Introduction India is one of the world's largest producers of white rice.

Rice is India's preeminent crop, and is the staple food of the people of the eastern and southern parts of the country. Rice is one of the chief grains of India. Moreover, India has the biggest area under rice cultivation, as it is one of the principal food crops. It is in fact the dominant crop of the country. India is one of the leading producers of this crop. Rice is the basic food crop and being a tropical plant, it flourishes comfortably in hot and humid climate. Rice is mainly grown in rain fed areas that receive heavy annual rainfall. That is why it is fundamentally a kharif crop in India. The regions cultivating this crop in India is distinguished as the western coastal strip, the eastern coastal strip, covering all the primary deltas, Assam plains and surrounding low hills, foothills and Terai region- along the Himalayas and states like West Bengal, Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradesh, Eastern Madhya Pradesh, northern Andhra Pradesh and Orissa. India, being a land of eternal growing season, and the deltas of Kaveri River, Krishna River, Godavari River and Mahanadi River with a thick set-up of canal irrigation, permits farmers to raise two, and in some pockets, even three crops a year. Irrigation has made even three crops a year possible. Irrigation has made it feasible even for Punjab and Haryana, known for their baked climate, to grow rice. They even export their excess to other states. Punjab and Haryana grow prized rice for export purposes. The hilly terraced fields from Kashmir to Assam are idyllically suited for rice farming, with age-old hill irrigational conveniences. High yielding kinds, enhanced planting methods, promised irrigation water supply and mounting use of fertilizers have together led to beneficial and quick results. It is the rain fed area that cuts down average yields per hectare."

Rice cultivation is well-suited to countries and regions with low labor costs and high rainfall, as it is labor-intensive to cultivate and requires ample water. However, rice can be grown practically anywhere, even on a steep hill or mountain area with the use of water-controlling terrace systems. Although its parent species are native to Asia and certain parts of Africa, centuries of trade and exportation have made it commonplace in many cultures worldwide. The traditional method for cultivating rice is flooding the fields while, or after, setting the young seedlings. This simple method requires sound planning and servicing of the water damming and channeling, but reduces the growth of less robust weed and pest plants that have no submerged growth state, and deters vermin. While flooding is not mandatory for the cultivation of rice, all other methods of irrigation require higher effort in weed and pest control during growth periods and a different approach for fertilizing the soil. The name wild rice is usually used for species of the genera Zizania and Porteresia, both wild and domesticated, although the term may also be used for primitive or uncultivated varieties of Oryza Rice in India Rice is grown in many regions across India. For about 65% of the people living in India, rice is a staple food for them. Rice is essential to life in India. It is a part of nearly every meal, and it is grown on a majority of the rural farms. Some important facts about rice in Indian Scenario are as: Agriculture is the main source of income for families in India. Farms cover over half the land and almost three-quarters of that land is used to grow the two major grains: rice and wheat.

India is the second leading producer of rice in the entire world, preceded only by China. India's annual rice production is around 85-90 million tons. Annual consumption, is around 85 million tons. In India, Rice is cultivated in both seasons - Winter and Summer. West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh , Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Orissa, Assam, Karnataka and Haryana are the major producing states. More than 50% of total production comes from the first four states. Food Corporation of India purchases around 20 to 25% of the total rice production in the country both under levy from the rice mills and directly in the form of paddy from the farmers at Minimum Support Prices announced by the Govt. More than 4000 varieties of rice are grown in India. India is the world's largest exporter of Basmati rice to Saudi Arabia and other Middle East Countries, Europe, and the United States. India has the potential to export one million tons of Basmati rice. Major destinations for Indian non-basmati, white/parboiled rice are Bangladesh, Indonesia, Philippines, Nigeria, South Africa, Ivory Coast, and other African countries. History of Rice Cultivation Rice plants have been traced back to 5000 BC, but the practice of rice growing is believed to have originated in areas of China, and southern and eastern Asia, in about 2000 BC. There are many unproven mythological tales related to origin of rice, though historians hold little or no stock in any. Rice cultivation is considered to have begun simultaneously in many countries over 6500 years ago. Rice has been cultivated in China since ancient times. Chinese records of rice cultivation go

back 4000 years. Most believe the roots of rice come from 3000 BC India, where natives discovered the plant growing in the wild and began to experiment with it. Cultivation and cooking methods are thought to have spread to the west rapidly and by medieval times, southern Europe saw the introduction of rice as a hearty grain. In several Asian languages the words for rice and food are identical. African rice has been cultivated for 3500 years. In the Middle East and Mediterranean Europe, it started around 800 BC. Rice spread throughout Italy and then France, after the middle of the 15th century, later propagating to all the continents during the great age of European exploration. In 1694, rice arrived in South Carolina, probably originating from Madagascar. The Spanish brought rice to South America at the beginning of the 18th century. Rice cultivation has been carried into all regions having the necessary warmth and abundant moisture favorable to its growth, mainly subtropical rather than hot or cold. . Use of Rice Rice has potential in a wide range of food categories. Besides having nutritional and medicinal benefits, the by-products of rice are equally important and beneficial. By-products from growing rice create many valuable and worthwhile products. The non edible parts, that are discarded through the milling process, and the edible part could be transformed into some of the following suggested products. Rice By-Products Rice Husks Rice Bran Broken Rice Rice Flour

 Rice Milk Rice Pudding Rice Starch Rice Straw Rice used in Beverage Making Rice Paper Rice Glue Rice Cakes ( mochi ) Rice Vinegar Rice Soy Milk Red Yeast Rice Rice based food products Medical Uses of Rice Rice is believed by some to have medicinal properties. Although, this is not scientifically proven effective, it has been used in many countries for medicinal purpose. For example: Philippines: Rice polishings - the bran-is extracted and used as an excellent source of Vitamin B to prevent and cure beriberi. Malaysia: In the Medicinal Book of Malayan Medicine, it is prescribed that boiled rice "greens" can be used as an eye lotion and for use with acute inflammation of the inner body tissues. The book also recommends applying a mixture of dried, powdered rice on certain skin ailments. Cambodia: The hulls (husk) of mature rice plants are considered useful for treating dysentery. The hulls of a three-month old rice plant are thought to be diuretic. China: The Chinese believe rice strengthens the spleen, as well as "weak stomach," increases appetite, and cures indigestion. Dried sprouted rice

grains were once used as an external medicine to aid in digestion, give tone to muscles, and expel gas from the stomach and intestines. India: Rice water is prescribed by the Pharmacopoeia of India as an ointment to counteract inflamed surface. Nutritional Facts about Rice Rice remains a staple food for the majority of the world's population. Rice is very nutritious. This important carbohydrate is the staple food for more than two-thirds of the world's population who rely on the nutritional benefits of rice which are many.

Rice Nutrition Chart The following rice nutrition chart gives an idea about the basic nutritional value of three types of rice- white rice, brown rice and parboiled rice. The nutrients components of white and parboiled rice are those of unenriched rice which are different from enriched rice. Enriched rice are given back vitamins B1, B3 and iron that are lost during processing of rice but it lacks in some minerals like magnesium etc. that are present in brown rice. Calories Carbohydrates Fat (kcal) 169 (g) 36.98 (g) 0.31 Fiber (g) 0.60 Protein (g) 3.30

Rice (1/4 Cup Raw) White Rice ( Un enriched ) Parboiled ( Un enriched ) Brown Rice

172 171

37.80 35.72

0.26 1.35

0.79 1.62

3.14 3.64

Rice Nutritional Benefits: Excellent source of carbohydrates: Rice is a great source of complex carbohydrates, which is an important source of the fuel our bodies need Good energy source: Carbohydrates are broken down to glucose, most of which is used as energy for exercise and as essential fuel for the brain. Low fat, Low salt, No cholesterol: Rice is healthful for what it does not contain. Rice has no fat, no cholesterol and is sodium free. Rice is an excellent food to include in a balanced diet. A good source of vitamins and minerals such as thiamine, niacin, iron, riboflavin, vitamin D, calcium, and fiber. Low sugar No gluten: Rice is gluten free. All rice is gluten free, making rice the essential choice for people with gluten free dietary requirements. No additives and preservatives: Rice contains no additives or preservatives, making it an excellent inclusion in a healthy and balanced diet. Contains resistant starch: Rice also contains resistant starch, which is the starch that reaches the bowel undigested. This encourages the growth of beneficial bacteria, keeping the bowel healthy. Non-allergenic Cancer prevention and diet: Whole grains (such as brown rice) contain high amounts of insoluble fiber-the type of fiber some scientists believe may help protect against a variety of cancers. Rice is a low-sodium food for those with hypertension. It is a fair source of protein containing all eight amino acids.

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY:The main objectives of study are:1) To analyze production process of rice in India 2) To analyze rice Marketing System in India with Economic Development. 3) To study the role of rice production to economic development 4) To know the History of rice production and marketing 5) To learn the production and marketing process of rice . SCOPE OF THE STUDY:This study covers brief information about rice production and marketing and specially concentrated on shikaripura Marketing today depends on Information System i.e., on adequate information about what people want, at what price and who can supply it various studies reveal that farmers, on an average, get a reasonably higher price by selling their produce in the regulated markets compared to rural village and unregulated wholesale markets. STATEMENT OF THE STUDY:Farmers scarce in production and marketing of their products and price related mater in the season In this context this study identifying problems and procedures of the production and marketing of Rice .Through this study we try to justice to the Farmers. And also concentrated on Agricultural Produce Market Committees for selling their products

NEED FOR THE STUDY In India Farmers are faced problems of production and marketing of Rice to private agriculture market suffering from many problems such as standardization and gradation, scientific storage, processing marketing information, middlemen, unauthorized deductions. essential for the removal of all these problems. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) Achievement of Maximum Interest in resource utilization. Increasing Demand. of rice Organization of production. Adopting of new technology. Employment Creation. Better living condition Creation of utility. Increase in national income. Thats while this study is

METHODOLOGY:The data is collected by following method 1)Secondary Data. Secondary data is collected from our Library, Newspaper, Literature, websites, Annual report of the APMC etc., which have been enumerated in the Bibliography. Limitation of study The study is purely based on secondary available data from other sources. Report will be concentration on only production and marketing of Rice in India

Cultivation process Rice crop is a long duration crop and summer rice crop is a short duration crop. At some places in the eastern and southern parts of India, rice crop of short duration is followed by the rice crop of long duration. Winter rice crop is raised preferably in low lying areas that remain flooded mainly during the rainy season. Autumn rice is raised in Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. Summer, autumn and winter rice crops are raised in West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Assam and Orissa. Summer rice crop is raised on a small scale and on a small area. However, winter rice crop is actually the leading rice crop accounting for a major portion of the total Hectare under rice in all seasons in the country. Moreover in the last few years, several steps in order to augment yield per hectare were taken up very seriously at all levels.Wheat is a rabbi crop in this country. India ranks fourth in the production of wheat in the world. Favorable Geographical Condition for Wheat Cultivation: In India, wheat is a winter crop. Wheat requires a moderate cool climate with moderate rain. In India, it is grown in winter. It needs temperature 10 degree C to 15 degree C for its cultivation. It thrives well in an average temperature of 16-degree C. Warm and sunny weather is essential at the time of ripening. Wheat requires a rainfall of 50 cm to 100 cm during the growing season. Too much rain is injurious to the plant. On irrigated lands, a rainfall of 40 cm to 50 cm is sufficient. Light rainfall and cloudiness before the grain ripens increase the productivity. Alluvial level plains are ideal for wheat cultivation. Slightly rolling plains are also suitable. Plains should be well drained so that water cannot stand there. Wheat requires fertile alluvial soil. Clay loamy soils or even black cotton soils are suitable. Soil should retain moisture. A certain amount of lime in the soil is beneficial. Labor factors are not as important in the wheat cultivation as in the case of rice. However, labor is essential for the

cultivation. The other requirements of wheat cultivation include (i) irrigation, (ii) high yielding varieties of seeds and (iii) capitals Cultivation process In India Rice is mainly grown in two types of soils i.e., (i) uplands and (ii) low lands. The method of cultivation of rice in a particular region depends largely on factors such as situation of land, type of soils, irrigation facilities, availability of laborers intensity and distribution of rainfalls. The crop of rice is grown with the following methods :Dry or Semi-dry upland cultivation (a) Broadcasting the seed (b) Sowing the seed behind the plough or drilling. Wet or lowland cultivation (a) Transplanting in puddled fields. (b) Broadcasting sprouted seeds in puddled fields. I Dry or Semi-Dry Upland Cultivation

The dry and semi-dry systems of cultivation are mainly confined to tracts which depend on rains and do not have supplementary irrigation facilities. The fields are ploughed and harrowed in summer for achieving the required-tilth. Farmyard manure is uniformly distributed 2-3 weeks before sowing. The seed is sown directly with the onset of the monsoon showers, either by 1. Broad casting the seed 2. Sowing the seed behind the plough or drilling Line-sowing is preferable, as it ensures an adequate stand establishment and facilitates easy weeding and inter culture. The reduced seed-rate requirement is another advantage. The row spacing may be suitably adjusted from 20 to 25 cm. Under the semi-dry system, the rain-water is impounded when the crop is about 1-2 months old and thereafter it is converted into a wetland crop. By that time, major operations, such as weeding, inter culturing and fertilizer application might have been completed. 'Beushening' still prevalent in Orissa and Madhya Pradesh under this system helps to control weeds and adjust population. The latest thinking is to promote line-sowing using a higher seed-rate so as to have a uniformly higher population density for effective competition from weeds and to use effective methods of inter culture to solve the weed problem. II Wet or Lowland Cultivation

The wet system is practiced in areas with assured and adequate supply of water, either by way of rainfall or by irrigation. In Wet or Lowland Cultivation, the distinguishing factors are : 1. Transplanting in puddle fields 2. Broadcasting sprouted seeds in puddle fields 3. Under Wet or Lowland Cultivation, the land is ploughed thoroughly and puddle with 3-5 cm of standing water in the field. The optimum depth of pudding is found to be around 10 cm in the clay and clay-loam types of soils. The primary objective is to obtain a soft seedbed for the seedlings to establish themselves faster, to minimize the leaching losses of nutrients and thereby increase the availability of plant nutrients by achieving a reduced soil conditions which facilitates a better availability of nutrient elements, to incorporate the weeds and stubble into the soil and to minimize the weed problem. Pudding can be done with ploughs, tillers or tractors, depending upon their availability and soil conditions. The land is leveled after pudding to facilitate a uniform distribution of water and fertilizers. Climatic Conditions for Rice in India India is a large country. The wide variety of terrain leads to a wide variety of climatic conditions. These range from permanent snowfields to tropical coast lands; from areas of virtual desert in the north-west to fertile, intensively cultivated rice fields in the north-east. Generally, we consider India to lie between 8 and 35 N latitude, with a tropical and sub-tropical climate. The subcontinent has eight climatic zones all of which only have the monsoon rains in common. But even the monsoon comes to different parts of the country at different times.

Different Climatic Factors Affecting Rice Cultivation in India There are many varieties of rice which are cultivated with differential response to climatic factors, such as : Rainfall Rainfall is the most important weather element for successful cultivation of rice. The distribution of rainfall in different regions of the country is greatly influenced by the physical features of the terrain, the situation of the mountains and plateau. The regions experiencing very heavy rainfall in the country are : Western Ghats (the western slopes and the coastal region) In the Assam region. The sub-mountain Himalayan region, Deccan plateau, Eastern Ghats with coastal plains and the vast Gangetic plains. Temperature Temperature is another climatic factor which has a favorable and in some cases unfavorable influence on the development, growth and yield of rice. Rice being a tropical and sub-tropical plant, requires a fairly high temperature, ranging from 20 to 40C. The optimum temperature of 30C during day time and 20C during night time seems to be more favorable for the development and growth of rice crop. Day length or Sunshine Sunlight is very essential for the development and growth of the plants. In fact, sunlight is the source of energy for plant life. The yield of rice is influenced by the solar radiation particularly during the last 35 to 45 days of its ripening period. The effect of solar radiation is more profound where water, temperature and nitrogenous nutrients are not limiting factors. Bright sunshine with low temperature during ripening period of the crop helps in the development of carbohydrates in the grains.

Rice Growing Seasons in India In India, rice is grown under widely varying conditions of altitude and climate. The climate of India is difficult to lay due to the country's large geographic size and varied topography. Many regions have their own micro climates (e.g. in mountain tops), and the mean climatic conditions in Kashmir (extreme north) are very different from those in the extreme south. India's climate is strongly influenced by The Himalaya and the Thar Desert. The Himalaya ensure, by acting as a barrier to the cold north winds from Central Asia, that northern India is warm or mildly cool during winter and hot during summer. So, India as a whole is considered to be a tropical country. Therefore, the rice growing seasons vary in different parts of the country, depending upon temperature, rainfall, soil types, water availability and other climatic conditions. In eastern and southern regions of the country, the mean temperature is found favourable for rice cultivation through out the year. Hence, two or three crops of rice are grown in a year in eastern and southern states. In northern and western parts of the country, where rainfall is high and winter temperature is fairly low, only one crop of rice is grown during the month from May to November. Three Seasons for Rice Cultivation in India There are three seasons for growing rice in India. These three seasons are named according to the season of harvest of the crop. Autumn Rice or Pre- Kharif Rice Autumn is that part of the season in the year when the rain is gone and the winter is on its way. Generally, the Autumn or Pre-Kharif season lasts from March-May to June-October. The rise that is grown in Autumn is called Autumn rice or pre-kharif rice. About 7% crop is grown in this season. The varieties grown during this

season are mostly varieties of short duration ranging from 90 to 110 days. Autumn Rice or Pre-Kharif rice is sown during May to August. However, the time of sowing slightly differs from state to state according to weather condition and rainfall pattern. Harvesting of rice is done in September-October. Autumn rice crop is known by different names in different parts of India. For example: it is know as 'Aus' in West Bengal, 'Ahu' in Assam, 'Beali' in Orissa, 'Bhadai' in Bihar, 'Virippu' in Kerala and 'Kuruvai / kar / Sornavari' in Tamil Nadu Summer Rice / Rabi Rice The Rabi season in India starts from November-February to March-June. The rice that is grown during this period is called Rabi rice or Summer Rice Summer rice is known by different names in different parts of our country. For example: it is also known as known as'Boro' in Assam and West Bengal , 'Dalua' in Orissa, 'Dalwa' in Andhra Pradesh, 'Punja' in Kerala and 'Navarai' in Tamil Nadu and 'Garma' in Bihar. The sowing time of summer rice is November to February and harvesting time is March to June. The area under summer rice is only 9% and early maturing varieties are mostly grown in this season. After the harvest of kharif rice, the land will be either left fallow or cultivated season. The time gap between the harvest of the kharif rice and the cultivation of the rabi crop depends upon the suitability of the prevailing weather, availability of water, etc. Sowing of Rabi rice has gained momentum in the Southern Peninsula in recent times. As per reports in 2004, about 35 lakh hectare area has been with a suitable crop in the following rabi

covered against 32 lakh hectares sown last year in the corresponding period. Reported area sown under Rabi rice in West Bengal is about 13.5 lakh hectares which is ahead by about 2 lakh hectares as compared to last year's coverage. The normal area under Rabi rice is about 42 lakh hectares in 2004. West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh account for two thirds of the area and it is mostly irrigated. Winter Rice/Kharif Rice India ranks second in the production and consumption of rice in the global market. The most of the production comes from kharif crops. The rainfed kharif crops are to a great extent depends on South West Monsoon. Kharif or Winter is the main rice growing season in the country. It is known as Winter Rice or Kharif Rice as per the harvesting time. The winter crop sowing takes place between June and October and harvesting is between November and April. This indicates the high dependence of the rice crop on the south-west monsoon which is occurs over the subcontinent from June through September. About 84% of the country's rice crop is grown in this season and generally, medium to long duration varieties are grown in this season. The normal area under kharif rice is about 403 lakh hectares till 2013. Winter rice is known by various names in India. For example: it is known as 'Aman' in West Bengal, 'Sali' in Assam, 'Sarrad' in Orissa, 'Agahani' in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, 'Sarava' in Andhra Pradesh, 'Mundakan' in Kerala and 'Samba/Thaladi' in Tamil Nadu.

 Kharif rice production typically accounts for 87 to 88 percent of India's total production. The 2003 monsoon favored most of the Kharif rice areas. The Kharif rice crop is sown around the beginning of the Southwest Monsoon and harvested in the autumn months. Selection of Seeds The use of quality seeds in cultivation of rice is an important factor to get better crop yield. Therefore, proper care has to be taken in selecting seeds of the best quality. Much of the success in raising the healthy seedlings depends on the quality of seed. Seeds intended for sowing should satisfy the following requirements :1. The seed should belong to the proper variety, which is proposed to be grown. 2. The seed should be clean and free from obvious mixtures of other seeds. 3. The seed should be mature, well developed and plump in size. 4. The seed should be free from obvious signs of age or bad storage 5. The seed should have a high germinating capacity. Before sowing the seed should be treated with fungicides which protects the seed against soil-born fungi and also give a boost to the seedlings. Methods of Nursery Raising There are three major methods of raising nursery - viz. 1. The dry nursery where the dry seed is sown in dry soil. This method is practiced in areas where water is not sufficient to grow seedlings in wet nursery

2. Wet nursery where sprouted seed is sown on the moist puddled soil. Wet nurseries are preferred under irrigated condition 3. And the "dapog" method. This method of raising nursery has been introduced in India from Philippines. "Dapog" method is commonly prevalent in Philippines. The essential feature of this method is to have a very thick stand of the nursery seedlings without any contact with the soil. Generally, seedlings become ready for transplanting in 12 to 14 days. Seed Rate The seed rate naturally influences the growth of the seedlings. Thin sowing gives strong and tiller seedlings, whereas thick sowing provides thin and tall seedlings without tillers. Thin sowing in nurseries is always better and it will produce strong and sturdy seedlings, which can withstand adverse climatic conditions better and produce better yields. Therefore, 40 to 60 grams of seed per square meter should be sown in the nursery beds. About 500 square meter area of nursery is sufficient to transplant one hectare area. In case of late sowing of nursery, the nursery area should be increased to 750-1000 square meter. Transplanting Before transplanting, field should be puddled properly with bullock or tractor drawn puddlers. Puddling is a very important operation in transplanted rice. Puddling helps to kill the weeds and buries them in puddled soils. It also suppresses the germination of weeds in subsequent growing period of crop. Puddling keeps the soil surface in a more even condition, besides creating beneficial physical, biological and chemical conditions for rice plant growth.

Transplanting should be done with proper age of seedlings. In case of short duration varieties, the seedlings should be uprooted from the nursery beds for transplanting , when it is three to four weeks old. In case of medium and long duration varieties, four to five weeks old seedlings should be transplanted. Always healthy seedlings should be used for transplanting at the four to five leaf stage or when they are about 15-20 cms. high. As far as possible, delayed transplanting should be avoided because it leads to poor tillerings, early flowering of the main tillers and resulting in reduction in yield. In alkaline soils aged seedlings of 45 days old should be transplanted because old seedlings establish better than young seedlings of 25 days age or so. Spacing Under good management and adequate nitrogen levels, the optimum spacing for varieties like IR-8 should be around 20x10 cms both for kharif and rabi crops. With excellent cultural practices, the spacing may be slightly wider, say 20x15 cms but under sub-normal conditions, the spacing should be slightly narrower, say 15x10 cms. Number of Seedlings per Hil Transplanting two to three seedlings per hill under normal conditions is enough. The use of more seedlings per hill, besides not being any additional advantage, involves an extra expense on seedlings. In case of transplanting with old seedlings, the number of seedlings per hill can be increased. Depth of Planting and Directions of Rows Depth of planting has assumed considerable importance after the introduction of high yielding varieties. The high yielding varieties are characterized with high tillering capacity. The high tillering potential of these varieties is, however, best

expressed with shallow planting. The tiller buds formed at the basal node are not suppressed in case of shallow plantings . Therefore, the seedlings should be transplanted at 2 to 3 cm depth. Shallow planting gives better yields. The deeper planting results in an increased height of the plants besides delays and inhibits tillering. The crop planted with rows running in the north-south direction generally gives better yield particularly in rabi season. The adoption of this practice is worthwhile, since it does not involve any extra expenditure. Practices in the Direct-Seeded Crops The success of the direct seeded rice depends entirely on the monsoon rains, besides proper stand of crop. If sowing is done in a properly prepared land, proper stand of crop can be achieved. A field with fine tilth facilitates the seed to come in contact with the soil moisture after drilling and enables the seed to germinate quickly and uniformly. Thus, an ideal preparation of the land will help to achieve a uniform stand, facilitate weeding and fertilizer practices. Therefore, with number of ploughings of the field and timely sowing, the direct seeded crop generally gives better yield. Different Methods of Seeding Seeding is done in three different ways - viz. (i) drilling i.e. sowing in the furrow behind a plough, (ii) dibbling and (iii) broadcasting. The light soils which generally come into conditions quickly, any method can be adopted. Seeding with drilling method has got a greater advantage over other methods, because of the uniformity of the stand and the control of the population of the plants per unit area. Heavy soils which do not come in conditions quickly, other methods except

broadcasting are not feasible. It has been found that drilling or dibbling always gives considerably better yields than broadcasting system. Broadcasting Sprouted Seeds in Puddled Land This method is adopted in an area where agricultural labourers are not easily available for transplanting or some time labourers are very expensive. In this method field is prepared and puddled just like in the case of transplanting. About 100 kg seed is required for one hectare area. In the puddled field sprouted seeds with radical length of one to two millimeter are uniformly broadcast by hand. Manure and Fertilizer Application Organic manures are as much as important for rice cultivation as inorganic fertilizers. In case of upland rice cultivation, the use of bulky organic manure is very much desirable in order to maintain the physical condition of the soil and also to increase the water holding capacity of the soil for maximum utilization of rain water. In upland fields 10-15 tonnes of well rotted Farm Yard Manure or compost should be applied in one hectare area preferably 4 to 6 weeks before sowing. Organic manures should be spread evenly on the upper surface of the soil and ploughed in to get it well mixed in the soil. Application of chemical fertilizers depends basically upon (i) fertility states of the field and (ii) previous crop grown and amount of organic manure applied. Before deciding the fertilizer dose, soil is required to be got tested to know the status of the nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in the soil. After testing the soil, fertilizer dose should be calculated accordingly. Soil fertility status varies in different agroclimatic zones to a considerable extent. Therefore, common fertilizer dose can not be recommended for all regions. The Department of Agriculture of various states and State Agriculture University have

formulated fertilizer recommendations for rice crop in their states keeping in view the variability in soil fertility and local conditions. The fertilizer dose recommendation by the Agriculture Department in different states are given in Table-4. Application of fertilizer in transplanted rice field is quite different from upland rice. A series of reactions-physical, chemical and biological take place in transplanted rice fields due to presence of excess water in the field. In the root zone anaerobic environment is formed from aerobic condition due to depletion of oxygen in the soil profile, which is responsible for gaseous loss of nitrogen fertilizer due to de-nitrification process. This anaerobic environment also affects the behavior of phosphorus and micro-nutrients specially iron and manganese. The soil in the transplanted rice fields after puddling develops two zones in water logged conditions. The upper layer of soils ( 1 to 10 millimeter thick) generally receives Oxygen periodically from fresh supplies of irrigation water and turns in to brown colour called "Oxidised zone" and reacts like an unflooded upland soil. The remaining lower portion of puddled soil without oxygen is called "reduced zone". When ammonical nitrogen fertilizer is applied in such soils, it gets oxidised to nitrate (NO3 ) form in the oxidised zone (upper surface layer of the soil). Afterwards nitrate nitrogen is leached down to the reduced zone and further gets denitrified to gaseous nitrogen. This gaseous nitrogen is lost. If ammonical nitrogen is incorporated in to the reduced zone of the soil, where it is held, the loss can be prevented. Fertilizers containing nitrogen in the nitrate form are more susceptible to loss of nitrogen through leaching and de-nitrification process. Therefore, ammonical form of nitrogen is found more beneficial for rice crop. Due to variation in soil fertility, rainfall and climatic condition , a common dose of fertilizer can not be recommended for all regions. However, in general a level of

30 to 40 kg of nitrogen per hectare in kharif and 60 to 80 kg of nitrogen per hectare in rabi appears to be the optimum dose for the tall indicas and double that level for the high yielding varieties on soils of average fertility in the southern and eastern regions. In the northern region, where sunshine is available for longer hours, higher dose of nitrogen is beneficial in the kharif season. The maximum efficiency can be obtained in the direct seeded upland rice by applying 50% nitrogen dose, three weeks after seeding, 30% at 45 days age and the rest at the boot-leaf stage. In order to obtain better results, full dose of phosphorus, potash and half dose of nitrogen should be applied before last puddling. Remaining half dose of nitrogen should be applied in two equal doses, first at tillering stage and second dose at panicle initiation stage. Water Management The water requirement of rice crop is comparatively higher than any other crop of the similar duration. Assured and timely supply of irrigation water has a considerable influence on the yield of the crop. During the crop growth period, the water requirement is generally high at the initial seedling establishment stage. After the transplanting , water should be allowed to stand in the field at a depth of two to five centimeters till the seedlings are well established. The second, the most important critical stage is tillering to flowering and in this period the crop should not be subjected to soil moisture stress. The water supply should be ensured in required amount during panicle initiation to flowering stage. About five centimeters depth of water should be maintained in the field up to the dough stage of the crop. Before harvesting, water should be drained out from the field to allow quick and uniform maturity of grain.

Harvesting and Threshing The maximum quantity and better quality paddy and rice depend on the harvesting of the crop at the correct maturity stage. Therefore, it is of the paramount importance to harvest the crop at suitable time. Harvesting of the crop when it is not fully matured might result in loss of yield with poor quality grains. If harvesting is delayed, grain may be lost due to damage by rats, birds, insects, shattering and lodging. Thus, timely harvesting ensures better yield, good quality of grains, consumer acceptance and less breakage when milled. The right stage for harvesting as commonly understood by laymen is when panicles turn into golden yellow and the grains contain about 20 percent moisture. When the moisture in the paddy grains reaches 16-17% in the standing crop in the fields, the crop sustains a heavy loss owing to shattering and damage by birds and rodents. Extensive studies have been carried out on specifying the optimum time of harvesting. Based on the results of the various studies, in general, three criteria are taken into consideration to specify the right time of harvesting viz. (i) the moisture content of the grains, (ii) the number of days after planting or flowering and (iii) the dry matter of the plant or seed. The most common and old methods of threshing of paddy is trampling by bullocks or lifting the bundles and striking them on the raised wooden platform. Now pedal threshers are being used. Power driven stationary threshers are also used for quick threshing. Harvesting or Cutting procedures It is the process of gathering a crop. For rice, this generally refers to the cutting and gathering of panicles attached to the stalks. Once the plants have reached full growth (approximately three months after planting) and the grains begin to ripen-

the tops begin to droop and the stem yellows-the water is drained from the fields. As the fields dry, the grains ripen further and harvesting is commenced. Depending on the size of the operation and the amount of mechanization, rice is either harvested by hand or machine. The different harvesting systems are as follows : Harvesting Systems Manual harvesting Manual harvesting makes use of traditional threshing tools such as threshing racks, simple treadle threshers and animals for trampling or by hand using sharp knives or sickles. Manual harvesting and machine threshing Rice is manually threshed, then cleaned with a machine thresher. Machine reaping and machine threshing A reaper cuts and lays the crop in a line. Threshing and cleaning can then be performed manually or by machine. Combine harvesting The combine harvester combines all operations: cutting, handling, threshing and cleaning. Threshing Threshing is the process of beating paddy plants in order to separate the seeds or grains from the straw. Threshing is one of the many tasks a combine harvester performs, along with harvesting the plant and cleaning the grains. To maintain the high quality of the harvested grains, it should be threshed immediately after harvesting.

 Avoid field drying and stacking for several days as it affects grain quality due to over drying. Stacked grains of high moisture content results in discoloration or yellowing. Threshing can be done manually or mechanically. The manual methods of threshing are treading by feet, flail method, and beating stalks against tubs, boards or racks. Mechanical threshing removes rice grains from the rice plant, speeds up threshing (thus reducing losses), and reduces labor requirements. Although once done by hand using a flail on a threshing floor, this tiring task is now mostly done by machine. Drying Process Drying is the process of simultaneous heat and moisture transfer. It is the removal of excess moisture from the grains. Once dried, the rice grain, now called rough rice, is ready for processing. Proper drying results in increased storage life of the grains, prevention of deterioration in quality, reduction of biological respiration that leads to quality loss of grains, and optimum milling recovery. In the country three methods are used for drying the paddy grains, namely : Sun drying Mechanical drying Chemical drying Sun Drying Sun drying is a traditional method of drying the paddy grains. In fact, the major quantity of produce is being dried in the country by this method. Sun drying is the most economical method of drying grains. Grains are spread on drying surfaces such as concrete pavement, mats, plastic sheets and even on fields to dry naturally.

Mechanical Drying Mechanical drying process means drying the grains by ventilating natural or heated air through the grain mass to get it evaporated the moisture from it. Mechanical dryers are more reliable since drying could be done anytime of the year. Chemical Drying Chemical drying method involves the spraying of common salt solution with specific gravity of 1.1 to 1.2 on the ears of the mature paddy crop. This treatment reduces the moisture content from 29% to 14.5% after four days. Environmental Impacts On Cultivation Rice cultivation on wetland rice fields is thought to be responsible for 1.5% of the anthropogenic methane emissions. Rice requires slightly more water to produce than other grains. Long-term flooding of rice fields cuts the soil off from atmospheric oxygen and causes anaerobic fermentation of organic matter in the soil. Methane production from rice cultivation contributes ~1.5% of anthropogenic greenhouse gases. Methane is twenty times more potent a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. A 2010 study found that, as a result of rising temperatures and decreasing solar radiation during the later years of the 20th century, the rice yield growth rate has decreased in many parts of Asia, compared to what would have been observed had the temperature and solar radiation trends not occurred. The yield growth rate had fallen 1020% at some locations. The study was based on records from 227 farms in Thailand, Vietnam, Nepal, India, China, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. The mechanism of this falling yield was not clear, but might involve increased respiration during warm nights, which expends energy without being able to photosynthesize.

Pests and diseases Rice pests are any organisms or microbes with the potential to reduce the yield or value of the rice crop (or of rice seeds). Rice pests include weeds, pathogens, insects, nematode, rodents, and birds. A variety of factors can contribute to pest outbreaks, including climatic factors, improper irrigation, the overuse

of insecticides and high rates of nitrogen fertilizer application. Weather conditions also contribute to pest outbreaks. For example, rice gall midge and army worm outbreaks tend to follow periods of high rainfall early in the wet season, while thrips outbreaks are associated with drought. Insects Major rice insect pests include: the brown planthopper (BPH),[107] several spp. of stemborers including those in the genera Scirpophaga andChilo,[108] the rice gall midge, several spp. of rice bugs notably in the genus Leptocorisa,[111] the rice leafroller and rice weevils. Diseases Rice blast, caused by the fungus Magnaporthe grisea, is the most significant disease affecting rice cultivation. Other major rice diseases include: sheath blight, rice ragged stunt (vector: BPH), and tungro (vector: Nephotettix spp) There is also an ascomycete fungus,Cochliobolus miyabeanus, that causes brown spot disease in rice. Nematodes Several nematode species infect rice crops, causing diseases such as Ufra (Ditylenchus dipsaci), White tip disease (Aphelenchoide bessei), and root knot disease (Meloidogyne graminicola). Some nematode species such

as Pratylenchus spp. are most dangerous in upland rice of all parts of the world. Rice root nematode (Hirschmanniella oryzae) is a migratory endoparasite which on

higher inoculum levels will lead to complete destruction of a rice crop. Beyond being obligate parasites, they also decrease the vigor of plants and increase the plants' susceptibility to other pests and diseases. Other Pests These include: the apple snail Pomacea canaliculata, panicle rice mite, rats, and the weed Echinochloa crusgali. Integrated Pest Management Crop protection scientists are trying to develop rice pest management techniques which are sustainable In other words, to manage crop pests in such a manner that future crop production is not threatened. Sustainable pest management is based on four principles: biodiversity, host plant resistance (HPR), landscape ecology, and hierarchies in a landscape from biological to social. At present, rice pest management includes cultural techniques, pest-resistant rice varieties,

and pesticides which include insecticide. Increasingly, there is evidence that farmers' pesticide applications are often unnecessary, and even facilitate pest outbreak By reducing the populations of natural enemies of rice pests, misuse of insecticides can actually lead to pest outbreaks. The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) demonstrated in 1993 that an 87.5% reduction in pesticide use can lead to an overall drop in pest numbers. IRRI also conducted two campaigns in 1994 and 2003, respectively, which discouraged insecticide misuse and smarter pest management in Vietnam. Rice plants produce their own chemical defenses to protect themselves from pest attacks. Some synthetic chemicals, such as the herbicide 2,4-D, cause the plant to increase the production of certain defensive chemicals and thereby increase the plants resistance to some types of pests. Conversely, other chemicals, such as the insecticide imidacloprid, can induce changes in the gene expression of the rice that

cause the plant to become more susceptible to attacks by certain types of pests 5Alkylresorcinols are chemicals that can also be found in rice. Botanicals, so-called "natural pesticides", are used by some farmers in an attempt to control rice pests. Botanicals include extracts of leaves, or a mulch of the leaves themselves. Some upland rice farmers in Cambodia spread chopped leaves of the bitter bush (Chromolaena odorata) over the surface of fields after planting. This practice probably helps the soil retain moisture and thereby facilitates seed germination. Farmers also claim the leaves are a natural fertilizer and helps suppress weed and insect infestations.

Chloroxylon is used for Pest Management in Organic Rice Cultivation in Chhattisgarh, India

Among rice cultivars, there are differences in the responses to, and recovery from, pest damage. Many rice varieties have been selected for resistance to insect pests. Therefore, particular cultivars are recommended for areas prone to certain pest problems. The genetically based ability of a rice variety to withstand pest attacks is called resistance. Three main types of plant resistance to pests are recognized as nonpreference, antibiosis, and tolerance. Nonpreference (or antixenosis) describes host plants which insects prefer to avoid; antibiosis is where insect survival is

reduced after the ingestion of host tissue; and tolerance is the capacity of a plant to produce high yield or retain high quality despite insect infestation Over time, the use of pest resistant rice varieties selects for pests that are able to overcome these mechanisms of resistance. When a rice variety is no longer able to resist pest infestations, resistance is said to have broken down. Rice varieties that can be widely grown for many years in the presence of pests and retain their ability to withstand the pests are said to have durable resistance. Mutants of popular rice varieties are regularly screened by plant breeders to discover new sources of durable resistance. Problems of Rice Cultivation in India India's population is expected to be 1.2 billion by 2012. The demand for rice in India is projected at 128 million tonnes for the year 2012 and will require a production level of 3,000 kg/ha significantly greater than the present average yield of 1,930 kg/ha. Major constraints to rice production that India faces are land, water, labour and other inputs such as fertilisers, pesticides and insecticides, and even high quality germplasm, without affecting the already degraded and stressed agricultural environment. The problems/constraints in rice production vary from state to state and area to area. Some of the major problems in rice cultivation About 78% of the farmers are small and marginal in the country and they are poor in resource. The problems of flash floods, water logging/ submergence due to poor drainage are very common in East India. Continuous use of traditional varieties due to the non-availability of seeds and farmers lack of awareness about high yielding varieties.

 Low and imbalanced use of fertilizers, low use efficiency of applied fertilizers particularly in the North-Eastern and Eastern States. The Eastern region experiences high rainfall and severe flood almost every year which lead to heavy loss. Heavy infestation of weeds and insects/pests. Delay in monsoon onset often results in delayed and prolong transplanting and sub-optimum plant population (Mostly in rainfed lowlands). In the years of scanty or adverse distribution of rainfall, the crop fails owing to drought etc.

Manufacturing Process of Rice Harvesting is the process of collecting the mature rice crop from the field. Harvesting at the right time and in the right way maximizes grain yield and minimizes grain losses and quality deterioration. The post-harvesting operations of paddy crop and the storage of grains are as much important as producing the crop, because post-harvesting technology affects the quantity and quality of paddy and the finished product, that is, rice. Generally, losses in paddy and rice during the post-harvest operations amount to about 10% of field production. It is, therefore, necessary to adopt proper technology after harvesting the crop for the improvement of the quantity and quality of paddy and rice. Post production includes all operations starting from harvesting up to grading and the stages are interdependent. The various steps involved are as follows : Cleaning and Hulling At the processing plant, the rice is cleaned and hulled. At this point, brown rice needs no further processing. If white rice is desired, the brown rice is milled to remove the outer bran layers. Hulling is the process to remove the hull from the kernel. Hulling can be done by hand by rolling or grinding the rough rice between stones. However, more often it is processed at a mill with the help of automated processes.

The process of mechanical hulling The rough rice is first cleaned by passing through a number of sieves that sift out the debris. Blown air removes top matter. Once clean, the rice is hulled by a machine that mimics the action of the hand held stones.

 The shelling machine loosens the hulls from the rice. About 80-90% of the kernel hulls are removed during this process. From the shelling machine, the grains and hulls are conveyed to a stone reel that aspirates the waste hulls and moves the kernels to a machine that separates the hulled from the unhulled grains. By shaking the kernels, the paddy machine forces the heavier un hulled grains to one side of the machine, while the lighter weight rice falls to the other end. The unhulled grains are then siphoned to another batch of shelling machines to complete the hulling process. Hulled rice grains are known as brown rice.

Milling Process Milling is the process wherein the rice grain is transformed into a form suitable for human consumption, therefore, has to be done with utmost care to prevent breakage of the kernel and improve the recovery. . Brown rice is milled further to create a more visually appealing white rice. After harvesting and drying, the paddy is subjected to the primary milling operation which includes de-husking as well as the removal of bran layers (polishing) before it is consumed. In this process the rice which is obtained after milling is called raw rice. . An other process through which rice is obtained after milling is called "Parboiling Rice." Nearly 60% of the total rice produced in India is subjected to parboiling. Rice milling losses may be qualitative or quantitative in nature. Quantitative or physical losses are manifested by low milling recovery while low head rice recovery or high percentage of broken kernel reflects the qualitative loss in rice grains.

Methods of Milling Traditional Method Before the advent of mechanical milling, hand-pounding traditional method of rice milling was in practice. In fact, hand-pounding rice has got more nutritive value as compared to machine milling rice. In hand-pounding, a variety of implements is used such as Mortor and Pestle Dhenki Hand Stone (Chakki) Mechanical Method With the introduction of mechanized mills, hand-pounding method has steadily decreased because it could not compete with machine mills. The conventional mills in use can be categorized into three main types : Huller mills Sheller-Huller mills Sheller-Cone Polisher mills. Quality and Grading Process As countries reach self-sufficiency in rice production, the demand by the consumer for better quality rice has increased. Quality of rice is not always easy to define as it depends on the consumer and the intended end use for the grain. Grain quality is not just dependent on the variety of rice, but quality also depends on the crop production environment, harvesting, processing and milling systems. Characteristics Considered for Grading of Milled Rice Dead rice, broken and brewers percentages Defectives Foreign matter

 Presence of paddy Whiteness Chalkiness Moisture content

Objectives of establishing standards and grades To ensure only edible rice reaches the consumer. To improve post harvest practices so as to eliminate or reduce waste. To improve agronomic practices to increase farm yields. To improve processing practices for better milling recoveries and for market expansion. To protect consumers from price/quality manipulation.

Grades of Indian Rice Common variety: Short bold & long bold rice Fine variety: Medium slender rice Superfine variety: Long slender & short slender rice Rice Storage Process Storage is the process of keeping grains, whether in bags or in bulk, in a storage structure designed to protect the stored product from inclement weather and pests for a short or long period of time to await processing or movement to other location. Grains are stored for either of the following reasons : To provide uniform supply of food throughout the year, because grains are produced seasonally while consumption is fairly uniform throughout the year. To provide reserve for contingencies such as flood, drought and other calamities. To speculate on a good price either in domestic or in the export market.

The grains are stored at three different levels, such as : Producer's Level Trader's Level Urban Organizational Storage Level

The methods followed for storing the grains are : Storage in bags Loose storage Storage in bags is convenient for short term storage, where grain is intended for very early onward movement. For short term storage, no control measures against insects is needed. In loose/bulk storage method, large quantity of grains can be stored in per unit volume of space and the infestation of insects/pests is lower. The basic requirements of a good storage practice are: a healthy, clean, and uniformly dried grain, and a structure that will maintain a suitable environment that will prevent pests. Packaging : Good packaging provides not only convenient handling in transportation and storage but also attracts consumers to pay more. Packaging is essential to avoid spoilage and to prolong the quality. Packaging of paddy/rice is also important for long-term storage to fulfill the demand of old rice in the market, particularly in case of Basmati and non-parboiled rice. Paddy/rice, if kept in open, quality may be adversely affected. Packaging is closely related to labeling and branding. In present scenario, branding and labeling of rice has significant impact on consumer preference. More care is required in packaging of rice meant for export. This is because of demonstrative effect and the requirements of consumers in different countries; exporters have now started using transparent, colourful and attractive

packaging. For good packaging, the packages must possesses following qualities: It must protect rice very well and should be long lasting. It must look clean. It must be convenient to handle and carry out from the store easily. It must attract the consumer. It must be easily identifiable. It must resist spoiling. 1. It must tell information about rice i.e. name and address of packer, packsize (quantity), quality (grade), variety and date of packing etc. Method of packing : 1. The graded rice should be packed in new, clean, sound and dry jute bags, cloth bags, polywoven bags, polyethylene, polypropylene, high molecular high density polyethylene paper packages or in other food grade plastic/packaging materials. 2. The packages shall be free from insect infestation, fungus contamination, deleterious substances and undesirable or obnoxious smell. 3. Each package shall be securely closed and suitably sealed. 4. Each package shall contain rice of one grade only. 5. The rice shall be packed in quantities as specified under the provisions of the Standards of Weights and Measures (Packaged Commodities) Rules, 1977 as amended from time to time. 6. Suitable number of consumer packs containing graded material of the same lot may be packed in master container

Availability of packaging material : The following packaging material is used in packaging of paddy/rice. (1) Jute bags (2) HDPE / PP bags (3) Polythene impregnated jute bags (4) Poly pouches (5) Cloth bags Jute bags Vs HDPE bags : Jute is a biodegradable material, while synthetic is not environmentally friendly. The disposal of unserviceable jute bags is easy as compared to synthetic bags. Summary of comparative properties of HDPE (High Density Poly Ethylene) and jute bags is given as under :

Qualities of good packaging material : It should be convenient in operations. The packaging material must preserve the quality of produce. It should be convenient to stack. It should be able to prevent spoilage during transit and storage. It should be cost-effective. It should be clean and attractive. It should be biodegradable. It should help in checking adulteration and be free from adverse chemicals. It should be helpful in reducing the marketing Storage Basic requirements for safe and scientific storage of paddy/rice, the following requirements should be followed. 1. Selection of site: The storage structure should be located on a raised well drained site. It should be easily accessible. The land of the site should be protected from moisture, excessive heat, insects, rodents, and bad weather conditions 2. Selection of storage structure:- The storage structure should be selected according to quantity of paddy/rice to be stored. In godowns, sufficient space should be provided between two stacks for proper aeration 3. Cleaning and fumigation: For safe storage, storage structure should be clean. There should be no left-over grains, cracks, holes and crevices in the structure The structure should be fumigated before storage 4. Drying and cleaning grains: Before storage, paddy/rice grains should be properly dried and cleaned to avoid quality deterioration.

5. Cleaning of bags: Always use new and dry gunny bags. Disinfect the old gunny bags by boiling in 1 percent Malathion solution for 3-4. minutes and dry it. 6. Separate storage of new and old stock: To check infestation and to maintain hygienic condition, the new and old stocks should be store separately 7. Use of dunnage: Bags of pad dy/rice should be kept on wooden crates or bamboo mats along with a cover of polythene sheet to avoid absorption of moisture from the floor 8. Cleaning of vehicles: The vehicles used for transportation of paddy/rice should be cleaned by phenyl to avoid infestation. 9. Regular Inspection: To maintain proper health and hygiene of stock, regular inspection of stored paddy/rice is essential. Storage structures :Paddy, as well as rice are stored to maintain the supplies between two harvests. Storage provides protection against weather, moisture, insects, micro-organisms, rats, birds and any type of infestation and contamination. In India, paddy/rice is stored in following manners. Storage facilities : Producers storage : Producers store paddy/rice in bulk at farm godown or own house using various types of traditional and improved structures. Generally, these storage containers are used for short period. Different organisation/institutions developed improved structures for paddy/rice storage with various capacities like Hapur Kothi, Pusa bin, Nanda bin, PKV bin, etc. Different storage structures are also used for this purpose like bricks-built rural godown, mud stone godown etc.

Marketing process of rice The following are the major assembling markets for paddy/rice producing states in the country.

Not a lot is happening in the rice market right now. Harvesting of the wet-season crop in Asia is almost complete and the overall production situation looks very encouraging. Despite some early-season drought scare in India, the kharif (wetseason) rice crop has recovered nicely and the Ministry of Agriculture now predicts the crop to be around 86 million tons (milled equivalent). This is slightly lower than the record harvest of the 2011 kharif crop but is still higher than what was harvested in the past few years. With huge procurement stocks in government warehouses (nearly 35 million tons of milled rice equivalent as of 7 December 2012), the slight decline in rice production does not seem to be a problem for India. For many other Asian countries, including Vietnam, China, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, 2012 rice production is estimated to be at record levels. According to the USDA, overall global rice production for 2012-13 is estimated to be around 465 million tons (milled equivalent), more or less the same as the record production of 2011-12. But, ending stocks for 2012-13 are projected to decline by 3 million tons (from 106 million tons in 2011-12 to 103 million tons in 2012-13) because of strong growth in rice consumption. In the past 7 years, global rice consumption has increased by more than 50 million tons, with an average annual growth of nearly 2%. This has restricted the accumulation of stocks at a faster pace despite good harvests in the past few years. Global rice prices have been fairly stable in the past year after a runup in the first half of 2011 in anticipation of the reintroduction of the Thai pledging scheme and a subsequent drop in the fourth quarter of 2011 after the re-entry of India into the nonbasmati export market. The end results have been the emergence of India as the top rice exporter in 2012 and the dethroning of Thailand from the top rank for the first time in three decades.

Another new development in the past year has been the emergence of China as the second-largest importer behind Nigeria, with 2.6 million tons of imports. According to a recent article (7 January 2013) by Carolyn Cui in the Wall Street Journal, experts are split on the reason behind the recent rise in Chinese rice imports. Some believe that rising demand for rice by Chinese consumers has outstripped production growth, causing imports to rise. Others feel that the higher support price set by the Chinese government to bolster production is creating an incentive for local traders to import rice from Vietnam, India, and Pakistan. Whatever the reason may be, it is difficult to predict what China will do in the future. But, one thing is very clear: the Chinese government is in a mood to bolster stockpiles and allow imported rice to enter the country to keep domestic prices in check. As we look ahead into 2013, rice prices are likely to be range-bound in the next few months, with plenty of rice for sale from India, Vietnam, Thailand, and Pakistan. There is also a possibility of prices declining if these exporters are aggressive in unloading some stocks before the new crop arrives. Even the continuation of Chinese imports is unlikely to provide much upward push on prices. The monsoon holds the key to what will happen to rice prices in the second half of the year. The market is well positioned to handle isolated incidences of extreme weather. But, a bad monsoon (too much or too little rain) in the major rice-growing regions may spell doom for the market and push prices higher.rice farmers, are always looking for ways to improve their farms and take advantage of the newest technology. From a production standpoint, most are well versed in what it takes to grow the best crop possible.

From a marketing standpoint, however, some farmers still do the same thing they have done for years. Harvest their crop, then sell it for whatever the cash price is at the time. Despite having a state-of-the-art production plan, doing a poor job of is that a lot of our farmers didnt have any, or much, on-farm storage. I see that changing now that more of the younger farmers are going into business and putting up grain bins. They also are taking commodity futures classes to better understand the markets. What Was Different 25 Years Ago? Frein also explains why it wasnt as important to have a marketing strategy 25 years ago as it is today. Back then, input costs were more manageable, and you didnt have the wide swing in costs, such as fertilizer, that you do today, he says. Also, 25 years ago, if there was a dollar swing in soybean prices for the year, that was pretty big. Recently, we had a 67-cent move in one day. That would have been two-thirds of a whole years move 25 years ago. Todays markets are volatile, and although volatility creates opportunities, you have to have a plan in place to do what I call reward the market, which means sell in increments when the market rewards you with a good price, Frein ad ds. Tips For Marketing In Todays Environment The Arkansas marketing consultant makes the following recommendations for farmers who are interested in developing a sound marketing strategy or even improving upon the one they already have.

1. Determine what your production costs are going to be for the upcoming season as closely as you possibly can. 2. Forward contract about half of what you are expecting in production and use futures and options with the other half of the crop to try to lock in prices. 3. Deal with a banker who understands the markets. Separate your crop loan from your hedging loan and make sure your spouse knows what is going on. 4. Invest in grain bins. You will have more marketing options and not be forced to sell your grain at harvest time. Plus, youre not having to pay storage. 5. Look at a price chart once a week of the particular commodity that you are growing to see what the trends are. You can subscribe to a charting service or look it up on the Internet. The Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) has daily charts. Importance Of Watching Commitment Of Traders When I see commercial buying, thats a good sign. The market may be going higher, he adds. Heavy commercial selling tells me that farmers are selling, and the market may be going to go lower. It tips you off. For example, if you feel the market is going to go lower, you may want to sell some more of your crop. Consider Reducing Your Exposure To Risk Even if farmers pick up on these suggestions, they may not want to market their crop by themselves. It can be an emotional and time-consuming issue. If this is the case, then hire someone to help you just as you would hire a crop consultant or an aerial applicator, for example.

Your margin of error is much smaller than in the past because of the cost of inputs today, Frein says. There used to be very little change in input costs. Now, diesel and fertilizer prices are all over the board. Farmers are getting so much exposure to risk. My job is to take out some of that risk by pulling the trigger when it needs to be pulled and locking in these prices so you know you are going to be in business another year. Factors Influencing the market Price of Rice Weather: Role of weather in rice production is immense. Temperature, rainfall and soil moisture are the important parameters that determine the crop condition. Further, natural calamities can also affect crops. Markets keep watch of these developments. Minimum Support Price: Changes in the minimum support prices (MSP) by the government also have immense impact on the price of rice. Government policies: Exchange rates, Fiscal policies, Export incentives and export promotion also influence price. Substitute Product: Availability of substitute products at cheaper rate may lead to weakness in demand. This situation happens especially when the main products price tends to become higher. Consumption: Rice consumption depends on two factors - population and Income. Lets take for example Asia. Rice is the staple food of Asia. Low-income groups consume more rice according to the per capita income increase. But as the

income increases, there arrives a point when the consumption starts to dip. Income growth and reduction in population result in a low consumption of rice. Seasonal cycles: Seasonal cycles are present in rice cultivation. Price tends to be lower as harvesting progresses and produce starts coming into the market. At the time of sowing and before harvesting price tends to rise in view of tight supply situation. Demand: Import demands as well as domestic demand. Breakthrough in the technology may increase the productivity and would lead to more supply. This may bring some softness in the price.

PROFILE OF THE STUDY AREA

Shimoga District Profile The study pertained to Shikaripurataluk, Shimoga District of Karnataka State. So many types of studies are concentrated on watershed development of Shikaripurataluk. Hence an attempt is made here the watershed development are of ShikaripuraTaluk.

Historical Background :Shivamogga District is a district in the Karnataka state of India. A major part of Shivamogga district lies in the malnad region of the western ghats, a hilly area known for its green forests, plentiful rainfall and as the source of many of the areas rivers.

Shivamogga city is the administrative centre of the district. Jog falls is a major tourist attraction of the district. Origin of Name:There are various legends of how the name Shivamogga has evolved. According to one legend, the name shivamogga is related to the hindu god Shiva. Shiva-mukha [face of shiva], Shivanamoogu [nose of shiva], shiva-mogge [flowers tobe offered to shiva] can be the origins of the name shivamogga. Another legend indicates that the name shimoga derived from the word sihimoge which means sweet pot.

According to this legend, shivamogga once had the ashram of the saga Durvasa. He used to boil sweet herbs in an earthen pot. Some cowherds, found this pot and after tasting the sweet beverage named this place Sihi-Moge. Taluks of shimoga district:1. Bhadravathi 2. Sagar 3. Shikaripura 4. Hosanagar 5. Thirthahalli 6. Soraba In this project I am selected and study to the watershed development office of Shikaripurataluk.

Land Holdings Sl .no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Year of Formation of District Geographical area Average rainfall Latitude Longitude Altitude [wit R M S L] Distance from state capital No. of taluks Hobalies No. of habitations No. of habitations No. of gramapanchayaths 1950 6975.97 sq.km 769mm 14N - 15N 75 SE 76 SE 584-302 260 6 24 803 1334 230

Water Resources :Before march 2009 is initiate water cell support an water issues in Bangalore they provide technical services continuous follow up on roof water harvesting and ground water recharging through individuals private sector corporations. Municipalities, industries and institutions initiate motor bike rally campaign in collaboration with rashtrabhandunero federation with financial assistance by grameenaabhivrudhi and panchayath raj G.O.K and private sector from oct 2/2005 throughout the Karnataka to save rajrwater and create awareness to stop digging deeper and new bore wells. Rivers:Shimoga is origin of rivers Kali, Gangavathi, Sharavathi, kumudvathi varada and tadadi. The other major rivers which flow through the district are Tunga, Bhadra and Varada. The rivers Tunga and Bhadra meets at a place called Koodalgi in shimoga district. Kodli located 16 km from the shimoga city,

koodli is the place where two rivers, Tunga and Bhadra join and become TungaBhadra river, one of the largest tributaries of the river Krishna. Koodli also contains two temples of the Hoysala era, one dedicated to the Hindu God Rameshwar and the other to Narasimha. An inscription in the temple indicates that in the year 1313, the Hoysala king, VeeraBallala III provided grants to the temple. Sharavathi :- Located 10km from thithahalli on the thirthahalli-Hosanagar road. Ambteertha is the source of the river Sharavathi. Starting from here, sharavathi travels west wards to reach the Arabian sea near Honnavar, 132km away. Varada :- Located 6km from sagar town. Varadamula is the source of the river varada. Varada flows through the town of Banavasi before joining TungaBhadra. Climate :Shivamogga district being a part of the malnad[malenadu] region receives good mansoon rainfall; the months from june to October being the rainy season. In the years 1901-1970, it received an average rainfall of 1813.9mm with an average of 86 days in the year being rainy days. The average annual temperature of shimoga district is around 26C. The average temperature has increased substantially over the years and the trend can be viewed here. In some regions of shimoga district, the day temperature can really sour to about 40C during summers, leading to water crisis and other problems. Demographics :According to the 2012 census shimoga district has a population of 1,755,512 roughly equal to the nation of the Gambia or the U S state of Nebraska. This gives

it a ranking of 275th in india [out of a total of 640 districts]. The district has a population density of 207 inhabitants per sq.km [540/sq mi]. Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2012 was 6.88%. shimoga has asex ratio of 995 females for every 1000 males and a literacy rate of 80.5%. Taluk has the highest population with Hosanagartaluk having the least population. The literacy rate in the district is 74.86% [82.32% of males and 67.24% of females are literate]. Thirthahallitaluk has the highest literacy rate [78.27%] while Shikaripurataluk has the lowest literacy rate [69.59%]. The district has a sex ratio of 977 females to 1000 males. Hosanagara and thirthahallitaluks have more females than males and hence have a sex ratio greaterthan 1000. Shimogataluk having 961 females to 1000 males has the least sex ratio. Hindus constitute 85.45% of the population with muslims making up 12.25% of the population; the remaining part of the population is made up by Christians, Buddhists and other religious groups. Kannada is the dominant language in this district with urdu taking the second place. Some of the unique ethnic groups found in shimoga district are : 1. Havyaka Brahmins who speak a unique dialect of kannada called Havigannada. 2. Sanketis who are concentrated near the mattur-Hosahalli region of shimoga district and speak a unique language called as Sanketi Language. Education:Shimoga district is a major centre for education in the state of Karnataka. A relatively high literacy rate of 74.86% is testimony to the fact. There are various

institutions offering education in this district which are briefly detailed in the sections below. Medical Education :Shimoga institute of medical sciences, a modern medical college, was established in 2007 and located in shimoga city. There are two Ayurvedic colleges, one being BapujiAyurvedic Medical College located in shimoga city and the other being T.A.M.E societys Ayurvedic college located in Kavalgudi, Bhadravathi. Bath offer degree courses in B.A.M.S [Bachelor of Ayurvedic Medicine and Surgery] The Dental college, Sharavathi Dental College, is located in shimoga district. Graduate Education:There are 31 colleges in shimoga district offering graduation courses. Language spoken:Kannada is the major language spoken in shimoga, English, Hindi are spoken commonly owing to the presence of the large number of student population from across india the kannada that kannada is spoken in and around shimoga is very characteristic. It is perhaps an intermediary dialect between the southern and the northern dialects of kannada. Roads:Shimoga has a total road length of 6632 km of which 222km belong to the national highways and 402 km belong to the state highways. National Highways: shimoga has two national highway passing through it.

 NH-13 [Sholapur-Mangalore]: starting from the districts border with Davanagere, this road passes through the cities of shimoga and Thirthahalli on to the Chikkamangalore border. NH-206 [Bangalore-Honnavar]: starting from the districts border with Chikkamangalore, this road passes through the cities of Bhadravathi, Shimoga and Sagar on to the districts border with Uttara Kannada. Agriculture:Paddy, Sugarcane, Groundnut, Sunflower, Cotton, Jowar, Ragi, Mango to list few which are priority crops. Shimoga is also having growing community for change in traditional crops to medicine plants floriculture and hybrid crop regulated market located in heart of Shimoga city hosts platform for both farmer and dealer for business there are good number of farmers still run their own halinamane for jiggery there are also numerous rice mills, oil mills and agri related industries in around city Allocation of Funds for various activities The BRGF funds allocated to the fourteens of institutions would be utilized for addressing backwardness, planning capabilities and plan gaps in the following manner. 1. Activities addressing knowledge/ awareness/ skills/attitudes and practices fund is 30%. 2. Service delivery issues [non-salary, non-capital, non-reccurent expenditure] 30%. 3. Assets creation/ infrastructure/ assets related expenses/ personal

related[salaries] [not of regular staff] = 20%.

Data Base In Shivamogg Dist,

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Forest area Cultivated area Follow land Rainfall average Irrigation area Expenditure area Watersheds identified Expenditure on watershed development in lakhs [10years] Major crops and other productivity Fertilizer consumption Average size of land holdings No. of BPL families Agricultural labours Unemployment rate Number of electrified villages 89918 408448 58805 649 141327 (317) 167.74 152 2846.28 1334 179 1.96 1426/3.24 34.57 3.74 918 [100%]

450000 400000 350000 300000 250000 200000 150000 100000 50000 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Profile of Shikaripura taluk Shikaripurataluk is 53 km far from Shimoga city. The geographical area of Shikaripura lies between the dry land (Bayaluseema) and greenly of malanad.

How to reach:There are three ways from Shimoga to reach Shikaripura, the easiest one is through Savalanga. Other two ways are, a) Right turn from Aynur at Sagar road. b) Right turn from Kumsi at Sagar road. Location of Shikaripura in Karnataka and India: Coordinates Country State 14161 N 750211Ecoordinates 14161 N 75021 Ecoordinates India Karnataka

 District Population

Shimoga

31.508

Shikaripura is a town in Shimoga district in the Indian state of Karnataka. It is the headquarters of Shikaripurataluk. Geography:Shikaripura is located at 14.270 N 750 350 E. it has an average elevation of 603 metres [1978feet]. It lies between plain land of Bayaluseema and tropical forests of Malenadu. Demographics :As of 2010-11india censusShikaripura had a population of 31.508 males constitute 51% of the population and females 49%. Shikaripura has an average literacy rate of 71% higher than the national average of 59.5% male literacy is 75% and female literacy is 67% in Shikaripura. 12% of the population is under 6 years of age. The former chief minister of Karnataka B S Yaddyurappa has been a legislator of this town from many years. Wind mills:Just about 10km from Shimoga to Shikaripura via Savalanga. One can figure out he wind mills at the left hand side. Although the wind mills are owned by private parties and most of public dont visit this place as picnic spot, it is watchable place specially for school agers. More attractive during the sunset.

Tourist place Uduthadi:Uduthadi is located 7km from Shikaripura and birth place of Akkamahadevi. Akkamahadevi was devotee of Lord Shiva Channamallikarjuna and she left her husband Kousika, the local king and sacrified all the luxurious and became devotee of lord shiva. A ruin fort serves as the evidence of history about Akkamahadevi. Madaga-Masur tank:Also called as Bhageerathi Tank and is constructed across

Kumadvathiriver which is an attractive tourist spot of Shikaripurataluk. It is 10km drive from Shikaripura town. Belligavi Belligavi was the capital of Banavasi Nadu during 12 th century and is 20km away from Shikaripura towards north after crossing shiralakoppa. Temples constructed show cases the Chalukya Hoysala style of architecture. Belligavi is also known as Belagami, Belligame etc. the famous kedareshwara temple has attracted many tourists and is constructed in Hoysala style. Belligavi was an important learning centre and contained 5 religious center besides 7 Bhramapuris connected with temple which is also known as DakshinaKedara because of religious and cultural importance. Talagunda :Talagunda is 24 km from Shikaripura and 4km away from Belligavi which was several ancient inscriptions, temples.

 Bandalike :Bandalike is 35 km far from Shikaripura towards North. Many writings and inscriptions of kadambas and Rashtrakutas are found here. Temples here projects the architectural marvels of 12th century. The HuchharayaSwamy Temple in Shikaripura. Transport :Shikaripura has good facility in road and transport services. Shikaripura is a centre place of Shimoga district. Shikaripura is connected by road facility with Davanagere, Shimoga, sagara, Haveri..

SURVEY ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION:INTRODUCTION:In this chapter an attempt has been made to understand survey, analysis and interpretation. process Major Rice Producing Countries In The World 2013 Country China India Indonesia Bangladesh Vietnam Thailand Myanmar Philippines Japan Others 31.6 22.4 8.52 5.98 5.44 3.91 3.34 2.07 1.98 14.6 Percentage of production It covers information of the Rice Production And Marketing

Chart showing Major Rice Producing Countries In The World 2013

Paddy is cultivated in more than 100 countries the world. During 2000, paddy occupied an area 156 million hectares in the world with production of 5,98,852 thousand tonnes. Pmainly produced in Asian countries (91percent). China the producer of paccounting 31.76 percent of total world production followed by India (22.40 percent). Together countries, accounted about half of world paddy area and production. Indonesia (8.52 percent), Bangladesh (5.98 percent), Vietnam (5.44 percent), Thailand (3.91 percent) and Myanmar (3.34 percent) are the other major paddy producing countries. In case of productivity, Egypt ranks first with 9086 kg/ha followed by USA (7037 kg/ha), Japan (6702 kg/ha) and Korea Rep (6592 kg/ha). Area, production and average yield of major paddy producing countries during 1998 to 2000 are given below.

Major Rice Producing states in India during the 2012-13 States Uttar Pradesh West Bengal Andra Pradesh Punjab Orissa Tamil Nadu Bihar Chhattisgarh Assam Karnataka Haryana Others Production In Percentages 13.38 16.39 12.24 9.47 7.68 7.38 5.67 5.51 4.41 3.41 2.93 11.8

Chart

Analysis During the year 2012-13, India accounted for 44622 thousand hectare area with production level of 93084.5 thousand tonnes of rice. It has been observed that West Bengal, was the largest rice producer (16.39 percent) during 2012-13, followed by Uttar Pradesh (13.38 percent), Andhra Pradesh (12.24 percent), Punjab (9.47 percent), Orissa (7.68 percent) and Tamil Nadu (7.38 percent). In area, West Bengal ranked first with 13.60 percent of total area followed by Uttar Pradesh (13.17 percent), Orissa (10.08 percent), Andhra Pradesh (8.57 percent), Chhattisgarh (8.37 percent) and Bihar (8.00 percent). Whereas, in productivity, Punjab stood first with 3545 kg/ha followed by Tamil Nadu (3263 kg/ha) and Andhra Pradesh (2978 kg/ha). Area,

Chart -3 Area, Production and Productivity of Rice during 2006-07 to 2010-11

Area in lakh hectares Year

Production in lakh tonnes

Y - Yield in kg/ha

2006-07

438.136

933.553

2131

2007-08

439.144

966.929

2202

2008-09

455.374

991.824

2178

2009-10

419.185

890.931

2125

2010-11
Source :- Ministry of Agriculture

428.625

959.797

2239

Graf -3 Area, Production and Productivity of Rice during 2006-07 to 2010-11

2500

2000

1500

Area in lakh hecters production in lakh tonnes

1000

yield in Kg per Ha

500

0 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13

Analysis

Chart -4 Area, Production and Productivity of Kharif Rice during 2008-09 to 2012-13

Area in lakh hectares Year

Production in lakh tonnes

Y - Yield in kg/ha

2008-09

10.66

25.61

2402

2009-10

10.51 11.3

26.75 27.25

2545 2412

2010-11 2011-12

11.02

25.84

2345

2012-13

11.3

30.57

2705

Graf showing -4 Area, Production and Productivity of Kharif Rice during 2008-09 to 2012-13

40 30 20 10 0 Year 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 Area in lakh hectares Production in lakh tonnes Yield in qtl /ha Area in lakh hectares 2011-12 2012-13

Chart-5 showing Area, Production and Productivity of Rabi/Summer Rice during 2008-09 to 2010-11

Area in lakh hectares Year

Production in lakh tonnes

Y - Yield in kg/ha

2008-09 2009-10

3.29

8.85

2690

3.65

10.42

2855

2010-11

3.84 3.85

10.77 11.07

2805 2875

2011-12 2012-13

4.1

11.31

2759

Graf showing Area, Production and Productivity of Rabi/Summer Rice during 2008-09 to 2010-11
30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Year 200809 200910 201011 201112 201213 Y - Yield in qtl/ha Production in lakh tonnes Area in lakh hectares

Chart -6 showing Rice export during 2010-11 to 2012-13

2010-11 Qty Value 0.7 0.15 0 0 1,956.5 9 313.3 1,700.0 0 331.39 21,627. 06 4,067.46 1,624.5 6 27,159. 53 0 1,219.7 6 825 2,201.0 1 2011-12 Qty 8,13,801.22 3,33,929.00 2,13,720.00 2,82,326.85 1,92,120.97 Value 1,77,443.15 58,934.13 45,274.60 55,635.80 40,796.87 2012-13 Qty 8,13,198.44 8,54,741.01 5,76,544.80 5,96,843.86 4,30,702.04 Value 1,84,742.48 1,46,342.65 1,30,244.80 1,17,589.36 92,649.92

Country Nigeria Senegal Benin Cote D Ivoire South Africa United Arab Emirates Nepal Guinea Saudi Arabia Cameroon Singapore

510.93 2,07,470.76 4,212.70 1,40,864.16 0 15,003.36 518.02 1,02,680.18 142.5 55,520.00 379.74 58,817.59

49,903.41 21,022.03 2,880.73 27,986.28 11,922.74 17,691.41

2,62,071.85 3,96,586.72 2,81,845.00 1,43,170.69 2,08,302.66 1,34,705.71

76,014.56 57,861.08 57,657.37 43,494.89 41,683.47 35,602.59

Graf -6 showing Rice export during 2010-11 to 2012-13

100000 90000 80000 70000 60000 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0

2010-11

2011-12

2012-13

Chart-6 showing Basumathi Rice Export 2008-09 to 2012-13 Year Quantity in tons Value in crorse

2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012- 13

593.32 600.6 500.6 710.29 1140

1,685.62 1,866.25 2142 2552 2775

Graf showing Basumathi Rice Export 2008-09 to 2012-13

3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012- 13 quantity in tons value in crorse

Summary of findings and suggestion Findings About 78% of the farmers are small and marginal in the country and they are poor in resource. The problems of flash floods, water logging/ submergence due to poor drainage are very common in East India. Continuous use of traditional varieties due to the non-availability of seeds and farmers lack of awareness about high yielding varieties. Low soil fertility due to soil erosion resulting in loss of plant nutrients and moisture. Low and imbalanced use of fertilizers, low use efficiency of applied fertilizers particularly in the North-Eastern and Eastern States. The Eastern region experiences high rainfall and severe flood almost every year which lead to heavy loss. Heavy infestation of weeds and insects/pests. Delay in monsoon onset often results in delayed and prolong transplanting and sub-optimum plant population (Mostly in rainfed lowlands). In the years of scanty or adverse distribution of rainfall, the crop fails owing to drought etc. Indian rice prices are inelastic due to relatively high cost of production whereas the major rice producing nations have decreased the price to capture the international markets Rice mills have not been fully modernized to ensure high milling recovery and reduce the percentage of broken rice Lack of proper arrangements for production of sufficient quantity of quality seeds needed for cultivation of rice for export purposes

Following Are Some Of The Measures Suggested To Production And Marketing Of Rice Production of quality seeds and ensuring its availability to farmers at subsidized rates Acceleration of breeding efforts in the development of high-yielding export-quality rice The development of new products and processing techniques Survey may be conducted to identify contiguous zones for cultivation of export quality rice Maintaining quality standards that match those of international markets Identification of varieties for rice-based products Production, procurement and processing of basmati rice may be organized in a systematic manner for maintaining its quality for export purposes Research & Development to produce quality rice may be strengthened Export friendly trade policies Improvement of port facilities Modernization of rice mills to ensure high milling recovery and effective availability of by-products for full utilization Setting up of a board/council to promote the export of rice and rice-based products Emphasis may be given on a cropping system approach rather than a single crop development approach. Propagation of location specific crop production technologies in different agro-climatic zones. Replacement of low potential/pest susceptible old varieties by new high yielding varieties with promising yield potential.

 To encourage cultivation of hybrid rice through demonstrations and making seed available to the farmers. Motivating the farmers to provide life saving irrigation to the crop wherever possible during long dry spells. Improving soil fertility. Emphasis on balanced use of plant nutrients along with the popularization of integrated plant management system. Use of bio-fertilizer. Popularization of line sowing in upland rice areas through suitable seeding devices establishment of desired level of plant population, easy in weed control and the application of other management techniques. Encouraging the use of machines as well as bullock drawn and hand operated implements. Effective control of pests and diseases by emphasizing the need based application of pesticides. More emphasis on the adoption of non-monetary inputs like timely sowing, maintaining optimum plant population, timely irrigation, efficient use of fertilizers, plant protection measures and timely harvesting of crop etc.

Conclusion Rice is a grain belonging to the grass family. It is related to other grass plants such as wheat, oats and barley which produce grain for food and are known as cereals. Rice refers to two species (Oryza sativa and Oryza glaberrima) of grass, native to tropical and subtropical southeastern Asia and to Africa, which together provide more than one-fifth of the calories consumed by humans. The plant, which needs both warmth and moisture to grow, measures 2-6 feet tall and has long, flat, pointy leaves and stalk-bearing flowers which produce the grain known as rice. Rice is rich in genetic diversity, with thousands of varieties grown throughout the world.

Throughout history rice has been one of man's most important foods. Today, this unique grain helps sustain two-thirds of the world's population. It is life for thousands of millions of people. It is deeply embedded in the cultural heritage of their societies. About four-fifths of the world's rice is produced by small-scale farmers and is consumed locally. Rice cultivation is the principal activity and source of income for about 100 million households in Asia and Africa.

Bibliography Bibliography 1) S.S Acharya , N L Agarwal -1987 Agricultural Marketing in India oxford and IBH Publishing Co, Pvt. Ltd New Delhi 2) T.P Gopala Swamy -1997 Rural Marketing Environment problems and strategies-vikas Publishing Co, Pvt. Ltd 3) Sukpal singh -2005 rural marketing focus on agricultural inputs - vikas Publishing Co, Pvt. Ltd 4) R.V Badi and N.V Badi-2004 Rural marketing Himalaya Publishing house 5) R Krishnamurthy 2008 Introduction to Rice production and Marketing Himalaya Publishing house 6) Agarwal N L 1986 Agricultural Prices and Marketing in India Mittal Publication Delhi Websites 7) www.krishimaratavahini.kar.nic.in 8) www.agmark.net 9) www.agricomodity.gov.in 10) www.apead.com