1) Swapping :- To swap a process means to move that entire process out of main memory and to

the swap area on hard disk, whereby all pages of that process are moved at the same time.When a
swapped out process becomes active and moves from the sleep queue to the run queue, the kernel
has to load an entire process (perhaps many pages of memory) back into RAM from the swap
space. With large processes this is understandably slow

2) Paging :- With paging, when the kernel requires more main memory for an active process,
only the least recently used pages of processes are moved to the swap space. Therefore when a
process that has paged out memory becomes active, it is likely that it will not need access to the
pages of memory that have been paged out to the swap space, and if it does then at least only a
few pages need to be transferred between disk and RAM.

3) Daemon :- 'daemon' is a software process that runs in the background (continuously) and
provides the service to client upon request rather than under the direct control of a user; they are
usually initiated as background processes. Typically daemons have names that end with the letter
"d": for example, syslogd, the daemon that handles the system log, or sshd, which handles
incoming SSH connections.For example named is a daemon. When requested it will provide DNS
service. Other examples are:

a) xinetd (it is a super-daemon, it is responsible for invoking other Internet servers when they are
needed) , b) inetd (same as xinetd, but with limited configuration options) , c) sendmail/postfix
(to send/route email) , d) Apache/httpd (web server)

4) Process :- A 'server process' run runs one time, when called by a daemon. Once done it will
stop. For example telnetd (in.telnetd) or ftpd called from xinetd/inetd daemon . By calling server
process from daemon you can save the load and memory. Use a server process for small services
such as ftpd, telnetd
CLIENT -> Daemon -> Calls server process
ftp -> xinetd -> Calls ftpd
ftp xinetd stops ftpd
quit
5) Diff between Init.d & Xinetd Services :-xinetd performs the same function as inetd: it starts
programs that provide Internet services. Instead of having such servers started at system
initialization time, and be dormant until a connection request arrives, xinetd is the only daemon
process started and it listens on all service ports for the services listed in its configuration file.
When a request comes in, xinetd starts the appropriate server. Because of the way it operates,
xinetd (as well as inetd) is also referred to as a super-server.

6) Subnetmask :- A mask used to determine what subnet an IP address belongs to .A subnet

mask allows you to identify which part of an IP address is reserved for the network, and which
part is available for host use. The Netmask Bundled with an IP address there is always a
"Netmask" value. The Netmask, together with the IP address, defines the network the computer
belongs to, that is which other IP addresses the computer can touch directly in the same LAN.
In order to understand the Netmask we will always remember that the 4 bytes defining both the IP
address and the Netmask could be represented in binary format.
The netmask is -by definition- a sequence of "1" from the left to the right, followed by some
number of "0" (the network range). Because of this rule the netmask is often represented with
decimal values, that sound like one or more "255" followed by one or more "0".

7) What is the difference between IPv4 and IPv6? : - IPv4 is 32 bits IP address IPv4 can
support up to 232 addresses where as IPv6 is 128 bits, can support up to 2128 addresses.
8) Inode :- An inode stores basic information about a regular file, directory, or other file system
object.

Each and every file under Linux (and UNIX) has following attributes:

a) File type (executable, block special etc) , b) Permissions (read, write etc) ,c) Owner ,Group
,File Size d) File access, e) change and modification time (remember UNIX or Linux never stores
file creation time, this is favorite question asked in UNIX/Linux sys admin job interview) , f) File
deletion time , g) Number of links (soft/hard) , h) Extended attribute such as append only or no
one can delete file including root user (immutability) , i) Access Control List (ACLs)

All the above information stored in an inode. In short the inode identifies the file and its attributes
(as above) . Each inode is identified by a unique inode number within the file system. Inode is
also know as index number.

9) Filesystem :-But what is in a File system? :- a file system (often also written as filesystem)
is a method for storing and organizing computer files and the data they contain to make it easy to
find and access them. Again file system divided into two categories:

a) User data - stores actual data contained in files , b) Metadata - stores file system
structural information such as superblock, inodes, directories

It contains the metadata which includes inodes, date and stamp, rights and ownership
filesize and type. It also has the link to the datablock which stores data on it.

10 ) Superblock :-Eeach file system has a superblock, which contains information about file
system such as:

File system type ,Size ,Status ,Information about other metadata (Metadata describes the structure
of the file system )structures

a) Restoring a Bad Superblock for Linux

Following command displays primary and backup superblock location on /dev/sda3 :-

# dumpe2fs /dev/hda3 | grep -i superblock (or)# mke2fs -n /dev/sda3

To repair file system by alternative-superblock use command as follows :-

# e2fsck -f -b 8193 /dev/sda3

b) Restoring a Bad Superblock for Solaris

Display the superblock values with the newfs -N command. :-

# newfs -N /dev/rdsk/device-name

Provide an alternate superblock with the fsck command :-

# fsck -F ufs -o b=block-number /dev/rdsk/device-name

DRAC, ILOM, KVM, ALOM, HMC consoles