You should be able to define and give examples of the following terms: nutrient density, organic, malnutrition Nutrient

t density is a measure of the amount of nutrients a food contains compared to the amount of Calories that are contained in that food. Undernutrition, Overnutrition do not involve modern synthetic inputs such as synthetic pesticides and chemical fertilizers, do not contain genetically modified organisms, and are not processed using irradiation, industrial solvents, or chemical food additives; carbon-containing What sensory qualities of food are most likely to influence food choices? Taste, smell, appearance, and te ture How many alories do each of the nutrients provide per gram? !ats !" #cal$g%, carbohydrates !& #cal$g% protein !& #cal$g% Which nutrients contribute to body structure? "ody process regulation? !uelling cellular processes? 'ats, carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, (ater )ll nutrients Carbs, fats, proteins #now the top $ causes of death in anada Cancer, heart disease, stro#e What is the difference between functional foods and neutraceuticals? %ive a specific example of each& 'unctional foods * foods that have health-promoting and$or disease-preventing properties beyond basic nutritional functions !pg +,% e.g. blueberries - may reduce ris# of heart disease$canger or garlic - helps reduce blood cholesterol levels and overall ris# of heart disease Neutraceuticals !designer foods% * type of functional food that are fortified (ith nutrients or enhanced (ith phytochemicals e.g. orange .uice (ith added calcium You should have an understanding of the different types of nutritional studies as well as how to evaluate nutrition information /pidemiological studies- test hypothesis by observing variables to identify patterns, trends associations o e plore impact of nutrition on health....sho(s patterns not cause and effect / perimental studies - test hypothesis under controlled conditions o Clinical trials-e plore health effects of altering people0s diet o )nimal studies-cheaper, faster, convenient, more ethical then using on humans sometimes 1iochemistry and molecular biology-techni2ues used to study nutrient functions in the body /valuate nutrition information3 4oes it ma#e sense5 6hat0s the source5 6hat evidence is being provided5 7s it selling something5 8as it stood the test of time5 How do you assess nutritional status? 4etermine typical food inta#e )nalyze nutrient inta#e /valuate physical health Consider medical history )ssess (ith laboratory tests #now the ' ()*s and how they are determined& 9ecommended 4aily )llo(ance !94)%3 consumption of this amount of the nutrient meets the needs of ":; of the population !set , standard deviations above the /)9% /stimated )verage 9e2uirement3 +

 Consumption of this amount of the nutrient meets the needs of <=; of the population )de2uate 7nta#e !)7%3 Nutrient inta#es that are used as a goal (hen no 94) e ists. )7 values appro imate the amount of nutrient that sustains health Upper >imit !U>%3 The highest amount of that nutrient that (ill not promote symptoms of to icity in the ma.ority of healthy individuals. 7nta#e should not e ceed this value What are the +,()s for each energy-yielding nutrient? Carbohydrate3 &<-?<; @rotien3+=-A<; 'at3 ,=-A<; Which foods are found in each food group of eating Well with anada.s !ood %uide? Begetables$fruits3 Dil# and alternatives3 o 'resh,frozen or canned o Dil# or po(dered vegetables mil#!reconstructed% o >eafy vegetables o Canned mil#!evaporated% o 'resh, frozen or canned fruit o 'ortified soy beverage o +==; .uice o Eogurt o Fefir Crain products3 o Cheese o 1read o 1agel Deat and alternatives3 o flat bread o Coo#ed fish, shelfish, o ! coo#ing rice, bulgur or poultry, lean meat o Coo#ed legumes 2uinoa% o Cereal o Tofu o Coo#ed pasta or couscous o /ggs o @eanut or nut butters o Ghelled nuts and seed What new features are found in the latest anadian food guide? 9ainbo( format helps convey concept of variety as do mi ture of foods found in each group o 'oods on outer arc of rainbo( should be favoured, (hile those in inner arcs should be consumed more moderately Gpecific e amples of (hat counts as a serving from each food group No( recommends folic acid supplement for (omen of childbearing age and vitamin d supplement for adults over <= 'eatures advice on ho( to cater to children Ne( 'irst Nations$7nuit$Detis version, intended to better reflect typiocal dietary patterns and lifestyles of )boriginal people What advice does the !ood %uide give about choosing foods from each food group wisely? Begetables$fruits3 o /at at least one dar# green and one orange vegetable each day o Choose vegetables and fruits prepared (ith little or no added fat, sugar or salt o 8ave vegetables and fruits more often then .uice Crain products3 o Da#e at least half orf your grain products (hole grain each day o Choose grain products that are lo(er in fat, sugar or salt 4airy and alternatives3 o 4rin# s#im, +; or ,; mil# each day o Gelect lo(er fat mil# alternatives Deat and alternatives3 ,

o 8ave meat alternatives such as beans, lentils and tofu often o /at at least t(o food group servings of fish each (ee# o Gelect lean meat and alternatives prepared (ith little or no added fat or salt Children3 Gmall nutritious meals and snac#s, do not restrict fat content foods, be role model 6omen!pregnant%3 Need folic acid and iron, add ,-A e tra servings Over <=3 vitamin 4 What information must appear on food labels? How do you read a nutrition facts box? a% Gtatement of identity b% Net contents of the pac#age c% Name and address of manufacturer, pac#er, distributor d% >ist of ingredients !listed in descending order by (eight; al(ays chec# the first A ingredientsH% e% Nutrition information !Nutrition 'acts bo %

standard serving sizes, nutrients in grams and ; daily value !based on ,=== #ilocalorie diet% How do you read a food label? Which claims are permitted on anadian food labels? /utrient ontent laims describe the amount of nutrient in a food Examples I sodium freeJ * less than < mg of sodium per reference amount and stated serving size Ireduced in caloriesJ * at least ,<; less energy than the food to (hich it is being compared Isource of dietary fiberJ * at least , g fiber per serving Ie cellent source of !vitamin or mineral name%J * at least ,<; of 94) (iet-)elated Health laims outline the nutritional benefits of certain foods and$or their components on overall health or reduced disease ris# T(o types3 !unction claims state the (ell-#no(n beneficial effects of a food or a food constituent on the normal function of the body / . ICalcium helps promote strong bones and teethJ (isease-reduction claims state the associations bet(een a food or its components (ith a reduced ris# of a nutrition-related disease.

What are the arguments for and against menu labelling?

What are the different levels of organi0ation found in the human body 1starting with atoms2 )toms form molecules, form cells, form tissues, form organs, form organ systems, form the entire organism (ifferentiate between a food label and a natural health product label N8@ label - needs name, licence number, list of ingredients, recommended uses, any cautionary statements but NO nutrition facts panel

!or the digestive tract: &

-need to know what occurs in each part of the (3, including what en0ymes are found there and what type of digestion occurs& You should also know how the accessory organs aid in digestion4absorption& ,563H Chemical digestion3 Galiva o /nzymes3 Galivary amylase-carbohydrates >ingual lipase-----lipids o )ntibacterial Gubstance3 lysozyme o Golvent3 (ater Dechanical 4igestion3 use of A, teeth to physically digest food 7harynx1throat2 Conduit for food and inspired air 8piglottis /piglottis lies bet(een the pharyn and the esophagus$trachea o 4irects bolus of food from pharyn to esophagus (hen closed o 4irects air from pharyn to trachea (hen open 8sophagus 4oes not participate in digestion; conduit for food 'ood is moved by peristalsis !same as in some other parts of the 4T% 9tomach A muscle layers3 longitudinal, horizontal and diagonal o Optimal for churning and mi ing @yloric sphincter controls ho( long food stays in stomach!at bottom of stomach% Temp. Gtorage of food Turns bolus into chime >ining of stomach covered (ith gastric pits Castric pits secrete gastric .uice %astric :uice 6ater3 acts as a solvent Ducus3 protects lining of stomach from digesting itself @epsinogen3 gets converted to pepsin, (hich digests protein 8ydrochloric acid3 denatures proteins, activates pepsin )egulation of stomach motility and secretion chyme empties (ithin ,-? hours small li2uid meals empty faster than opposite carbohydrate rish meals leave fast, (hile fibre, protein rich meals and fatty meals stay longer longer it stays in stomach means stomach (ill stretch and controls your hunger3 fibre promote fullness 9mall intestine Narro( ?m foot tube Da.ority of digestion and absorption occurs here A segments3 duodenum !,<-A= cm%, .e.unum !+.,m% and the ileum !+.<m% Dassive surface areaH >ong length Barious folds !villi, microvilli%)bout the size of a tennis courtH @ancreatic Kuice pancreatic amylase3 converts starches into sugars bicarbonate3 neutralizes chyme @ancreatic protease3 protein-digesting enzymes >ipases3 brea# do(n lipids into fatty acids G7 intestinal enzymes )id digestion of disaccharides !double sugars%, short amino acids Callbladder Gecretes bile !made in the liver, stored here% into the G7 <

 1ile helps emulsify fats ;arge *ntestine )ppro . < feet long @eristalsis is slo(er here than in G7 7ntestinal microbiota* native bacteria (hich promote digestion 1rea# do(n undigested food !release gasH% Gynthesize small amounts of 1 vitamins and vitamin F Unabsorbed matter is pac#aged into feces for e cretion 'iber and fluid rich diets promote more (ater in feces easier to e crete +ccessory organs: salivary glands, liver, gall bladder, pancreas #now the following words and their meaning: peristalsis, en0ymes, hydrolysis, condensation, bolus, chyme, food allergy, anabolism, catabolism, +37 8n0ymes are crucial proteins (hich speed up the rate of reaction in the digestive tract hydrolysis uses (ater to brea# do(n larger molecules into smaller ones condensation brings t(o smaller molecules together to form a larger one; (ater is released bolus A round or oval-shaped mass of food formed 'ood moved via peristalsis < coordinated muscular contractions that move material through C7 tract hyme - after bolus mashed and mi ed (ith highly acidic stomach secretions, form semili2ud food mass called chyme !ood allergy 7mmune system reacts to non-harmful antigens called allergens !proteins% / . Nuts, eggs, mil#, seafood protein / . Cluten found in (heat, barley or rye 'irst e posure begins the process (ith production of antibodies Gecond e posure3 allergens bind to antibodies and cause release of histamine Gymptoms3 redness, s(elling, hives, tingling on tongue or lips, difficulty breathing, decreased blood pressure, vomiting, cramps +nabolism- Lbuilding up0 - larger molecules are synthesized and energy is re2uired$used up 8x& Duscle @rotein synthesis from amino acids in blood, the conversion of glucose to glycogen atabolism- Lbrea#ing do(n0 - molecules bro#en do(n, energy is released 8x& 4igestion, Cellular respiration +37 !adenosine triphosphate% the energy currency of the body

;ist the different levels of organi0ation found in the human body, from atoms to organism )toms form molecules, form cells, form tissues, form organs, form organ systems, form the entire organism ontrast the endocrine 1secretes into the cardiovascular system2 vs& exocrine pancreas 1secretes into the digestive tract2
Endocrine The part of the pancreas with endocrine function is made up of approximately a million cell clusters called islets of Langerhans. There are four main cell types in the islets. They are relatively difficult to distinguish using standard staining techniques, but they can be classified by their secretion: cells secrete glucagon, cells secrete insulin, cells secrete somatostatin, and !! cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide. The islets are a compact collection of endocrine cells arranged in clusters and cords and are crisscrossed by a dense networ" of capillaries. The capillaries of the islets are lined by layers of endocrine cells in direct contact with vessels, and most endocrine cells are in direct contact with blood vessels, by either cytoplasmic processes or by direct apposition. #ccording to the volume $$The %ody,$$ by #lan &. 'ourse, the islets are (busily manufacturing their hormone and generally disregarding the pancreatic cells all around them, as though they were located in some completely different part of the body.( Exocrine )n contrast to the endocrine pancreas, which secretes hormones into the blood, the exocrine pancreas produces digestive en*ymes and an al"aline fluid +referred to as pancreatic ,uice-, and secretes them into the small intestine through a system of exocrine ducts in response to the small intestine hormones secretin and cholecysto"inin. .igestive en*ymes include trypsin, chymotrypsin, pancreatic lipase, and pancreatic amylase, and are produced and secreted by acinar cells of the exocrine pancreas. /pecific cells that line the pancreatic ducts, called centroacinar cells, secrete a bicarbonate0 and salt0rich solution into the small

What are the contents of gastric =uice? ?

6ater3 acts as a solvent Ducus3 protects lining of stomach from digesting itself @epsinogen3 gets converted to pepsin, (hich digests protein 8ydrochloric acid3 denatures proteins, activates pepsin

How do the hormones # and %*7 regulate mobility and secretion in the digestive tract? - 6hen food moves into small intestine, C7@ hormone is released o Closes pyloric sphincter to stop gastric emptying M slo( gastric secretions CCF - 7f chyme that enters G7 has fat, CCF triggers gall bladder to secrete bile to emulsify fat - 7f chyme that enters G7 has protein$carbs, CCF triggers pancreas to secrete pancreatic enzymes$.uice to digest them !pancreatic amylase, pancreatic protease, lipase% What are the three parts of the small intestine? How do they differ? Overall3 most digestion and absorption occur here; both peristalsis and segmentation occur here !coordinated periodic muscular contractions that divide chyme, promote mi ing of foodstuffs (ith digestive secretions, interact (ith intestinal (alls, but do not propel it for(ard 4uodenum!,<-A= cm%, Dost digestion occurs here Gome absorption occurs here, but absorption of (ater, vitamins, minerals, and products of carbohydrate, fat, protein digestion occur along remainder of G7 ($ large surface area .e.unum!+.,m% - ileum!+.<m% 3he large surface area of the small intestine is due to which factors? >ong length Barious folds!villi and microvilli% #now all the functions of the intestinal microbiota& 7ntestinal microbiota * native bacteria (hich promote digestion 1rea# do(n undigested food !release gasH% Gynthesize small amounts of 1 vitamins and vitamin F What is found in pancreatic =uice? pancreatic amylase3 converts starches into sugars bicarbonate3 neutralizes chyme @ancreatic protease3 protein-digesting enzymes >ipases3 brea# do(n lipids into fatty acids What is bile? Where is it made? 9tored? How does it work? Dade in liver Gtored in gallbladder 8elps emulsify fats - hydrophilic heads, hydrophobic tails ) digestive li2uid (here it aids in fat digestion and absorption (hen secreted in small intestine. Create globules of fat and bile to fit into mucosal cells (here it is absorbed into lymph before passing into blood #now the various absorption mechanisms and what nutrients are absorbed through each type& )fter food has been digested into small subunits, it can no( be absorbed into either the blood !small carbs, amino acids% or the lymphatic system !larger molecules, larger lipids% G7D@>/ 47''UG7ON- substances pass freely across a cell membrane from high-lo( conc. Bitamin / and fatty acids OGDOG7G-passage of (ater molecules move from lo-high conc dissolved substances, moves in and out of the lumen of C7 tract 'acilitated diffusion- passive, re2uires a !protein% carrier molecule. 8igh-lo concentration 'ructose :

)ctive transport- re2uires energy !)T@% and a protein carrier molecule. lo- high conc. Clucose and amino acids even if already in high concentration in mucosal cell than lumen

You should be able to explain gastroesophageal reflux disease, peptic ulcers, gallstones, diverticulosis, diarrhea, constipation and their various causes 8eart burn* gastroesophageal reflu Occurs (hen acidic stomach contents lea# bac#, past the lower esophageal sphincter, into the esophagus 7f it occurs ,M times per (ee#, may become gastoesophageal reflux disease 1%8)(2 Can lead to bleeding, ulcers and cancers @eptic Ulcers Occur (hen protective mucus layer of stomach, esophagus or upper G7 is penetrated, resulting in an open lesion !(ound% Gymptoms range from abdominal pain to severe bleeding Caused by C/94 or abuse of aspirin, motrin, advil, or infection by H. Pylori bacteria Callstones 8ard deposits (hich accumulate in the gallbladder !C1% or bile duct !cholesterol, bile pigments, calcium% Cause pain (hen C1, bile duct contract in response to fat in G7 Typically treated by removing C1 4iarrhea 're2uent, (atery stools Occurs (hen Daterial passes too 2uic#ly through colon 7ntestinal cells dra( e cess (ater into lumenN of colon, dra(n into stool Caused by3 1acterial, viral infections 7rritants of the 4T @assage of undigested material into the large intestine Dedications Chronic intestinal illnesses Constipation 8ard, dry stools that are difficult to pass Caused by3 4iet lo( in fibre, fluids >ac# of e ercise 6ea#ening of muscles of large intestine medications Can lead to diverticuli3 7ncreases in pressure in colon can lead to Outpouches of colonic (all How does the cardiovascular system work 1at a basic level>that of the lecture notes2? ardiovascular system- nutrient delivery and (aste removal system found throughout the body )mino acids, single sugars, (ater-soluble products of fat digestion absorbed into capillaries and into the cardiovascular system 6ater insoluble cholesterol, large fatty acids, fat-soluble vitamins pac#aged into chylomicrons and absorbed into lacteals and into the lymphatic system 1oth of these processes occur at the villi of the G7 +rteries transport blood a(ay from the heart and to(ards the tissues ?eins transports blood a(ay from the tissues and to(ards the heart Daterials are e changed at the capillaries O ygen and nutrients typically flo( from CBG to cells Carbon dio ide and (astes typically flo( from the cells into the CBG !The pulmonary circulation is the e ception% O

The lymphatic system !green% transports large fatty substances and (ater insoluble substances a(ay from the 4T and into the blood stream 1lood flo( varies (ith need - rela ed vs physical activity What does the liver do to absorbed nutrients? Which vessel brings absorbed material to the liver? Those materials absorbed into the capillaries then proceed via the hepatic portal vein to the liver The liver functions as a Lgate#eeper0 4ecides (hat to do (ith absorbed nutrients Gtore or deliver5 4ecision varies (ith need Other vital liver functions include3 4eto ification !through enzyme systems%, bile production, synthesis and brea#do(n of amino acids, proteins and lipids What are the main functions of the lymphatic system? Net(or# of lymph vessels !tubules% Contains infection-fighting cells A Dain functions3 Clears tissues of e cess fluid )n immune response is launched (hen an antigen is detected in the lymph NN>arge lipids and (ater insoluble materials are absorbed into the lymph The lymph then drains into the CBG via the thoracic duct ;ist the ' ways wastes are removed by the body& What is removed where? +. )nus - feces - undigested$unabsorbed foods, (astes, dead cells, ,. 9espiratory system - e hale CO, A. G(eat Clands - some (ater, minerals, byproducts of protein brea#do(n &. Fidneys filters blood of (ater and small molecules - filtered substances that are needed are reabsorbed; (aste products are e creted in urine

!or cellular respiration, you should know what the reactants and products of each stage are and which stages are aerobic vs anaerobic& What occurs if there is no oxygen available? Clucose M O ygen CO, M 6ater M )T@ C9 step +3 Clycolysis* brea#do(n of glucose Occurs in cytoplasm of cell 4oesn0t re2uire o ygen !anaerobic% ?-carbon !?-C% glucose is bro#en do(n into , molecules of A-C pyruvate @roduces minimal )T@ Gtep ,3 1rea#do(n of @yruvate 8o( pyruvate is bro#en do(n depends on (hether o ygen is present )% (hen o ygen is absent !anaerobic conditions2, pyruvate is converted into lactate and )T@ @romotes an unsustainable acidic environment at tissues, therefore a temporary measure 1% (hen o ygen is present !aerobic conditions%, pyruvate is converted into acetyl Co) !re2uires coenzyme )% )cetyl Co) then proceeds to step A of cellular respiration "

Gtep A3 Citric )cid Cycle Comple set of reactions 1egins (hen acetyl Co) combines (ith oxaloacetate !a carbohydrate% to form citrate The cycle leads to the production of CO, , (ater, and the capture of energy in CT@ !similar to )T@% T(o important electron carriers, N)48M 8M and ')48, are also there to capture electrons and carry them to step &3 the electron transport chain Gtep & /lectron Transport Chain3 )t mitochondrial membrane, N)48 M 8M and ')48, donate electrons to various donor and acceptor molecules located in the membrane ) series of o idation !loss of electrons% and reduction !gain of electrons% reactions occurs )s bonds are bro#en and energy is released, it is captured by A=M molecules of )T@H How is energy extracted from fat and protein? What needs to occur first? 'at - esp triglycerides - must be bro#en do(n to its , components Clycerol - gets converted into glucose or pyruvate A fatty acids - the process of beta-o idation brea#s do(n large fatty acid molecules into , carbon molecules o These , carbon molecules then combine (ith coenzyme ) to form acetyl Co) The products of triglyceride digestion can then enter the appropriate stage of cellular respiration 1UTHH The products of fat digestion can only proceed through the citric acid cycle if there are sufficient carbohydrates present to form o aloacetateH o Other(ise form #etone bodies L'at burns in a carbohydrate flame0 @roteins, unli#e carbs and fats, contain nitrogen )mino acids must first be deaminated@ before they can proceed through cellular respiration )fter an amino acid has been deaminated, its remaining structure can enter cellular respiration at various stages, depending on (hat the remaining structure is Can form pyruvate, acetyl Co), citric acid cycle intermediates or #etone bodies 8xplain the phrase Afat burns in a carbohydrate flame.& Carbohydrates are needed so that our cells can e act energy from fat. )lthough cells can produce acetyl Co) from fatty acids, before acetyl Co) can proceed through citric acid cycle, it must first combine (ith o aloacetate !a carbohydrate%. 7f deficient in carbohydrates, incomplete metabolism of fatty acids produce #etone bodies - can be used to fuel heart and brain, but acidic nature may lo(er blood p8. O9 The products of triglyceride digestion can then enter the appropriate stage of cellular respiration. 1UT products of fat digestion can only proceed through citric acid cycle if there are sufficient carbohydrates present to form o aloacetate. - other(ise form #etone bodies fat burns a in carbohydrate flame What happens to the glucose, amino acids and fatty acids that are not used for energy in the body? /nergy-yielding nutrients that are not used for energy are used to form other molecules !re2uires )T@% Clucose 'orms glycogen Gmall energy reserve in the muscle$liver 'orms fatty acids, stored in fat tissue !minor process% 'atty )cids Gtored in fat tissue Day also be used to help form cell membranes, regulatory molecules )mino )cids +=

Used to synthesize body proteins !e . Duscle, enzymesP.% Day also be converted into fatty acids, stored in fat tissue

ontrast refined vs& unrefined carbs including which part of the grain is used in each& 6nrefined 1whole2 carbohydrates: carb sources eaten in their natural form or (ith minimal processing - typically (hole grains Gelect theseH 7ncludes entire grain #ernel3 bran, endosperm, germ )efined carbohydrates3 processed carbs, typically have a portion of the grain removed - includes endosperm Can be a source of empty alories Dinimize theseH 8nrichment: a type of fortification (hich adds bac# some, not all, of the nutrients lost in processing What is found in each part of a whole grain kernel?

What are the benefits of fibre overall and of each type, specifically? @romote intestinal health - greater stool (eights and 2uic#er transit time; may help lo(er blood pressure Goluble 'ibre Oats, apples, beans, sea(eed, .ams 8eart healthy 1inds cholesterol containing compounds, regulates blood sugar !may reduce ris# of diabetes 77% 7nsoluble 'ibre 6heat and rye bran, broccoli and celery @romotes intestinal health Gpeeds passage through intestines, binds to ic (astes products @romotes regular bo(el movements, prevents constipation What are the $ functions of carbohydrates in the body? Dain function * to provide energy3 Clucose - as a source of energy - important fuel o 4uring the process of cellular respiration !chapter A%, each gram of glucose is converted into & #cal of energy in the form of )T@ o Clucose is an essential fuel of brain and red blood cells Carbohydrate and @rotein brea#do(n o 6hen carbohydrate levels are insufficient to fuel cellular needs, glucose can be synthesized from amino acids o This process is called gluconeogenesis o 1UT you use up your body proteins to do soH !e . DuscleH% o Carbohydrate is therefore said to Lspare protein0 I'at burns in a Carbohydrate 'lameJ o 9ecall, need o aloacetate !a carbohydrate% to bind to acetyl Co) for the citric acid cycle to occur ++

Therefore, need carbohydrates in order to o idize fats to produce )T@

>arge polysaccharides found in connective tissue provide cushioning and lubrication Gugar galactose is needed by nerve tissue for proper functioning

Where is carbohydrate digested and absorbed? (escribe which en0ymes are involved and where they are found&

Carbohydrate )bsorption Donosaccharides travel from the capillaries of the G7 to the liver Clucose is then either Gtored as liver glycogen Used for energy at the liver 4elivered to other body tissues Gurge in blood sugar is evidenced * glycemic response !ne t slide% >iver uses fructose, galactose for energy (escribe how insulin works& rise in blood glucose levels after eating stimulates pancreas to secrete hormone insulin allo(s glucose to enter cells, (here it can be used asap for energy or stimulate the synthesis of fat and liver and muscle glycogen for storage removes glucose from blood and decreases blood glucose level What is gluconeogenesis? )fter fe( hours of eating, blood glucose levels decrease Clucagon !hormone% released by pancreas to increase blood glucose levels Cluconeogenesis - (hen glucagon signals liver to synthesize ne( glucose molecules from amino acids to be released into the blood o >iver cells also brea# do(n glycogen into glucose --+,

6hen carbohydrate levels are insufficient to fuel cellular needs, glucose can be synthesized from amino acids This process is called gluconeogenesis 1UT you use up your body proteins to do soH !e . DuscleH% Carbohydrate is therefore said to Lspare protein0

ontrast diabetes * vs **? What are the symptoms of diabetes? 4iabetes * high blood glucose Type+3 <-+=; of cases Unpreventable, autoimmune disease 7mmune system attac#s the pancreatic cells !beta cells% that secrete insulin 7f uncontrolled, build up of #etones can lead to ketoacidosis, (hich can lead to coma, death 9e2uires regular in.ections of insulin Type ,3 "=-"<; of cases *nsulin resistance @reventable, lifestyle-related Typically begins (ith prediabetes Danagement of it >imit carbohydrates /mphasize unrefined carbohydrates 6hole grains, (hole vegetables >imit saturated and trans fats 6eight management / ercise Dedication Gymptoms of 4iabetes )cute symptoms3 fre2uent urination, e cessive thirst, blurred vision, (eight loss Chronic symptoms3 blindness, #idney failure, nerve dysfunction, increased ris# of infection !can lead to amputation%; dementia5 (escribe the current situation with diabetes in anada 1ie& High risk groups, medical complications, costs2 8igh blood glucose )ffects appro . , million Canadians; ?th leading cause of death in Canada - rising too; generally, rates higher in men than (omen Can cost individual Q+===-Q+<=== a year 8igher in )boriginal, 8ispanic populations Chronically elevated glucose levels can lead to nerve, #idney, blood vessel damage & medical complications3 4amage to large blood vessels3 increased ris# of stro#e; bloc#ed arteries in legs 4amage to small blood vessels lead to3 bleeding in retina leading to blindness; nerve damage that causes numbness and pain What is hypoglycemia and how might it occur? (ifferentiate between reactive and fasting hypoglycemia& >o( blood sugar Gymptoms3 irritability, s(eating, sha#iness, an iety, rapid heartbeat, seizures, coma Can result from overmedication to treat diabetes !asting hypoglycemia can occur in absence of food )eactive hypoglycemia can occur in response to consumption of high-carb foods +A

too much insulin released, eliminated too much blood glucose

What is the )(+ for carbs? 3he +* for fiber? +A= g$day carbs prevents #etosis, meets energy needs )7 for fibre * AO g$day for men, ,< g$day for (omen 6hole grains, vegetables, fruits Dinimize ba#ery products, candy, pop, refined$added sugars in general How have the fat consumption patterns of anadians changed over the past 'B years? (e are eating more fat than before, but (e are also eating more Calories, so the percentage of Calories from fat is about the same Doved from fat inade2uacies to e cesses 6e0re eating less saturated, trans fats, increasing healthy fats !yaH% @izza, sand(iches, burgers, ca#es, coo#ies, doughnuts are main sources of fat in our diet (ifferentiate between saturated vs unsaturated fatty acids vs trans fats& Gaturated 'ats ) ') (ith no double bonds is the most saturated (ith hydrogens * saturated !+s 19!+2 Typically solid at room temperature, common in animal products >onger chain G')s3 more common in animal foods, increased CB4 ris# Dedium chain G')s3 found in tropical oils, easier to digest$absorb !go directly into the lymph%, may promote (eight loss Unsaturated 'ats 6nsaturated fatty acids have one !mono% or more !poly% double bonds >i2uid at room temperature, more common in plant based foods Donounsaturated ')s !DU')s% * one double bond @ositive effects on >4> cholesterol, health controversial @olyunsaturated ')s !@U')s% * ,M double bonds /ssential ')s * first double bond before position " / . Omega-A, Omega-? Omega-A are especially implicated in promoting heart health Trans 'ats 9are in nature @roduced through the process of hydrogenation (ith unsaturated oils - hydrogen atoms added to carbon-carbon double bonds to ma#e them more saturated 7mproves shelf life / . Gome margarines, shortening, coo#ing oil *ncrease risk of heart diseaseC )ssociated (ith higher >4> !IbadJ% cholesterol and 84> !IgoodJ% cholesterol ROn a per-calorie basis, trans fats appear to increase the ris# of C84N more than any other macronutrient, conferring a substantially increased ris# at lo( levels of consumption !+ to A; of total energy inta#e%R. !Dozaffarian et. al ,==?% How are trans fats made? How do they affect health? Trans 'ats 9are in nature; @roduced through the process of hydrogenation (ith unsaturated oils - hydrogen atoms added to carbon-carbon double bonds to ma#e them more saturated !8 atoms on opposite sides and ma#es ') straight% 7mproves shelf life / . Gome margarines, shortening, coo#ing oil *ncrease risk of heart diseaseC )ssociated (ith higher >4> !IbadJ% cholesterol and 84> !IgoodJ% cholesterol +&

ROn a per-calorie basis, trans fats appear to increase the ris# of C84N more than any other macronutrient, conferring a substantially increased ris# at lo( levels of consumption !+ to A; of total energy inta#e%R. !Dozaffarian et. al ,==?%

(ifferentiate between the types of essential fatty acids and their functions& /')s 8umans unable to synthesize @U')s (ith double bonds in omega-? and omega-A positions3 re2uire from diet !8!+s% ;inoleic acid !omega-?% Corn, safflo(er oils. +rachidonic acid !omega-?% is only essential (hen the diet doesn0t provide enough linoleic acid for the body to synthesize enough of it +lpha-linolenic acid 1S-linolenic acid2 !omega-A% 8icosapentaenoic acid 187+2, (ocosahexaenoic acid 1(H+2 * omega A ')s only essential if you don0t have enough of )>) Gynthesized from S-linolenic acid 'ound in fatty fish, many fortified products /') 'unctions 7mportant for formation of phospholipid bilayer of cell membrane Therefore important for gro(th, s#in integrity, fertility, red blood cell structurePP. )rachidonic acid and 48) essential for normal brain development in infants and young children >onger chain omega-?s and omega As help form eicosanoids What are eicosanoids and how do they differ depending on what they are derived from? /icosanoids 8ormone-li#e molecules Their effects depends on the /') they (ere derived from 7f derived from (-A fatty acids, associated (ith3 Basodilation inhibition of blood clotting reduce inflammation lo(er blood cholesterol 7f derived from (-? fatty acids, associated (ith vasoconstriction promote blood clotting promote inflammation What is a phospholipid and what is its role in our body? @resent in small amounts in our food; not essential 8ave a hydrophobic )N4 hydrophilic end !phosphate group M glycerol and , fatty acids% )llo( (ater and fat to mi !e . fat emulsification% / . Goy lecithin 'orm the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane What is a micelle? @roducts of triglyceride digestion, cholesterol, and phospholipids mi (ith bile in G7 to form micelle - little fat globules to facilitate absorption (escribe the structure of a triglyceride& Clycerol (ith A fatty acid chains #now the main functions of chylomicrons, ?;(;, ;(;, H(; and where4how they are formed& You should also know what each of them is primarily composed of& +<

Transport from the Gmall 7ntestine )fter they have been absorbed, TCs M phospholipids, cholesterol and protein form a lipoprotein called a chylomicron too large to enter CBG at capillaries, so enter lymph Chylomicrons circulate in blood, delivering TCs The enzyme lipoprotein lipase promotes the upta#e of TCs into body cells !e . )dipocytes% Once TC enters cells, can be used to form )T@ or they are processed for storage in adipocytes The chylomicron (ill then end up in the liver, (ere it is bro#en do(n Transporting >ipids >ipids synthesized by the liver are transported in the form of very-low-density lipoproteins 1?;(;s2 8igh proportion of cholesterol, TCs )s TCs are removed from B>4>, it becomes more dense, transformed into low-density lipoproteins 1;(;s2 >4>s * primary cholesterol delivery system Lbad cholesterol0; associated (ith increased ris# of heart disease 1ody cells cannot typically brea# do(n cholesterol, so it is returned to the liver by high-density lipoproteins !84>% to be eliminated 84> * Lgood cholesterol0 8igh levels of 84> are associated (ith decreased ris# of heart disease

What is beta-oxidation? - @rocess by (hich long fatty acid chains bro#en off into , carbon molecules to form acetyl Co) !(ith coenzyme ) and presence of o ygen% What is the proper name for the storage form of fat found in the body? Dost lipids are stored in adipose tissue >ight(eight energy storage Theoretically limitless ability to store fat in adipocytesH @rovides insulation, cushioning >ipids lubricate .oints, s#in Transport fat soluble vitamins >ipids provide sensory 2ualities to foods
What are the functions of fat? Dost lipids are stored in adipose tissue >ight(eight energy storage Theoretically limitless ability to store fat in adipocytesH @rovides insulation, cushioning >ipids lubricate .oints, s#in Transport fat soluble vitamins >ipids provide sensory 2ualities to foods >ipid as /nergy Gource >ipids provide " #cal$g Clycerol can be used to synthesize glucose, pyruvate 1eta-o idation splits t(o carbons off a ') at a time , carbon molecule combines (ith coenzyme ) to form acetyl Co) What is atherosclerosis? What increases your risk of it? 8eart disease is typically associated (ith the build up of fatty deposits in the artery (alls, a condition called atherosclerosis )therosclerosis is associated (ith a diet high in saturated fat, trans fat, cholesterol

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*nflammation drives the formation of atherosclerotic plaques @la2ue narro(s an artery, reducing blood flo( 7f something gets stuc# in that narro(ed artery !e . blood clot%, it can lead to the death of do(nstream tissue 7n the heart * heart attac# 7n the brain * stro#e

How are lipids related to heart disease risk? 4iet and 8eart 4isease 9is# )nything that increases blood cholesterol$ >4> levels, increases ris# trans fats, saturated fat, cholesterol 76!+$DU')-rich diets * lo(ered ris# Omega-A fatty acids reduce ris# Nuts, olives, avocados * high in DU')s @lant sterols lo(er blood cholesterol @resent in ' $B, nuts, seeds, cereals, legumes, veg oils +ntioxidants and 1 vitamins may reduce ris# / cessive sodium may increase ris# How are lipids associated with cancer risk? Cancer * Uncontrolled cell gro(th and spread 4iets high in fat !especially animal% have higher ris# 4iets high in DU')s may have lo(er ris# of breast cancer 4iets high in trans fats may increase breast, colon, prostate cancer ris# 4iets high in '$B tend to have lo(er ris# What are the fat recommendations? Deeting >ipid Needs )D49 for fat * ,=-A<; of total Calories Gome must come from /')s )7 for linoleic acid * +,g$day !'%, +:g$day !D% )7 for S-linolenic acid is +.+g$d !'%, +.?g$day !D% Feep trans fats, saturated fats, cholesterol to a minimum !you don0t need these at allHH% Children3 )D49* A=-&=; !+-A%, ,<-A<; !A-+O%

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