make a permanent structure. Bricks are typically produced in common or standard sizes in bulk quantities. They have been regarded as one of the longest lasting and strongest building materials used throughout history. In the general sense, a "brick" is a standard-sized weight-bearing building unit. Bricks are laid in horizontal courses, sometimes dry and sometimes with mortar. When the term is used in this sense, the brick might be made from clay, lime-and-sand, concrete, or shaped stone. In a less clinical and more colloquial sense, bricks are made from dried earth, usually from clay-bearing subsoil. In some cases, such as adobe, the brick is merely dried. More commonly it is fired in a kiln of some sort to form a true ceramic.

History of Bricks: Bricks are one of the oldest types of building blocks. They are an ideal building material because they are relatively cheap to make, very durable, and require little maintenance. A brick is a block of ceramic material used in masonry construction, usually laid using various kinds of mortar. Bricks dated 10,000 years old were found in the Middle East. Examples of the civilizations who used mud brick are the ancient Egyptians and the Indus Valley Civilization, where it was used exclusively. In particular, it is evident from the ruins of Buhen, Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. The first sun-dried bricks were made in Mesopotamia (what is now Iraq), in the ancient city of Ur in about 4000 BC

The fundamentals of brick manufacturing have not changed over time. However, technological advancements have made contemporary brick plants substantially more efficient and have improved the overall quality of the products. A more complete knowledge of raw materials and their properties, better control of firing, improved kiln designs and more advanced mechanization have all contributed to advancing the brick industry. Other Technical Notes in this series address the classification and selection of brick considering the use, exposure and required durability of the finished brickwork

Bricks can be of two types. These are:1) Traditional Bricks-The dimension if traditional bricks vary from 21 cm to 25cm in length,10 to 13 cm in width and 7.5 cm in height in different parts of country .The commonly adopted normal size of traditional brick is 23 * 11.5*7.5 cm with a view to achieve uniformity in size of bricks all over country. 2) Modular Bricks- Indian standard institution has established a standard size of bricks such a brick is known as a modular brick. The normal size of brick is taken as 20*10*10 cm whereas its actual dimensions are 19*9*9 cm masonry with modular bricks workout to be cheaper there is saving in the consumption of bricks, mortar and labour as compared with masonry with traditional bricks.

Characteristics of good bricks:1. Should be uniform in size and shape 2. Should not be to smooth otherwise the mortar will not stick to it. 3. It should be of uniform color (deep red, cheery, copper color) 4. It should be hard. 5. It should not absorb water more than 20% of it's weight (when immersed in water for 24 hours) 6. Should have a good crushing strength.

Types of bricks:There are three types of bricks: First Class Bricks Second Class Bricks Third Class Bricks

Specification of First Class Bricks: Made of good earth which is free from saline deposits and are sand molded. Burnt thoroughly without being vitrified and have deep red, cherry and copper color. Regular and uniform in shape and size with sharp and square edges and parallel faces. Must be homogeneous in texture and emit a clear ringing sound on being struck together. Free from flaws, cracks, chops, stones and lime. Should not absorb water more than 20% of its own dry weight after 24 hours, immersion in cold water. Have a minimum crushing strength of 105 kg per sq. cm when tested according to the test. Should not show appreciable sign of efflorescence either in dry state or subsequent to soaking in water.

NOTE: As per guidelines of all wings of the Government, semi-Government

departments and other construction departments, First Class Brick tiles should be used for construction works.

Specification of Second Class Bricks: They shall be well burnt or slightly over burnt. They must give clear ringing sound when struck. The may have slight irregularities in size, shape and color. They may have slight chips, flaws or surface crack but must be free from lime or kankar. The minimum crushing strength of second class brick should be 70 kg per sq cm.

Specification of Third Class Bricks: These bricks are slightly under burnt or over burnt.
They are not uniform in shape, size and edges. They shall not observe water more than 25% of their own dry weight after 24 hours, immersion in cold water. They have some signs of efflorescence.

Basic Terminologies:Orientation of a brick:-

A brick is given a classification based on how its face is oriented relative to the face of the finished wall.

Stretcher: A brick laid with its long narrow side exposed. Header: A brick laid flat with its width at the face of the wall, or parallel to the face of the wall.

Soldier: A brick laid vertically with the long narrow side of the brick exposed. Sailor: A brick laid vertically with the broad face of the brick exposed. Rowlock: A brick laid on the long narrow side with the short end of the brick exposed. Shiner: A brick laid on the long narrow side with the broad face of the brick exposed. Frog A frog is an indentation in the face of a brick to form a key for holding the mortar. When frog is only on one face, that brick is laid with that face on the top. Sometimes, frogs are provided on both the faces. However, no frogs are provided in wire-cut bricks.

Cut of a brick:The practice of laying uncut full sized bricks wherever possible gives brickwork its maximum possible strength. Occasionally though a brick must be cut to fit a given space, or to be the right shape for fulfilling some particular purpose such as generating a lap by a quoin brick.

Quarter bat: A brick cut to a quarter of its length. Half bat: A brick cut in half across its width. Three-quarter bat: A brick cut to three-quarters of its length. Queen closer: A brick cut in half down its length. King closer: A brick with one corner cut away, leaving one header face at half its standard width.

Types of bonds:There are a great number of possible bond arrangements, some used more commonly than others. Here are some or the more common types of bonding arrangements.

Stretcher Bond: All bricks are arranged in stretcher course in this bond. The following are some
features of Stretcher bond. All bricks laid in stretcher course create stretcher bond. This bond is useful for half brick wall/partition walls. There is no header in such walls. This bond does not develop proper internal bond or joint. It should not be used for walls having thickness greater than half brick wall.

Header Bond: All bricks are arranged in header courses. The following are some features of header bond. This brick bond is used for curved surface in brick work because if stretcher is used for curved surface, it would project beyond the face of wall. All bricks are arranged in header courses.

English Bond:-

This bond has alternating stretching and heading courses, with the headers centred over the midpoint of the stretchers, and perpends in each alternate course aligned. Queen closers appear as the second brick, and the penultimate brick in heading courses. A muted colour scheme for occasional headers is sometimes used in English bond to lend a subtle texture to the brickwork

Flemish Bond: This brick bond consists of alternate header and stretcher in each course. The following are some features of Flemish bond. This bond creates better appearance than English Bond. The queen closer is put next to quoin header in alternate course to develop face lap. Every header is centrally supported over a stretcher below it. Half bats and three quarter bats are used for walls having thickness equal to odd number of half bricks. This bond is not as strong as English bond and is not used generally.

 RAW MATERIALS:Clay is one of the most abundant natural mineral materials on earth. For brick manufacturing, clay must possess some specific properties and characteristics. Such clays must have plasticity, which permits them to be shaped or molded when mixed with water; they must have sufficient wet and air-dried strength to maintain their shape after forming. Also, when subjected to appropriate temperatures, the clay particles must fuse together.

Types of Clay:Clays occur in three principal forms, all of which have similar chemical compositions but different physical characteristics. Surface Clays. Surface clays may be the upthrusts of older deposits or of more recent sedimentary formations. As the name implies, they are found near the surface of the earth. Shales. Shales are clays that have been subjected to high pressures until they have nearly hardened into slate. Fire Clays. Fire clays are usually mined at deeper levels than other clays and have refractory qualities. Surface and fire clays have a different physical structure from shales but are similar in chemical composition. All three types of clay are composed of silica and alumina with varying amounts of metallic oxides. Metallic oxides act as fluxes promoting fusion of the particles at lower temperatures. Metallic oxides (particularly those of iron, magnesium and calcium) influence the color of the fired brick. The manufacturer minimizes variations in chemical composition and physical properties by mixing clays from different sources and different locations in the pit. Chemical composition varies within the pit, and the differences are compensated for by varying manufacturing processes. As a result, brick from the same manufacturer will have slightly different properties in subsequent production runs. Further, brick from different manufacturers that have the same appearance may differ in other properties.

 MANUFACTURING:Although the basic principles of manufacture are fairly uniform, individual manufacturing plants tailor their production to fit their particular raw materials and operation. Essentially, brick are produced by mixing ground clay with water, forming the clay into the desired shape, and drying and firing. In ancient times, all molding was performed by hand. However, since the invention of brick-making machines during the latter part of the 19th century, the majority of brick produced in the United States have been machine made. Phases of Manufacturing

The manufacturing process has six general phases: 1) mining and storage of raw materials, 2) preparing raw materials, 3) forming the brick, 4) drying, 5) firing and cooling and 6) de-hacking and storing finished products (see Figure )

(1) Mining and Storage:Surface clays, shales and some fire clays are mined in open pits with power equipment. Then the clay or shale mixtures are transported to plant storage areas (see Photo 1). Continuous brick production regardless of weather conditions is ensured by storing sufficient quantities of raw materials required for many days of plant operation. Normally, several storage areas (one for each source) are used to facilitate blending of the clays. Blending produces more uniform raw materials, helps control color and allows raw material control for manufacturing a certain brick body

(2) Preparation. To break up large clay lumps and stones, the material is processed through
size-reduction machines before mixing the raw material. Usually the material is processed through inclined vibrating screens to control particle size.

(3) Forming. Tempering, the first step in the forming process, produces a homogeneous,
plastic clay mass. Usually, this is achieved by adding water to the clay in a pug mill ,a mixing chamber with one or more revolving shafts with blade extensions. After pugging, the plastic clay mass is ready for forming. There are three principal processes for forming brick: stiff-mud, softmud and dry-press. Stiff-Mud Process - In the stiff-mud or extrusion process (see Photo 3), water in the range of 10 to 15 percent is mixed into the clay to produce plasticity. After pugging, the tempered clay goes through a deairing chamber that maintains a vacuum of 15 to 29 in. (375 to 725 mm) of mercury. De-airing removes air holes and bubbles, giving the clay increased workability and plasticity, resulting in greater strength. Next, the clay is extruded through a die to produce a column of clay. As the clay column leaves the die, textures or surface coatings may be applied (see PROPERTIES, Textures, Coatings and Glazes). An automatic cutter then slices through the clay column to create the individual brick. Cutter spacings and die sizes must be carefully calculated to compensate for normal shrinkage that occurs during drying and firing (see PROPERTIES, Size Variation). About 90 percent of brick in the United States are produced by the extrusion process. Soft-Mud Process - The soft-mud or molded process is particularly suitable for clays containing too much water to be extruded by the stiff-mud process. Clays are mixed to contain 20 to 30 percent water and then formed into brick in molds. To prevent clay from sticking, the molds are lubricated with either sand or water to produce sand-struck or water-struck brick. Brick may be produced in this manner by machine or by hand.

Dry-Press Process - This process is particularly suited to clays of very low plasticity. Clay is mixed with a minimal amount of water (up to 10 percent), then pressed into steel molds under pressures from 500 to 1500 psi (3.4 to 10.3 MPa) by hydraulic or compressed air rams.

(4) Drying. Wet brick from molding or cutting machines contain 7 to 30 percent moisture,
depending upon the forming method. Before the firing process begins, most of this water is evaporated in dryer chambers at temperatures ranging from about 100 F to 400 F (38 C to 204 C). The extent of drying time, which varies with different clays, usually is between 24 to 48 hours. Although heat may be generated specifically for dryer chambers, it usually is supplied from the exhaust heat of kilns to maximize thermal efficiency. In all cases, heat and humidity must be carefully regulated to avoid cracking in the brick.

Hacking. Hacking is the process of loading a kiln car or kiln with brick. The number of
brick on the kiln car is determined by kiln size. The brick are typically placed by robots or mechanical means. The setting pattern has some influence on appearance. Brick placed face-to-face will have a more uniform color than brick that are cross-set or placed faceto-back.

(5) Firing. Brick are fired between 10 and 40 hours, depending upon kiln type and other
variables. There are several types of kilns used by manufacturers. The most common type is a tunnel kiln, followed by periodic kilns. Fuel may be natural gas, coal, sawdust, methane gas from landfills or a combination of these fuels. In a tunnel kiln (see Photo 4), brick are loaded onto kiln cars, which pass through various temperature zones as they travel through the tunnel. The heat conditions in each zone are carefully controlled, and the kiln is continuously operated. A periodic kiln is one that is loaded, fired, allowed to cool and unloaded, after which the same steps are repeated. Dried brick are set in periodic kilns according to a prescribed pattern that permits circulation of hot kiln gases.

 Firing may be divided into five general stages:1) final drying (evaporating free water) 2) dehydration 3) oxidation 4) vitrification 5) flashing or reduction firing.

All except flashing are associated with rising temperatures in the kiln. Although the actual temperatures will differ with clay or shale, final drying takes place at temperatures up to about 400 F (204 C), dehydration from about 300 F to 1800 F (149 C to 982 C), oxidation from 1000 F to 1800 F (538 C to 982 C) and vitrification from 1600 F to 2400 F (871 C to 1316 C). Clay, unlike metal, softens slowly and melts or vitrifies gradually when subjected to rising temperatures. Vitrification allows clay to become a hard, solid mass with relatively low absorption. Melting takes place in three stages:-

1) incipient fusion, when the clay particles become sufficiently soft to stick together in a mass when cooled;

2) vitrification, when extensive fluxing occurs and the mass becomes tight, solid and nonabsorbent; and

3) viscous fusion, when the clay mass breaks down and becomes molten, leading to a deformed shape. The key to the firing process is to control the temperature in the kiln so that incipient fusion and partial vitrification occur but viscous fusion is avoided.

The rate of temperature change must be carefully controlled and is dependent on the raw materials, as well as the size and coring of the brick being produced. Kilns are normally equipped with temperature sensors to control firing temperatures in the various stages. Near the end, the brick may be flashed to produce color variations (see PROPERTIES, Color).

Cooling:-

After the temperature has peaked and is maintained for a prescribed time, the cooling process begins. Cooling time rarely exceeds 10 hours for tunnel kilns and from 5 to 24 hours in periodic kilns. Cooling is an important stage in brick manufacturing because the rate of cooling has a direct effect on color.

(6) De-hacking:De-hacking is the process of unloading a kiln or kiln car after the brick have cooled, a job often performed by robots. Brick are sorted, graded and packaged. Then they are placed in a storage yard or loaded onto rail cars or trucks for delivery. The majority of brick today are packaged in self-contained, strapped cubes, which can be broken down into individual strapped packages for ease of handling on the jobsite. The packages and cubes are configured to provide openings for handling by forklifts.

 PROPERTIES
All properties of brick are affected by raw material composition and the manufacturing process. Most manufacturers blend different clays to achieve the desired properties of the raw materials and of the fired brick. This improves the overall quality of the finished product. The quality control during the manufacturing process permits the manufacturer to limit variations due to processing and to produce a more uniform product. The most important properties of brick are:1) durability 2) color 3) texture 4) size variation 5) compressive strength 6) absorption.

Durability
The durability of brick depends upon achieving incipient fusion and partial vitrification during firing. Because compressive strength and absorption values are also related to the firing temperatures, these properties, together with saturation coefficient, are currently taken as predictors of durability in brick specifications. However, because of differences in raw materials and manufacturing methods, a single set of values of compressive strength and absorption will not reliably indicate the degree of firing.

Color
The color of fired clay depends upon its chemical composition, the firing temperatures and the method of firing control. Of all the oxides commonly found in clays, iron probably has the greatest effect on color. Regardless of its natural color, clay containing iron in practically any form will exhibit a shade of red when exposed to an oxidizing fire because of the formation of

ferrous oxide. When fired in a reducing atmosphere, the same clay will assume a dark (or black) hue. Creating a reducing atmosphere in the kiln is known as flashing or reduction firing. Given the same raw material and manufacturing method, darker colors are associated with higher firing temperatures, lower absorption values and higher compressive strength values. However, for products made from different raw materials, there is no direct relationship between strength and color or absorption and color.

Texture, Coatings and Glazes

Many brick have smooth or sand-finished textures produced by the dies or molds used in forming. A smooth texture, commonly referred to as a die skin, results from pressure exerted by the steel die as theclay passes through it in the extrusion process. Most extruded brick have the die skin removed and the surface further treated to produce other textures using devices that cut, scratch, roll, brush or otherwise roughen the surface as the clay column leaves the die (see Photo 6). Brick may be tumbled before or after firing to achieve an antique appearance. Many manufacturing plants apply engobes (slurries) of finely ground clay or colorants to the column. Engobes are clay slips that are fired onto the ceramic body and develop hardness, but are not impervious to moisture or water vapor. Sands, with or without coloring agents, can be rolled into an engobe or applied directly to the brick faces to create interesting and distinctive patterns in the finished product. Although not produced by all manufacturers, glazed brick are made through a carefully controlled ceramic glazing procedure. There are two basic variations of glazing; single-fired and double-fired. Single-fired glazes are sprayed on brick before or after drying and then kiln-fired at the normal firing temperatures of the brick. Double-fired glazes are used to obtain colors that cannot be produced at higher temperatures. Such a glaze is applied after the brick body has been fired and cooled, then refired at temperatures less than 1800 F (982 C). Glazes are available in a wide variety of colors and reflectances. Unlike engobes, glazes are impervious to water and water vapour.

Photo 6:-Some Brick Textures are Applied by Passing Under a Roller After Extrusion Size Variation
Because clays shrink during both drying and firing, allowances are made in the forming process to achieve the desired size of the finished brick. Both drying shrinkage and firing shrinkage vary for different clays, usually falling within the following ranges: Drying shrinkage: 2 to 4 percent Firing shrinkage: 2.5 to 4 percent

Firing shrinkage increases with higher temperatures, which produce darker shades. When a wide range of colors is desired, some variation between the sizes of the dark and light units is inevitable. To obtain products of uniform size, manufacturers control factors contributing to shrinkage. Because of normal variations in raw materials and temperature variations within kilns, absolute uniformity is impossible. Consequently, specifications for brick allow size variations.

Compressive Strength and Absorption

Both compressive strength and absorption are affected by properties of the clay, method of manufacture and degree of firing. For a given clay and method of manufacture, higher compressive strength values and lower absorption values are associated with higher firing temperatures. Although absorption and compressive strength can be controlled by manufacturing and firing methods, these properties depend largely upon the properties of the raw materials.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF MANUFACTURING OF BRICKS

 Basic Advantages of Brick

1. Aesthetic Appeal 2. Thermal & Acoustic Insulation 3. Zero Maintenance Cost 4. Fire Resistance 5. Flexible in Application 1. Aesthetic Appeal:Brick possesses natural and infinite pleasant colors of burnt clays. Its color formation is achieved through a complicated physio -chemical reaction during the firing process. In contrast to the color of stained body, brick color is permanent and will not fade during weathering process. Different clay compositions, firing temperatures, or kiln atmosphere can lead to different colors. By proper control of these factors, bricks can be made to exhibit endless variety of natural and attractive colors. Bricks' natural colors combined with the extreme flexibility in applications produce aesthetic results which are always personal and everlasting. 2. Thermal & Acoustic Insulation:-

Thermal Insulation: Brick generally exhibits better thermal insulation property than other building materials like concrete. Perforation can improve the thermal insulation property of bricks to some extent. Besides, the Thermal Mass and moisture that the brick has absorbed can help to keep the temperature inside the house relatively constant. In orther words, brick absorbs and releases heat slowly and thus keep the house cool during day-time and warm during night-time.

Acoustic Insulation :- As far as acoustic insulation is concerned, brick wall provides good sound insulation property due to its dense structure. The thickness and density of brick will deaden noise transmission and will deflect no ise from streets, neighboring homes, and jet planes. The sound insulation of brick work is generally accepted as 45 decibels for a 4 1/2 inches thickness and 50 decibels for a 9 inches for the frequency ranges from 200 to 2,000 Hz. Know more about Noise Control. 3. Zero Maintenance Cost:-

Clay bricks do not require maintenance. When you build a home, you might save a few hundred dollars by using a substitute wall material. However, major exterior maintenance such as painting can cost as much as several thousand dolars, depending on your home size. Clay brick may cost a little bit more cost initially, but the very first time that you paint, you might well spend more than th e additional cost of the brick. In addition, you do not need to worry the clay brick from rotting, denting, warping, rusting, spliting, peeling, fading, and termites. As your home gets older, it naturally becomes more beautiful. 4. Fire Resistance :The fire resistance of a building material refers to the length of time a walling element is about to resist a fully developed fire. In every case, clay brick walls obtain maximum fire ratings. To the owner of a clay brick building, this means peace of mind and substantial savings over time on insurance premiums. Please refer to the table below for Design of Clay Brickwork for Fi re.

DESIGN OF CLAY BRICKWORK FOR FIRE Fire resistance Required material period, minutes 30 60 90 120 180 240 thickness for insulation Mm 60 90 110 130 160 180 Maximum slenderness for structural adequacy 25.0 22.5 21.0 20.0 18.0 17.0

5. Flexible in Application:The high compressive strength of fired clay bricks has been exploited for millennia to build structures ranging from single-storey huts to massive public buildings and enormous bridges and viaducts. In particular, it can be used for loadb earing structures which greatly simplify the construction process so as to save materials, time, and labor. Besides, brick can be made into convenient shape and size to facilitate the construction work.

 Various Tests on Bricks:The following laboratory tests may be conducted on the bricks to find their suitability: o Crushing strength o Absorption o Shape and size and o Efflorescence. (i) Crushing Strength: The brick specimen is immersed in water for 24 hours. The frog of the brick is filled flush with 1:3 cement mortar and the specimen is stored in damp jute bag for 24 hours and then immersed in clean water for 24 hours. The specimen is placed in compression testing machine with 6 mm plywood on top and bottom of it to get uniform load on the specimen. Then load is applied axially at a uniform rate of 14 N/mm2. The crushing load is noted. Then the crushing strength is the ratio of crushing load to the area of brick loaded. Average of five specimens is taken as the crushing strength. (ii) Absorption Test: Brick specimens are weighed dry. Then they are immersed in water for a period of 24 hours. The specimen are taken out and wiped with cloth. The weight of each specimen in wet condition is determined. The difference in weight indicates the water absorbed. Then the percentage absorption is the ratio of water absorbed to dry weight multiplied by 100. The average of five specimen is taken. This value should not exceed 20 per cent. To check it, 20 bricks are selected at random and they are stacked along the length, along the width and then along the height. For the standard brick of size 190 mm 90 mm 90 mm. IS code permits the following limits: Lengthwise: 3680 to 3920 mm Widthwise: 1740 to 1860 mm Height wise: 1740 to 1860 mm.

(iii) Shape and size:A. Uniformity in Size: A good brick should have rectangular plane surface and uniform in size. This check is made in the field by observation. (ii) Uniformity in Colour: A good brick will be having uniform colour throughout. This observation may be made before purchasing the brick. B. Structure: A few bricks may be broken in the field and their cross-section observed. The section should be homogeneous, compact and free from defects such as holes and lumps.

(iv) Efflorescence:- The presence of alkalies in brick is not desirable because they form patches of gray powder by absorbing moisture. Hence to determine the presence of alkalies this test is performed as explained below: Place the brick specimen in a glass dish containing water to a depth of 25 mm in a well ventilated room. After all the water is absorbed or evaporated again add water for a depth of 25 mm. After second evaporation observe the bricks for white/grey patches. The observation is reported as nil, slight, moderate, heavy or serious to mean

(a) Nil: No patches (b) Slight: 10% of area covered with deposits (c) Moderate: 10 to 50% area covered with deposit but unaccompanied by flaking of the surface. (d) Heavy: More than 50 per cent area covered with deposits but unaccompanied by flaking of the surface. (e) Serious: Heavy deposits of salt accompanied by flaking of the surface.

 The following visual tests and field tests be carried out to ascertain good quality bricks for use in works.:-

a. Well burnt bricks are copper colored and are free from cracks. b. They posses sharp and square edges. c. They are of uniform color, shape and size as per standard. d. When struck with each other, they produce clear metallic ringing sound. e. Fracture of good bricks show uniform and bright compact structure without any voids. f. They absorb minimum water when immersed in water. The absorption should not be more than 20 % when immersed in water for 24 hours. g. Good bricks are hard on their surface and leave no impression when scratched with nails. h. Good bricks do not break when dropped from 1 m height i. Good bricks when soaked in water and dried, do not show white patches or white deposits on their surface. j. The good quality bricks could be gauged easily by the percentage of bricks that get broken in transit and stacking in the course of ordinary handling (2 to 3%).

REFERENCE
1) WWW.GOOGLE.COM 2) WWW.WIKIPEDIA.COM 3) WWW.SCRIBD.COM

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