PHYSICS NOTES CLASS X

CHAPTER NO.1
DEFINITION OF PHYSICS

INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS

The science of the nature. Physics is that branch of science which treats of laws and properties of matter and force acting upon it. The department of natural science (Physics) which treats the causes (Electricity, Head, Light, Magnetism) that modifying the general properties of body natural philosophy. OR Physics is an important branch of !cience which offers the study of matter and energy along with the interaction between them. BRANCHES OF PHYSICS There are many branches of physics" 1. ELECTRONICS #$t is the branch of Physics which deals with de%elopment of electrons, emitting the de%ices and utili&ation and controlling of electrons flow in electrical circuit designed for %arious purposes.# 2 KINEMETICS #$t is the branch of Physics which deals with description of motion without reference to any opposing or e'ternal force#. 3. OPTICS #$t is the branch of Physics which deals with light and its properties. 4. DYNAMICS #$t is the branch of Physics which deals with causes of motion and their effects# 5. CALORIMETERY #$t is the branch of Physics which deals with measurement of heat#. 6. ATOMIC PHYSICS #$t is the branch of Physics which deals with properties and structure of (tom#. 7. MECHANICS #$t is the branch of Physics which deals with motion of particles or bodies under the action of gi%en force#.

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CONTRIBUTION OF MUSLIMS SCIENTISTS 1. IBNE-AL-HAITHAM (965-1 39 A.D! INTRODUCTION He was born in )asra a city of $ra*. He was one of the great Muslim !cientist. He was a feat scholar of physics, mathematics, engineering+, astronomy and medicine. CONTRIBUTION 1. He was a first man who discussed in detail about the luminous, non,luminous and transparent bodies. 2. He also ga%e the structure and wor-ing of eyes. 3. He ga%e us many laws of reflection and wrote many boo-s about the reflection of light. 4. He also first time ga%e the idea that whene%er the ray of light is incident on an ob.ect some of the incident rays are reflected from the ob.ect and enter the eyes conse*uently the ob.ect becomes %isible to the eyes which is accepted the scientific %iew. 2. AL-BERUNI INTRODUCTION He was born in )erun a small town of (fghanistan. He wrote many boo-s on %arious sub.ects li-e physics, mathematics, culture, astronomy e.t.c CONTRIBUTION 1. He discussed in detail about the mo%ement of sun moon and others planets . 2. He determined the densities of %arious metals . 3. He ga%e an idea that Earth is floating in the s-y li-e a ships in the water. 4. He also awarded that he was a first who said that the %elocity of light is more than the %elocity of sound. 3. MUHAMMAD IBNE MUSA KHA"R#MI INTRODUCTION (bu (bdullah Muhammad $bn Musa al,/hwari&mi was born in 012(.3 at /hwari&m (/he%a), a town south of ri%er 4'us in present 5&be-istan. CONTRIBUTION 1. (l,/hwari&mi was one of the greatest mathematicians e%er li%ed. He was the founder of se%eral branches and basic concepts of mathematics. He is also famous as an astronomer and geographer. 2. He de%eloped in detail trigonometric tables containing the sine functions, which were later e'trapolated to tangent functions. 3. (l,/hwari&mi also de%eloped the calculus of two errors, which led him to the concept of differentiation. He also refined the geometric representation of conic sections. 4. (l,/hwari&mi wrote a boo- on astronomical tables. !e%eral of his boo-s were translated into Latin in the early l6th century by (delard of )ath and 7erard of 8remona. The treatises on (rithmetic, /itab al,9am:a wal,Tafree* bil Hisab al,Hindi, and the one on (lgebra, (l,Ma*ala fi Hisab,al 9abr wa,al,Mu*abilah, are -nown only from Latin translations. 5. He was a first man who introduce the decimal system in mathematics. COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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CHAPTER NO. 2
DEFINITIONS 1. M$%$&

MEASUREMENTS

The length of the path tra%eled by light in %acuum in ;<6==,>=6,?10 of a second is -nown as meter. Length is a fundamental unit used for measurements of length, distance and height. $t is e*ual to the distance between two mar-s on a Platinum,$ridium bar -ept at 2 8 in $nternational )ureau of @eight and Measurements ($)@M) near Paris. 2. KILO'RAM The mass of a Platinum,$ridium cylinder -ept at 2 8 in $nternational )ureau of @eight and Measurements ($)@M) near Paris is considered to be ; -ilogram. /ilogram is a fundamental unit used for measurements of mass. 3. SECOND $t is e*ual to the duration of =,;=6,AB;,>>2 periods of radiation of 8esium,;BB in ground state. FUNDAMENTAL UNITS The international system of units is based on se%en independent units -nown as Cundamental or )asic 5nits. These are gi%en below" ;. M$%$& ((!) length, distance, height (l) 6. K*+,-&.( (/-!) mass (m) B. S$0,12 (3!) time (t) ?. A(4$&$ (A!) electric current ($) 1. K$+5*1 (K!) temperature (T) A. M,+$ ((,+!) amount of substance (n) >. C.12$+. (02!) luminous intensity ($%) DERI6ED UNITS The units that re*uire two or more basic measurements of same units or different fundamental units for its definition are called deri%ed units. ;. S78.&$ ($%$& ((2!) area (() 6. C89*0 ($%$& ((3!) %olume (D) B. H$&%: (H:!) fre*uency (%) ?. K*+,-&.(3 4$& 089*0 ($%$& (/-;(3!) mass density (p) 1. M$%$& 4$& 3$0,12 (;3) speed %elocity (D) A. R.2*.13 4$& 3$0,12 (&.2;3!) angular %elocity (w) >. M$%$&3 4$& 3$0,12 378.&$ ((;32!) acceleration (a) 0. N$<%,1 (N! (/-.(;32!) force (C) =. P.30.+ (P.! (N;(2!) pressure (P) ;2. =,8+$ (=!(N.(!) wor- (@), energy(E), *uantity of heat (*) ;;. ".%% ("! (=;3!) power (P) ;6. C,8+,(9 (C! (A.3!) *uantity of electric charge (E) COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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;B. ;?. ;1. ;A. ;>. ;0. ;=. 62. 6;. 66.

6,+% (6! (";A!) potential difference (D), electromoti%e force (E) O>( (O($-.!) electric resistance (F) F.&.2 (F!(A.3;6!) capacitance (8) "$9$& ("9!(6.3!) magnetic flu' (G) H$1&? (H! (6.3;A!) inductance (E) 6,+%3 4$& ($%$& (6;(!) electric field strength (E) N$<%,1 4$& 0,8+,(9 (N;C!) electric field strength (E) T$3+. (T! ("9;(2!) magnetic flu' density ()) A(4$&$ 4$& ($%$& (A;(!) magnetic field strength (H) =,8+$3 4$& /*+,-&.( K$+5*1) (=;/-.K! specific heat (E)

6ERNIER CALLIPERS ( %ernier calipers is an instrument that is used to measure the length, diameter and depth of solid substances accurately up to 2.;mm. ( %ernier calipers has two scales, the main scale (M!) and %ernier scale (D!). The %ernier scale (D!) slides o%er the main scale (M!). 6ERNIER COUNT (6C! The smallest measurement that can be made with the help of a %ernier calipers is -nown as least count of %ernier calipers or %ernier count (D8). Least count of the %ernier calipers is calculated by L.C @ 6.+8$ ,A S(.++$3% D*5*3*,1 ,A MS;T,%.+ N8(9$& ,A D*5*3*,13 ,1 6S MICROMETER SCRE" 'AU'E ( screw gauge is an instrument that is used to measure thic-ness of a wire, glass, plastic and metal sheets accurately up to 2.2;mm. ( micrometer screw gauge has two scales, the main scale (M!) and the circular scale (8!). The circular scale rotates o%er the main scale. LEAST COUNT (LC! The smallest measurement that can be made with the help of a screw gauge is -nown as least count of screw gauge. Least count of the screw gauge is calculated by" L.C @ P*%0> ,A %>$ S0&$< ; T,%.+ 18(9$& ,A 2*5*3*,13 ,A CS @here pitch is the distance between two consecuti%e threads of the linear screw.

PHYSICAL BALANCE ( physical balance is an instrument that is used to find the mass of an ob.ect. (ctually, it is the le%er of the first -ind with e*ual arms. STOP "ATCH ( stop watch is an instrument that is used to measure accurately the time inter%al for any physical e%ent. $t can be used to measure the fraction of a second. MEASURIN' CYLINDER ( measuring cylinder is a glass cylinder of uniform area of cross section with a scale in cubic centimeter or millimeter mar-ed on it. $t is used to measure the %olume of a li*uid.

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CHAPTER NO.3
SCALAR

SCALAR AND 6ECTOR BUANTITIES

#!calar *uantity are those physical *uantity which are completely specified by their magnitude e'press with suitable unit. They do not re*uire any mention of the direction for complete their specificaton is called scalar *uantity.# OR # !calar *uantity are those physical *uantity which re*uire magnitude , e'press with suitable unit only is called scalar *uantity.# CHARACTERISTICS OF SCALAR BUANTITY 1. !calar *uantity can be added, subtracted, multiplied, di%ided according to the ordinary algebraic rule. 2. Two scalars are e*ual if they ha%e same unit. REPRESENTATION $t can be represented by the numbers with decimals. (Positi%e negati%e) ECAMPLE Mass, 3istance, Temperature, %olume, speed e.t.c 6ECTOR #DE8T4F *uantities are those physical *uantities which do not re*uire only their magnitude e'press with suitable unit. )ut they also re*uire a particular direction for complete their specification is called %ector *uantity.# 4F HDector *uantity are those physical *uantity which re*uire magnitude, e'press with suitable unit as well as proper direction is called %ector *uantity.# CHARACTERISTICS OF 6ECTOR BUANTITY 1. Dector *uantity cannot be added, subtracted, multiplied, and di%ided according to the ordinary algebraic rule. 2. $t can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and di%ided according to the some special rules li-e head and tail rule, 7raphical method e.t.c. 3. Dector always treats as positi%e. REPRESENTATION $t can be represented by an arrow with headline. The length of an arrow represents its magnitude and the headline represents the direction of the %ector(figure ;.;)

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,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,I (figure ;.;)

ECAMPLE @eight, 3isplacement, Delocity, (cceleraton, Tor*ue, Momentum e.t.c ADDITION OF A 6ECTOR #The process of combining of two or more %ector to produce a signal %ector ha%ing the combining effect of all the %ector is called the resultant of the %ector and this process is -nown as the addition of a %ector#. HEAD AND TAIL RULE !uppose we ha%e two %ector ( and ) ha%ing the different magnitude and direction. 1. Cirst of all chose a suitable scale and representation of all the %ector ha%e been drawn on the paper. 2. Put all the %ector for finding the resultant of gi%en %ector such that the head of the first %ector .oin the tail of the second %ector. 3. Jow .oin the tail of the first %ector with tail of the second %ector such that it .oin the two %ector with head to head and tail to tail by another. 4. The new %ector F will be the resultant of the gi%en %ector. 5. $t can be measured by the 3ee or any suitable mean. This method is called the head and tail or tip to tail rule. <+<+ <K < K < K < K F < K) < K < K < K < K <,,,,,,,,,,I ( RESOLUTION OF A 6ECTOR #The process of splitting up of a signal %ector into two or more %ector is called the resolution of a %ector# 4F #The process of splitting up of a signal %ector into its components is called the resolution of a %ector# RECTAN'ULAR COMPONENTS

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( %ector which is not along ',a'is or y,a'is it can be resol%ed into infinite number, but generally a %ector can be resol%ed into its components at a right angle to each other MATHEMATICALLY PRO6ED suppose a %ector C is denoted by a line () which ma-es an angle G with hori&ontal surface 4L. Crom a point ( draw perpendicular to the hori&ontal surface 4L.

( <+<+ <K < K < K < K C< K ) Cy < K < K < K <G K ) 4 <,,,,,,,,,,,,I L C'

The line () represents its %ertical component and it is denoted by Cy.The line 4) represents its hori&ontal component and it is denoted by C'. Jow in the triangle (4) !inGM ()<4( NsinGM Perpendicular<HypotonuseO or sinGM Cy<C or F?@ F3*1D !imilarly 8osGM 4)<4( NsinGM )ase<HypotonusO or 8osGM C'<C or FE@ FC,3D Cor the triangle TanGM ()<4) NTanGM per<hyp) or TanGM Cy<C' or D@T.1-1 @F?;FE SUBTRACTION OF A 6ECTOR #$t is defined as the (ddition of ( to the negati%e of a ) is called the subtraction of a %ector ((,))#

CHAPTER NO. 4
DEFINITION

KINEMATICS

#$t is the branch of Physics which deals with description of motion without reference to any opposing or e'ternal force#. COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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MOTION #@hen a body changes its position with respect to its surrounding so the body is said to be in the state of motion#.

TYPES OF MOTION There are three types of motion" 1. Linear or Translatory motion 2. Fotatory motion 3. Dibratory motion 1. LINEAR OR TRANSLATORY MOTION $f a body mo%es in a straight path so the body is to be in Linear motion or Translatory motion. EE.(4+$ ( bus is mo%ing on the road, ( person is running on the ground.

2. ROTATORY MOTION $f a body spins or rotates from the fi'ed point ,so the body is to be in Fotatory motion. EE.(4+$ The blades of a mo%ing fan, The wheel of a mo%ing car. 3. 6IBRATORY MOTION To and fro motion about the mean point so the body is to be in Dibratory motion. EE.(4+$ Motion of a spring. REST #@hen a body does not change its position with respect to its surrounding so the body is said to be in the state of rest#. EE.(4+$ ( boo- is laying on the table,( person is standing on floor,( tree in the garden. SPEED #The distance co%ered by a body in a unit time is called speed.# 4F #The rate of change of distance is called speed.# COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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FORMULA !peed M 3istance<Time or 6 @ S;% UNIT The !.$ unit of speed in M./.! system is Meter<second. 4r (;3 KINDS OF SPEED 1. UNIFORM SPEED $f a body co%ers an e*ual distance in e*ual inter%al of time so the body is said to be in uniform speed. 2. 6ARIABLE SPEED $f a body does not co%er an e*ual distance in e*ual inte%al of time so the body is said to be in %ariable speed. 6ELOCITY #The distance co%ered by a body in a unit time in a particular direction is called %elocity.# 4F #The rate of change of displacement is called speed.# 4F #!peed in a definite direction is called %elocity.# FORMULA Delocity M 3isplacment<Time or 6 @ S;% UNIT The !.$ unit of Delocity in M./.! system is Meter<second. or (;3 KINDS OF 6ELOCITY 1. UNIFORM 6ELOCITY $f a body co%ers an e*ual distance in e*ual inter%al of time in a 8onstant direction so the body is said to be in uniform Delocity. 2. 6ARIABLE 6ELOCITY $f a body does not co%er an e*ual distance in e*ual inter%al of time in a particular direction so the body is said to be in %ariable %elocity. ACCELERATION COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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#The rate of change of %elocity is called acceleration.# 4F #(cceleration depends upon the %elocity if the %elocity continously increases or decreases the accelerattion will be produced.# 1. POSITI6E ACCELERATION $f the %elocity continuously increases then the acceleration will be positi%e. 2. NE'ATI6E ACCELERATION $f the %elocity continously decreases then the acceleration will be negati%e. FORMULA (cceleration M change of %elocity<Time or . @ (6A-6*!;% UNIT The !.$ unit of Delocity in M./.! system is Meter<secondPs*uare or (;S2 EBUATION OF MOTION The relationship of initial %elocity, final %elocity, acceleration, time,and linear distance. FIRST EBUATION OF MOTION !uppose an ob.ect mo%es with initial %elocity #Di# in a time #t# and co%ers a distance #!# in acceleration #a# and the final %elocity of an ob.ect becomes #Df# (ccording to the defination of the acceleration #The rate of change of %elocity is called acceleration# $.e. (cceleration M 8hange of %elocity<time MI a M Df , Di<t DERI6ATION a M Df , Di<t at M Df , Di or 6A @ 6* F .% SECOND EBUATION OF MOTION (ccording to the definition of the acceleration #The rate of change of %elocity is called acceleration#. $.e. (cceleration M 8hange of %elocity<time MI a M Df , Di<t at M Df , Di COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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or Df M Di P at ,,,,,,,,,,,,,(;) !ubstituting the a%erage %elocity" Da% M (Di P Df)<6 ,,,,,,,,,,,(6) The distance co%ered by the body in a unit" ! M Da%<t Putting the %alue of Da% from e*uation 6" ! M Q(Di P Df)<6R S t Putting the %alue of Df from e*uation ;" ! M Q(Di P Di P at)<6R S t ! M Q(6Di P at)<6R S t ! M (Di P at<6O S t S @ (6*% F 1;2.%2! NHere 6 is the s*uare of the time #t#. 3ont write this sentence in the e'aminationO THIRD EBUATION OF MOTION (ccording to the definition of the acceleration #The rate of change of %elocity is called acceleration#. (cceleration M 8hange of %elocity<time MI a M (Df , Di)<t MI at M Df , Di or t M (Df , Di)<a ,,,,,,,,,,,,,(;) !ubsituting the a%erage %elocity" Da% M (Di P Df)<6 ,,,,,,,,,,,(6) @e -now that" Da% M !<t MI ! M Da% S t Putting the %alue of Da% from e*uation 6 and %alue of t from e* ;" ! M Q(Di P Df)<6R S Q(Df,Di)<aR ! M Di6 , Df6<6a since N(aPb) (a,b) M a6 , b6O or 2.3 @ 6A2 - 6*2 ACCELERATION DUE TO 'RA6ITY OR FREE FALLIN' OB=ECTS #7alileo was the first scientist to appreciate that, neglecting the effect of air resistance, all bodies in free,fall close to the Earth:s surface accelerate %ertically downwards with the same acceleration" namely =.0 m<s6# EE.(4+$ $f a ball is thrown %ertically upward, it rises to a particular height and then falls bac- to the ground. Howe%er this is due to the attraction of the earth which pulls the ob.ect towards the ground# CHARACTERISTIC OF FREE FALLIN' BODIES

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1. @hen a body is thrown %ertically upward, its %elocity continously decreases and become &ero at a particular height 3uring this motion the %alue of acceleration is negati%e and Df is e*ual to &ero (a M ,=.0m<s6 , Df M 2). 2. @hen a body falls bac- to the ground , its %elocity continously increases and become ma'imum at a particular height 3uring this motion the %alue of acceleration is positi%e and Di is e*ual to &ero (a M =.0m<s6 , Di M 2). 3. (cceleration due to gra%ity is denoted by a and its %alue is =.0m<s6 . 4. E*uation of motion for the free,falling bodies be written as, Df M Di P gt h M Dit P ;<6 gt6 6gh M Df6 , Di6

CHAPTER NO. 5
DYNAMICS

FORCE AND MOTION

#$t is the branch of Physics which deals with causes of motion and their effects# LA" OF MOTIONS Jewton formulated three laws of motion in his boo-. NE"TON FIRST LA" OF MOTIONS Jewton:s first law of motion is also -nown as the Law of $nertia. STATEMENT #E%ery body continues its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight path until it is acted upon by an e'ternal, or unbalance force to change its state of rest or uniform motion#. ECPLANATION This law consists of a two parts (a) @hen body is at rest (b) @hen body is mo%ing with uniform %elocity ">$1 B,2? *3 A% R$3% Jewton:s Law states that when a body is at rest, it continues its rest unless we apply a force on it. @hen we apply a force, it changes its state of rest and starts mo%ing along a straight line. ">$1 B,2? *3 *1 M,%*,1 Jewton:s Law states that when a body is mo%ing, it mo%es in a straight line with uniform %elocity, but when we apply an opposite force, it changes its state of motion and come to rest. EE.(4+$3

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( body riding a push,bi-e along a le%eled road does not come to rest immediately when we apply a force, it changes its state of rest and starts mo%ing along a straight line. $f a bus suddenly starts mo%ing, the passengers standing in the bus will fall in the bac-ward direction. $t is due to the reason that the lower part of the passengers which is in contract with the floor of the bus is carried forward by the motion of the bus, but the upper part of the body remains at rest due to inertia and so the passengers fall in bac-ward direction.

SECOND LA" OF MOTIONS STATEMENT #@hen a force acts on an ob.ect it produces an acceleration which is directly proportion to the amount of the force and in%ersely proportional to the product of mass# ECPLANATION $t is well -nown fact that if we push a body with greater force then its %elocity increases and change of %elocity ta-es place in the direction of the force. $f we apply a certain force C on a mass m, then it mo%es with certain %elocity in the direction of the force. $f the force becomes twice then its %elocity will also increase two times. $n this way if we go on increasing the fore there will be increase in %elocity, which will increase the acceleration. DERI6ATION (ccording to the JewtonTs !econd law of motion when a force acts on an ob.ect it produces an acceleration which is directly proportion to the amount of the force. a U C Nhere U is the sign of directly proportional " 3o not write this sentence in e'amination O (nd in%ersely proportional to the product of mass a U ;<m 8ombining all". a U C<m a M / C<m $f the Dalue of / is ; so, a M C<m or F @ (. 1. FORCE

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Corce is an agent which produces motion in a body but some time force may not be succeeded to produce motion in a body so we can say that the force is an agent which produces or tends to produce motion in a body. "$ 0.1 A8&%>$& 3.? %>.%) Corce is an agent which stops or tends to stop the motion of a body. $n simple word we can also say that force is an agent which changes or tends to change the sate of an ob.ect. 2. MASS The *uantity of matter contained in a body is called mass. FORMULA C M ma m M C<a UNIT The unit of mass in M./.! system is /ilograme (-g) 3. "EI'HT $t is a force with which earth attracts towards its centre is called weight. FORMULA @ M mg UNIT The unit of weight in M./.! system is Jewton (J). THIRD LA" OF MOTION HTo e%ery action there is always an e*ual and opposite reaction # ECPLANATION (ccording to Jewton:s Law of Motion, we ha%e" C(action) M , C(reaction The negati%e (,) sign indicates that the two forces are parallel but in the opposite direction. $f we consider one of the interacting ob.ects as ( and the other as ), then according to the third law of motion" C(()) M , C()() C(()) represents the force e'erted on ( and C()() is the force e'erted on ). EE.(4+$3 @e we wal- on the ground, we push the ground bac-ward and as a reaction the ground pushes us forward. 3ue to this reason we are able to mo%e on the ground.

$f a boo- is placed on the table, it e'erts some force on the table, which is e*ual to the weight of the boo-. The table as a reaction pushes the boo- upward. This is the reason thta the boo- is stationary on the table and it does not fall down.

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D$A*1*%*,1 #$nertia is the tendency of a body to resist a change in its state.# EE.(4+$3 8o%er a glass with a post card and place a coin on it. Jow stri-e the post card swiftly with the nail of your finger. $f the stro-e has been made correctly, the postcard will be thrown away and the coin will drop in the glass.

$f a mo%ing bus stops suddenly, the passenger standing in it feels a .er- in the forward direction. (s a result he may fall. $t is due to the fact that the lower part of the standing passengers comes to rest as the bus stops. )ut the upper portion remains in motion due to inertia.

DIFFERENCE BET"EEN MASS AND "EI'HT M.33 1. The *uantity of matter present in a body is called mass. 2. The mass of a body remains constant e%erywhere and does not change by change in altitude. 3. Mass of a body possesses no direction. !o it is a scalar *uantity. 4. Mass can be determined by a physical balance. "$*->% 1. The force with which the earth attracts a body towards its centre is called the weight of the body. 2. The weight of a body is not constant. $t is changed by altitude. 3. @eight of a body has a direction towards the centre of the earth. !o it is a %ector *uantity. 4. @eight can be determined by only a spring balance. MOMENTUM #The *uantity or *uality of motion is called momentum and it is denoted by P# MATHEMATICAL DEFINITION #$t is the product of mass and %elocity.# MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION P M mD @here"

p is the momentum m is the mass % the %elocity

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LA" OF CONSER6ATION OF MOMENTUM The law of conser%ation of momentum is a fundamental law of nature, and it states that the total momentum of a isolated system of ob.ects (which has no interactions with e'ternal agents) is constant. 4ne of the conse*uences of this is that the centre of mass of any system of ob.ects will always continue with the same %elocity unless acted on by a force outside the system ECAMPLE 8onsider two bodies ( and ) of mass m; and m6 mo%ing in the same direction with %elocity 5; and 56 respecti%ely such that 5; is greater than 56. !uppose the ball ac*uire %elocity D; and D6 respecti%ely after collision Momentum of the system before collision M m;5; P m656 Momentum of the system after collision M m;D; P m6D6 (ccording to the law of conser%ation of momentum" Total momentum of the system before collision M Total momentum of the system after collision M (1U1 F (2U2 @ (161 F (262 FRICTION D$A*1*%*,1 #@hen a body mo%es o%er the surface of another body then the opposing force is prodece and this opposing force is called force of friction# EE4+.1.%*,1 !uppose a wooden bloc- is placed on a table and a spring balance is attached on it. $f we apply a %ery small force of magnitude C by pulling the spring gradually and increase it, we obser%e that the bloc- does not mo%e until the applied force has reached a critical %alue. $f C is less then critical %alue, the bloc- does not mo%e. (ccording to Jewton:s Third Law of motion an opposite force balance the force. This opposing force is -nown as the force of friction or friction. C.83$3 ,A F&*0%*,1 $f we see the surface of material bodies through microscope, we obser%e that they are not smooth. E%en the most polished surfaces are une%en. @hen one surface is placed o%er another, the ele%ations of one get interloc-ed with the depression of the other. Thus they oppose relati%e motion. The opposition is -nown as friction. F.0%,&3 ,1 <>*0> F&*0%*,1 D$4$123 The force of friction depends upon the following factors" 1. N,&(.+ R$.0%*,1 (R! Corce of friction is directly proportional to normal reaction (F), which act upon the body in upward direction against the weight of the body sliding on the surface. 2. N.%8&$ ,A S8&A.0$3 Corce of friction also depends upon the nature of the two surfaces. $t is denoted as u and has constant %alues for e%ery surface. $t is different for the two surfaces in contact.

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COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION The coefficient of friction is a number which represents the friction between two surfaces. )etween two e*ual surfaces, the coefficient of friction will be the same. The symbol usually used for the coefficient of friction is 5, where 2 V 5 V ; . The ma'imum frictional force (when a body is sliding or is in limiting e*uilibrium) is e*ual to the coefficient of friction W the normal reaction force. C M 5F @here m is the coefficient of friction and F is the normal reaction force. This frictional force, C, will act parallel to the surfaces in contact and in a direction to oppose the motion that is ta-ing< trying to ta-e place. AD6ANTA'ES OF FRICTION 1. @e could not wal- without the friction between our shoes and the ground. (s we try to step forward, we push your foot bac-ward. Criction holds our shoe to the ground, allowing you to wal-. 2. @riting with a pencil re*uires friction. we could not hold a pencil in our hand without friction. 3. ( nail stays in wood due to frction 4. Jut and bold cal hold due to friction DISAD6ANTA'ES OF FRICTION 1. $n any type of %ehicle,,such as a car, boat or airplane,,e'cess friction means that e'tra fuel must be used to power the %ehicle. $n other words, fuel or energy is being wasted because of the friction. 2. The Law of 8onser%ation of Energy states that the amount of energy remains constant. Thus, the energy that is #lost# to friction in trying to mo%e an ob.ect is really turned to heat energy. The friction of parts rubbing together creates heat. 3. 3ue to the friction a machine has less fre*uency ;22X 4. 3ue to friction machine catch fire. M$%>,23 ,A R$280*1- F&*0%*,1 Criction can be reduced by the following methods" 1. The %arious parts of the machines that are mo%ing o%er one another are properly lubricated. 2. $n machines, the sliding of %arious parts is usually replaced by rolling. This id done by using ball bearings. 3. @here sliding is una%oidable, a thic- layer of greasing material is used between the sliding surfaces. 4. The front of the fast mo%ing ob.ects, e.g. cars, aeroplanes are made oblong to decrease air friction. LA" OF FRICTION S%.%$($1% COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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The %alue of limiting friction increases proportionally with the increase in normal reaction. Hence, liming friction C(s) is directly proportional to the normal reaction. C(s) U F (Here U represents the sign of proportionality dont: write it in the e'amination paper.) MI Cs M uF........... (i) u M C(s)<F u is the constant of proportionality, which depends upon the nature of the surfaces of the two surfaces in contact. $t is -nown as the coefficient of friction. $t is only a number without any unit. @e -now that the normal reaction is directly proportional to the weight of the bloc-, therefore, F M @ M mg !ubstituting the %alue of F in e*uation (i) MI F3 @ 8(R,++*1- F&*0%*,1 $f we set a hea%y spherical ball rolling, it e'periences an opposing force called rolling friction. @hen a body rolls o%er a surface, the force of friction is called rolling friction. Folling friction is much less than the sliding friction. This is because the surfaces in contact are %ery much less.

CHAPTER NO.6
DEFINITIONS 1. STATIC

STATICS

!tatics deals with the bodies at rest under number of forces, the e*uilibrium and the conditions of e*uilibrium. 2. RESULTANT FORCE The net effect of two or more forces is a single force, that is called the resultant force. 3. MOMENT ARM The perpendicular distance between the a'is of rotation and the line of the action of force is called the moment arm of the force. TORBUE $t is the turning effects of a force about an a'is of rotation is called moment of force or tor*ue. FACTORS ON "HICH TORBUE DEPENDS ;. The magnitude of the applied force. 6. The perpendicular distance between a'is of rotation and point of application of force. REPRESENTATION Tor*ue may be represented as, COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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Tor*ue M Corce S moment arm T@FG2 CENTRE OF 'RA6ITY The centre of gra%ity is a point at which the whole weight of the body appears to act. CENTRE OF 'RA6ITY OF RE'ULAR SHAPED OB=ECTS @e can find the centre of gra%ity of any regular shaped body ha%ing the following shapes" ;. T&*.1-+$) The point of intersection of all the medians. 6. C*&0+$) 8entre of gra%ity of circle is also the centre of gra%ity. B. S78.&$) Point of intersection of the diagnonals. ?. P.&.++$+,-&.() Point of intersection of the diagonals. 1. S4>$&$) 8entre of the sphere. CENTRE OF 'RA6ITY OF IRRE'ULAR SHAPED OB=ECTS @e can find the center of gra%ity of any irregular shaped ob.ect by using following method. 3rill a few small holes near the edge of the irregular plate. 5sing the hole (, suspend the plate from a nail fi'ed hori&ontally in a wall. The plate will come to rest after a few moments. $t will be in a position so that its centre of gra%ity is %ertically below the point of suspension. Jow, suspend a plumb line from the supporting nail. 3raw a line ((: in the plate along the plumb line. The centre of gra%ity is located somewhere on this line. Fepeat the same process using the second hole ). This gi%es the line )): on the plate. (lso repeat this process and use hole 8 and get line 88:. The lines ((:, )): and 88: intersect each other at a point. $t is our re*uired point, i.e.e the centre of gra%ity. @e can use this procedure with any irregular shaped body and find out its centre of gra%ity. EBUILIBRIUM ( body will be in e*uilibrium if the forces acting on it must be cancel the effect of each other. $n the other word we can also write that" on it. ( body is said to be in e*uilibrium condition if there is no unbalance or net force acting

STATIC EBUILIBRIUM @hen a body is at rest and all forces applied on the body cancel each other then it is said to be in static e*uilibrium. DYNAMIC EBUILIBRIUM @hen a body is mo%ing with uniform %elocity and forces applied on the body cancel each other then it is said to be in the dynamic e*uilibrium. CONDITIONS OF EBUILIBRIUM FIRST CONDITION OF EBUILIBRIUM

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#( body will be in first condition of e*uilibrium if sum of all forces along L,a'is and sum of all forces along Y,a'is are are e*ual to &ero, then the body is said to be in first condition of e*uilibrium.# ( FE @ F? @ ! SECOND CONDITIONS OF EBUILIBRIUM #( body will be in second condition of e*uilibrium if sum of cloc-wise(Moment) tor*ue must be e*ual to the sum of anticloc-wise tor*ue(Moment), then the body is said to be in second condition of e*uilibrium.# S8( ,A %,&78$ @ STATES OF EBUILIBRIUM There are following three states of E*uilibrium" 1. FIRST STATE (STABLE EBUILIBRIUM! ( body at rest is in stable e*uilibrium if on being displaced, it has the tendency to come bac- to its initial position. @hen the centre of gra%ity of a body i.e. below the point of suspension or support, then body is said to be in stable e*uilibrium. 2. SECOND STATE (UNSTABLE EBUILIBRIUM! $f a body on displacement topples o%er and occupies a new position then it is said to be in the state of unstable e*uilibrium. @hen the centre of gra%ity lies abo%e the point of suspension or support, the body is said to be in the state of unstable e*uilibrium. 3. THIRD STATE $f a body is placed in such state that if it is displaced then neither it topples o%er nor does it come bac- to its original position, then such state is called neutral e*uilibrium. @hen the centre of gra%ity of a body lies at the point of suspension, then the body is said to be in neutral e*uilibrium.

CHAPTER NO. 7
CENTRIPETAL FORCE DEFINITION

CIRCULAR AND 'RA6ITATION

#The force that causes an ob.ect to mo%e along a cur%e (or a cur%ed path) is called centripetal force.# M.%>$(.%*0.+ EE4&$33*,1 @e -now that the magnitude of centripetal acceleration of a body in a uniform circular motions is directly proportional to the s*uare of %elocity and in%ersely proportional to the radius of the path Therefore, a(c) U %6 (Here U represents the sign of proportionality do not write this in your e'amination and 6 represents s*uare of %) a(c) U ;<r 8ombining both the e*uations" a(c) U %6<r COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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Crom Jewton:s !econd Law of Motion" C M ma MI F(0! @ (52;& @here,

Cc M 8entripetal Corce m M Mass of ob.ect % M Delocity of ob.ect r M Fadius of the cur%ed path

F.0%,&3 ,1 <>*0> F0 D$4$123) Cc depends upon the following factors"

$ncrease in the mass increases Cc. $t increases with the s*uare of %elocity. $t decreases with the increase in radius of the cur%ed path.

EE.(4+$3 The centripetal force re*uired by natural planets to mo%e constantly round a circle is pro%ided by the gra%itational force of the sun.

$f a stone tied to a string is whirled in a circle, the re*uired centripetal force is supplied to it by our hand. (s a reaction the stone e'erts an e*ual force which is felt by our hand.

The pilot while turning his aeroplane tilts one wing in the upward direction so that the air pressure may pro%ide the re*uired suitable Cc.

CENTRIFU'AL FORCE D$A*1*%*,1 #( force supposed to act radially outward on a body mo%ing in a cur%e is -nown as centrifugal force.# EE4+.1.%*,1 8entrifugal force is actually a reaction to the centripetal force. $t is a well,-nown fact that Cc is directed towards the centre of the circle, so the centrifugal force, which is a force of reaction, is directed away from the centre of the circle or the cur%ed path. (ccording to Jewton:s third law of motion action and reaction do not act on the same body, so the centrifugal force does not act on the body mo%ing round a circle, but it acts on the body that pro%ides Cc. COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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EE.(4+$3 $f a stone is tied to one end of a string and it is mo%ed round a circle, then the force e'erted on the string on outward direction is called centrifugal force.

The aeroplane mo%ing in a circle e'erts force in a direction opposite to the pressure of @hen a train rounds a cur%e, the centrifugal force is also e'erted on the trac-.

air.

LA" OF 'RA6ITATION I1%&,280%*,1 Jewton proposed the theory that all ob.ects in the uni%erse attract each other with a force -nown as gra%itation. the gra%itational attraction e'ists between all bodies. Hence, two stones are not only attracted towards the earth, but also towards each other. S%.%$($1% E%ery body in the uni%erse attracts e%ery other body with a force, which is directly proportional to the product of masses and in%ersely proportional to the s*uare of the distance between their centres. M.%>$(.%*0.+ EE4&$33*,1 Two ob.ects ha%ing mass m; and m6 are placed at a distance r. (ccording to Jewton:s Law of 5ni%ersal 7ra%itation. C U m;m6 ((Here U represents the sign of proportionality do not write this in your e'amination) (lso C U ;<r6 (Here 6 represents s*uare of r) 8ombining both the e*uations" C U m;m6<r6 Femo%ing the sign of proportionality and introducing a constant" F @ ' ((1(2;&2!

CHAPTER NO. H
DEFINITIONS 1. =OULE

"ORKI ENER'RY AND PO"ER

$t is the wor- done by a force of one Jewton when the body is displaced one meter. 2. ER' $t is the wor- done by a force of one 3yne when the body is displaced one centimeter. 3. FOOT POUND (FT-LB! $t is the wor- done by a force of one pound when the body is displaced one foot. 4. FORCE $t is an agent that mo%es or tends to mo%e or stops or tends to stop a body.

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5. "ATT @att is the unit of power that is e*ual to the *uantity of ; 9oule wor- done in ; second. "ORK @hen a force produces displacement in a body, it is said to do wor-. UNITS OF "ORK

!.$ !ystem , 9oule 8.7.! !ystem , Erg

EE4+.1.%*,1 @hen force is applied in the direction of the displacement we can find the wor- by using definition @or- M Corce S 3isplacement @ M CSs " @ F3 !uppose a man is pulling the grass cutting machine then the direction of the foce and displacement is not same. The applied force ma-es an angle G with the ground while the motion ta-es place along the ground. $n this case force is resol%ed into its components. C' M CcosG Cy M CsinG (s the machine mo%es along the ground, so C' is doing the wor-, Hence" @ M Corce S 3isplacement @ M CcosGSs "@F30,3D ENER'Y Energy is define as the capability to do wor-. Energy is also measured in 9oules. S,($ T?4$3 ,A E1$&-?

Potential Energy /inetic Energy 8hemical Energy Heat Energy Light Energy Juclear Energy POTENTIAL ENER'Y D$A*1*%*,1 The energy possessed by a body due to its position is -nown as the Potential Energy of the body. $t is represented by P.E. and is measured in 9oules in !ystem $nternational. COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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EE.(4+$3 The energy of the following is potential energy"

( bric- lying on the roof of a house. The spring of a watch when wound up. The compressed spring. @ater stored up in ele%ated reser%oir in water,supply system.

M.%>$(.%*0.+ EE4&$33*,1 $f we lift a body of mass m to a height h, then the force applied on it is the its weight and it will act through a distance h. !o, @or- M Corce S 3istance @M@Sh !ince @ M mg, therefore" @ M mg S h !ince wor- is e*ual to energy possessed by a body" P.E. @ (-> KINETIC ENER'Y D$A*1*%*,1 The energy possessed by a body due to its motion is -nown as the /inetic Energy of the body. $t is represented by /.E. EE.(4+$3 The energy of the following is -inetic energy"

( bullet fired from a gun. ( railway engine mo%ing at high speed. Motion of a simple pendulum.

M.%>$(.%*0.+ EE4&$33*,1 8onsider a body of mass ( at rest (6* @ ! on a frictionless surface. @hen a force C is applied, the body co%ers a distance S and its final %elocity becomes 6A. To calculate the amount of wor- done, we apply the formula. @MCS! (ccording to Jewton:s !econd Law of Motion, the %alue of force is" C M ma The distance that the body tra%eled is calculated by using third e*uation of motion" 6as M %f6 , %i6 (Here 6 with Df and Di represents s*uare) @e -now that Di M 2, therefore" 6as M %6 s M %6<6a COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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)y substituting the %alues of C and s, we get" @ M (ma) S (%6<6a) @ M m%6<6 @ M ;<6(m%6) @e -now that wor- can be con%erted into /inetic Energy, therefore" K.E @ 1;2((52! !o, /inetic Energy of a body is directly proportional to the mass and s*uare of %elocity. F.0%,&3 ,1 <>*0> K*1$%*0 E1$&-? D$4$123)

$t is directly proportional to the mass of the body. $t is directly proportional to the s*uare of the %elocity. DIFFERENCE BET"EEN KINETIC ENER'Y AND POTENTIAL ENER'Y K*1$%*0 E1$&-? ;. Energy possessed by a body by %irtue of its motion is -nown as /inetic Energy. 6. )odies in motion ha%e /inetic Energy. B. $t is calculated by /.E M ;<6 (m%6)

P,%$1%*.+ E1$&-? ;. Energy possessed by a body by %irtue of its position is -nown as Potential Energy. 6. )odies at rest ha%e Potential Energy. B. $t is calculated by P.E. M mgh LA" OF CONSER6ATION OF ENER'Y S%.%$($1% Energy can neither be created, nor destroyed, but it can be con%erted from one form into the other. EE4+.1.%*,1 8onsider a body of mass (at height > abo%e the ground. $ts -inetic energy at that point ( is" /.E M ;<6(m%6) /.E M ;<6 m S (2) /.E M 2 ........ (i) The potential Energy at point ( is " P.E M mgh ............(ii) !o the total energy at point ( will be " T.E M /.E P P.E E(() M 2 P mgh COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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E(A! @ (-> !uppose the body is released from this height and falls through a distance E. $ts new height will be (>-E!. The %elocity with which it reaches point B is calculated by using the third e*uation of motion" 6gs M Df6 , Di6 (s we -now"

Di M 2 !M'

Therefore, 6g' M Df6 , 2 6g' M %6 The -inetic energy at point ) is" /.E. M ;<6 m%6 !ubstituting the %alue of %6" /.E. M ;<6 S m S 6g' /.E M mg' The Potential Energy at point ) is" P.E M mgh The height of the body is (h,')" P.E. M mg(h,') The total energy at point ) is " E()) M P.E P /.E. E()) M mg' P mg(h,') E()) M mg' P mgh , mg' E(B! @ (-> Hence, the total energy at point ( and ) are same. $t means that the total %alue of energy remains constant. PO"ER D$A*1*%*,1 The rate of doing wor- is called power. M.%>$(.%*0.+ EE4&$33*,1 Power M Fate of doing @orPower M @or-<Time P @ ";T U1*% ,A P,<$& The unit of Power is 9oules per second (9<s) or @att (@).

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NEED TO CONSER6E ENER'Y The fuel that burns in running factories, transport and other acti%ities is mainly obtained from underground deposits in the form of coal, oil, gas and other similar raw forms. These deposits are rapidly decreasing and one day all these resources of energy will be consumed. $t is therefore highly important for us to a%oid wastage of energy. The consumption of two much energy is also ha%ing ad%erse effect on our en%ironment. The air in big cities is hea%y because of pollution caused by industrial wastes and smo-e produced by automobiles. To ensure comfortable li%ing with a neat en%ironment, it is the responsibility of all of us as indi%iduals to conser%e energy.

CHAPTER NO. 9
3EC$J$T$4J! 1. MACHINE

MACHINES

( machine is a de%ice by means of which useful wor- can be performed con%eniently and it can also transfer one form of energy into another form of energy. 2. MECHANICAL AD6ANTA'E The ratio between the resistance or weight to the power applied in a machine is called the mechanical ad%antage of that machine. $t is denoted by M.(. M.A. @ "$*->% ,5$&-0,($2 9? M.0>*1$; F,&0$ A44+*$2 ,1 %>$ M.0>*1$ 3. EFFICIENCY The ratio between the useful wor- done and the wor- done on the machine is called efficiency. M.A @ (,8%48%;I148%! G 1 4. INPUT $nput is the wor- done on the machine. 5. OUTPUT 4utput is useful wor- done by the machine. LE6ER D$A*1*%*,1 Le%er is the simplest machine in the world. $t is a rigid bar, which can be rotated about a fi'ed point. P&*10*4+$ ,A L$5$& $n the le%er the moment P acts opposite to that of wor- @. $t means that force C tends to rotate the le%er in one direction which the wight @ rotates in opposite direction. $f the magnitude of these moments acting in opposite direction is e*ual, then the le%er will be in e*uilibrium. $t means that" Moment of P M Moment of @ M$0>.1*0.+ A25.1%.-$ COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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@e -now that according to Principle of Le%er" Moment of P M Moment of @ MI Corce S Corce (rm M @eight S @eight (rm P S () M @ L )8 ()<)8 M @<P Hence, M.A @ ";P @ AB;BC @ "$*->% A&(; F,&0$ A&( KINDS OF LE6ER 1. FIRST KIND OF LE6ER $n the first -ind of le%er, the fulcrum C is in the between the effort P and @eight @. EE.(4+$3

Physical )alance Handle of Pump Pair of !cissors !ee !aw

2. SECOND KIND OF LE6ER $n the second -ind of le%er, the weight @ is in between the fulcrum C and effort P. EE.(4+$3

3oor Jut 8rac-er Punching Machine 3. THIRD KIND OF LE6ER $n the third -ind of le%er, the effortP is in between the fulcrum C and weight @. EE.(4+$3

Human forearm 5pper and Lower 9aws in the Mouth. ( Pair of Corecepes INCLINED PLANE D$A*1*%*,1 ( hea%y load can be lifted more easily by pulling it along a slope rather than by lifting in %ertically. !uch a slope is called an $nclined Plane. M$0>.1*0.+ A25.1%.-$ M.A @ ";P @ +;> @ L$1-%> ,A I10+*1$2 P+.1$;P$&4$12*08+.& H$*->%

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PULLEY ( pulley consists of a wheel mounted on an a'le that is fi'ed to the framewor- called the bloc-. The wheel can rotate freely in the bloc-. The groo%e in the circumference pre%ents the string from slipping. FICED PULLEY $f the bloc- of the pulley is fi'ed then it is called a fi'ed pulley. M$0>.1*0.+ A25.1%.-$ ,A F*E$2 P8++$? $n a fi'ed pulley, the force P is the applied force and weight @ is lifted. $f we neclect the force of friction then" Load M Effort $n the gi%en case" Load M @ S Load (rm Load M @ S 4) (lso, Effort M P S Effort (rm Effort M P S 4( !o, @S4) M PS4( MI @<P M 4(<4) )ut, 4( M 4), then M.( M @<P M 4)<4) M.A @ 1 MO6EABLE PULLEY $n this pulley, one end of the rope that is passing around the pulley is tied to a firm support and effort P is applied from its other end. The load and weight to be lifted is hung from the hoo- of bloc-. $n this system, the pulley can mo%e. !uch a pulley is called mo%eable pulley. M$0>.1*0.+ A25.1%.-$ ,A M,5$.9+$ P8++$? $n an ideal system of a mo%eable pulley, the tension in each segment of the rope is e*ual to the applied effort. (s two segments support the weight, the ffort acting on the weight @ is 6P. Therefore, according to the principle of le%er" @ S Fadius of the @heel M 6P S Fadius of the @heel MI 6P M @ The Mechanical (d%antage is gi%en by" M.( M @<P M.( M 6P<P MI M.A @ 2 COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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Hence, the mechanical ad%antage of a mo%eable pulley is 6.

CHAPTER NO. 1
DEFINITION OF MATTER

MATTER

#(nything ha%ing mass and %olume is called matter.# KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF MATTER The /inetic Molecular Theory of Matter has the following postulates"

Matter is made up of %ery small particles called molecules.

These molecules are in the same state of motion, hence they possess -inetic energy. Their motion can be translatory, %ibratory or rotational. The molecules attract each other with a force. This force depends upon the distance between them. Corce is in%ersely proportional to the distance between the molecules.

@hen a substance is heated its temperature as well as molecular motion increases. 3ue to this motion, -inetic energy also increases. we can say that when the -inetic energy of the molecules increases, then temperature of the substance rises.

BRO"NIAN MOTION $n ;06>, a scientist, Fobert )rown obser%ed the motion of molecules with the help of a microscope. He obser%ed that the tiny particles in water are constantly mo%ing in a &ig&ag path. He called the motion, )rownian Motion. EE4+.1.%*,1 The cause of this tiny particle motion is the rapid motion of the molecules, which collide with the particles and push them in one direction. $f some molecules come from other direction and collide with the same particles, particles change their direction. This process continues and the motion becomes &ig&ag. STATES OF MATTER Matter has been classified into three states. These states are discussed below" 1. SOLID (ccording to the -inetic theory of matter, solid has the least -inetic energy. The properties of solids are gi%en below"

The particles are %ery close to each other. Their shape and %olume is fi'ed. Particles in a solid %ibrate to and fro from their mean position. 4n heating they melt and con%ert into li*uid. !ome solids also con%ert directly into gas on heating.

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2. LIBUID

(ccording to the -inetic theory of matter, li*uids ha%e the following properties They ha%e greater -inetic energy than solids but less than that of gases. The %olume of li*uid is fi'ed. They mo%e more freely than solids. The attraction between molecules is lower than solids. The distance between the molecules is greater than that of solids. 4n heating, they con%ert into %apours. 4n cooling, they con%ert into solid. 3. 'AS

(ccording to the -inetic molecular theory, gases possess the following properties. 7ases possess more -inetic energy. Their shape and %olume are not fi'ed. The distance between their molecules is large. Their temperature is proportional to their -inetic energy. Their temperature rises with increase in pressure. 4n cooling, they con%ert into li*uid and gases. ELASTICITY D$A*1*%*,1 HThe tendency of a material to return to its original dimension after the deforming stress has been remo%ed is -nown as elasticity.# $f we apply a force to a body, it is stretched. @hen the applied force is remo%e, the body returns to its original shape. The phenomenon of turning bac- to its original shape is called Elasticity.

ELASTIC BEHA6IOUR AND MOLECULAR THEORY The elastic beha%iour of a material can be e'plained by the /inetic Theory of Matter. !ince the molecules in a solid are %ery close to each other, there e'ist strong attracting forces between them. Thus when force is remo%ed, the attraction forces between the molecules pull them bac- again and the material is restored to its original shape. 3ifferent material ha%e different elasticity depending on the nature of the material. E+.3%*0 L*(*% The ma'imum resisting force of a material is called the Elastic Limit of that material. STRESS D$A*1*%*,1 #@hen a body is made to change its length, %olume or shape by the application of an e'ternal force, the opposing force per unit area is called !tress.# F,&(8+. COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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!tress M Corce < (rea , @ F;A (Here o represents (Fho) do not write in your e'amination paper) U1*%3

!.$ or M/! !ystem , J<m6 or Pascal (Pa) 8.7.! system , 3yne<cm6 C.P.! or ).E !ystem , lb<ft6 and lb<in6

(Here 6 in all abo%e systems shows s*uare) STRAIN D$A*1*%*,1 !tress can produce a change in shape, %olume or length in an ob.ect. This change in the shape of an ob.ect is called strain. F,&(8+. Mathematically, !train M 8hange in Length<Length or !train M 8hange in %olume < %olume U1*%3 !ince strain is a ratio between two similar *uantities, it has no unit.

TYPES OF STRAIN Collowing are some types of strain. 1. T$13*+$ S%&.*1) $t is a change in length di%ided by original length. 2. B8+/ S%&.*1) $t is the change in %olume di%ided by original %olume. 3. S>$.& S%&.*1) $t is e*ual to the angular displacement produced. HOOKJS LA" I1%&,280%*,1 (n English Physicist and 8hemist Fobert Hoo- disco%ered this law in ;A>0. S%.%$($1% #!train produced is proportional to the stress e'erted within the elastic limit.# E+.3%*0 L*(*% The point at which a material becomes plastic is called elastic limit on yield point. Y*$+2 P,*1% The yield point is the point at which the material begins to flow. $t is also the point between elastic region and plastic region. COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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E+.3%*0 R$-*,1 @hen the material obey:s Hoo-:s Law, it is said to be in Elastic Fegion. P+.3%*0 R$-*,1 @hen stress is applied beyond the elastic limit, the graph is no longer a straight line. $n this case stress produces a permanent change in the material. The material is said to be in its Plastic Fegion. B&$./*1- P,*1% The material brea-s at a certain point called the )rea-ing Point of the material. YOUN'JS MODULUS D$A*1*%*,1 #The ratio of the stress on a on a body to the longitudinal strain produced is called Young:s Modulus.# M.%>$(.%*0.+ EE4&$33*,1 (ccording to the definition of Y4ung:s Modulus" Young:s Modulus M !ress < Longitudinal !train U1*% $n !.$ system, Young:s Modulus is measured in J<m6. PRESSURE D$A*1*%*,1 #The perpendicular force per unit area acting on a surface is called pressure.# M.%>$(.%*0.+ EE4&$33*,1 Pressure M Corce <(rea P @ F;A U1*%

!.$ or M./.! !ystem , J<m6 or Pascal. 8.7.! system , 3yne<cm6. C.P.! or ).E !ystem , lb<ft6 and lb<in6. PRESSURE IN LIBUIDS $n water or other li*uids, the weight e'erted on a body or the bottom of the li*uid is its pressure. PASCALJS PRINCIPLE COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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S%.%$($1% @hen a pressure is applied to a li*uid contained in a %essel, it is transmitted undiminished e*ually in all directions and acts perpendicularly to the walls of the container. A44+*0.%*,13 - H?2&.8+*0 P&$33 Pascal:s Principle has the application in Hydraulic press. $n a hydraulic press a narrow cylinder ( is connected with a wider cylinder ) and they are fitted with airtight piston. $t is filled with some incompressible li*uid. Pressure can be applied by mo%ing the piston cylinder ( in the downward direction. Piston ) is used to lift the ob.ect. The hydraulic press is pro%ided with a rigid roof o%er it. @hen piston ) mo%es upward, it compresses any material placed between the rigid roof and this piston. The hydraulic press is used for compressing soft materials li-e cotton into a cotton bale and powdered materials into compact solids. (3iagram) PRESSURE IN 'ASES The -inetic theory enables us to account for the pressure a gas e'erts on the walls of its container. @hen a mo%ing molecule stri-es the walls of its container, a force is e'erted on the walls during hte impact. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE The atmosphere, because of its weight e'erts a pressure on the surface of the earth and on e%ery ob.ect on the earth including human beings. The pressure is -nown as (tmospheric Pressure. A44+*0.%*,13 ,A A%(,34>$&*0 P&$338&$ The fact that the atmosphere e'erts pressure has been put into use in se%eral de%ices such as siphons, pumps and syringes. BAROMETER D$A*1*%*,1 #( de%ice for measuring the atmospheric pressure is called )arometer.# M$&08&? B.&,($%$& $n the laboratory, the atmospheric pressure is measured by means of a mercury barometer. ( mercury barometer consists of a thic- walled glass tube of ;m length, which is opened at one end and closed from the other side. The tube is filled with mercury. The open end is firmly co%ered with a thumb and then carefully in%erted in a %essel containing mercury. @hen the open end is completely immersed in the mercury, the thumb is remo%ed. !ome of the mercury from the columns drops in the %essel lea%ing a space. This space is called %acuum. $f the mercury columns is measured, it is found to be >A2 mm. This length always remains constant e%en if different diameter tubes are ta-en. The length of the mercury column is referred to as the atmospheric pressure. ARCHIMEDEJS PRINCIPLE S%.%$($1% #@hen an ob.ect is immersed in a li*uid, an upward thrust acts upon it, which is e*ual to the weight of the li*uid displaced by the ob.ect.# COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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M.%>$(.%*0.+ EE4&$33*,1 Mathematically, (rchimede:s Principle may be represented by" A44.&$1% "$*->% @ A0%8.+ "$*->% - "$*->% ,A %>$ +*78*2 2*34+.0$2 9? %>$ ,9K$0% BUOYANCY $t is the tendency of an ob.ect to float. $t is e*ual to the up,thrust or weight of the water displaced by the ob.ect. C,12*%*,13 A,& F+,.%*1- B,2*$3 ( body will float in a li*uid or a gas if it displaces li*uid or gas whose weight is greater than the weight of the body.

( body will sin- if it displaces li*uid or gas whose weight is less than the weight of the

body.

CHAPTER NO. 11
D$A*1*%*,13 1. INTERNAL ENER'Y

HEAT

$nternal Energy of a body is the sum of all -inetic and potential energy of all molecules constituting the body.

2. =OULES $t is the amount of heat re*uired to rise the temperature of ;<?622 -g of pure water from ;?.1 8 to ;1.1 8. 3. CALORIE $t is the amount of heat re*uired to rise the temperature of ; g of pure water from ;?.18 to ;1.18. 4. BRITISH THERMAL UNIT $t is the amount of heat tht is re*uired to rise the temperature of ; pound of pure water from ABC to A?C. DIFFERENCE BET"EEN HEAT AND TEMPERATURE H$.%

Heat is the energy in transit from one body to another due to temperature difference. $t is the total -inetic energy of the body. Heat is measured using 9oule meter. $ts unit is 9oule. T$(4$&.%8&$ COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. $t is the a%erage -inetic energy of the body. Temperature is measured using thermometer. $ts units are C, 8 and /. THERMAL ECPANSION 8hange in length, breadth and height of a body due to heating is -nown as Thermal E'pansion. $t occurs in all the three states, i.e. solids, li*uids and gases. THERMAL ECPANSION OF SOLIDS !olids e'pand on heating. Their ability to e'pand depends (s the temperature is increased, the a%erage -inetic energy of they %ibrate with larger amplitudes. This results in increase in Hence, they e'pand on heating. Thermal E'pansion of solids types. 1. LINEAR THERMAL ECPANSION 8hange in length or any one dimension of a solid on heating is -nown as L$near Thermal E'pansion. 2. REAL ECPANSION The sum of the obser%ed increase in the %olume of a li*uid and that of the containing %essel is called real Thermal e'pansion. Feal E'pansion M (pparent E'pansion P E'pansion of the Dessel 3. APPARENT ECPANSION (pparent E'pansion is the e'pansion in which only the e'pansion of li*uid is considered and e'pansion of the %essel is not ta-en into account. (pparent e'pansion is less the real e'pansion. ANOMALOUS ECPANSION OF "ATER The increase in the %olume of water as its temperature is lowered from ? 8 to 28 is -nown as anomalous e'pansion of water. EAA$0%3 ,A A1,(.+,83 EE4.13*,1 ,A ".%$& 1. $n winter, the temperature in the north and south poles of the earth falls. (s the temperature fall below ? 8 water on the surface e'pands and stays afloat. $ce continues building up at the surface while the temperature at the bottom remains at ? 8. This helps fish and other forms of marine life to li%e. 2. 3uring the rainy season a lot of water seeps through the crac-s in the roc-s. $n winter, when the water e'pands, the roc- get bro-en due to this e'pansion. 3. $n cold climate, water supply pipes burst when the water e'pands on cooling. 'AS LA"S 1. BOYLEJS LA" COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON on their molecular structure. the molecules increases and the distance between them. can be classified into three

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The %olume of a gi%en mass of a gas is in%ersely proportional to the pressure, $f the temperature is -ept constant. P U ;<D (Here U represents sign of proportionality. 3o not write this in your e'amination paper) P M 8 S ;<D C @ P6 The abo%e e*uation is -nown as e*uation of )oyle:s Law. 2. CHARLEJS LA" The %olume of a gi%en mass of a gas is directly proportional to the temperature, if the pressure is -ept constant. D U T (Here U represents sign of proportionality. 3o not write this in your e'amination paper) DM8ST C @ 6;T The abo%e e*uation is -nown as e*uation of 8harle:s Law. 3. PRESSURE LA" The pressure of a gi%en mass of a gas is directly proportional to the temperature, if the %olume is -ept constant. PUT PM8ST C @ P;T The abo%e is -nown as the e*uation of the Pressure Law. THERMOMETER The instrument that is used to measure temperature is called a thermometer. TYPES OF THERMOMETER 1. ORDINARY LIBUID-IN-'LASS THERMOMETER I1%&,280%*,1 (n ordinary li*uid,in,glass thermometer is used in a laboratory to measure temperature within a range of ,;28 to ;;28. C,13%&80%*,1 $t consists of a glass stem with a capillary tube, ha%ing a small bulb at one end. This bulb is filled with a li*uid, usually mercury or alcohol coloured with a red dye. The upper end of the capillary tube is sealed so that the li*uid will neither spill not e%aporate. The air from the capillary tube is also remo%ed. ",&/*1@hen the bulb is heated, the li*uid in it e'pands and rises in the tube. ( temperature scale is mar-ed on the glass stem to indicate temperatures according to the %arious le%els of li*uid in the tube. COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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2. CLINICAL THERMOMETER I1%&,280%*,1 ( clinical thermometer is a de%ice that is used to find the temperature of the human body. $t has a range from B1 8 to ?B 8 (=1C to ;;2C). C,13%&80%*,1 $t consists of a glass stem with a capillary tube, ha%ing a small bulb at one end. This bulb is filled with a li*uid usually mercury or alcohol colored with a red dye. The upper end of the capillary tube is sealed so that the li*uid will neither spill nor e%aporate. The air from the capillary tube is also remo%ed. The glass stem of a clinical thermometer has a construction in its capillary tube near the bulb. This helps to stop the mercury thread from mo%ing bacwhen the thermometer is remo%ed from the patient:s mouth. ",&/*1$n order to find out the temperature, the thermometer is placed in the mouth or in the arm pit of the patient. The li*uid in it e'pands and rises in the tube. ( temperature scale is mr-ed on the glass stem to indicate temperatures according to the %arious le%els of li*uid in the tube. 3. MACIMUM AND MINIMUM THERMOMETER I1%&,280%*,1 This thermometer is used to read the ma'imum and minimum temperatures reached o%er a period of time. C,13%&80%*,1 This thermometer consists of a fairly large cylindrical bulb with alcohol in it. This bulb is connected through a 5,shaped tube filled mercury. (t the end of this 5,shaped tube another bulb containing alcohol is pro%ided. ",&/*1@hen the bulb is heated, alcohol in it e'pands and dri%es the mercury round towards the other end of the 5,shaped tube. This mercury e'erts pressure on the alcohol in the second bulb and its le%el rises. 4n each mercury surface, there is a small iron inde' pro%ides with a light spring to hold it in position in the tube. @hen the mercury thread is mo%ed, due to e'pansion or contraction of alcohol in the first bulb, the indices mo%es and are left in the e'treme positions reached o%er a period of time. The lower end of the inde' on the left indicates the minimum and that on the right indicates the ma'imum temperature. HEAT TRANSFER There are three methods of transferring heat from one place into another. 1. CONDUCTION 8onduction is a mode of heat transfer by atomic or molecular collisions, without the mo%ement of a bul- of a substance from one position to another, in a body. $t mostly occurs in solids. COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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2. CON6ECTION 8on%ection is a mode of heat transfer by the actual mo%ement of the bul- of the substance from one place to another through large distances. $t mostly occurs in li*uids and gases. 3. RADIATION Fadiation is a mode of heat transfer which re*uires no material medium. Heat energy is carried by infra red electromagnetic wa%es from one place to another. BI-METALLIC STRIPS ( bi,metallic strip is made of pieces of two different metals of different e'pansion rates, e.g. iron and brass. @hen it is heated, it bends with the brass on the outside of the cur%e because brass e'pands more *uic-ly than iron. 1. BI-METAL THERMOMETER I1%&,280%*,1 ( bi,metal thermometer is made of a bi,metallic coil. Jo li*uid is used in such type of thermometer. C,13%&80%*,1 $t consists of a bi,metallic strip in the form of a long spiral. 4ne end of the spiral is -ept fi'ed, while a light pointer is attached to the other end.

",&/*1@hen the temperature rises, the bi,metal strip coil itself into an e%en tighter spiral due to different e'pansion rates of the two metals. the pointer mo%es across the temperature scale and in this way reading is noted. 2. FIRE ALARM I1%&,280%*,1 ( fire alarm is used to warn people when there is a fire. C,13%&80%*,1 $n a fire alarm, one end of a bi,metal strip is firmly fi'ed, while the other is free. 4ne terminal of a A %olt battery is connected to the fi'ed end of the strip through a A %olt bulb or bell. The other terminal of the battery is connected with a metallic contact which is .ust abo%e the free end of the bi,metallic strip.

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",&/*1@hen a fire starts, heat energy is gi%en off. $t raises the temperature of the bi,metallic strip and its free end bends towards the contact. 4n touching the contact, electric circuit gets completed and the bulb starts to glow or in case of a bell, it rings warning about the fire. LATENT HEAT OF FUSION The *uantity of heat re*uired to transform ; -g of ice completely melts into water at 28 is -nown as Latent Heat of Cusion. LATENT HEAT OF 6APORI#ATION The *uantity of heat re*uired to transform ; -g of water completely into steam at ;22 8 is -nown as Latent Heat of Dapori&ation. EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON MELTIN' POINT (RE'ELATION! The melting point of those substances, which e'pand on free&ing, gets lowered when pressure oe%er one atmosphere is e'erted on them. EE4$&*($1% Ta-e a bare copper wire with weights on its both ends. Place it across a bloc- of ice. The copper wire sin-s slowly through the bloc- and weight falls to the floor. Pressure e'erted by the copper wire lowers the free&ing point of ice and the ice beneath the wire melts. The water flows round the wire and re,free&es on getting abo%e the wire, releasing latent heat energy. This energy is conducted through the copper wire, which helps to melt the ice below the wire. $n this way, ice below the wire melts while water abo%e the wire free&es. This process continues until the wire cuts through the ice bloc-.

EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON BOILIN' POINT $f the pressure on the surface of a li*uid is increased abo%e the normal atmospheric pressure, its boiling point increases. EE4$&*($1% Cill a round bottom flas- to half its capacity. (fter boiling the water fro a few minutes, remo%e the burner and place a cor- in the flas-. $n%ert the flas- and pour some cold water on the bottom of the flas-. (fter some time, water starts to boil again although no more heat has been pro%ided to it. The reason is that, when the water was boiled, it e'pelled all the air from the flas-. @hen the flas- was cor-ed and allowed to cool the steam condensed into water. !ince, no fresh air could enter the flas- the pressure inside the flas- lowered. This decreased the boiling point of water and water started to boil at normal temperature. E6APORATION

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The process of change of a li*uid into %apour without boiling is called e%aporation. FACTORS ON "HICH E6APORATION DEPENDS E%aporation depends on the following factors" 1. N.%8&$ ,A L*78*2) $f the boiling point of a li*uid is low, then they e%aporate much *uic-ly e.g. (lcohol and Ether. 2. T$(4$&.%8&$ ,A L*78*2) $f the surface temperature of a li*uid is increased, then rate of e%aporation also increases, e.g. ironing of clothes. 3. S8&A.0$ A&$. ,A L*78*2) $f the surface area of a li*uid is increased, then the rate of e%aporation increases, e.g. li*uids spread o%er large areas e%aporate more *uic-ly. 4. D&?1$33 ,A A*&) $f there is more dryness in the air, then the rate of e%aporation increases, e.g. in humid weather, clothes ta-e a longer time to dry. 5. "*12 34$$2) $f the wind speed is greater, then e%aporation rate increases. 6. A*& P&$338&$ ,1 %>$ S8&A.0$ ,A T>$ L*78*2) $f the pressure on the surface of the li*uid is increased, the rate of e%aporation decreases. LA" OF HEAT ECCHAN'E Cor an isolated system comprising mi'ture of hot and cold substances, the heat lost by hot substances is e*ual to the heat gained by cold substances. H$.% +,3% 9? >,% 9,2? @ H$.% -.*1$2 9? 0,+2 9,2? REFRI'ERATOR I1%&,280%*,1 cool. ( refrigerator is a de%ice that is used to -eep fruits, %egetables and other eatables

C,13%&80%*,1 ( refrigerator consists of a compressor, condenser and e%aporator.

REFRI'ERANT Creon is used as the refrigerant in a referigerator. This gas li*uifies at normal temperature if the pressure is increased. ",&/*11. C,(4&$33*,1) Creon gas is first compressed in the compressor of a refrigerator. $t is then fed into the condenser. 2. C,12$13.%*,1) $n the condenser, the gas is li*uified under pressure. $t con%erts into a li*uid at normal temperature. This gas is then allowed to pass through a %al%e into the e%aporator. 3. E5.4,&.%*,1) The pressure in the e%aporator is comparati%ely less than in the condenser. Therefore, when li*uid Creon enters the e%aporator, it e%aporates COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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absorbing a large amount of heat. This results in cooling the area around the e%aporator. This is where we -eep our eatables. (D*.-&.(! The gas is then again fed into the compressor and the process continues.

CHAPTER NO. 12
DEFINITIONS 1. 6IBRATION

"A6E AND SOUND

4ne complete round trip of a simple harmonic motion is called %ibration. 4r $f a body in periodic motion mo%es to and fro o%er the same path, this motion is called 4scillation. 2. TIME PERIOD (T! The time re*uired to complete %ibration is -nown as time period. 3. FREBUENCY $t is the number of %ibrations e'ecuted by an oscillating body in one second. 4. DISPLACEMENT $t is the distance of a %ibrating body at any instant from the e*uilibrium position. 5. AMPLITUDE The ma'imum distance of the body on either side of its e*uilibrium position is -nown as amplitude. 6. "A6E LEN'TH The distance between two consecuti%e crests and troughs is called wa%elength. 7. NATURAL FREBUENCY The fre*uency at which an ob.ect will %ibrate freely (without any e'ternal periodic force or resistance) is -nown as natural fre*uency of that ob.ect. H. AUDIBLE SOUND 4ur ear can hear only those sounds whose fre*uency is between 62H& and 62222H&. This range is -nown as audible sound. 9. ULTRASONIC SOUND !ound with fre*uency greater than 62222 H& is -nown as ultrasonic sound. 1 . OCTA6E The inter%al between a wa%eform and another of twice the fre*uency is -nown as 4cta%e. UNITS

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F&$78$10?) 8ycles per second (eps) or Hert& (h&) ".5$+$1-%>) Meter I1%$13*%? ,A S,812) @att<meter6 or @<m6 N,*3$) 3ecibel (3)) SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (S.H.M! D$A*1*%*,1 #To and fro motion of a body in which acceleration is directly proportional to displacement and always directed towards mean position is -nown as !imple Harmonic Motion.# C,12*%*,1 A,& S.H.M The conditions for simple Harmonic Motion are gi%en below"

!ome resisting force must act upon the body. (cceleration must be directly proportional to the displacement. (cceleration should be directed towards mean position. !ystem should be elastic. EE.(4+$3 Collowing are the e'amples of !.H.M" )ody attached to a spring hori&ontally on an ideal smooth surface. Motion of a simple and compound pendulum. Motion of a swing. Motion of the pro.ection of a body in a circle with uniform circular motion. RESONANCE D$A*1*%*,1 #The large amplitude %ibration of an ob.ect when gi%en impulses at its natural fre*uency is -nown as Fesonance.#

EE4$&*($1% 8onsider a long string stretched tightly between two pegs. Cour pendulums (, ), 8 and 3 of different lengths are fastened to the string. (nother pendulum E of same length as ( is also fastened. @hen pendulum E is set to %ibrate, it will be obser%ed that all the pendulums start to swing but pendulum ( begins to %ibrate with larger amplitude, as pendulum E is set into %ibration. $t imparts its motion to the string. This string in turn imparts the same periodic motion to the pendulums. The natural fre*uency of all other pendulums e'cept ( is different. 3ue to the same natural fre*uency only ( %ibrates as the same %ibration of E. This phenomenon under which pendulum ( begin to %ibrate is called resonance. EE.(4+$ M.&0> ,A S,+2*$&3 <>*+$ C&,33*1- %>$ B&*2-$ COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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Each bridge has its own natural fre*uency and marching of soldiers is another %ibrating system. !o there may occur a force on %ibration in bridge. This may damage the bridge. !o, for safely precautions, it is written that soldiers must march out of stop while crossing the bridge. "A6E D$A*1*%*,1 # ( method of energy transfer in%ol%ing some form of %ibration is -nown as a wa%e.# ".5$ M,%*,1 @a%e motion is a form of disturbance, which tra%els through a medium due to periodic motion of particles of the medium about their mean position. EE4$&*($1% @e see that if we dip a pencil into a tap of water and ta-e it out a pronounced circular ripple is set up on the water surface and tra%els towards the edges of the tub. Howe%er if we dip the pencil and ta-e it out many times, a number of ripples will be formed one after the other. @a%es can also be produced on %ery long ropes. $f one end of the rope is fi'ed and the other end is gi%en sudden up and down .er-, a pulse,shaped wa%e is formed which tra%els along the rope. TRANS6ERSE "A6E D$A*1*%*,1 #The wa%e in which amplitude is perpendicular to the direction of wa%e motion is -nown as trans%erse wa%e.# EE.(4+$3

Fadio @a%es Light @a%es Micro @a%es @a%es in @ater @a%es in !tring LON'ITUDINAL "A6E D$A*1*%*,1 #The wa%e in which amplitude is parallel to wa%e motion is called longitudinal wa%e.# EE.(4+$

!ound @a%es !eismic @a%es SOUND D$A*1*%*,1 #( %ibration transmitted by air or other medium in the form of alternate compressions and rarefactions of the medium is -nown as !ound.# COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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P&,280%*,1 ,A S,812 !ound is produced by a %ibrating body li-e a drum, bell, etc, when a body %ibrates. due to the to and fro motion of the drum, compressions and rarefactions are produced and transmitted or propagated in air. P&,4.-.%*,1 ,A S,812 ".5$3 @hen a body %ibrates in air, it produces longitudinal wa%es by compressions and rarefactions. These compressions and rarefactions are tra%eled by the particles of the medium and transferred into the ne't particles. 3ue to this transference, sound propagates in a medium. EE4$&*($1% (3iagram) !uspend an electric bell in a .ar by its wires through a cor- fi'ed in its mouth. !witch on the bell, we will hear the sound of the bell. Jow start remo%ing air from .ar with the help of an e'haust (%acuum) pump. The sound will decrease, although the hammer is still seen stri-ing the bell. This e'periment shows that air or any other medium is necessary for the propagation of sound. 6ELOCITY OF SOUND $t is a matter of common e'perience that the flash of lightning is seen earlier than hearing the thunder of cloud. !imilarly when a gun is fired its sound is heard a little after seeing its flash. The reason is that light is faster than sound. 3ue to its slow %elocity sound lags behind. EE4$&*($1% !elect two stations at a distance of 0 -m (or any more distance) such that there is no obstacle between them. Cire a gun at station ( and note the time of sound ta-en for such distance. Fepeat the process and note the time ta-en by the sound to tra%el from ) to (. $f we substitute the mean of the two times recorded and distance ! (0-m) in the formula D M !<t, we will get the %elocity of sound. F.0%,&3 EAA$0%*1- 6$+,0*%? ,A S,812 The factors are gi%en below"

Delocity of air or any other medium. 3ensity of the medium. Temperature of the medium. Jature of the medium CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND The characteristic properties of sound by which we can distinguish between noise and music, shrill and gra%e sounds or sound of men and women are -nown as characteristics of sound. The properties of sound are gi%en below"

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1. LOUDNESS D$A*1*%*,1 #Loudness is the magnitude of auditory sensation produce by sound.# $ntensity can be defined as the energy carried by the sound wa%es through a unit area placed perpendicular to the direction of wa%er per second. F.0%,&3 EAA$0%*1- L,821$33 ,A S,812 Loudness depend on following factors"

A&$. ,A 6*9&.%*,1 ,A B,2?) 7reater will be the surface area more will be the loudness. A(4+*%82$ ,A M,%*,1 ,A 6*9&.%*1- O9K$0%) 7reater will be the amplitude, more will be the loudness. D$13*%? ,A M$2*8() Loudness is directly proportional to the density of medium. M,%*,1 .12 D*&$0%*,1) $f source of sound is mo%ing towards the listener loudness will be greater or if wind supports the %elocity of sound the loudness will be greater.

2. PITCH D$A*1*%*,1 #The sensation that a sound produces in a listener as a result of its fre*uency is -nown as Pitch.# This is the property of sound by %irtue of which we can distinguish between a shrill and gra%e sound. F.0%,&3 EAA$0%*1- P*%0> ,A S,812 Pitch depends on following factors"

F&$78$10? ,A 6*9&.%*1- B,2?) The greater the fundamental fre*uency, more shrill will be the sound. R$+.%*5$ M,%*,1 ,A S,812) $f source and listener both are coming closer pitch will increase.

3. BUALITY OR TIMBRE OR TONE D$A*1*%*,1 #The characteristic of a musical note that is determined by the fre*uency present is -nown as Euality or Timbre or Tone of that sound.# This is the property of sound by %irtue of which it is possible to identify a sound of the same loudness and pitch but originating from different instrument.

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F.0%,&3 EAA$0%*1- B8.+*%? Euality depends upon the following factors"

Phase of the !ound @a%e. !hape of @a%es

HARMFUL EFFECTS OF SOUND (NOISE! Jowadays noise is considered as a great pollution, which is %ery dangerous for us. !ome of them are as follows"

8ontinuous noise damages hearing and can result in complete deafness. Joise has become a great cause for depression and blood pressure. Mental system shows less efficiency due to noise. 8onse*uently it is harmful in all respects for li%ing body.

MUSICAL SOUND The sound producing pleasing effect on our ears are called musical sounds. DIFFERENCE BET"EEN LON'ITUDINAL AND TRANS6ERSE "A6ES L,1-*%82*1.+ ".5$3 1. $n longitudinal wa%es, particles of the medium %ibrate in the direction of the wa%es. 2. The portion of wa%e in which particles of medium are %ery close to each other is called compression. 3. E'amples of longitudinal wa%es are sound wa%e and seismic wa%es. 4. 3istance between the centre of two compressions and rarefactions is called wa%elength. T&.135$&3$ ".5$3 1. $n trans%erse wa%es, particles of the medium %ibrate in the direction perpendicular to the direction of wa%e. 2. The portion in which particles of medium are higher than their normal position is called crest. 3. E'amples of trans%erse wa%e are microwa%es and radio wa%es. 4. 3istance between two crests and troughs is called wa%elength.

CHAPTER 13
DEFINITIONS 1. INCIDENT RAY

PROPA'ATION AND REFLECTION OF LI'HT

The ray that stri-es the surface of the medium is -nown as $ncident Fay. 2. REFLECTED RAY The ray that is sent bac- into the same medium after reflection is -nown as reflected ray.

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3. PLANE MIRROR ( flat smooth reflecting surface, which shows regular reflection is -nown as plane mirror. 4. NORMAL Perpendicular line on the reflecting surface is -nown as normal. 5. POLE The centre of the spherical mirror is called pole. 6. AN'LE OF INCIDENCE The angle subtended by the incident ray to the normal is -nown as angle of incidence. 7. AN'LE OF REFLECTION The angle subtended by the reflected ray to the normal is -nown as angle of reflection. H. CENTER OF REFLECTION The center of the hollow sphere of which the mirror is a part is called center of cur%ature. 9. PRINCIPLE ACIS The straight line passing through center of cur%ature nad the pole is -nown as principle a'is. 1 . PRINCIPLE FOCUS The ray coming parallel to principal a'is after con%erges to or di%erges from a point, which is called principle focus. 11. FOCAL LEN'TH The distance between the principle focus and pole of the mirror is called Cocal Length. 12. RADIUS OF CUR6ATURE The distance between the center of cur%ature and the pole is called radius of cur%ature. 13. REAL IMA'E The image that can be seen on a screen is -nown as a real image. 14. 6IRTUAL IMA'E The image that cannot be seen on a screen is -nown as a %irtual image. 15. MA'NIFICATION The ratio between the image height and ob.ect height is -nown as magnification. The ratio between the image distance to the ob.ect distance is -nown as magnification. REFLECTION OF LI'HT D$A*1*%*,1 #The process in which light stri-ing the surface of another medium bounces bac- in the same medium is -nown as Feflection of Light.# LA"S OF REFLECTION ;. The angle of reflection, is e*ual to the angle of incidence" nUi M mUr. COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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6. The incident ray, reflected ray and normal, all lie in the same plane. KINDS OF REFLECTION There are two types of Feflection" 1. RE'ULAR REFLECTION D$A*1*%*,1 @hen parallel rays of light stri-e a surface and most of them are reflected in a same particular direction or same angle, they are said to be regularly reflected and the phenomenon is -nown as regular reflection. Fegular reflection occurs when parallel rays of light stri-e with an ideal smooth plane surface. $n regular reflection parallel rays remain parallel after reflection. (3iagram) 2. IRRE'ULAR REFLECTION D$A*1*%*,1 @hen some rays of light stri-es a surface and the reflected rays scatter in different directions, this type of reflection is called irregular reflection. $t occurs when parallel rays stri-e with an irregular rough surface. $n this case rays does not remain parallel after reflection and they scattered. (3iagram) A25.1%.-$3 ,A I&&$-8+.& R$A+$0%*,1 3ue to this reflection, sunlight reaches us before sunrise and persists for some time e%en after the sunset. 3ue to this reflection we get sufficient light in our rooms and other places where sunlight do not reach directly. 3ue to this reflection sunlight reaches to each of the lea%es of a tree and photosynthesis ta-es place on large scale. 3ue to this reflection, we can see luminous ob.ects.

IMA'E FORMED BY A PLANE MIRROR 8onsider a mirror MM:, (P is an ob.ect. 8onsider that a point P lies on the tip of the ob.ect. Crom P as ray tra%els and stri-es mirror and reflect bac- to the eye, they appear to come bac-. Crom Point P: as shown in the figure. Hence P: is the image of P. !imilarly, infinite points lying an ob.ect produces infinite images of points and complete image of an ob.ect is formed. C>.&.0%$&*3%*03 ,A I(.-$ F,&($2 9? . P+.1$ M*&&,&

$mage is same in si&e as that of the ob.ect.

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The distance of ob.ect and image are e*ual from the mirror. The image formed is %irtual and in%erted.

SPHERICAL MIRRORS D$A*1*%*,1 #( spherical mirror is a section of a of a hollow sphere.# TYPES OF SPHERICAL MIRRORS There are two types of spherical mirror"

8onca%e Mirror (8on%erging Mirror) 8on%e' Mirror (3i%erging Mirror)

1. CONCA6E MIRROR D$A*1*%*,1 #The spherical mirror in which inner side of the surface is polished for reflection is called a conca%e mirror.# P&,4$&%*$3

The bulging side is polished. Feflection occurs from its hollow side. They con%erge the parallel rays at a point. They can form real and imaginary, both types of images.

2. CON6EC MIRROR D$A*1*%*,1 #The spherical mirror in which inner side of the surface is polished for reflection is called conca%e mirror.# P&,4$&%*$3

The bulging side is polished. Feflection occurs from its hollow side. They con%erge the parallel rays at a point. They can form real and imaginary, both type of images.

FORMATION OF IMA'E BY CONCA6E MIRRORS There are si' cases to form an image by conca%e mirror. 1. OB=ECT AT INFINITY (3iagram) $f the ob.ect is placed at infinity from the mirror, the rays coming from the ob.ect are parallel to principal a'is. (fter reflection, they meet at principal focus and image is formed at the focus.

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D$%.*+3 ,A I(.-$

Cormed at C. E'tremely !mall Feal $n%erted

2. OB=ECT BEYOND C (3iagram) $f the ob.ect is placed beyond 8, rays coming from the ob.ect are not parallel. They meet after reflection between the focus and center of cur%ature. Therefore, image is formed between the focus and center of cur%ature. D$%.*+3 ,A I(.-$

Cormed between C and 8. !mall in si&e. Feal $n%erted

3. OB=ECT AT CENTER OF CUR6ATURE JC: @hen ob.ect is placed at the centre of cur%ature, the image formed at the same place. (3iagram) D$%.*+3 ,A I(.-$

Cormed at 8 E*ual in si&e Feal $n%erted

4. OB=ECT BET"EEN F AND C (3iagram) @hen the ob.ect is placed between the focus and 8entre of cur%ature, the image is formed beyond the centre of cur%ature.

D$%.*+3 ,A I(.-$

Cormed beyond 8. Large in si&e. Feal $n%erted

5. OB=ECT AT F COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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(3iagram) @hen ob.ect is placed at focus the reflected rays become parallel to each other. The two parallel lines meet at infinity. Therefore, we say the image is formed at infinity. D$%.*+3 ,A I(.-$

Cormed at $nfinity. E'tremely Large Feal $n%erted

6. OB=ECT BET"EEN P AND F (3iagram) Cor locating ob.ect between pole and focus the rays reflected do not meet because they di%erge. )ut they meet bac-ward. !o, the image is formed bac-ward or behind the mirror. D$%.*+3 ,A I(.-$

Cormed behind the mirror. Large in si&e Dirtual Erect

USES OF SPHERICAL MIRROR !pherical mirrors are used in se%eral places. !ome of them are gi%en below"

S>.5*1-) ( conca%e mirror is used to enlarge the image. M*0&,30,4$) ( con%e' mirror is used for magnification in a microscope. T$+$30,4$) The con%e' mirror is used. I1 S$.&0>+*->%3 .12 H$.2+*->%3) 8onca%e mirror is used to form the rays in searchlights and headlights, used for different purposes. F,& R$.& 6*$<) The con%e' mirror is used in automobiles. I1 M$2*0.+ EE.(*1.%*,1 (O4%>.+(,30,4$!) 3octors use conca%e mirror for the e'amination of ear, nose, throat and eyes of patients.

CHAPTER NO. 14
DEFINITIONS 1. EMER'ENT RAY

REFRACTION OF LI'HT AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

The ray after passing the second medium comes again in the first medium. $t is called emergent ray.

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2. EMER'ENCE AN'LE The angle formed by the emergent ray and normal is called emergence angle denoted by Ue. 3. OPTICAL CENTER The middle point of the lens is called optical center. The ray passing through this point does not bend. 4. ACCOMMODATION The ability of the eye to change the focal length of its lens so as to form a clear image of an ob.ect on its retina is called is power of accommodation. 5. PERSISTENCE OF 6ISION @hen an ob.ect is seen by an eye, its image forms on retina. $f the ob.ect is remo%ed, the impression of image persists in the eye for about ;<;2 second. This inter%al is called Persistence of Dision. 6. PO"ER OF LENS The power of the lens is the reciprocal of the focal length measured in meter. $ts unit is 3ioptre. REFRACTION OF LI'HT D$A*1*%*,1 #The change in the direction and %elocity of light as it enters from one medium to another is -nown as Fefraction of Light.# L.<3 ,A R$A&.0%*,1 The incident ray, refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane. The ratio of sine of angle of incidence (i) to the sine of angle of refraction (r) is constant for all rays of light from one medium to another. This constant is -nown as Fefracti%e $nde' (u). This ratio is also e*ual to the ratio of the speeds of light in one medium to another. R$A&.0%*5$ I12$E @ 3*1L*;3*1L& @ S4$$2 ,A +*->% *1 A*&3% ($2*8(;S4$$2 ,A +*->% *1 3$0,12 ($2*8(

REFRACTI6E INDEC The ratio between the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is -nown as Fefracti%e $nde'. R$A&.0%*5$ I12$E @ 3*1 L*;3*1L& SNELLJS LA" COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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The refracti%e inde' between two particular mediums is e*ual to the ratio of speed of light in first medium and speed of light in second medium e*ual to the ratio between sin Ui and sin Ur. R$A&.0%*5$ I12$E @ 3*1L*;3*1L& @ S4$$2 ,A +*->% *1 A*&3% ($2*8(;S4$$2 ,A +*->% *1 3$0,12 ($2*8( PRISM D$A*1*%*,1 #Prism is a transparent piece of glass. $t has three rectangular sides and two triangular sides. R$A&.0%*,1 T>&,8-> . P&*3( (3iagram) where,

Ui M angle of incidence Ur M angle of refraction Ue M angle of emergence U3 M angle of de%iation

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION (3iagram) $f the %alue of angle of incidence is increased so much so that it becomes greater than that of the critical angle then no more refraction occurs but on the other hand refracted ray again comes bac- in the denser medium. (ctually at that time, the surface of denser medium acts as a plane mirror and the incident ray bends in the same medium. This phenomenon is called Total $nternal Feflection. $t is used in Periscope, 4ptical Cibers and other instruments. T,%.+ R$A+$0%*1- P&*3( Total internal reflection is used in prism. $n prism the angle between two opposite sides is =2 and other two angles are ?1 each. $f we arrange a ray so that it falls perpendicular to the () side then it will refract without bending and stri-e the side (8 with angle ?1. Then it totally reflects to the side )8.

C,12*%*,13 A,& T,%.+ I1%$&1.+ R$A+$0%*,1

The ray of light should tra%el from denser to rarer medium. The angle of incidence should be greater than the critical angle.

LENSES D$A*1*%*,1

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( transparent and smooth glass or any refracting medium surrounded by two spherical surfaces is -nown as lens. TYPES OF LENSES There are two types of lenses" 1. CON6EC LENS $f the glass is thic- at the center and thin at the edges then it is -nown as con%e' lens. $t is a con%erging lens. (3iagram) $t has three types"

3ouble 8on%e' Lens Plano 8on%e' Lens 8onca%o 8on%e' Lens

2. CONCA6E LENS $f the lens is thinner in the center and thic-er at the edges then it is -nown as a conca%e lens. $t is a di%erging lens. (3iagram) $t has three types"

3ouble 8onca%e Lens Plano 8onca%o Lens 8on%e' 8onca%e Lens

Cormation of $mage by 8on%e' Lens 1. OB=ECT AT INFINITY @hen ob.ect is placed at infinite distance from con%e' lens the rays coming from the ob.ect are parallel to each other and they meet after refraction at the focus. D$%.*+3 ,A I(.-$

Cormed at Cocus Feal $n%erted (t opposite side Highly diminished

2. OB=ECT BEYOND 2F @hen ob.ect is placed at some distance from 6C then image is formed between the focus and center of cur%ature (6C). D$%.*+3 ,A I(.-$

)etween C and 6C 4pposite side of Lens

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Feal $n%erted !mall in si&e

3. O9K$0% .% 2F @hen ob.ect placed at center of cur%ature, image is formed at center of cur%ature at the opposite side. D$%.*+3 ,A I(.-$

Feal $n%erted (t 6C !ame in si&e (t the opposite side of the Lens

4. O9K$0% 9$%<$$1 F .12 2F @hen ob.ect is placed between the focus and center of cur%ature then the image is formed on opposite side beyond the center of cur%ature. D$%.*+3 ,A I(.-$

Feal $n%erted Large in si&e 4pposite side of lens Z)eyond 6C

5. O9K$0% .% F @hen ob.ect is placed at focus the refracted rays are parallel to each other and meet at infinity. D$%.*+3 ,A I(.-$

Feal $n%erted E'tremely Large 4pposite side of Lens (t infinity

6. OB=ECT BET"EEN F AND O @hen ob.ect is placed between the lens and principal focus, then the refracted rays does not meet at opposite side but image is formed at the same side where the ob.ect is placed. D$%.*+3 ,A I(.-$

Dirtual Erect

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Large !ame side of lens )eyond the ob.ect

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS 1. THE EYE (3iagram) Cunctions of the Parts of Eye 1. SCLERA SCELORTIC $t is a layer enclosed in ca%ity filled with a fluid called Ditrous Humour. $t is the outer coating of eye. 2. CHOROID $t is a dar- membranous coating. This is coated with blac- pigments. $t -eeps the inner parts of the eye ball light proof. 3. RETINA $t is semi,transparent membranes of ner%e fibers forming the innermost coating of the eye and sensiti%e to light. $t is a screen on which image is formed. 4. CORNEA $t allows light into the eyes. $t is transparent and bulging in shape. 5. IRIS $t is li-e diaphragm of a camera. $t has a tiny opening at its center called pupil, which regulates the *uantity of light entering the eye. 6. CRYSTALLINE LENS This is a lens that automatically contracts and e'pands, alters the focal length of eye lens. 7. CILIARY BODY $t holds crystalline lens in the proper position. H. A78$,83 H8(,8& .12 6*%&,83 H8(,8& The place between cornea and the lens is filled by a transparent li*uid called (*ueous Humour. The large chamber of the eye between the lens and the bac- of eye is filled with a .elly li-e substance called Ditreous Humour. These li*uids ser%e mainly to -eep the spherical shape of the eye. Main 3efects of Eye 1. SHORT SI'HTEDNESS (MYOPIA! $f a person can see ob.ect placed near, but cannot see distant ob.ect, this defect is -nown as short sightedness. COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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C.83$3 This defect appears due to increase in thic-ness of eyeball. The focal length decreases ma-ing the image to form before retina. (3iagram) R$(,5.+ ,A D$A$0% $t is remo%ed by using a conca%e lens of suitable focal length. (3iagram) 2. LON' SI'HTEDNESS (HYPERMETROPIA! $f a person can see distant ob.ects, but not near ob.ects, this defect is called long sightedness. C.83$3 This defect appears due to decrease in thic-ness of ball. The focal length increases so that the image is formed beyond the retina. (3iagram) R$(,5.+ ,A D$A$0% $t is remo%ed by sing a con%e' lens of suitable focal length. (3iagram) 3. ASTI'MATISM $t is the defect in which the clear image of an ob.ect does not form on the retina. C.83$3 This defect appears due to non,sphericity of the cornea. R$(,5.+ This defect can be remo%ed by using lenses of different focal length. 4. PRESBYOPIA The accommodation power of eye loses by which a person suffers a long sightedness. This defect is called Presbyopia or Lac- of (ccommodation. C.83$3 This defect appears due to loss of accommodation power of the lens of the eye. R$(,5.+ This defect can be remo%ed by using con%e' lens. COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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2. CAMERA D$A*1*%*,1 ( camera is an optical de%ice for obtaining still photographs or for e'posing cinematic films. C,13%&80%*,1 $t consists of a light proof bo' with a lens at one end and a photographic plate or film at other end and a shutter to control the light rays. ",&/*1To ma-e an e'posure, the shutter is opened and an image is formed by lens on the photographic plate or film, small in si&e. Photographic plate or film sa%es this image. $n this way an image is obtained. 3. COMPOUND MICROSCOPE C,13%&80%*,1 $t consist of two con%e' lenses at the end of two tubes. 4ne tube can slide into other so that the distance between them can be change. The lens near the ob.ect is the small con%e' lens of short focal length is called ob.ecti%e. The lens near the eye is the larger con%e' of longer focal length is called eyepiece. (3iagram) ",&/*1The ob.ect is placed between C and GC and its real, in%erted and magnified image (:): is formed. The eyepiece is brought close to it so that it comes within its focal length. The first image (:): acts as an ob.ect and a %irtual, erect and magnified final image (#)# is formed. The magnification of a microscope can be %aried by using different ob.ecti%es. 4. ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE $t is used to see hea%enly bodies. C,13%&80%*,1 $t consists of two con%e' lenses at the end of the two metallic tubes. 4ne tube can slide into other so that the distance between can be changed. The lens near the ob.ect is a con%e' lens of longer focal length called the ob.ecti%e, while the lens near the eye is a small con%e' lens of shorter focal length called the eyepiece. (3iagram) ",&/*1The rays from distant ob.ect entering the ob.ecti%e and form a real, in%erted and diminished image (:): near the principal focus. The eyepiece is ad.usted so that the image formed by the ob.ecti%e comes within its focal length. Thus the eyepiece acts as a magnifying glass and a %irtual, erect and magnified image (#)# is formed by the first image. COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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DIFFERENCE BET"EEN REAL IMA'E AND 6IRTUAL IMA'E R$.+ I(.-$ ;. Feal image is formed when rays after reflection actually meet at a point. 6. Feal image is in%erted and can be seen on a screen. B. $t has a physical e'istence. 6*&%8.+ I(.-$ ;. Dirtual image is formed when rays do not actually meet but appear to di%erge from a point. 6. Dirtual image is erect and cannot be seen on a screen. B. $t does not ha%e a physical e'istence.

CHAPTER NO. 15
DEFINITIONS 1. DUAL NATURE OF LI'HT

NATURE OF LI'HT AND ELECTROMA'NETIC SPECTRUM

Light has dual nature, it beha%es not only as a particle (photon) but also as a wa%e. This is called dual nature of light. 2. DISPERSION OF LI'HT @hen a beam of sunlight falls on a prism, the light is split up in se%en colours. This phenomenon is called 3ispersion of Light. 3. RAINBO" The rainbow is an arc of spectral colours formed across the s-y during or after rainfall in the morning or when the sun is behind us. 4. PHOTONS (BUANTUM! Photons are tiny pac-ets of energy. They beha%e as particles but actually they are not particles. @@N$<%,1J3 C,&48308+.& T>$,&? ,A L*->%@@ This theory which was proposed by Jewton is as follows"

Light is emitted from a luminous body in the form of tiny particles called corpuscles. The corpuscles tra%el with the %elocity of light. @hen corpuscles stri-e the retina they ma-e it sense light. Medium is necessary for the propagation of light. Delocity of light is greater in denser medium.

"A6E THEORY OF LI'HT $n ;A>A, Huygen proposed this theory. (ccording to this theory"

Light propagates in space in the form of wa%es. $t can tra%el in space as well as in a medium. Light does not tra%el in a straight line but in sine wa%e form.

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Delocity of light is greater in rarer medium. Medium is not necessary for propagation.

BUANTUM THEORY OF LI'HT (ccording to this theory of Ma' Plan-"

Light is emitted from a source discontinuously in the form of bundles of energy called Photons or Euantum. $t tra%els in space as well as a medium. !peed of light is greatest in space or %acuum.

HO" A RAINBO" IS FORMEDM (s we -now a prism disperses sunlight into a series of se%en colours. @hen rain falls, raindrops beha%e li-e a prism and white light entering the raindrop splits up into se%en colours on refraction. These are appeared as Fainbow. SPECTRUM (fter the dispersion of light or any electromagnetic wa%e, a band of colours is formed, which is -nown as a spectrum. ELECTROMA'NETIC SPECTRUM Electromagnetic spectrum is a result obtained when electromagnetic radiation is resol%ed into its constituent wa%elength. "A6ES OF ELECTROMA'NETIC SPECTRUM R.2*, ".5$3 $t has a large range of wa%elengths from a few millimeters to se%eral meters. M*0&,<.5$3 These radio wa%es ha%e shorter wa%elength between ;mm and B22 mm. Microwa%es are used in radars and o%ens. I1A&.&$2 ".5$3 $t has a long range. $ts mean wa%elength is ;2 micrometers. 6*3*9+$ ".5$3 $t has a range of ?22 nm to >22 nm. U+%&.5*,+$% ".5$3 Their wa%elength ranges from B02nm onwards. These are emitted by hotter start (about 61222 8). COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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CHAPTER NO. 16
DEFINITIONS 1. INSULATORS

ELECTRICITY

Those material ob.ects that do not allow charge to pass through them are -nown as $nsulators or non,conductors. 2. CONDUCTORS Those material ob.ects that allow the charge to pass through them are called conductors. 3. SEMI CONDUCTORS Those material ob.ects that allow some charge to pass through them are called !emi, 8onductors. 4. FREE ELECTRON Those electrons that are loosely bound by their atom and can mo%e freely within the material are called free electrons. 5. DIELECTRIC The medium or space (%acuum) between two charges is said to be dielectric. 6. FORCE OF ATTRACTION @hen two charges attract each other the force is called force of attraction. $t has a negati%e sign. 7. FORCE OF REPULSION @hen two charges repel each other the force is called force of repulsion. $t has a positi%e sign. H. EBUI6ALENT RESISTANCE The relati%e resistance that has e*ual %alue to the combined %alue of a resistor of a circuit is called e*ui%alent resistance. $t is denoted by F(E). 9. DIRECT CURRENT !uch a current that does not change its direction is -nown as direct current. $t is denoted by 38, which is obtained from primary and secondary cell.s 1 . ALTERNATIN' CURRENT !uch a current that re%erses its direction with a constant fre*uency from positi%e to negati%e and negati%e to positi%e direction is -nown as (lternating 8urrent, obtained by generators. $t is denoted by (8. 11. CON6ENTIONAL CURRENT (n electric current considered to flow from points at positi%e terminal potential to points at negati%e potential. 12. PRIMARY CELL ( %oltaic cell in which the chemical reaction that produces the e.m.f is not re%ersible is -nown as Primary 8ell. COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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13. SECONDARY CELL (n electric cell that can be changed by passing an electric current through it is called !econdary 8ell. The chemical reaction in this case is re%ersible. 14. FUSED PLU' $t is a wired plug, which has its own cartilage fuse. $t is used in a ring main circuit. 15. ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ( combination of electrical components that form a conducting path is called an electric circuit. 16. COMMERCIAL UNIT OF ENER'Y (K"H! ; -@h is the energy produced by a resistor or conductor in ; hour when it uses ;222 @att power. 17. "ATT $f ; .oule of electrical wor- is done in ; second then the power is called ; watt. ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION @hen a charged body brought close to another uncharged body then other body gains some chrge without any touch. This is called electrostatic induction. 'OLD LEAF ELECTROSCOPE (n electroscope is a de%ice that can be used for detection of charge. JCONSTRUCTION $t consists of a glass case that contains two turn lea%es of gold ((u) which are capable to di%erge. The lea%es are connected to a conductor to a metal ball or dis- out side the case, but are insulated from the case itself. (3iagram) ",&/*1$f a charged ob.ect is brought close to the ball, a separation of charge is induced between the ball and gold lea%es. The two lea%es become charged and repel each other. $f the ball is charged by touching the charged ob.ect the whole assembly of ball and lea%es ac*uires the same charge. $n either case greater the amount of charge greater would be the di%erging in lens. ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL ( charged body place in electrostatic field as an electrostatic potential as earth has its gra%itational potential. POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE D$A*1*%*,1 COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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#The difference in electrostatic potential between two points in an electrostatic field is called potential difference.# @hen a unit positi%e charge body mo%es against an electrical field from ( to ), then wor- done has been stored as potential difference. Therefore, we say that #Potential difference is wor- done or energy stored per unit charge.#

U1*% !ince Potential 3ifference M @or- 3one<8harge D M @<* Therefore, its unit is" D M 9oules<8oulomb M 9<8 M Dolt. 6,+% ; %olt potential difference is e*ual to one .oule wor- done on ; coulomb charge. CAPACITOR $t is a de%ice for string electric charge. $t is a system of two (or more) plates on which we can store electric charge. PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR $t is a simple capacitor with two parallel plates on which we store the electric charge. (3iagram) C,13%&80%*,1 ( parallel plate capacitor has two metallic plates with their stands and a dielectric which is air or some insulator. E.g. wa' paper, wa', oil and mica. ",&/*1@hen the plates of a capacitor are connected to a %oltage source. The electrons flow from a plate ( to the positi%e charged terminal and ) plate to negati%e terminal. Thus plate ( ac*uires ,* charge. 3ue to attraction %oltage on plates increases gradually. Then charging stops when the potential difference (%oltage) becomes the %oltage of source. CAPACITY OR CAPACITANCE $t is the ability of capacitor to store the charge. 8harge stored per unit %oltage is called capacitance.

UNIT The unit of capacitance is Carad M coulomb<%olt. COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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FARAD $f ; coulomb charge charge produces a potential difference of ; %olt then capacitance is e*ual to ; Carad. FACTORS 8apacitance of a capacitor depends upon the following factors"

(rea of Plates Jature of dielectric 3istance between plates Jature of metal plates Temperature of 3ielectric and Plates

ELECTROMOTI6E FORCE (E.M.F! ( measure of the energy supplied by a source of electric current. $t is e*ual to the energy supplied by the source to each unit of charge. $.(.A @ E1$&-? S844+*$2 ; C>.&-$ U1*% The unit of e.m.f is %olt. ELECTRIC CURRENT NT>$ &.%$ ,A A+,< ,A 0>.&-$ *3 0.++$2 $+$0%&*0 08&&$1%.N M.%>$(.%*0.+ F,&( (ccording to the definition" Electric 8urrent M 8harge <time I @ 7;% U1*% The unit of current is (mpere (() M coulomb<sec A(4$&$ @hen one coulomb charge passing through a conductor in one second the current is said to be ; (mpere. RESISTANCE D$A*1*%*,1 #The ratio of the potential difference across an electrical element to the current in it is called resistance.# Fesistance measures the opposition of the conductor to the flow of charge. U1*% COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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The unit of resistance is 4hm. F.0%,&3 ,1 <>*0> R$3*3%.10$ D$4$123 Fesistance 3epends upon the following factors"

A&$. ,A C&,33 S$0%*,1 ,A . C,1280%,&) Fesistance increases when area of cross section increases. L$1-%> ,A C,1280%,&) Fesistance increases when the length of conductor is increased. T$(4$&.%8&$) Fesistance in metallic substances is directly proportional to temperature and in non,metals is in%ersely proportional to the temperature. N.%8&$ ,A S893%.10$) Fesistance also depends upon the nature of the conductor or substance.

OHMJS LA" S%.%$($1% The current passing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across the end points of the conductor. M.%>$(.%*0.+ F,&( (ccording to this law" D U $ (U represents the sign of proportionality. 3o not write this in your e'amination paper) MI 6 @ IR @here F is a constant is called the resistance of the conductor. RESISTOR The body or thing that offers resistance in an electrical circuit is -nown as resistor. The appliance or de%ice that wor-s on the presence of electric current is -nown as resistor. COMBINATION OF RESISTORS 1. IN SERIES @hen resistors are combined in series, they ha%e the following properties"

8urrent passes through all resistors has e*ual %alue, i.e. $ M $; M $6 Doltage is different according to the resistance. Total %oltage is e*ual to the combined %oltage or the sum of the %oltages of all resistors, i.e. D M D; P D6 P DB Total resistance is e*ual to the sum of all the resistances, i.e. FE M F; P F6 P FB

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D$&*5.%*,1 (3iagram) (s show in the abo%e diagram and according to the properties of combination. D P D; P D6 P DB but D M $F and D;M$F;, D6M$F6 and DB M $FB, therefore" $F(E) M $F; P $F6 P $FB $F(E) M $ (F; P F6 P FB) R(E! @ R1 F R2 F R3 2. IN PARALLEL @hen resistors are combined in parallel then this combination has the following properties"

8urrent has different ways to pass through. 8urrent has different %alue in each resistor according to its resistance. Total current is e*ual to the algebraic sum of each current, i.e.e $ M $; P $6 P $B Potential difference (Doltage) is same across each resistor, i.e. D M D; M D6 M DB Fesistance is small or less than all combined resistance. Total resistance is gi%en by the formula ;<F(E) M ;<F; P ;<F6 P ;<FB

D$&*5.%*,1 (3iagram) )y the help of properties of parallel combination" $ M $; P $6 P $B (ccording to 4hm:s Law, D M $F and $ M D<F then we say that" D<F(E) M D<F; P D<F6 P D<FB MI D<F(E) M D (;<F; P ;<F6 P ;<FB) 1;R(E! @ 1;R1 F 1;R2 F 1;R3 DIFFERENCE BET"EEN AC AND DC A+%$&1.%*1- C8&&$1% ;. (8 is obtained by a resistor that is connected in series with a source of alternating current. 6. $ts direction continuously changes. B. $t is obtained by a generator. ?. $ts transportation from one point to another point is %ery easy. 1. $t has a fre*uency about ?2 H& to A2 H&. A. Jo %oltage drop ta-es place in the time of transportation. >. $t is not too dangerous. 0. $t is cheaper than 38. =. $t changes %ery high to low or %ice %ersa. ;2. $t changes its direction continuously as Py and ,y. COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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D*&$0% C8&&$1% ;. 38 is obtained by connecting the two ends of a conductor to the terminals of a batter. 6. $ts direction remains unchanged. B. $t is obtained by a chemical reaction. ?. $ts transportation is %ery difficult. 1. $t has no fre*uency. A. 7reat %oltage drop ta-es place in the time of transportation. >. $t is too dangerous. 0. $t is e'pensi%e. =. $t cannot change easily. ;2. $t has no direction. =OULEJS LA" S%.%$($1% The heat produced by an electric current $, passing through a conductor of resistance F for time t is e*ual to $6FT. (6 represents power). The heat produced per unit time in a gi%en conductor is proportional to the s*uare of the current. D$&*5.%*,1 (ccording to this law" @ U $6t (Here 6 represents the s*uare of current) MI " @ I2R%(Here 6 represents the s*uare of current) PO"ER The rate of doing wor- is called Power. M.%>$(.%*0.+ F,&( PM @<T MI P M $6Ft<t MI P @ I2R !ubstituting the %alue of $ from 4hm:s law in the abo%e e*uation" MI P M ND6<F6O F MI P M D6<F MI P M D6<D<$ MI P@ 6I

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DIFFERENCE BET"EEN RESISTANCE AND CONDUCTANCE R$3*3%.10$ ;. Fesistance is the measure of opposition by the conductor to the flow of charge. 6. $t is the reciprocal of the conductance and is measured in %olt per ampere or ohm. C,1280%.10$ ;. 8onductance of a wire is the ease with which current flows in it. 6. $t is the ratio of current and potential difference. $ts unit is ampere per %olt or seimens.

8HAPTER NO. 17
MA'NET

MA'NETISM AND ELECTROMA'NETISM

Metals li-e iron, nic-el and steel attract each other magnetically. They are called magnets and always point in a particular direction when suspended freely in the air. NON-MA'NETIC SUBSTANCES !ubstances that are neither attracted nor repelled by a magnet are called non,magnetic substances. E'amples are wood, glass and paper. FERROMA'NETIC SUBSTANCES ( substance which beha%es li-e a magnet in the presence of a strong magnetic field is called a ferromagnetic substance.. 1. H.&2 F$&&,(.-1$%*0 S893%.10$3 The ferromagnetic substances which retain their magnetism when remo%ed from the magnetic field are -nown as hard ferromagnetic substances. E'ample is steel. 2. S,A% F$&&,(.-1$%*0 S893%.10$ The ferromagnetic substances which become magnets in the presence of a magnetic field and lose their magnetism when remo%ed from the magnetic field are -nown as soft ferromagnetic substance. E'ample is soft iron. MA'NETIC FIELD The space surrounding a magnet in which its magnetic effect is felt is called a magnetic field. $t is the region within which the magnet can e'ert its magnetic force. METHODS OF MAKIN' MA'NETS 1. SIN'LE-TOUCH METHOD Ta-e a hard steel bra and rub it with one end of a magnet in the direction from ! to J, -eeping the magnet in an inclined position. 4n reaching the end J of the steel bar, bring the same end of the magnet to the end ! of the steel bra and rub it again. Fepeat the process se%eral times and the steel bar will be magneti&ed. The end ! will ha%e the same polarity as COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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that of the rubbing pole of the magnet and the end J will ha%e the polarity opposite to that of the rubbing pole. 2. ELECTRICAL METHOD Ta-e a 5,shape steel bar and wound it with an insulated copper wire ma-ing sure that the two core arms are wound in the opposite directions. 8onnect the coil to a battery and pass strong current. The steel bar becomes a magnet as long as current passes through them. $n a similar way, a bar can be magneti&ed by putting it inside a solenoid and passing current through the solenoid. The polarity of the magnet is determined by the direction of the current. DEMA'NETI#ATION There are three methods for demagneti&ing magnets. 1.H.(($&*1Magnets can be partially demagneti&ed by hammering them when they are pointing in the east or west direction. 2. H$.%*1Magnets loose their magnetism when they are heated strongly. 3. ELECTRICAL METHOD The most efficient method of demagneti&ing a magnet is to use n alternating current. Ta-e a solenoid and place it in the east west direction. Pass an alternating current (about ;6 D) through it. Jow, put the magnet in the solenoid from one end and pull it out from the other. @hile the current is still flowing. The magnet will loose its magnetism. (lternating current re%erses its direction at a rate of ;22 times per second and hence causes the magnetism of the material to re%erse the polarity at the same rate. 3ue to this rapid re%erse in the polarity, the magnet looses its magnetism. MA'NETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT @hen an electric current passes through a straight wire a magnetic field is created which consists of field lines in concentric in concentric circles with the wire at their center. RI'HT HAND RULE The direction of the magnetic field can be determined by the following rule" NI(.-*1$ %>$ <*&$ %, 9$ -&.34$2 *1 %>$ &*->% >.12 <*%> %>$ %>8(9 4,*1%*1- .+,1%>$ <*&$. T>$ 2*&$0%*,1 ,A %>$ A*1-$&3 <*++ -*5$ ($ 2*&$0%*,1 ,A %>$ (.-1$%*0 +*1$3 ,A A,&0$.N SOLENOID ( coil of insulated copper wire in the form of a long cylinder is called a solenoid. M.-1$%*0 F*$+2 ,A . S,+$1,*2 @hen an electric current is passed through a solenoid a magnetic field is produced which is %ery similar to that of a bar magnet. 4ne end of the solenoid acts as the north pole and the COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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other as the south pole. The magnetic field inside a solenoid is %ery strong because the lines of force are parallel and close to one another. The magnetic field outside the solenoid is %ery wea-. ELECTROMA'NET $f soft iron is inserted in the core of a solenoid, the magnetic field due to the current in the solenoid is multiplied by thousands. @hen the current is switched off, the magnetic field disappears. !uch a magnet which can be energi&ed by an electric current is called an electromagnet. APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMA'NETS I1283%&? They are used to transport hea%y pieces of iron and steel safely from one place to another. @ith the help of electromagnets, iron from mi'ture is separated. They are used to produce strong magnetic fields for high power motors and generators. 1. ELECTRIC BELL C,13%&80%*,1 (n electric bell consists of an electromagnet. 4ne end of the winding is connected to a terminal (T;). The other end is connected to a spring, which is mounted on a soft iron strip called #(rmature.# ( rod is attached to the armature with its free end ha%ing a small hammer that can stri-e against the bell. a %ery light spring is attached to a contract ad.usting screw which is .oined to the second terminal (T6) by a wire. The electric circuit is completed by connecting the terminals to a batter and a switch. (3iagram) ",&/*1@hen the push button switch is pressed, the circuit gets closed and the armature is attracted towards the electromagnet. The spring also gets detatched from the screw. This results in opening the circuit and the electromagnet gets demagneti&ed. The attraction disappears bringing bac- the spring to its original position. (s soon as the spring touches the screw, the circuit gets closed and the magnet starts to wor-. $t again attracts the armature and this process is repeated as long as the switch is turned on. (s a result, the armature %ibrates and hammer attached to it stri-es the gong. Hence, the bell rings. 2. TELEPHONE RECEI6ER I1%&,280%*,1 ( telephone recei%er is a de%ice that con%erts electrical energy into sound energy. C,13%&80%*,1 The ear piece consists of a permanent magnet in contrast with two electromagnets. ( diaphragm of magnetic alloy is positioned in front of the electromagnets.

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",&/*1@hen the message is transmitted from the other apparatus, sound energy is con%erted into electric current and is transported to the ear piece through the line. This electric current %aries in magnitude depending upon the fre*uency of the sound wa%es. $n the telephone recei%er, the current passes through the electromagnet and energi&es the magnet. $n this way, the magnetic field strength %aries as the current changes. The magnetic force that pulls the diaphragm also %aries accordingly. The diaphragm therefore %ibrates and gi%es rise to sound of the same fre*uency as spo-en at the other end. FLEMIN'JS LEFT HAND RULE #Place the fore finger and the second finger of the left hand at right angles. Then, if the fore finger points in the direction of the magnetic field and the second finger in the direction of the current, then the thumb will point in the direction of the motion.# 'AL6ANOMETER I1%&,280%*,1 ( gal%anometer is a sensiti%e and delicate de%ice used to measure the magnitude and direction of small currents. P&*10*4+$ ,A '.+5.1,($%$& The principle of 7al%anometer is based on the interaction of the magnetic field produced by a current forcing in a conductor and the magnetic field of permanent magnet. $n this instrument, electrical energy is con%erted into mechanical energy. C,13%&80%*,1 ( rectangular coil of wire is wound on a light frame with a pointer attached on the top. The coil frame is pi%oted between the .aws of a large horseshoe magnet. (t both ends of the coil, hairsprings are attached. These springs help in -eeping the coil at &ero potential and also pro%ide the path for entry and e'it to the current. ( soft iron cylinder is fi'ed in the core of the coil to enhance the force of conductor. The conca%e shape of the poles of the horseshoe magnet combined with the cylindrical shape of the core creates the radial field to ensure that the field lines are always perpendicular to the coil. ",&/*1@hen current passes through the coil a couple of opposite forces are produced and causes the coil to rotate. )y the motion of the coil, pointer mo%es on the scale and gal%anometer is used to determine the magnitude and direction of current. AMMETER I1%&,280%*,1 ( gal%anometer ha%ing a low resistance in parallel is called as ammeter. $t is used to measure current. The low resistance connected in parallel is called shunt.

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",&/*1@hen current is passed through a 7al%anometer, its coil is deflected and pointer attached with the coil mo%es o%er a scale. The range for the measurement of current in a gal%anometer is %ery small. Therefore, a low resistance in parallel is used with a gal%anometer. This resistance by passes a great part of the current. 4nly a small amount of current passes through the gal%anometer coil, which is within the range of the gal%anometer. This resistance acts as a shunt. (n ammeter is always placed in series with other circuit components through which current is to be measured. 6OLTMETER I1%&,280%*,1 ( gal%anometer ha%ing high resistance in series is called a %oltmeter. $t is used to measure potential difference. ",&/*1The potential difference across a resistance is directly proportional to the current passing through it. (s the deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the current, therefore the deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the potential difference. ( small potential difference produces a full,scale deflection in a gal%anometer. $n order to measure high potential difference, a high resistance is connected in series with the gal%anometer. Most of the potential difference drops across the high resistance. The %alue of resistor connected in series depends upon the range of the %oltmeter. $n order to measure the potential difference, a %oltmeter is always connected in parallel to the circuit components.

CHAPTER NO. 1H

ELECTRONICS

DEFINITIONS 1. ELECTRONICS Electronics is a branch of Physics, which deals with the de%elopment of electron emitting de%ices, their utili&ation and controlling electron flow in electrical circuits designed for %arious purposes. 2. SEMI CONDUCTOR !ubstances whose electrical resistance lies between those of conductors and insulators are -nown as semi,conductors. 3. DOPIN' Mi'ing of any tetra%alent element into a tri%alent or penta%alent element so that its electrical conducti%ity increases is called dopping. 4. N-TYPE SUBSTANCE ( pure semiconductor with a %alency of three, doped with a penta%alent element is called n, type semiconductor. 5. P-TYPE SUBSTANCE COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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( pure semiconductor with a %alency of three doped with a tri%alent element is called n,type semiconductor. 6. DIODE The common boundary of n,type and p,type regions in a semiconductor is called p,n .unction diode. $t allows the current to flow in only one direction. 7. FOR"ARD BIASED $f the p,type material of a semi conductor diode is at a positi%e potential and the n,type material is at a negati%e potential then the diode is forward biased. $t has a %ery low electrical resistance. H. RE6ERSE BIASED $f the p,type material of a semi,conductor diode is at a negati%e potential and the n,type material is at a positi%e potential then the diode is re%erse biased. $t has a %ery high electrical resistance. 9. RECTIFICATION The process of con%ersion of alternating current into direct current is -nown as rectification. 1 . RECTIFIER ( rectifier is a de%ice that con%erts (lternating current into 3irect current. 11. TRANSISTOR ( transistor is a semiconductor, which consists of a thin central layer of one type of semiconductor material sandwiched between two relati%ely thic- pieces of the other type of semiconductor. The central part is -nown as the base (b) and the pieces at either side are called the emitter (e) and the collector (c). 12. NPN TRANSISTOR The npn transistor has a thin piece of p,type substance sandwiched between two pieces of n, type semiconductors. 13. PNP TRANSISTOR The pnp transistor has a thin piece of n,type substance sandwiched between two pieces of p, type semiconductors. TELE'RAPH I1%&,280%*,1 ( telegraph is a de%ice that is used to send and recei%e messages between two distant points. C,13%&80%*,1 (n electric telegraph consists of a battery that is connected to a bu&&er through the tapping -ey. There is only one wire between the bu&&er and the tapping -ey. The circuit is completed by connecting the other terminal to the ground few feet below. The earth being moist acts as a good conductor. ",&/*1@hen the tapping -ey is pressed, the recei%er produces a bu&&ing sound. The inter%al between two bu&&ing sounds can be controlled by the inter%al between pressing the tapping COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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-ey. The international Morse 8ode, which is a combination of dots and dashes is used to send and recei%e messages with the help of telegraph. RADIO I1%&,280%*,1 ( radio is a de%ice for recei%ing and sending speech or music o%er large areas by electromagnetic signals. ",&/*11. T&.13(*33*,1) $nformation is sent out into the atmosphere from a transmitting station. @hen someone spea-s in the microphone at the radio station, sound wa%es are con%erted into electrical fluctuating current. This current is con%erted into high fre*uency alternating current, which is allowed to pass in the transmitting antenna. The transmitting antenna produces radio wa%es with fluctuating amplitude. These wa%es are -nown as modulated carrier wa%es. 2. R$0$*5*1-) @hen the modulated carrier wa%es meet a recei%ing aerial, they generate fluctuating alternating current in it. This (8 is con%erted into 38 with the help of a rectifier. (n earphone or a spea-er is connected to the recei%er. The 38 energi&es the electromagnet of the spea-er and causes the diaphragm to %ibrate. This produces the sound of same fre*uency as that at the radio station. RADAR I1%&,280%*,1 Fadar stands for Fadio 3etection and Fanging. $t is used to detect and find out the distance of distant ob.ect with the help of radio wa%es. C,13%&80%*,1 $t consists of a transmitter, a recei%er and se%eral indicating de%ices. ",&/*11. T&.13(*33*,1) The transmitter generates %ery high fre*uency electromagnetic wa%es in the desired direction with the help of a conca%e antenna. 2. R$0$*5*1-) These rays after stri-ing an ob.ect are reflected bac- and are recei%ed by the radar antenna. The antenna feeds these rays in the indicating de%ices. 3. P&,0$33*1-) The indicating de%ices measure the time ta-en by the wa%es to return. They calculate the wa%e %elocity and finally the distance of the ob.ect. Fadar wa%es can penetrate fog, clouds, ha&e and smo-e. TELEPHONE I1%&,280%*,1

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( telephone is a de%ice by which two persons at distant places can directly tal- to each other through electric current carrying wires. C,13%&80%*,1 ( telephone system consists of a microphone and a recei%er. 1. M*0&,4>,1$) The microphone consists of a diaphragm suspended in front of pac-ing of carbon granules. 2. R$0$*5$&) The recei%er has an electromagnet and a diaphragm made of magnetic alloy in front of it. ",&/*11. T&.13(*33*,1) @hen someone spea-s in front of the microphone, the diaphragm %ibrates due to the sound wa%es. The compressions and rarefactions of the sound wa%es cause the diaphragm to increase and decrease the pressure on carbon granules. This results in the increment and decrement in the resistance offered by the granules and hence generates fluctuating current. 2. R$0$*5*1-) (t the recei%er, the electromagnet recei%es fluctuating current, which generates a fluctuating magnetic field. The diaphragm in front of the electromagnet also %ibrates with different amplitudes and generates sound of same fre*uency as spo-en at the other end. T6 CAMERA ",&/*1Cor the purpose of TD Transmission, TD 8amera focuses on ob.ect to be tele%ised. The con%e' lens of the TD 8amera produces an image on the thin sensiti%e plate -nown as mosaic screen. The mosaic screen is fi'ed in the camera and has the ability to emit electrons. @hen light is stronger, more electrons are gi%en out the material ma-ing positi%e at this location. The beam of electrons from the electron gun in the camera tube is meant for scanning the bacsurface of the mosaic screen along the successi%e longitudinal lines in it. !pecial magnetic deflection system achie%es this purpose. (s soon as the beam hits on an area with high positi%e charge, few of the negati%e charges are repelled. $f the positi%e charge is less, more of the electrons are emitted. (fter the collection of these electrons it is con%erted into %oltage pulse -nown as %ideo signal. The %ideo signals that ha%e been amplified are utili&ed to manufacture %ery high fre*uency. This fre*uency is recei%ed by a tele%ision antenna, which re%erses the process and gi%es us a clear animated picture on the screen.

CHAPTER NO. 19
NUCLEAR PHYSICS

NUCLEAR PHYSICS

$t is the branch of Physics that deals with the structure, properties and reaction of particles found in the nuclei of atoms. RADIOACTI6ITY The phenomenon of emission of radiation from 5ranium and other substances is -nown as radioacti%ity. The substances that emit radiation are -nown as radioacti%e elements. COMPOSED BY UBEDULLAH MEMON

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EE4$&*($1% ( small *uantity of a radioacti%e element such as radium is placed in a ca%ity of a lead blocin such a way that the radiation from radium can only come out through this ca%ity. ( photographic plate is placed at some distance abo%e the lead bloc- so that the radiation from radium falls upon it. The apparatus is placed in a %acuum light chamber which is e%acuated by a powerful pump. This chamber is then placed between the poles of a powerful magnetic field. 5nder the action of magnetic field, two or three types of radiation are deflected forming three separate images on the photographic plate. PROPERTIES OF ALPHA PARTICLES

(lpha particles are Helium nuclei. The charge on alpha particles is positi%e. The %elocity of alpha particles is ;<;22th of the %elocity of light. $oni&ation power is greates. Penetration power is the least. $t effects the photographic plate. $t produces florescence with &inc sulphide solution.

PROPERTIES OF BETA PARTICLES

)eta particles are fast mo%ing electrons. The charge on beta particles is negati%e. $ts %elocity is slightly less than the %elocity of light. $oni&ation power is less than alpha particles. $ts penetration power is greater than alpha particles. $t effects the photographic plate. $t produces florescence with barium platino cyanide solution.

PROPERTIES OF 'AMMA RAYS

7amma rays are electromagnetic in nature. They are neutral rays. $ts %elocity is e*ual to the %elocity of light. $oni&ation power is least. $ts penetration power is the greatest. $t effects the photographic plate. $t produces florescence with )arium Platino 8yanide.

NUCLEAR FISSION The splitting of a nucleus into fragments with the emission of energy when bombarded by a neutron is called a fission process. CHAIN REACTION $n a fission reaction, each nucleus emits three neutrons. These neutrons collide with other uranium nuclei and cause fission in them emitting three more neutrons. These neutrons produce further fission in other nuclei and this process continues. This is called a 8hain Feaction.

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NUCLEAR REACTOR ( system used to obtain a controlled amount of heat from nuclear fission is called a nuclear reactor.

",&/*1- ,A . N80+$.& R$.0%,& The fission material in a nuclear reactor is 5ranium. This is called fuel element. The neutrons released from fission mo%e with high %elocities. The fast mo%ing neutrons ha%e to be slowed down before they cause further fission. The process of slowing down neutrons is called moderation. hea%y water is used as a moderator. @hen a chain reaction starts, it may produce large number of neutrons, which may cause too much fission. The rate of chain reaction is controlled by inserting control rods which are commonly made of )oron. The heat produced is a nuclear reactor is carried away by the circulation of pressuri&ed water or carbon dio'ide gas inside the core of the reactor. This heat is used to produce steam. This steam can be used to run a power station for the generation of electricity. NUCLEAR FUSION The process in which two lighter nuclei are brought together to form another hea%y nucleus is called the Cusion Feaction. @hen 3euterium and Tritium nuclei are brought together they form a Helium nucleus and release a large amount of energy and a neutron.

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