5 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.

OK3 1
5. Fatigue of steel structures
Fatigue loading, Whlers approach and fracture mechanics, fatigue strength,
influence of notches, damage accumulation, Eurocode approach.
Damage due to fatigue occurs when loading is markedly varying in time.
Resistance R decreases due to:
- initiation of cracks,
- cracks growth.
Fatigue limit state (in general):
) T min( ) T max(
R F
(valid for given time T)
for required probabilities p
S
0
T
0
S
T
R decreases with time
MS
F
max
= R
min
loading F,
resistance R
reliability
S [ % ]
t
i
m
e

T
5 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.
OK3 2
Fatigue tests (see mechanical tests of material, bachelor course)
low-cycle fatigue (< about 50 000 cycles, plastic behaviour)
multi-cycle fatigue (elastic behaviour)
design fatigue strength curve e.g. for surviving
with probability of p = 95 %
(hyperbola)
time strength"
(for N
i
cycles)
cut-off limit
(permanent
fatigue strength)
N
i
[ N ] number of cycles up to damage

Whlers curve

1 cycle
stress range
N cycles (time)
regimes:
pulsating tension
alternating loading
pulsating compression
+
+
-
-
5 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.
OK3 3
Whlers curve in log coordinates (S-N curves, stress-number of cycles curves):
Usually expressed in the form:
i.e.
m

a
N =
log log log m a N =
log
log N
N

=

2

1
0
6
N

=

5

1
0
6
N

=

1

1
0
8
bilinear
trilinear
designation
of category

C
Fatigue is predominantly investigated experimentally.
Cardinal difference is in behaviour of:
Machined specimen (e.g. as in tensile test):
- decisive is initiation of cracks (due to pores, defects): important for
mechanical elements.
Real steel structure (e.g. various welded pieces):
- time to initiation of cracks is very short,
- fatigue strength (
R
) is given especially by time of crack propagation
up to critical length (fatigue fracture).
5 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.
OK3 4
Determination of loading effects
Actual loading has stochastic distribution.
Dynamic effects are taken into account:
- by dynamic calculations,
- approximately with help of dynamic coefficient
fat
(given in standards).

T
In fatigue design may be used:
1. Constant amplitude of stress range

N
and N are approximately estimated.
In Eurocodes is determined equivalent stress range

E,2
, which corresponds to fatigue damage of N = 210
6
:

E,2
=
1

3
...
k
product of equivalent damage factors
(for bridges and cranes given in Eurocodes)
5 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.
OK3 5
2. Stress range spectrum
Actual stress distribution is evaluated by some of the cycle counting methods, e.g.:
- reservoir method:
- rainflow method:

2

3

4
1 1
2
3
4
5
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
4'
3'
history after
filtration
idea of "pagoda"
(turned of 90)
The stress ranges are arranged into several degree spectrum (for several ):
N

n
1
(for stress range
1
)
n
2
n
3
histogram:

4
N
n
1
n
2
n
3
n
4
5 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.
OK3 6
Determination of fatigue strength
Influence of stress range . is substantial.
The fatigue strength in compression is higher:
ATTENTION: welded elements have always tension
residual stresses in weld location !!! always tension.
Influence of stress concentration is essential:
Influence of yield point f
y
is negligible
(steel S235 and S460 have roughly the same fatigue strength).
Influence of environment: fatigue strength is lowered by aggressive
environment, corrosion, low and high temperatures.
;
+
-

( in compression may be taken 60% of6 only)

NOTCHES are concentrators of stresses cracks,
they are especially at weld locations (see detail categories).
5 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.
OK3 7
Solution of fatigue problems
1. Whlers approach (for design of new structures standards, Eurocode).
2. Fracture mechanics:
Investigates development of a crack enables to determine residual life".
Fatigue design according to Eurocode (EN 1993-1-9)
Loading: design values of stress range for:
Ff
= 1,00
Fatigue resistance:
according to assessment method
- damage tolerant method (requires inspections, maintenance):
Mf
= 1,15
- safe life method (without inspections):
Mf
= 1,35
(the coefficients may be lowered for elements with lower consequences)
The design may be performed for:
constant amplitude of nominal (equivalent) stress range
E,2
,
stress range spectrum.
5 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.
OK3 8
Design for constant equivalent stress range amplitude"
For direct stresses:
Mf
C
E,2 Ff

stress range of equivalent nominal stress
(must be < 1,5 f
y
, including dynamic coefficient
fat
)
fatigue strength" for 2.10
6
cycles
given by name of detail category
(similarly for shear)
Detail categories
Curves in log scale:
DC 36, 40, ..... 140, 160
3

a
N =
5

a
N =
const.
1
6
0
160
cut-off limit
cut-off limit for
constant amplitude"
117
2.10
6
5.10
6
10
8
cycles N

R
5 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.
OK3 9
Modifications of the assessment:
- compressive portion of the stress range may be reduced to 60 %,
- due to size effect (usually t > 25 mm) the fatigue strength is reduced by coefficient k
s
.
Design for stress range spectrum"
For several degree spectrum (
i
, n
i
, see e.g. for i = 4) the Palmgren-Miner linear
damage accumulation hypothesis may be used:
1

=
n
i
Ri
Ei
d
N
n
D
number of cycles with amplitude

Ff

i
number of cycles with the same
amplitude up to collapse, determined
from curve corresponding to
category of given detail
log N N
Ri
log
n
Ei

Ff

i
5 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.
OK3 10
Recommendations for fatigue design:
1. Selection of suitable details (to minimize notches).
2. Restriction of tension residual stresses ( welds of necessary size only,
multilayer welds are better).
3. Correct determination of fatigue loading (, N).
Fabrication:
1. Without notches (possibly grinding, TIG remelting, trimming by mechanical way
- by hammering, shot peening; in progress ultrasonic +
mechanical treatment).
2. Low residual stresses (MAG, TIG welding).
Example of crane girder:
t
max.
100
manual weld: KD 100
MAG, SAW: KD 112
KD 80
KD 80
older opinions,
today frequently welded
KD 80
5 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.
OK3 11
Complementary notes:
Fracture mechanics
Unlike as in Whlers approach the development of given crack is investigated.
Enables to determine residual life of the structure.
1. Linear fracture mechanics - investigates the crack within multi-cycle
fatigue (most of the body is elastic).
1. Nonlinear fracture mechanics - investigates the crack within low-cycle
fatigue (crack vicinity is plastic).
Linear fracture mechanics

r 0
2a
b
r
K

I
2
max
=
coefficient of stress intensity (after Irwin).
Solution consists of:
b) (a,
f a K =
I
a) Stress in crack face:
b) Velocity of crack spread (Paris law):
m
d
d
K C
N
a
=
N number of cycles
C, m material constants
K amplitude K
I
i.e. (K
I ,max
- K
I,
min)/2
5 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.
OK3 12
For given K
I
= K
IC
(fracture toughness material constant)
a critical length of the crack a
cr
may be determined:
and by integration of Paris law also the residual life
(i.e. the number of cycles up to fatigue damage):
2
b) ,
cr
(a
c
cr
1

=
f
K
a

I
( )

=
cr
0 K
d
a
a
f
a
N
log
log N
approx. 10 000 cycles
quasi-static fracture
low-cycle fatigue
multi-cycle fatigue
cut-off limit
Nonlinear fracture mechanics (low-cycle fatigue)
Region of plastic deformations use of
pl
necessary

pl

el

tot
Manson-Coffin relation:
Manson relation:
( )
C ,
N 2
pl
= 2N number of half-cycles
C constant (-0,5 up - 0,8)
' 0,5 up 0,7
y
f
y
' coeff. of fatigue strength f
y
C b
pl el tot
) 2 ( ) 2 )( ( N ' N E / f
'
y
+ = + =