The Right to Fight:

Flight of the Red Tails

James Zhang, Chelsea Yang Senior Division Group We site

!nnotated "i liograph#

Secondary Sources

"illman, !ndre$% &The Tus'egee !irmen and the Struggle for Civil Rights%& www.lajes.af.mil% (a)es Field !F", *+ Fe % ,*--% We % -. Fe % ,*-+% /http:00$$$%la)es%af%mil0ne$s0stor#%asp12,*3d4-,5,+-,657%

This sour8e $as an !ir For8e histor# arti8le regarding the Tus'egee !irmen and their role in the struggle for 8ivil rights% 3n addition to dis8ussing the events of the Freeman Field 9utin#, the arti8le also gives des8riptions of the 8ommunit#:s rea8tion to the airmen; perhaps one of the most thought<provo'ing rea8tions $as that the Se#mour (aundr# $ould refuse to give the airmen servi8e e8ause the# $ere la8', $hile simultaneousl# 8leaning the German =>W:s 8lothing% This e?ample of the 8omplete la8' of respe8t that the average $hite held for la8's, even for those $ho $ould die in their defense, sho$s )ust ho$ ingrained pre)udi8e and ra8ism $as $ithin !meri8an so8iet#% !dditionall#, this sour8e spo'e of ho$ the Tus'egee !irmen $ere one of the progenitors of the non<violent 8ivil rights movements; thus, this sour8e $as used in the (ega8# and Struggle at @ome se8tions%

"utler, "ethonie% &%& The Washington Post% The Washington =ost, ,- 9ar% ,*-+% We % ,5 9ar% ,*-+% /http:00$$$%$ashingtonpost%8om0politi8s0tus'egee<airman<re8alls<his<8areer<and<an<aviation< pioneer<honored<in<a<ne$<stamp0,*-+0*50,*0fa.aa8d.<aed+<--e5<A6,B< 86C*,-d6dCB,Dstor#%html7% This ne$s arti8le $as primaril# an intervie$ $ith Colonel ERet%F 98Gee, one of the fe$

surviving Tus'egee !irmen% The intervie$ $as 8hiefl# 8on8erned $ith Chief !nderson Ean important figure in the training of the initial airmenF, as $ell as the effe8ts of the Tus'egee !irmen on the integration of the armed for8es% 3nside, 98Gee sa#s that the Tus'egee !irmen:s su88ess helped dispel the attitudes that 8onsidered la8's to e inferior% Coupled $ith Truman:s order for the militar# to integrate in -A+., the !ir For8e $as given an opportunit# to 8hange their stan8e and do a$a# $ith segregation; in fa8t, during the the follo$ing #ears, the !ir For8e $ould remain a leader in integration% ConseGuentl#, $e used this sour8e in the !ir For8e 3ntegrates se8tion of our $e site%

Fran8is, Charles H%, and !dolph Caso% The Tuskegee Airmen: The Men Who Changed a Nation% "oston: "randen =u %, -AAB% =rint%

This oo' $as a detailed histor# of the Tus'egee !irmen from their in8eption to the end of the $ar in Hurope; thus, it provided the ma)orit# of our preliminar# resear8h, and provided a relia le sour8e to 8ross<referen8e other sour8es $ith% >ther than providing asi8 'no$ledge on all of the events surrounding the Tus'egee !irmen, the oo' also 8ontained several primar# do8uments in the appendi8es; for e?ample, the testimon# of Colonel @unt follo$ing the Freeman Field 9utin#, as $ell as several distinguished unit 8itations and other government do8uments from the era% 9an# of these do8uments $ere then used in the site as pi8tures or as Guotes, $hile the information from the oo' $as used to help $rite almost all of the se8tions of the site, $ith the e?8eption of ITus'egee !irmen Toda#J%

Gropman, !lan (%, Col% &Tus'egee !irmen%& Airforcemag.com% K%p%, 9ar% -AA6% We % Fe -6 ,*-+% /http:00$$$%airfor8emag%8om09agaLine!r8hive0=ages0-AA609ar8h

2,*-AA60*5A6tus'egee%asp?7

This arti8le $as a summar# of the Tus'egee !irmenMs histor#, as $ell as the pro8ess # $hi8h the !ir For8e integrated% Thus, the sour8e aided in esta lishing a foundation of 'no$ledge a out the Tus'egee !irmen for us% 9ore importantl#, ho$ever, the sour8e sho$ed that the !ir For8e $as the first to integrate, doing so efore H?e8utive >rder AA.-, even $hile the other ran8hes of the armed for8es $ere still advo8ating segregation% This $as due to the impe88a le re8ord of the 55,nd and the other la8' air units, as $ell as the personnel diffi8ulties fa8ed # these units follo$ing the $ar due to segregation% ConseGuentl#, the sour8e $as used in the !ir For8e 3ntegrates se8tion, as $ell as in the Road to War se8tion%

@aulman, Daniel (% &Tus'egee !irmen @istor#%& Http: tuskegeeairmen.org % Tus'egee !irmen 3n8%, n%d% We % ,C Kov% ,*-5% /http:00ne$site%tus'egeeairmen%org0$p< 8ontent0uploads0Summar#DofDTus'egeeD!irmenD@istor#%pdf7%

This sour8e is a short and 8on8ise histor# of the Tus'egee !irmen, as $ell as a sour8e of a fe$ lesser<'no$n ane8dotes 8on8erning these pioneers in militar# aviation% 3t $as the first sour8e that $e read, providing us $ith a asi8 overvie$ of the topi8 at hand% !dditionall#, this sour8e provided several spe8ifi8 events and people to resear8h; for e?ample, the lone !fri8an< !meri8an om ing sGuadron Ethe +BBthF, the Freeman Field in8ident, and "en)amin >% Davis Jr% The information found in this sour8e $as used throughout all of the se8tions of the $e site, although the details $ere o tained from other, more spe8ifi8 sour8es%

@aulman, Daniel (% &9is8on8eptions ! out The Tus'egee !irmen%& Tuskegeeairmen.org% Tus'egee

!irmen 3n8, ,5 Jul# ,*-5% We % -6 Fe % ,*-+% /http:00tus'egeeairmen%org0$p 8ontent0uploads09is8on8eptions<! out<the<Tus'egee<!irmen%pdf7%

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3n this sour8e, the 8ommon mis8on8eptions surrounding the famous Tus'egee !irmen $ere provided, as $ell as e?planations regarding the true 8ourse of events% !s a result, $e used this arti8le to e?amine the validit# of the 'no$ledge 8ontained in our previous sour8es; for e?ample, $e learned that the Tus'egee !irmen did lose om ers, despite popular elief, and that Captain !r8her $as not a8tuall# a deprived a8e% ConseGuentl#, $e removed these falsehoods from the information in our $e site% !dditionall#, this sour8e provided additional information, su8h as the mutin# at Freeman Field, $hi8h helped end ra8ial segregation on militar# ases%

NruLel, John J% &=resident, Congress @onor Tus'egee !irmen%& Http: www.arm!.mil % OS !rm#, 5* 9ar% ,**B% We % -. Fe % ,*-+% /http:00$$$%arm#%mil0arti8le0,+B60=residentDDCongressD@onorDTus'egeeD!irmen07

This arm# arti8le re8orded the presentation of the Congressional Gold 9edal to the Tus'egee !irmen for their instrumental role in ending segregation and eing on the forefront of the struggle for freedom and )usti8e in !meri8a% 3nside, there $ere also man# memora le Guotes from oth the presenters and the airmen themselves; these Guotes $ere used in the (ega8# se8tion of this $e site% ConseGuentl#, this sour8e $as used in the ITus'egee !irmen Toda#J se8tion of our $e site, as it dis8ussed one of the fa8ets of their lega8#%

Sandler, Stanle#% "egregated "kies: All#$lack Com%at "&uadrons of WW''% Washington, D%C%: Smithsonian 3nstitution, -AA,% =rint%

This oo' portra#s the initial 8onditions that led to the formation of the first la8' !!F sGuadrons, as $ell as the histor# of these sGuadrons throughout WW33% !s a result, the oo' aided in providing a 8onfirmation of the general information on the Tus'egee !irmen provided # previous sour8es% @o$ever, this te?t $as primaril# used for its anal#sis of the aftermath and lega8# of these airmen% From the anal#sis provided, $e learned of the effe8ts of this e?periment on post$ar !rm# poli8#, as $ell as the pro8urement of respe8t for the a ilit# of the !fri8an< !meri8an to serve in the armed for8es, among other things% Thus, this sour8e served to provide us a8'ground information on our topi8%

S8ott, (a$ren8e =%, and William 9% Woma8'% (ou%le ): The Ci*il +ights "truggle of the Tuskegee Airmen% Hast (ansing: 9i8higan State O=, -AA+% =rint%

This sour8e $as a oo' detailing the role that the Tus'egee !irmen pla#ed in the Dou le P 8ampaign, $hi8h $as at most onl# riefl# dis8ussed in our other sour8es% 3nside the sour8e, the author tal's of ho$ the Tus'egee !irmen fought against t#rann# a road, $hile simultaneousl# fighting against pre)udi8e at home% 9ore importantl#, the oo' gives a detailed a88ount of the Freeman Field 3n8ident, and anal#Les the su seGuent trials, $hi8h 8onstituted some of the most signifi8ant )udi8ial pro8eeds in OS militar# histor#; in this 8ase, these pro8eedings led to the War Department offi8iall# stating that the segregation of re8reational fa8ilities on arm# ases $as illegal, foreshado$ing the result of the 9ontgomer# "us "o#8ott a de8ade later% 3n order to portra# this, the oo' uses oral a88ounts and government do8uments, giving us further leads for resear8h and memora le Guotes for the $e site% Thus, this sour8e $as used for the Struggle at @ome and Dou le P Campaign se8tions%

&The Tus'egee H?periment < >ral @istories%& ,ouTu%e% Kational WW33 9useum, -5 Jan% ,*-,% We % -. Fe % ,*-+% /http:00$$$%#outu e%8om0$at8h1v4@Cm8eCQQW-Q7%

This sour8e $as a 8ompilation of oral histories 8olle8ted # the Kational World War 33 9useum, en8ompassing all of the aspe8ts of the Tus'egee !irmen, from the events leading up to their formation all the $a# up to their lega8#% The stories told # ea8h of the airmen give insights into the a8tions and responses of these airmen, and mu8h of the information told here $ere not found in other sour8es% Hspe8iall# 8ompelling $ere their stories regarding the pu li8:s rea8tions to these !fri8an<!meri8an offi8ers; for e?ample, near "irmingham, a poli8eman threatened to shoot John (eahr after he dared to sa# that he $as an offi8er of the Onited States !rm# !ir Core% Thus, $e used this oral histor# as a sour8e of memora le Guotes and spe8ifi8 events to tal' a out during presentations%

West, James D% &Freeman Field 9utin#%& Www.indianamilitar!.org% 3ndiana 9ilitar# >rganiLation, ,**C% We % -+ Fe % ,*-+% /http:00$$$%indianamilitar#%org0!TTHR"ORY!!F0Tus'ege e 2,*!irmen0Tus'egge!irmen%htm7%

This sour8e $as an arti8le regarding the mutin# at Freeman Field, and hen8e $as used to e?amine ho$ la8' airmen $ere fighting ra8ism at home% 3n addition, the sour8e provided us $ith the lin' et$een the +BBth and the men $e most 8ommonl# asso8iate $ith the Tus'egee !irmen; after the de a8le, "en)amin Davis Jr, the 8ommander of the Tus'egee !irmen% 9ore importantl#, this sour8e sho$ed ho$ the mutin# $as a pivotal point in the fight for integration of the !ir For8e, as it led to the War Department stating that offi8er:s 8lu s and other

re8reational fa8ilities on militar# ases 8annot e segregated%

Primary Sources

&Cre$s Feted "# 55,ndR& $om%s Awa! B Jan% -A++: -% Tuskegeeairmen.org% Tus'egee !irmen 3n8% We % A Fe % ,*-+% /http:00ne$site%tus'egeeairmen%org0$p<8ontent0uploads0+.C<"G<ne$sletter< a out<55,<FG***-%pdf7%

This sour8e $as an arti8le from "om s !$a#, the militar# paper of the +.Cth, a sGuadron $hose pilots $ere for8ed to land at the 55,ndMs ase follo$ing a out of ad $eather% This sour8e $as used to learn of the respe8t that the $hite fl#ing sGuadrons held for their la8' 8ompatriots after dis8overing their a8tual s'ill and professionalism, as the ne$spaper does not 8all the Tus'egee !irmen an#thing derogator#, and instead praising them for their hospitalit#% 3n addition, it sho$ed ho$ the Tus'egee !irmen realiLed the politi8al ramifi8ations of their a8tions, as the# used the opportunit# to sho$ the $hites that the# $ere organiLed, friendl#, and intelligent%

H?e8% >rder Ko% AA.-, 5 C%F%R% E-A+.F% =rint%

This $as used for the (ega8# se8tion of our $e site, as TrumanMs e?e8utive order 8alling for the integration of the armed for8es $as 8aused # the su88ess of the Tus'egee !irmen and other la8' for8es during World War 33, as $ell as # the need for the li eral and la8' votes, as the ele8tion 8ampaign had egun% !lthough for man# of the ran8hes of the armed for8es, integration $ould onl# trul# 8ome #ears after this order $as issued, due to resistan8e in the upper hierar8h#, the !ir For8e $ould use the order as an opportunit# to speed up integration% Onli'e the other ran8hes of the armed for8es, the !ir For8e had alread# learned that integration

$as the logi8al solution from their e?perien8es $ith the Tus'egee !irmen% ConseGuentl#, one of the lega8ies of the Tus'egee !irmen $as the 8omplete desegregation of the Onited States !ir For8e, as $ell as the other ran8hes of the armed for8es%

&H?periment =roved1& T'M- ,* Sept% -A+5: n% pag% Time% Time 3n8% We % -. Fe % ,*-+% /http:008ontent%time%8om0time0su s8ri er0arti8le0*2,C55**A2,CBB+C.62,C**%html7%

This primar# sour8e $as a Time 9agaLine arti8le dating from -A+5, dis8ussing the War Department:s ITus'egee H?perimentJ and its apparent su88esses and failures% Through the magaLine, $e 8an see the general attitude that the !meri8an pu li8 and press felt to$ard these la8' pioneers% 3n this 8ase, although Time $ent so far as to deign the Tus'egee !irmen to e doing fairl# $ell, it also hinted at the War Department:s dissatisfa8tion, and its possi le transfer of the AAth to routine 8onvo# 8over; these Ifa8tsJ $ere later proved to e nothing more than unsu stantiated rumors% Thus, it 8an e seen that the pu li8 and the press dis elieved in the a ilit# of the Tus'egee !irmen, simpl# e8ause of the 8olor of their s'in% >n8e again, the sour8e served to sho$ )ust ho$ mu8h of an up$ard struggle the Tus'egee !irmen fa8ed; in addition, the arti8le $as used in the IStruggle at @omeJ se8tion%

Fogleman, Ronald R% &Tus'egee !irmen:s (ega8# of Servi8e for Youth Toda#%& Spee8h% Tus'egee !irmen Convention "anGuet% !tlanta% n%d%% Http: www.defense.go* % OS Department of Defense, -, !ug% -AAC% We % -+ Fe % ,*-+% /http:00$$$%defense%gov0spee8hes0spee8h%asp?1 spee8hid4AC+7%

This spee8h $as given in order to honor the Tus'egee !irmen, remar'ing on all of their

amaLing a8hievements, and more importantl#, their pivotal role in shattering the 8on8eption that segregation had an# legitima8# in the armed for8es% Su seGuentl#, this sour8e outlined ho$ the Tus'egee !irmen led to the integration of the !ir For8e, and the eventual integration of the other ran8hes, giving la8's the right to fight for their 8ountr# as eGuals, instead of as su human servants% !dditionall#, the spee8h related the Tus'egee !irmen to 8urrent events, as it advo8ated for the Tus'egee !irmen to help rene$ the !fri8an<!meri8an interest in the armed for8es, $hi8h had een $aning after a pea' during the -AB*s, $hen integration had finall# e8ome ingrained in the air for8e%

@%R% -,CA, -*A Cong%, O%S% G%=%>% E,**6F Eena8tedF% =rint%

@ere, Congress a$ards the Tus'egee !irmen a 8ongressional gold medal for their role in the revolutionar# reform and integration of the armed for8es% This primar# sour8e spea's of ho$ the airmen proved that la8' !meri8ans $ere )ust as 8apa le as $hites, over8oming ever# 8hallenge, despite the hurdles of dis8rimination and pre)udi8e lo8'ing their $a#; thus, in order to atone for the la8' of respe8t sho$n to these airmen over C* #ears prior, Congress $as a$arding them a gold medal% !dditionall#, the ill spea's of ho$ the Tus'egee !irmen $ere relativel# un'no$n until the founding of Tus'egee !irmen 3n8% in -AB,% Thus, this sour8e $as used for the Tus'egee !irmen Toda# se8tion of the $e site; in addition, this sour8e 8onfirmed the validit# of the sour8es provided # Tus'egee !irmen 3n8%

&Kegro =ilots Get Wings%& .ife Maga/ine ,5 9ar% -A+,: 5*<5-% 0oogle $ooks T'M-% Google% We % -A Fe % ,*-+% /http:00 oo's%google%8om0 oo'sid4?-HH!!!!9"!JSsour8e4g sDallDissuesDrS8ad4-7%

This sour8e $as a (ife 9agaLine arti8le from -A+, dis8ussing the graduation of the first 8lass from Tus'egee, as $ell as the a ilities of these pilots% Onli'e other ma)or magaLines of the era, this arti8le appears to e rather positive to$ards these la8' airmen, predi8ting that the# $ould e8ome 8ra8' 8om at pilots% Hven more surprising, the magaLine said that these !fri8an< !meri8ans had e?8eptional e#esight, 8ourage and 8o<ordination, during a time in $hi8h the -A,C stud# IThe Ose of Kegro 9anpo$er of WarJ had still not een rendered o solete # post$ar studies% We used this arti8le in order to $rite the Struggle at @ome se8tion%

=itts urgh Courier% &Dou le P Campaign%& Http: www.n!pl.org % Ke$ Yor' =u li8 (i raries, n%d% We % ,B De8% ,*-5% /http:00$$$%n#pl%org0sites0default0files0dou leDvD8ampaignD%pdf7%

This page from the =itts urgh Courier $as pu lished in -A+,, during the he#da# of the Dou le P Campaign% This 8ampaign helped unif# la8's under the 8ause of ra8ial eGualit#, $hile also giving them the opportunit# to feel part of a igger struggle for freedom ever#$here% 3n the sour8e itself, this sense of patriotism 8an e seen Guite 8learl# through the Yan'ee Doodle Tan Contest, servi8e pins, and other items on the front page of the ne$spaper% !t the same time, ho$ever, one 8an see the se8ond P, vi8tor# at home against pre)udi8e and ra8ism through the top headline and some of the te?t $ithin the stories% ConseGuentl#, $e used the sour8e in order to understand ho$ the !fri8an<!meri8an 8ommunit# supported the 8ountr# that oppressed them fight for freedom a road, $hile also attempting to fight for their o$n freedoms at home%

Onited States% !rm# War College% The 1se of Negro Manpower in War% "# @% H% Fl#% n%p%, n%d% 2(+ Presidential .i%rar!% We % -6 De8% ,*-5% /http:00$$$%fdrli rar#%marist%edu0edu8ation0resour8es0pdfs0tus'Ddo8Da%pdf7%

3n order to 8omprehend the pre<$ar stan8e of the OS !rm# !ir For8e, $e read IThe Ose of Kegro 9anpo$er in War,J a stud# 8ondu8ted # the War Department in -A,C% !lthough it $as ostensi l# fair and s8ientifi8, $ith eviden8e supposed dra$n from the use of la8' men in World War 3, the stud# $as in truth a 8ompilation of iased assumptions and pseudos8ientifi8 ra8ism% Throughout the stud#, it is stated that the !fri8an<!meri8an has no natural a ilit# to lead, and 8an not e e?pe8ted to serve 8ompetentl# as an# t#pe of offi8er, let alone as an air8raft pilot% Hven $orse, the stud# e?plained ho$ due to natural differen8es in anatom# and personalit#, the la8' ra8e simpl# 8ould not perform on the same level as $hites% !s a result, $e learned )ust ho$ mu8h of an uphill struggle the Tus'egee !irmen fa8ed, and ho$ amaLing in 8ontrast to these hardships that their triumphs $ere%

Onited States% Gillem "oard% War Department% Polic! for 1tili/ation of Negro Manpower in the Post#war Arm!% "# !lvan Cullom Gillem% Washington, D%C%: War Dept%, -A+6% =rint%

This sour8e $as essential in determining the effe8t that the Tus'egee !irmen and other la8' units had on the War DepartmentMs stan8e on the use of la8's in the armed for8es, as it $as the offi8ial report 8ompiled # the Gillem "oard follo$ing the events of World War 33% !lthough the 8ir8ular 8ontinued to support segregation, it $as also revolutionar# in the fa8t that it re8ogniLed the a ilit# of la8's, and advo8ated that la8's e given eGual opportunit# Eprior to this, the# had een limited to demeaning support rolesF% This $as due to the e?emplar# performan8e of the Tus'egee !irmen and other e?perimental la8' 8om at groups; 8onseGuentl#, $e used this sour8e for the !ir For8e 3ntegrates se8tion of the $e site%

Wings for This Man% =erf% Ronald Reagan% OS!F First 9otion =i8ture Onit, -A+C% 2ed2li3% We % -. Fe % ,*-+% /https:00ar8hive%org0details0gov%ntis%ava*.665vn -7%

Wings for this 9an $as a film released # the !ir For8e First 9otion =i8ture Onit in -A+C, shortl# efore the end of the $ar% This primar# sour8e allo$ed us to see ho$ the e?periment had su88eeded, as the !ir For8e sho$ered praise upon these men, 8alling them the trail laLers for their ra8e, finall# opening up the servi8e to !fri8an<!meri8ans% !lthough these $ords $ere said prematurel#, the !ir For8e $as still the first ran8h of the armed servi8es to integrate, first announ8ing their planned desegregation prior to the issuan8e of H?e8utive >rder AA.-% 3n addition to sho$ing us the militar#:s rea8tion to their e?periment:s performan8e, an e?8erpt of this film $as also used in the !ir For8e 3ntegrates se8tion of this $e site%