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Nina Laudon Troy AP Literature March 12, 2014 Coming of Age Rituals in Africa Africa is a vast continent, home to different cultures and religions, different languages and foods, but across Africa the prerequisite to adulthood appears to be circumcision for both sexes. Circumcision is claimed to be symbolic of the cutting of the umbilical cord when the child is born to demonstrate a separation from childhood and preparedness for adulthood (Prazak 30). There is no more heavily defined transition in a lifetime than the passage of a child to an adult. Having a predetermined rite of passage that their predecessors shared in creates a sense of unity and lends a level of acceptance to this new reality. In males the removal of the foreskin during adolescence is largely a display of strength in the face of pain and being taught lessons about respect for elders. Because a circumcised male is less likely to contract or spread HIV and there is no lasting damage to an individuals quality of life from these practices, western societies have not condemned this ritual. However, female circumcision removes the clitoris, leaving a woman with no sexual pleasure; this procedure is often fatal from blood-loss or infection. This practice horrifies outsiders, but many young women choose to undergo this procedure because without it, they will be shunned from society and likely will not marry. Alternative passages into womanhood are being introduced as various organizations and even governments attempt to end this brutality inflicted on African women. Alternative coming of age

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rituals for males and females are becoming more prevalent as western influences and more educated populations cause people to forego these traditional practices. For male initiates, circumcision is a key step in becoming a warrior, an elder, and a respected member of their community. The Maasai tribe, located in southern Kenya and northern Tanzania, have many ceremonies that males must pass through in order to be circumcised, though their females were traditionally just circumcised and encouraged to marry as they were now considered to be eligible, though today many women choose not to be. In Maasai culture, an age-set is formed as groups of boys between the ages fourteen and sixteen travel across their land for several months to announce that they are preparing to undergo circumcision; before which they will set up homes, choose a leader for their age group--which surprisingly is not an honor but rather a burden-- and sleep outside the night before they dance for a day (Maasai Ceremonies and Rituals). Young men must prove themselves by accomplishing challenging activities men would perform in the community, and for that reason, a boy herds cattle for the week before he is circumcised. The circumcision itself is an exhibit of bravery and control as there is no anesthesia to dull the pain, and the boys may not flinch or cry out for fear of being thought weak. After this, a young man lives in a warrior camp for ten years, learning his duties and place in society, before becoming a senior warrior. At this time a man is allowed to marry, and has his head shaved by his mother to signify release. During the same ceremony, one man must pull a burning animal horn from a fire, and if he does not, the entire age-set will be cursed with bad luck rather than just one of them. The Maasai and the Nyam-Nyam people of Cameroon are similar in their male coming of age rituals in that there is the circumcision, an isolation period of learning with guidance, and

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then reintroduction to society as an adult. The Nyam-Nyam have their boys perform a three day supervised vigil after they are circumcised, their wounds wrapped in leaves meant to assist in the healing. The man who performs the circumcision is forbidden from sleeping with a woman prior to the procedure because they believe otherwise the boys will not heal. After the circumcision, the men whip each other, and then the boys, with two lashes, to strengthen their moral fortitude and to know right and wrong (Leis 174). The beatings are interspersed throughout different ceremonies to remind the boys of the loyalty and respect they owe to their elders, and so they always honor them. Philip Leis of Brown University observed this ritual and noted the pride with which they bore the pain, refusing to show visible signs of it in a display of their manliness (174). In their time of seclusion the boys build a relationship with a guardian, who outlines rules in society that range from sexual positions and taboos to always offering to carry objects for elders. Once this was the route to circumcision and therefore manhood, these customs have died out. Once men felt obligated to undergo these rites because their father did before them, and without circumcision they would not be allowed to visit a holy site or be buried as a man, but would have the same funeral arrangements as a woman (Leis 182). In Kenya today, circumcision can be done by clinics in a sterile safe environment. This has been an option since the 1950s but men who chose that path rather than undergoing the traditional ceremony were marginalized, though since the late 90s it has become more acceptable and those men can join the gangs of initiates that roam the community during the period of seclusion (Prazak 24). With this spread of modernism comes rising resistance to female circumcision, commonly referred to as female genital mutilation (FGM). Miroslava Prazak writes in Africa Today that this new opposition movement stems from leaders that were formally educated, though are considered to be

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hypocrites by the people they urge to end the practices because many of these leaders were circumcised themselves or had their children undergo the procedure (27). In Egypt and Kenya FGM is illegal, though is it still practiced as the lag between law and the social system needs to be bridged, which would be best achieved by creating education programs that involve the community (Prazak 23). Alternative programs have been established and are slowly growing in popularity. An alternative rite practiced in rural Kenyan communities has a week of seclusion, like that the males undergo, where the girls are taught basic anatomy and physiology, sexual and reproductive health, hygiene, gender issues, respect for adults, development of self-esteem and how to deal with peer pressure (Chelala 128). Through education it is hoped these girls can empower themselves and their communities, with their parents becoming activists in their communities for alternative rites of passage. The week ends with a day to honor these young initiates and welcome them to womanhood. Initiated in 1996, 300 women had gone through this program instead of female circumcision by 1998(Chelala 126). However, more recent studies prove that though those women took part in an alternative rite, they may have ended up being circumcised anyway. In 2004, 289 girls entered a similar alternative rite program that discussed HIV/AIDS, legal rights, the effects of FGM, and had committed to not undergo the procedure, however, all but eighty of those girls were forced by their relatives or pressured by their peers to undergo the cutting (Prazak 24-25). Despite the pain and discomfort FGM undoubtedly causes these girls throughout life, many choose to be cut and in fact support the practice more than males do. Being circumcised portrays a girl to society as respectable and raises her standing; those who choose not to be are viewed as immoral outcasts. Though many girls regret that they could not continue their

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education, as after circumcision they often marry quickly, female genital cutting remains central and highly valued as a marker of the entrance into womanhood (Prazak 36). The Bonos of Ghana have an alternative rite of passage that celebrates a girls virginity being kept until her nubility rites, after which she has permission to marry and have sex. Many songs are used to teach the girl valuable lessons about adult life and to caution her against choosing a partner too quickly. The girls virginity is celebrated for eight days of ceremonies and presents, where her community does not even work their farms because they are honoring her, which happens rarely, often only in mourning when someone has died; this is meant to show appreciation for how she has obeyed her parents and resisted peer pressure and sexual temptation (Quan-Baffour 31). The Bonos recognize God in all things and begin and end the ceremonies with songs praising him, asking him to guide the girl and bless her with children. These rites honor and celebrate a girl moving into her adult life as an example of virtue and faithfulness, though the Bonos are polygamists and this double standard seems to be ignored in their community. Some songs sung by the elders warn against promiscuous suitors and urge their girls to really get to know their prospective partners before engaging in sexual activity to protect themselves from HIV/AIDS (Quan-Baffour 32). These issues have many layers to them in terms of human rights versus selfdetermination, as well as past and future generations. New cultural influences make maintaining tribal practices challenging, but some could be considered obsolete and inhumane. The conflict lays in the fact the generation fighting for change has likely been a part of more traditional coming of age rituals and may have even subjected their own children to them, which makes people hesitant to follow suit. Change ultimately must come from within the community, not

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without, and due to Africas long history of intrusion, one must hope that is recognized by leaders within the community.

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Work Cited Chelala, Cesar. An Alternative Way to Stop Female Genital Mutilation. Lancet 352.9122 (1998): 126-129. Web. 5 March 2014. Leis, Philip. Past Passages: Initiation Rites on the Adamawa Plateau (Cameroon). Ethnology 50.2 (2011): 168-188. Web. 5 March 2014. Maasai Ceremonies and Rituals. maasai-association.org. Web. 5 March 2014. Prazak, Miroslava. Introducing Alternative Rites of Passage. Africa Today 53.4 (2007): 19-40. Web. 5 March 2014. Quan-Baffour, Kofi Poku. Ritual Songs For Girls Nubility Rites at Bono Takyman, Ghana. Muziki: Journal of Music Research in Africa 6.1 (2009): 26-35. Web. 5 March 2014.

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Prazak, Miroslava. Introducing Alternative Rites of Passage. Africa Today 53.4 (2007): 19-40. Web. 5 March 2014.

Miroslava Prazak received a PhD in anthropology from Yale University and now teaches at Bennington College. She focuses her research on development and cultural changes as well as gender and age based inequalities. With these work she had written several documents on sexuality and family in Kenya.

Prazak explored community attitudes about female circumcision, ferreting out the real reasons why many women subject themselves and their daughters to this procedure. The societal pressures and social standing associated with being circumcised were major points in why the tradition continued. Prazak realized that without community involvement, just as the communities that carry out these practices were not involved with the laws making it illegal, girls would continue to be circumcised.

1. Indigenous activists and anthropologists have often argued for cultural relativism: every culture is to be understood according to its own terms, not judged by outsiders criteria; the members of each culture should be able to enjoy the right of self-determination, and should have the principal say with regard to their own practices and traditions.

This is the same argument as a nations sovereignty over its own land and people, but when human rights are being violated the UN, often lead by a trigger-happy United States, intervenes.

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People should be in control of their own communities and be allowed their own culture, practices, and faith, but when those beliefs harm humans or limit their rights, is it an outsiders obligation to step in and offer alternatives? To an extent, I believe it is. I think when people are not given enough opportunities to succeed on their own, but the resources exist, they should be exposed to the education or technology so that their goals become achievable. So while I believe in preserving traditional practices of indigenous people, I think in modern times communities must let go of those that are harmful to peoples welfare.

2. An uncircumcised girl is seen as an outcast who cannot keep secrets and will have loose morals; she wont be able to maintain good hygiene at home; being a coward, she remains a child, and thus cannot be respectable and lacks self esteem and confidence.

The perception of an uncircumcised girl is why most women choose to have the procedure done; they want a place in their society that is reserved for those who have subjected themselves to mutilation. In contrast to the outsider status of an uncircumcised woman, a circumcised woman is seen as brave and respectful, a role model. All societies put so much emphasis on what a woman should be, while in comparison, men are free to be whatever they want. Its incredibly frustrating as a woman to note that female oppression is universal, and will probably continue to be fought in every society.

3. As among young people, it is women who more strongly support the practice, recognizing there are not many options open to their daughters, and regardless of their educational

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accomplishments, their daughters will need to marry and bear children for their lives to proceed along a socially sanctioned trajectory.

This issue would be easier to face if women felt they were being oppressed by the procedure, but in all surveys, women are the stronger supporters. It baffles me to think that mothers want their daughters to feel the same pain they did instead of wanting to protect them from the same cruelty. Their daughters only option of acceptable roles should not be marriage and children; women are capable of far more than some are able to comprehend, and it requires confident, strong women to step outside that mold and make noise about doing it for others to follow suit.

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Chelala, Cesar. An Alternative Way to Stop Female Genital Mutilation. Lancet 352.9122 (1998): 126-129. Web. 5 March 2014.

Cesar Chelala, MD, PhD, writes and consults for several UN agencies on public health, human rights, medical and foreign policy. Since 1980 he has worked as a consultant planning public health projects for several international agencies in over 45 countries. Chelala got his medical degree in 1964, and in 1971 moved to New York to work as a molecular geneticist and pharmacologist. in 1979 Chelala co-authored an article about the many missing people in Argentina who had been abducted, for which he received the Overseas Press Club of America award for the best article on human rights.

In An Alternative Way to Stop Female Genital Mutilation Cesar Chelala outlines a weeklong initiation rite that educates young women on reproductive health, gender issues, and focuses on building self esteem. The girls are kept in seclusion and then have a coming of age day where they celebrate their womanhood with members of their community.

1. Although the government of Egypt recently took an important step forward toward the elimination of female genital mutilation by prohibiting its practice, many doubt the effectiveness such a measure will have, since a substantial number of women in that country still support female genital mutilation.

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While laws implemented by countries against female genital mutilation show support against cruel practices, the lawmakers are far disconnected from the vast majority of the people living in rural areas. In order for the general attitude to change about female genital mutilation, the greater population must be informed and become aware of the detrimental effects it can have. More women support female genital mutilation than males do because it gives them a higher standing in society and makes a woman considered more respectable by her community. The cycle of acceptance must be broken in order to halt this negative practice.

2. They key to success is that it involves not only the adolescents going through the ceremony but their mothers, fathers, brothers and sisters, and other members of the community, all of whom participate in the design of the project.

The community involvement will ultimately be why this project can succeed as an alternative rite, because societal pressures are what result in most young women getting circumcised. If there is support for women to remain uncircumcised they will do so. Youth has a tendency to conform, especially when there are very few outside influences or ideas that are introduced to them. Education of both those entering the ceremony and their family and community will help open the minds of those that set the norm of a society and hopefully keep their children safe.

3. Because the rite does not exert a blunt prohibition on female genital mutilation being practiced in Kenya, but offers an attractive alternative, it is possible that it may become the most successful strategy toward more widespread elimination throughout the world.

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Making the practice of female genital mutilation illegal did not stop it from occurring because local communities were not involved in making that decision. Without strict enforcement, the practice continued. By having an alternative rite that communities choose to participate in, it gains power in popularity. Chelala wrote this article in 1998, only two years after it was initiated, and 13 communities in rural Kenya had already taken part, with over 300 women taking part in the alternative rite.

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Leis, Philip. Past Passages: Initiation Rites on the Adamawa Plateau (Cameroon). Ethnology 50.2 (2011): 168-188. Web. 5 March 2014.

Philip Leis received a PhD from Northwestern University in 1962. He is currently a professor of anthropology at Brown University and specializes in history of anthropological theory, cultural change, and identity. Focusing in Africa, Leis has done the most research in Nigeria, Cameroon, and Zimbabwe.

In Past Passages: Initiation Rites on the Adamawa Plateau (Cameroon) Philip Leis researched initiation rites that had occurred in the 60s but in the face of modernization have slowed. These rites of manhood line the pathway from childhood to adulthood, the honor the boys received made their struggles worthwhile, the expectations of their society finally fulfilled. People have alternative places to get circumcised now and they are cleaner than traditional tribal practices.

1. The beating, they said, was to strengthen their moral fortitude, to know right and wrong. One man drew an analogy to military training. Like soldiers being taught to be obedient, so too, boys are whipped to make certain that as adults they will show deference to their elders.

Though this may be a rather violent method to instill respect, it shows the degree to which the Nyam-Nyam go to to make sure their elders receive the valued treatment this society holds important. Emphasis on a hierarchy helps rationalize traditional practices that may be considered obsolete in other settings. The strict lines that keep people in their various roles makes a

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transitional period all the more important as it makes one feel prepared to take on their new responsibilities; time apart from the tribe to gain knowledge and undergo physical tests makes one feel more prepared for the future as successes are checked off it ones own mind. However, a hierarchy can stifle growth in that power is always in the hands of traditional minds, who may have more life experience but may not necessarily know what is best for a society in changing times.

2. The term for guardian, gwar, is reciprocal-- a guardian refers to his ward by the same term. It is also a kinship term, referring to a males sisters husband. Guardians, however, say the correspondence has no significance. In fact, in-laws have a joking relationship with each other, whereas the relationship between a guardian and his word should always be respectful.

Guardians reciprocal respect must help the younger men feel equal and a part of the warrior society. If they were continued to be treated as children during their transitional period then the continuing inferiority complex would not allow the youth to truly step up into their new roles. Additionally, the guardians are younger warriors and this in a way is still a part of their passage into adulthood; they are being a role model for someone and that helps them to determine the type of person they should be in the community. The close but formal relationship is beneficial for both individuals as they attempt to build a unique place in the tribe.

3. The NN explain the reason for circumcision as custom or tradition. Because our parents did it, was the typical response to the question of why males were circumcised.

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A mans answer to this question may seem simple, that it was solely for the reason that it was the traditional practice and an expectation. But really the pressures extend beyond that. If a boy dies uncircumcised, he has the same burial rites as a woman. Uncircumcised men are not allowed to visit holy sites to the tribe, where ancient chiefs are buried. The tribes believe no woman would marry or have sex with an uncircumcised man. These pressures extend beyond mere expectations and lead one to believe that he is not truly a man if he is not circumcised. Outsiders assume that the only reason people go through traditional practices is because they are traditions, repeated age after age. But further investigation makes it clear to me that there are more factors at work, that the real draw toward falling into expected roles comes from being a part of the community one wants to belong to, and being given a station that one can be proud of.