UNIVERSITY OF ZULULAND

Faculty of Arts

DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNICATION SCIENCE

MEDIA STUDIES
(ACOM221)

Compiler: Mr. Marathane Reggy Metso Study Guide - 2010

Table of Contents
Foreword Overall Outcome.. Weekly Outline Introduction to Media Studies . Brief background of the Media within South African context.. A period of restructuring Independent Communication Authority of South Africa Who owns South Africas newspaper?................................................................................................................. Media institutions Media policy. Media ownership and control Political issues in Media Policy Development.. The future of media freedom and state censorship. Political challenges in Media Policy Development.. Technological issues in Media Developments . Approaches to Media Studies . What is theory?........................................................................................................................................................ The value of theory.. Theoretical approaches ........................................................................ Positivism approach... Functionalism. Media-society theory-Functionalism.. Critical theory today.. What is ideology?........................................................................................................................................................ Critical theory Functions of the Media... The role of media in a society ..................................................................... Functionalism.. New Media Technologies .... Convergence of technologies ... Digitalization of technologies...

Foreword

I want to be part of the South African growing communication industry w hich needs [the] right people with [the] right qualifications. I have [a] passion for the media and think I have a lot to offer in the industry. I want to be in the industry to explore my talents in as many ways as possible. I am also fascinated by the industry itself. Paddi Clay, Head of Programme, Johnnic Pearson Journalism Training, Johnnic Communications
Media is responsible for the stability of the country. There has to be transparency which may

eventuate to the transformation of the media in South Africa. Our learners need to be equipped with the credentials of being professional producers and owners of the media and have media houses as well as to be in a position to promote decency in the media industry. Mr. Marathane Reggy Metso Department of Communication Science University of Zululand

Lecturer: Mr. Reggy Lesotho Dodoo Metso Marathane Tel: +27 35 902 6167 Fax: +27 (0) 86 516 8957 Email: dodoology@gmail.com Department of Communication Science: Room 606

OVERALL OUTCOME The purpose of Media Studies as a module is to provide learners with knowledge of media institutions, functionalist and critical media theories, and media issues, and to enable them to research topics such: as media institutional practices, ownership, regulation, censorship, media and democratization, and the power and functions of the media. Media ethics and transformation process of the media in South Africa The digitalization and globalization of technologies Course Rules and regulations: Welcome to this course and please take note of the following regulations: There are many ingredients that may lead you to fail! You will fail if you do not: Attend lectures Submit your activities/assignments on due dates Write your students number correctly on your answer book Follow instructions given to you by the lecturer Please, learn to write legibly, neatly and avoid silly mistakes (grammatical errors) when writing. You should take responsibility of your own progress. In addition: Any form of work that bears plagiarism will not be marked!

 The course has been designed in such a way that there are to be practicals which will contribute to your total mark at the end of the semester. These practicals will be dealt with in soloist set-up (individually) or in groups! There will impromptu tests and assessments in class. This means, they will be conducted at random without notifying the students. We do not study to pass but to

equip ourselves for future purposes!

You are, therefore, advised to open email accounts as this will help with easier and smooth interaction between the students and the lecturer. Virtual classroom is active for user-friendly interaction. Down-load some notes and activities from the virtual classroom: www.comsci.uzulu.ac.za/ Dates of assignments and assessments are provided in advance so that you have adequate study and preparation time. If you miss an assignment deadline, your assignment will not be accepted and you will be given a ZERO. Speak to your lecturer before the assignment is due and not on the due date. Assignments must be typed. Font size is 12, Arial/Times New Roman. Use 1, 5 spacing, justify your assignments. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Cautions Apply the 13th Commandment: Thou shalt make a backup (of your essay). Late submission because a disc became corrupted or lost is not a valid excuse. Plagiarism is a disciplinary and a criminal offence! Plagiarism is the stealing of other peoples ideas, sentences and some in instances their specific use of particular words and phrases, without adequate citation. Where an essay relies overmuch on a single source, this can under certain conditions also transgress the legality of laws on copyright. Proof-read your work thoroughly before handing in your assignment.
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A format and a lay-out of the cover-page for this module:

UNIVERSITY OF ZULULAND
FACULTY OF ARTS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNICATION SCIENCE

TOPIC: Factors determining Media Development

Name: Mopheme Bohashana Student Number: 203509284 Course: Media Studies ACOM152 Lecturer: Dr. Michael Jackson Due Date: 01st October 2012 Submission Date: 02nd October 2012

Signed:----------------------------

Rubric: How have todays media evolved/changed/developed? What factors have driven or determined media development?
Pay a particular attention to the key words of the question, before writing your answer. First of all, in your first paragraph, you should explain new or unfamiliar words or phrases. In this instance, you need to explain what the term media means:

Media are tools used to disseminate information as well as to promote interaction between the two parties. According to OShaughness and Stadler (2006: 3) the media include a whole host of modern communication systems, for example, cinema, television, newspapers, magazine, advertisements, radio and interactive multimedia.
In the following paragraph, you should explain or give an outline (this is like your plan) of how you are going to attempt or write your assignment or work. In this instance, you have to explain what the term media development means, and furthermore, discuss the factors that have driven/determined development:

The paper begins by defining what media and media development mean. Furthermore, it discusses the factors that have driven/determined media development, namely, social, economic and technological factors. Media development: Media development means the improvement or advancement of media tools in a society. This improvement may be eventuated by a number of factors, for example, to improve the lifestyles of people as well as broadcasting information to the audience in an easier way. The following sketched out factors are examples of factors that have impacted towards the development of media. Social Factors: First, the role of human creativity can include inventors of new technologies, such as Thomas Edison and practitioners of these technologies, for example photographers, camera-people, film directors, composers. Take for instance, the Mission Impossible directed by John Woo. As the film or movie director he has composed all the episodes in comprehensively for the audience to understand and follow the movie. He has also devised attracting elements to make the movie more interesting. The film is therefore, passing some information to its audience (target group) at that time.

Examples on citing and referencing

Direct quote from a book or journal article with one author

When organising our time, Adair (1988: 51) states that the centrepiece will tend to be goals and objectives. OR When organising our time the centrepiece will tend to be goals and objectives (Adair, 1988: 51). In these examples, Adair is the author, 1988 is the year of publication and 51 is the page number where the direct quote can be found.

Direct quote from a book or journal article with two authors

Dlamani and Zondi (1996: 69-70) insist that with presentations structure must be clear and precise. OR With presentations, structure must be clear and precise (Dlamani and Zondi, 1996: 69-70). In these examples, the quote went over two pages therefore the page numbers were represented as 69-70, rather than as a single number. Also notice from the examples so far, that when the quote ends the sentence, the full stop comes after the inverted comma.

Direct quote from a book or journal article with three authors

Fisher, Sekake and Govender (1991: 37) suggest that when emotional issues cloud negotiation, some thoughts are best left unsaid. OR Some thoughts are best left unsaid when emotional issues cloud negotiation (Fisher, Sekake and Govender, 1991: 37).

If hypothetical authors Morris, Dumo, Brown, Smith, and Gama wrote a book published in 2000, a direct quote would look like this. Note that in the next example, et al means and others.

Direct quote from a book or journal article with more than three authors
Morris et al (2000: 47) state that the debate of these particular issues should be left to representative committees. When you paraphrase, it will look much the same as the direct quotation examples, but without the inverted commas. For example, if we paraphrased an example from the McCarthy and Hatcher book, it would look like this. By improving your posture you can improve how you communicate feelings of power and confidence (McCarthy and Hatcher, 1996: 111).

An example of citing an Internet within a text: MyWireless was launched in January 2004 (www.ipwireless.com: 2005). More or less the same as WiMAX broadband from Telkom (discussed below).

An example on Bibliography:
Bibliography Internet Sources Adams, S. May, 2005. S. A. moving towards digitized broadcasting. Available Online at www.iol.co.za, accessed on 20.08.05. Monteiro, A. February, 2005. Price cuts: a drop in the ocean. Available Online at www.moneyweb.co.za/news, accessed in 23. 09. 2005. Newspapers Truen, S. 21.4.2005: 1-2. Telkom rip-off. Johannesburg. The Citizen

Primary Sources De Beer, A.S. (Ed.). 1998. Mass media towards the millennium. Cape Town: J.L. van Schaik.

Downing, J. D. H. 1984. Radical media. Boston: South End Press. Doyle, G. 2002(b). Media Ownership. London: Sage Publications. Doyle, G. 2002(a). Media economics. London: Sage Publications. Fourie, P. (Ed.). 2001. Media studies. South Africa: Juta. Hamelink, C. 1994. The politics of world communication - A human rights perspective. London: Sage.

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Week 1: 14 - 18-July

Introduction to Media Studies What is Media Studies A period of Restructuring Policy and legislation Political Change Who owns the Media Media Institutions
ASSESSMENT

Week 2 : 21-25 July

Week 3 : 28 July - 01 Aug

Week 4: 04 08 Aug Week 5: 11- 15 Aug

Media Policy Media ownership and control Political Issues in Media Policy Development The future of media freedom and state censorship

Week 6: 18-22 Aug

Multinational involvement, electronic media and technological convergence The free and equal flow of information to and for all the citizens The consequences of free media system for democracy 2nd Assessment Political Challenges in Media Policy Development Social and cultural issues in Media Policy Development Language Technological Issue in Media Development Telecommunication; challenges in MPD Broadcasting The SABC as a public service broadcaster Newly developed satellite broadcasting system 3rd Assessment Approaches to Media Studies What is theory The value of theory, goals of theory and goals of mass media theory Theoretical approach: positivism approach, functionalism Critical theory today, what is ideology, critical theory, criticism of critical theory 4th Assessment ACADEMIC RECESS Functions of Media; the role of media in a society; functionalism New Media technologies; a conceptual framework of new technologies The consequences of new media technologies, global village and globalization; Convergence of technologies Digitalization of technologies

Week 7: 25-29 Aug

Week 8: 01-05 Sept

Week 9: 08-12 Sept

Week 10: 15-19 Sept

Week 11: 22-26 Sept Week 12: 29 Sept-03 Oct Week 13: 06-10 Oct

Week 14: 13-17 Oct

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Study Unit 1

INTRODUCTION TO MEDIA STUDIES This unit focuses on the definition of Media Studies, the why part of Media Studies and a brief background of media within South African context. Defining the media; The media include a whole host of modern communication systems, for example, television, newspapers, magazines, advertisements, radio, and interactive multimedia. We can also include video games, computers, mobile phones, pagers, texters, and the Internet. Defining the media is not easy because the media are constantly changing with the development of new forms and technologies. However, there are a number of characteristics, historical developments, and determining factors that delineate what the media are, and these can lead us towards a definition. Media characteristics: The media are human communication systems; The media use processes of industrialized technology for producing messages; The media generally aim to reach large audience or be used by many people and hence have sometimes been referred to as mass media operating through mass production, their success is often built on popularity; The media usually aim to allow communication across distance (and/or time) between people, or to allow communication in which the sender does not need to be present as the communication is both recorded and transmitted; The media are called media because they are literally in the middle, or, ar e the middle chain, of this communication (media means middle in Latin), they are the mechanisms that connect the sender and the receiver of messages; The medias development has been affected by commercial interests that recognize that media are potentially highly profitable industries. Media determinants: There are some determining factors, including the development of industrial technology to produce, send and receive messages. Technology is central to the media but technological changes do not just happen magically. Media analysts need to ask: what brings about these technological changes and developments? The answer is that the media develop within specific economic and social frameworks, and from specific economic and social determinants.

Think About it: How have todays media evolved/changed/developed? What factors have
driven or determined media development?

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Socially there are three significant factors: a) First, the role of human creativity which can include inventors of new technologies, such as Thomas Edison and practitioners of these technologies, for example photographers, camera-people, film directors, composers. b) Second, the role of people in positions of social power and control who can limit and control the media as well as help develop them. Many governments, concerned about the potential power of the media, have sought to retain some control through censorship laws, licensing, and so-called public ownership of the media. For instance, President Robert Mugabes Zimbabwean government routinely prosecutes journalists who are critical of the government policies. In relation to television, the result of attempts to retain control over the medias power has often been a two tiered system of public and private ownership: in Australia the ABC is a public broadcast system while channels 7, 9, and 10 (satellite and cable) are all private; in the United Kingdom the BBC channels are public broadcast, while ITV, channels 4 and 5 satellite, and cable are private. In South Africa there are three public broadcast channel: SABC1, SABC2, AND SABC3. In addition, there is one free to air commercial channel, e-TV, and private subscription services are available to MNET and DSTV. Most of the television channels in the USA are privately owned or are independent. Generally the private media, funded by advertising and thus linked to economic production and consumption, are larger than the public system, but they are small bound to uphold laws of decency and acceptability that are monitored through government legislation. Additionally, socially responsible citizens may set up watchdog committees or organizations morally police the media. As a force for developing media technology: socially powerful groups operate significantly in relation to warfare technology: The development of weaponry and defense technologies in World Wars I and II, the Cold War, the Vietnam war and Gulf wars all contributed to innovations in the media. The development of early video-camera technology, for example, was related to its use of American military surveillance; the Internet, cable, and satellite technologies were all originally developed for the military. Other media technological advances are spin-offs from the decisions by American and Russian governments to invest in space technologies c) The third social factor is audiences and consumers: media success and viability relies on providing satisfaction for its audiences. If audiences are not buying a media product it is likely to fail. For example,, in the history of photography, film, video and the Internet we can see how the (male) audience desire for pornography and was huge driving force in the development of all of these technologies and the way thy were distributed and popularized. This last example and the significance of audience demand points us directly to economic factors. The distributors of pornography are not that interested in making their audience happy, they want to make money. Most media changes have occurred within capitalist economies, so their development has been hugely influenced by profit motives and we must understand that the media have been developed in the interests of making money. Media history shows that technological changes tend to 13

be implemented when they are seen to be profitable. Thomas Edison, who developed the phonograph and wireless, was at least as much a business man as he was an inventor. All this shows how the various determining factors technological, social, and economic, are closely interlinked. We want to stress the economic because in some ways it is the least visible or obvious factor, yet it is very important in the production of media. The popularity of reality TV, for example, is obviously driven by audience interest and advanced camera technologies which make it possible to set up a Big Brother camera surveillance house, and the result of creative minds coming up with the concept. But note how the cheapness of the production of these programs as opposed to fictional dramas, which need writers, actors, costumes, sets, is crucial in a time of increasing television competition and note how audience participation encourages audiences to use and buy the latest mobile phone and SMS technologies. The programs dont just make money for the telephone companies through the phone-ins; more importantly they get audiences used to using the se technologies. As Bill Hammock has noted, the AT&T telephone communication company in America invested in the development of the American Idol series to get Americans into the habit of text messaging (Hammock 2004).

Exercise/discussion

In what ways can you see the five determining factors at play in the production, distribution, and consumption of Queer Eye for the Straight Guy or Australian Idol or a slick commercial comedy like Desperate Housewives, (or any other sitcom that you know)? NOTE: While the complexity of the media makes definitions difficult, the following brief definition is a useful starting point: the media are technologically developed communication industries, normally making money, held either in public or private ownership, which can transmit information and entertainment across time and space to individuals and/or large groups of people. This transmission if information is not one-way. The recipients of media messages are also involved in the process of communication as part of a feedback loop that influences the production if media. While it is true that many media forms such as television, radio, film, and newspaper have asymmetrical flow of communication from one sender to many receivers, the rise of more interactive media forms has changed this dynamic. Even in television, radio, and newspapers the audience contributes something to the communicative exchange (primarily through the process of constructing meaning, but also through ratings, research, SMSs and email, talkback, letters to the editor, and other feedback mechanisms). The one - to-many model of mass communication is also being transformed by technological advances.

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Why study or teach about the media?

As a starting point for this chapter and your study we pose some basic questions.

Exercise/discussion:
Why are you studying the media and what are hoping to get out of this? Take time to think about this and write down your thoughts and feelings. There are no right or wrong answers to this question (or rather, all the answers are right). It is useful for you to record your position so you can compare it with other peoples and so you can look back on it later. When you have done the exercise, read the following exercise commentary.

Exercise commentary:
Your answer might be about creativity and expressivity, you may want to make videos or television programs. It might also be vocational (you want to be guaranteed a good job as a journalist) financial (you see the media as an excellent way of making lots of money), or critical (you may want to critique the manipulative power of the media and understand its potential as a mechanism of beneficial social change). Or it may simply be curiosity, you may be fascinated by these technological communication systems that take up such a large part of many peoples lives. Your answer may include aspects of all of these positions, or it may raise many other points. It will probably change while you are studying the media. Keep it as a reference point to look back on. If you can, spend about fifteen minutes sharing your answer with three or four friends to give you an awareness of other peoples interests and other ways of thinking about the media.

Exercise/discussion

Do you think the media in general are good or bad? 1. Take time to make a list of all the arguments you can think of for and against the media: that is, those that posit the media as a good or bad thing. 2. ask yourself: whose interests do the media serve, or who benefits from the production, distribution, and consumption of media tests and messages? Also ask other people you live, work, study, or socialize with, and make a note of their different perspectives. When you answer these questions, try to include both general statements about the media and particular detailed examples that support these statements. Share and compare your answers with others.
If you require a stimulus to answering these questions, try watching CNN, Media Watch, SKYNEWS, Aljazeera, any episodes from The Bold and the Beautiful, 7de laan or any other television programs that are about the media. Certain fiction films such as Wag the dog, State and Main, and the Natural Born Killers also reflect on the role of the media in society and documentaries such as Outfoxed, Control Room, and Manufacturing Consent give

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fascinating insights into media news production. When you have done the exercise, read the following exercise commentary.

Exercise commentary

The question about good or bad media is designed to reveal the contradictory ways we think about the media, and the different ways media are used. It may also point out the difference between how the media could be used in society (their potential use), and how they are used in society (their actual use). Potentially, the media could be used in lots of different ways, for example,, to increase our understanding of global inequalities or as a means of democratic voting, actual use refers to the current practices of the media. The potential power of the media, and their regulation and control, are a major concern for all contemporary societies. The points in the table below suggest a number of different general positions for and against the media, they all contain some truth and they highlight many of th e concerns of media studies. For The medias huge range of cultural information and entertainment contributes to the development of popular knowledge. People are more aware and better educated through the media than ever before. The media can inspire and develop actively, encouraging us to do new things in our lives. The media help us explore and develop our understanding of sex and violence by depicting social attitudes and inviting critique of the behaviours that are represented. The media are truthful and informative, and they make a major contribution to democracy and social accountability, offering us a window on the world. The media are democratic allowing al people a voice in the world. The media enable free thought of speech to be disseminated. Against The media offer people a repetitive diet of worthless trivia. Like bread and circuses, they cater to the lowest intellectual abilities. The media make us passive observers, couch potatoes and we thereby lose the ability to think or act for ourselves. The media corrupt and pervert us and our children, desensitizing our feelings and emotions, and encouraging immoral sexual behaviour and violent acts. The media, therefore, need to be heavily censored. The media are a series of false constructions serving minority political interests. The media serve commercial interests and totally controlled by multinational corporations and advertisers. The media are in business of controlling our consciousness, thereby controlling who we are and how we think. Access to the media is limited. The media are making us all the same and destroying marginalized cultures. The media a form of cultural imperialism,

The media are shrinking the globe, uniting us bringing us closer together, creating s global village. The media give space to the voices of

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different social groups and cultures. The media are an agent of social change.

whereby dominant cultures impose their values on less powerful cultures. The media maintain the status quo.

Two examples illustrate some of these arguments. John Hartley has noted how Nelson Mandela in his autobiography (Mandela 1995) talks about his arrival in Canada where he was greeted by many Inuits who celebrated his arrival. They witnessed his release from prison in South Africa on television. His freedom struggle connected with their struggles for land and political rights in Canada, but it was television that had made it possible the connection between these different and geographically very distant people. As Mandela said, Television had shrunk the world and had, in the process, become a great weapon for eradicating ignorance and promoting democracy (Mandela 1995, quoted in Hartley and McKee 1996, p. 74)[T]he media can be seen as part of a purely self-serving and profit-motivated consumerist culture. We can see this by looking at the Spider-Man films. Spider-Man and its sequel Spider-Man 2 have been heavily promoted and packaged for release to a generation that had not seen the comic on cinema screens. Huge amounts of money were spent advertising and promoting it around the world. This combined with the system of film distribution and release and other marketing tools, made the release commercially successful, veritable money-making machine. The original release of the first Spider-Man movie also demonstrates the money-making capacity of Hollywood films. In the original release, the profits made from selling Spider-Man merchandize, toys, models, sweets and so on, exceeded the profits from the box office. The original Spider-Man comic, the ensuing TV cartoon and then the first film can thus be seen as a long advertisement for other goods.

Fears about political use of the media: The fears about the political ends to which the media can be put relate to the way the media can be used by political parties to control people. While the totalitarian fascist and communist states of the 1930s inspired these fears, political uses of the media also occur in the democratic societies, where advertising can be seen as a form of propaganda and brainwashing that supports capitalist consumerism Fear that the media may be used for political purposes is one reason why many countries insist that the government should not own and/or control the media. This fear also lies behind many of the debates about who has the right to media ownership. Note, however, that media practitioners always see themselves as political watchdogs and in this respect, are referred to as the fourth estate. The media, as the fourth estate, are a body who can comment on, criticize and investigate through free speech, what these other institutions do. Fears about the medias influence on morals: The moral fears arise from the concern that the media will be a corrupting force, particularly in relation to sex and violence. It is argued that peoples values can be corrupted by the media they consume. This has led to moral panics and campaigns against too much sex and violence on television. The moral panic tends to focus on the effects of media consumption on young people because they supposedly have less experience on which to base sound judgments and less developed critical faculties with which to position fiction or

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other media content in relation to external reality. It has been suggested that the cumulative effects of consuming media that contains violent and or sexualized content might be particularly harmful for young viewers, due in part to the tendency of young people to learn my mimesis (mimicking or imitating what they see and hear). Fears about the medias influence on culture: There are those who fear that the media devalue a societys culture because what they produce is so trivial or superficial. This is best illustrated in the debates around the relative importance of so-called high and low culture. High culture is supposedly the great art produced by a society, art that is morally uplifting, complex, and serious. It is said to be found in such cultural products as opera, painting and great literature, the understanding and interpretation of which require training and specialist instruction. It is elitist because usually only the privileged, educated and rich have the leisure-time, money and skills to access and appreciate it. Low or popular culture is what the masses consume. It is found in magazines, mass-market paperbacks, popular cinema and on television. Critics of low culture deride it as morally degrading and simple.
Exercise/discussion:
a) Can you find any contemporary news reports in the press, TV, or radio which suggest the dangers pf the media? How do these fears relate to our discussion? b) Consider your own media experience since you were a child. Do you think exposure to the media has been harmful or beneficial to you? c) What for you are the positives and negatives of high culture and popular culture? In these discussions, always think of specific media examples to support your viewpoint.

NOTE: Political economy of the media Think About it: Who controls the media and does this determine its content? The main argument put forward is that the media will serve the interests of whoever owns and controls them, whether this be private individuals interested in profit or governments interested in political control. The political economy approach involves conducting research into who owns and controls the media and what government legislation is in place relating to the media, in order to determine what effects this has on media output. Political economy explains how the media are determined by a combination of economic and social/political factors, particularly ownership and control of the media.

1. What is Media Studies? Media Studies is the systematic, critical, and analytical study of the media (television, radio, press, video, film, the Internet) as one of the most important producers and disseminators of symbolic meanings (content) to the public, a group, an organization and/or the individual (Pieter Fourie 2007: xxi). Media Studies investigates the owners of the media, the producers of media content, the media content itself, and the users (readers, listeners, viewers) of 18

media. It investigates the (power) relationships between the media and politics, media and culture, media and economy, media and society, and between the media and the public as well as the relationship between media and democracy, and freedom of expression as a prerequisite for democracy. Media studies can be an attempt at neutral and descriptive analysis, trying to explain, from the outside, how the media work, or it can be politically engaged, aiming to challenge hoe media work. Much of media studies has been idealistic, it has been a part of the search for a more equal society, and this aspect has given it political slant. Karl Marx coined the phrase: The point is not to understand the world but to change it. We see media studies operating in this broad political arena of developing and encouraging social change and debate about political issues but we also think there is a point to understanding the world. Why Media Studies? The media form a backbone of the marketing, advertising and public relations industries. Without the media, these industries will fail to grow and play a role as important financial institutions and providers of jobs. From a communication science perspective, the most important reason for media studies is the recognition of the media as fundamental to democracy. The other reason for the importance of media studies relates to the media users or media audiences themselves. There is an increased awareness amongst a growing population of media users of the role of the media in their lives and the need to understand this role. Who are the media people and institutions, how do they operate, and what is the content and quality of these products that play such an important role in how we define ourselves, our society, our world and, eventually, our perceptions of reality? 1.1 Brief Background of the Media within South African context Why do we need to study the history of the media? Our understanding of the nature and structure of the present media environment is largely influenced by what happened in the past. Despite being the most economically advanced country on the continent, South Africa was among the last countries in Africa to introduce television broadcasting to its population. The main reason was that television was viewed as potentially undermining the apartheid government's ideology. The white minority regime saw it as a threat to its control of the broadcasting media, even though the state-controlled South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) had a virtual monopoly on radio broadcasting. It also saw the new medium as a threat to Afrikaans and the Afrikaner volk, giving undue prominence to English, and creating unfair competition for the Afrikaans press. The National Party's Dr Albert Hertzog, Minister for Posts and Telegraphs at the time, said that TV would come to South Africa "over [his] dead body," denouncing it as "a miniature bioscope [cinema] over which parents would have no control." He also argued that "South Africa would have to import films showing race mixing; and advertising would make (non-

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white) Africans dissatisfied with their lot." The Dutch Reformed Church also proclaimed the new medium as the "devils own box, for disseminating communism and immorality". However, many white South Africans, including Afrikaners, did not share Hertzog's reactionary views, and regarded the hostility towards what he called "the little black box" as absurd. When Neil Armstrong became the first man to set foot on the moon in 1969, South Africa was one of the few countries unable to watch the event live, prompting one newspaper to remark that "The moon film has proved to be the last straw The situation is becoming a source of embarrassment for the country." In response to public demand, the government arranged limited viewings of the landing, in which people were able to watch recorded footage for fifteen minutes. The opposition United Party pointed out that less economically advanced countries in Africa had already introduced television, while neighbouring Southern Rhodesia, had introduced it as early as 1961. 1.1.1 History of the press in South Africa During the apartheid era, newspapers had to apply for registration if they published more than 11 times a year. An arbitrary amount was also required before registration was approved. The government also enforced regulations controlling what newspapers could or could not publish, especially relating to articles and comment on activities against the apartheid system. Newspapers were, for instance, not allowed to quote banned organizations and their spokesmen, or report on conditions inside prisons or the activities of the security forces. At the height of the anti-apartheid struggle in the 1980s, when two states of emergency were declared, censorship regulations were tightened. Newspapers were barred from reporting on any demonstrations or activity against the apartheid government or any of its laws. The threat of closure forced newspaper editors to apply a self-censorship policy, while other papers printed blank pages or whole paragraphs blacked out as a sign of protest. The Afrikaans press The Afrikaans press, on the other hand, was established mainly as a reaction to the liberal views expressed in some of the English papers, particularly relating to issues such as slavery, the tensions between the Dutch farmers and the Xhosas, and the work of the missionaries in the Cape. The editors of earlier Afrikaans newspapers were, in most cases, ministers of religion who were committed to strict Calvinistic ethics. The papers were also more concerned with the Afrikaner cause against British domination than with being commercial ventures.

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The press was seen as a cultural and political weapon for the promotion of the Afrikaans language and political independence, as well as for drumming up support against the perceived threat of Black Nationalism. The black press Jim Bailey, the son of mining tycoon Abe Bailey, started Drum in 1951 and then Golden City Post in 1955, which were both aimed at black readers. Both publications were run by white editors brought to South Africa from Fleet Street newspapers. The next phase in the development of the black press came in the 1990s when Anglo American, through Johannesburg Consolidated Investments, sold some of its publication and newspaper companies, such as Sowetan and Times Media Ltd, to black business groups in empowerment deals facilitated by the advent of democracy in 1994. 1.2 A PERIOD OF RESTRUCTURING The establishment of a regulator authority for broadcasting An area of concern in the run-up to the first democratic elections of 1994 was the partisanship of the SABC towards the Nationalist-led government and the credibility of the SABC as a news and information provider. A solution was to distance the SABC from the government through the creation of an independent broadcasting regulator Independent Broadcasting Authority. This was officially established by the passing of the IBA ACT, no. 153 of 1993, to commence work on the 30 March 1994. Owing to serious conflict of interest that affected the objectivity of the Authority and its activities, there was a creation of a new regulatory authority that was formed by amalgamating with the South African Telecommunications Regulatory Authority (Satra) to form Independent Communication Authority of South Africa (ICASA). 1.2.1 Independent Communications Authority of South Africa In May 2000 the Independent Communications Authority Act was proclaimed paving the way for the merger of Satra (South African Telecommunications Regulatory Authority) and IBA (Independent Broadcasting Authority), and the establishment of Icasa (Independent Communication Authority of South Africa). Icasa was officially formed in July 2000. It was hoped that the official merger of these two bodies would put an end to the many controversies and problems that confronted the regulation of the communications industry in South Africa. For many years this industry had been dogged by confusing, overlapping responsibilities and often unworkable policies. The Independent Broadcasting Authority Act had been amended four times and the Telecommunications Act had been amended twice. Certain amendments to the IBA Act were sent back to parliament because they were unconstitutional and a number of amendments to the Telecommunications Act were aborted.

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The central problem that faced these two separate bodies, and which now faces Icasa, is the convergence of technologies, services and the roles of private and public communication providers. Owing to the convergence of the broadcasting, telecommunications and information technologies, the merger was inevitable. 1.3 Policy and legislation The Broadcasting Act, 1999 (Act 4 of 1999) was promulgated in May 1999 and assigned the responsibility of media regulation to the IBA. The IBA had been established on 31 March 1994 to promote the development of public, private and community broadcasting services which were responsive to the needs of the public. The IBAs tasks included granting and amending broadcasting licenses, making regulations, setting license conditions, managing broadcasting frequency bands and parts of the radio frequency spectrum, and monitoring the broadcasting industry as a whole. These responsibilities have now been taken over by Icasa. 1.4 Political change Introduction of television During the 1950s and 1960s, the nationalist Government vehemently opposed the introduction of television on moral and ethical grounds. In 1971 the Meyer Commission was appointed to investigate the possibility of introducing television to South Africa. In an apparent about-turn, one of the findings of the Commission was that in a country with a diverse culture and multiplicity of languages, television should be used to advance the self development of all its peoples and to foster their pride in their own identity and culture (Mersham 1993: 175). The SABCs first test broadcasts began on 05 May 1975 and a regular service was introduced on 05 January 1976. Following the easing of media censorship under State President F.W. de Klerk, the SABC's news coverage moved towards being more objective, although many feared that once the African National Congress came to power, the SABC would revert to type and serve the government of the day. However, the SABC now also carried CNN International's TV news bulletins, thereby giving South African viewers new sources of international news. In 1996, two years after the ANC came to power, the SABC reorganized its three TV channels, so as to be more representative of different language groups. This resulted in the downgrading of Afrikaans' status by reducing its airtime, a move that angered many Afrikaans speakers. In 1981, a second channel was introduced, broadcasting in African languages such as Zulu, Xhosa, Sotho and Tswana. The main channel, then called TV1, was divided evenly between English and Afrikaans. Subtitling on TV was almost non-existent, the assumption being that people had no desire to watch programmes in languages they did not speak.

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In 1986, the SABC's monopoly was challenged by the launch of a subscription-based service known as M-Net, backed by a consortium of newspaper publishers. However, as part of its licensing restrictions, it could not broadcast news and current affairs programmes, which were still the preserve of the SABC. As the state-controlled broadcaster, the SABC was accused of bias towards the apartheid regime. Owing to South Africa's apartheid policies, the British Actors' Equity Association started a boycott of programme sales to South Africa. This, combined with a similar boycott by Australia, meant that South African TV was dominated by programming from the United States, and it was only after the end of apartheid that the boycott was lifted and non-US programming became much more widely available. In the 1990s political reforms radically transformed South Africa's Broadcasting Media. The Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA) was established in January 1994 in terms of the Independent Broadcasting Authority Act (No. 153) of 1993. The introduction of an independent regulator with constitutionally guaranteed independence was a significant step forward for the industry. The IBA later merged with the South African Telecommunications Regulation Authority (SATRA) in June 2000 to become the Independent Communications Authority of South Africa (ICASA). The merged regulator is governed by the ICASA Act of 2000 as amended. 1.4.1 Who owns South Africas newspapers? Rubric: There are four newspaper groups in South Africa: Independent Newspaper, Johnnic Communications, Naspers and CTP/Caxton. The countrys newspapers are based mainly on separate control of the editorial and management departments. Activity: Mention what each of the four newspapers dailies are. Here is a guideline: http://www.southafrica.info/ess_info/sa_glance/constitution/971557.htm

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Study Unit 2
MEDIA INSTITUTIONS Topics covered Defining institution Media institutions and society The local press scene Normative theories of media Objectivity in journalism Reading McQual, D. 2000. McQuails Mass Communication Theory. Sage Publications: London 2. Media Institutions Despite changing technology, the mass communication phenomenon persists within the whole framework of mass media institution. Media institution refers broadly to the set of media organizations and activities, together with their own formal or informal practices, rules of operation and sometimes legal and policy requirements set by the society. These reflect the expectations of the public as a whole and of the other social institutions (such as politics, governments, law, religion and the economy). Media institutions have gradually developed around the key activities of publication and wide dissemination of information and culture. They also overlap with other institutions, especially as these expand their public communication activities. Media institutions are internally segmented according to type of technology (print, film, television, etc) and often within each type (such as national versus local press or broadcasting). They also change over time and differ from one country to another. Even so, there are several typical defining features, additional to the central activity of producing and distributing knowledge (information, ideas, culture) on behalf of those who want to communicate and in response to individual and collective demand. The main features are as follows: The media institution is located in the public sphere, meaning especially that it is open in principle to all receivers and senders. The media deal with public matters for public purposes, especially with issues on which public opinion can be expected to form, they are answerable for their activities to the wider society (accountability takes place via laws, regulations and pressures from state and society). By virtue of their main publishing activity on behalf of members of a society, the media are also endowed with a large degree of freedom in their economic, political and cultural activities. Although the media can exert influence and achieve effects, the media institution is formally powerless (there is a logical relation between this absence of power and the large degree of freedom).

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Institutions are: Those enduring and organizing structures of any society, which constrain and control individuals and individualitythe term more precisely refers to the underlying principles and values according to which many social and cultural practices are organized and co-ordinated, www.mediaknowall.com, 2008.
Points to consider

Media activity is the production and distribution of

symbolic content Media operate I the public sphere and are regulated accordingly Participation as sender or receiver is voluntary Organization is professional and bureaucratic in form Media are both free and powerless

2.1 Media in relation to other institutions Media institutions exist within a context of other powerful organizations. Garnham (2000) makes a criticism of at least certain kinds of approach to media when he says, media studiestends to focus on thingsrather than the whole social process which lies behind them. Media institutions may have particular qualities and a particular position within commerce, society, culture. But they are not pre-eminent. Government uses political and legal power to modify their sphere of operation. The media also interact with other institutions, say, the military of war through TV news, or health service in a time of reorganization through an article. They are neither dominant nor submissive in this interaction, this general context, needs to be accounted for in making models of the relationship between media and society. It suggested that whatever influence media may have, this is qualified and modified. 2.1.1 Media and government The relationship between the institutions of media and government is similarly one of mutual self-interest, though entirely one of equals. When the damage goes down, it is the government that makes law and controls the flow on information vital to media. Mechanisms of regulation are controlled directly or indirectly by government. Nevertheless, the access of media to the audience means that government often wants to use media to disseminate policy, to promote initiatives, to release information into public domain, to test reactions to possible laws, and most of all to present in a public sphere a favorable view of government work.

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3. NORMATIVE THEORIES OF MEDIA PERFORMANCE

What is theory? If theory teaches us the skills of describing, interpreting and understanding, evaluating and predicting a phenomenon, such skills can become entrenched/well-established in the way(s) we have to deal with our everyday realities. Simple, everyday problems such as tense relationship between colleagues or family members can be solved by carefully describing the problem and reasons responsible for the problem, by interpreting them, evaluating the importance of the different reasons for the conflict and then predicting and deciding on solutions for the problem.
3.1 Media Performance There is quite a high measure of agreement, for example, on the basis of ideas of how the media should contribute in the working of a democratic society. In the most general terms, the media are widely expected to promote at least four main goals: Maintaining a constant surveillance (observation) of events, ideas and persons active in public life, leading both to a flow of information to the public and exposing violations (destructions) of the moral and social order, Providing an independent and radical (essential criticism) of the society and its institutions, Encouraging and providing the means for access, expression and participation by as many different actors and voices (journalists, the public: everybody should be involved freely) as is necessary or appropriate, Contributing to shared consciousness (awareness or realization) and identity (uniqueness) and real coherence (connection or consistency) of the community as a whole as well as its component groups. 3.1.1 Media-society relationships The links between mass media and society have already been approached in several different ways. The media are both a product and also a reflection of the history of their own society and have played a part in it. Despite the similarities of mass institutions across societies, the media are by origin, practice and convention very much national institutions and respond to domestic political and social pressures and to the expectations of their audiences. They reflect, express and sometimes actively serve the national interest, as determined by other, more powerful actors and institutions. Here we turn to another way in which the idea of linkage is very clearly expressed and to another kind of theory, one already referred to as normative theory. This deals with ideas of how media ought to, or are expected to, operate. While each national society is likely to have its own more or less distinctive and differentiated version of normative media theory, we can also identify some general principles of media performance which apply to modern mass communication often across different national systems. Normative theory relates to what is desirable in relation to both structure and performance.

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Structure: concerns such matters as freedom from the state or the assortment of independent channels, while performance refers to the manner in which the media carry out their chosen (or allotted) informative or entertaining tasks. There are also many conventions, professional guidelines and ethical rules which apply to what the media do, in terms of which they may be held accountable. Sometimes these have more to do with personal conduct within media organizations than with either the structure or the general performance of the media in public life.

3.2: Normative theory: by normative theory we mean views (from different perspectives and within different conditions) about the ideal role of the media in society. In short it means the media should or could do this or that. J. J. Roelofse (1996: 48-60) argues that since governments often have the power to restrict or limit newspaper, television and radio criticism of government, and since the press usually assumes a surveillance role on behalf of civil society, tensions and conflicts between these two institutions are natural and to be expected. The power that governments claim for themselves usually conflicts with the democratic right of freedom of speech, a right which is important to the media as it enables them to perform their functions properly. Normative theories are thus, mainly concerned with restrictions on (and freedom of) the media in various situations and how this impacts on the functioning in society. This was the premise of a 1950s study of the different press systems in the world (Siebert, Peterson and Schramm 1956). They developed the following four theories initially in relation to the press (newspapers), later adopted and adapted as a yardstick (measure, standard) for measurement of the freedom of expression in any country (from authoritarian to libertarian) of all media: The authoritarian theory, The libertarian theory, The social responsibility theory, The Soviet communist theory. 3.2.1 The authoritarian theory: It prevails in dictatorial societies. It continues to justify government suppression of the media (Roelofse 1996: 50). McQuail (1987: 111-112) identifies the following basic assumptions of the authoritarian press theory: The press should do nothing to undermine vested power and interest, The press should avoid acting in contravention/breaking of moral and political values, Censorship is justified in the application of these principles, Editorial attacks on vested power and authority would be seen as criminal offences and the violation of moral codes would be considered criminal offences.

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In short, under authoritarianism, the main function of the media is to publicize and to propagandize the governments ideology and actions. In other words, the press is an instrument and mouthpiece of the government. 3.2.2 The libertarian theory Roelofse (1996: 51-53) shows how the rise of democracy , religious freedom, expanded economic freedom and the general philosophical climate of the Enlightenment undermined authoritarianism and led to a new view of the role of the media in the west and increasingly also in Asia, Africa and Latin America. The emphasis on personal freedom and democracy that emerged in the late seventeenth century and flourished in the nineteenth century, gave rise to the libertarian theory in reaction to the authoritarian theory. Libertarian theory is described both in terms of the classic struggle for freedom and democracy against various forms of tyranny but also in terms of the constitutional basis and operation of the American media system. The main principle, apart from the supreme importance of the negative freedom of absence of government control, is the appeal to the self-righting process. According to this, truth triumphs over error in the end and leads to the free market place of ideas, which seems to bless private ownership and free enterprise system. According to libertarian theory, people are rational beings capable of distinguishing between truth and falsehood, and between good and evil. The search for truth is regarded as an unchallengeable natural right. In terms of these beliefs the media is seen as a source of information and a platform for the expression of divergent opinions, informing people about government affairs and other issues and enabling them to monitor their government and form their own ideas about policy. The media should be free from government control and government influence, and there must be a free market for ideas and information (Roelofse 1996: 52). The USA, Canada and Britain have had this type of media for approximately 200 years, closely followed by mainland European countries such as the Netherlands and France. The media has been encouraged to act as a fourth estate along with the legislative, executive and judicial authorities in the governing process (Siebert et al 1963: 3-4). McQuail (1987: 115) identifies the following basic assumptions of the libertarian press theory: The media should be free from any external censorship, Publication and distribution should be accessible to any individual or group without a permit or license, Editorial attacks on governments or political parties should not be punishable, There should be no coercion/force/compulsion to punish anything, No restrictions should be placed on the acquisition of information through legal channels, There should be no restriction on the expert and import of information across national borders. 3.2.3 The social responsibility theory

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The theory of social responsibility involved a view of media ownership as a form of public trust or stewardship, rather than as an unlimited private franchise/permit/authorization. For the privately owned media, social responsibility theory has been expressed and applied mainly in the form of codes of professional journalistic standards, ethics and conduct. The social responsibility is based on the following principles (McQuail 1987: 116-118): The media should support democratic political principles, The media are under an obligation to create a forum for different viewpoints, The independence of the media should be emphasized in relation to their responsibility towards society, The media should meet certain standards McQuail also identifies the following basic principles of the social responsibility theory: The media should accept certain responsibilities towards society, The media should fulfill their responsibilities mainly by setting professional standards with regard to the supply of information and the truth, accuracy, objectivity and balance of their reporting, The media should avoid publicizing information that can lead to crime, violence or social disruption, as well as information that can offend ethnic or religious minorities, The media should self-regulate within the frame-work of the law and established, The media collectively should represent all social groups and reflect the diversity of society by giving people access to a variety of viewpoints and the right to react to these viewpoints, Society is entitled to expect high professional standards and intervention is justifiable if the media fail to meet these standards.

Media may be subject to extensive forms of legal or administrative control (laws that govern the dissemination of information by media), protection or regulation, which often have a normative character (or justification). Because of the complexity and fragmentation of most national media arrangements, no actual media system is likely to be governed by any one pure or consistent body of normative theory, nor does practice always follow very closely what the norms seem to call for. Most systems reflect the working of different (even inconsistent) sets of normative expectations. 4. THE LOCAL PRESS SCENE

Media codes of conduct The question which governs us is: Why do we have to have codes of conduct even principles in our lives?

There are many different codes of ethical conduct, depending on the conventions and traditions of the country concerned and who formulates the code, whether it is publishers, editors, journalists or an external regulatory body. Most codes concentrate on matters to do

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with the provision of reliable information and on avoiding distortion, suppression, bias, sensationalism and the invasion of privacy, but some codes go further. Journalistic codes may try to protect the independence of journalists from undue pressure from publishers or advertisers and often also call for protection of the confidentiality (Harris, 1992). Codes of practice drawn up by publishers and editors have usually emphasized the need for freedom to publish and independence from vested interests. An example of a comprehensive code, which also has an international reference, is the International Principles of Professional Ethics in Journalism, drawn up under the auspices of UNESCO (Taber and Nordenstreng, 1993). Journalistic ethics Truth and accuracy Impartiality and fairness Respect for individual privacy Independence from vested interests Responsibility to society and the public good Respect for law Moral decency and good taste

Freedom of expression and freedom of property

Much difficulty has also arisen over the institutional forms in which press freedom has been embodied. In many contexts, press freedom has become identified with property rights and has been taken to mean the right to own and use means of publication without restraint or interference from government. Freedom to publish is, accordingly, seen as a property right that will safeguard as much diversity as exists and is expressed by free consumers bringing their demands to the marketplace. Not only have monopoly tendencies in press and other media made this a very doubtful proposition, but the extent of external financial interests in the press seems to many as potent a source of constraint on liberty of expression as does any governmental action. Moreover, under modern conditions, the notion that private ownership guarantees to the individual a realistic possibility as well as the right of publishing looks meaningless. The pure theory of press freedom presupposes that some tangible benefits of liberty will actually be delivered. THE PROFESSIONAL IDEOLOGY OF JOURNALISM The professional ideology of journalists includes the practices by which journalists select news, the notions of what constitutes news value, the reliance of official and authoritative sources for news, and the belief in their ability to remain neutral observers and report objectively. Yet all these attempts at objectivity may still lead journalists to produce highly distorted representation of reality.
Crime waves: A pioneering study by Fishman (1978) shows how the news media reporting

of crime creates media crime waves or heightened social awareness and excessive fear of crime that did not correspond to the real incidence of crime. Fishman observes that in a particular year the city of New York supposedly experienced a major crime wave. The citys 30

newspapers and television stations reported on a surge of violent crime against elderly people. Once this theme began to appear in the citys media, it was taken up by national newspapers and television networks. The result was public outcry, criticism of the justice system, formation of new police task force, new legislation and meetings between police and elderly citizens. Subsequent public opinion surveys indicated that the media reports increased public fear of crime and a perception that crime against the elderly was on the increase. Yet when the media reporting on the increase in violent crime against the elderly people was compared with reality, there was no usual surge in crime or violence against the elderly during this period. On the contrary, statistics showed a drop in murder and violent crimes involving elderly victims (Fishman 1978:532). Fishmans study shows how such a crime wave was constructed by the ideology and methods of news selection of the mass media. News theme: Newspaper, Internet, radio and television news editors face the daily task of selecting a limited number of stories from a large number of raw facts and information supplied by various sources. From such a large number of sources, only a limited number of particular stories will be selected to be included in the newspaper or television news bulletin. The chances of the story being used increases if they can be organized into themes which may play out from day-to-day. For example, from all possible stories about crime an editor may select a report on the mugging of an elderly woman in one part of town, another story of police officer presenting a crime prevention seminar to the elderly and, follow-up report on a crime story involving an elderly person that a competing newspaper may have reported the previous day. Each story, seen independently, might not have merited attention, but grouped, together all of them are made newsworthy by the perception of a common theme. It is as if the editor discovered the theme of crime against the elderly (Fishman 1978:536).
News-worthiness: According to Fishman (1978:536) the selection of news stories requires

that an incident is stripped of its actual context. It may be relocated in a new symbolic context: the news theme. Newsworthiness is also dependent on the theme: the attention given to an event, such as a single mugging, may exceed its importance, relevance or timeliness and it becomes meaningful only as an instance of the theme. For example, the mugging of an elderly person can be presented by the media as the latest instance of the continuing trend in crimes against the elderly (Fishman 1978:534). In other words, a serious crime trend is based on the medias news selection process rather than on any external real ity. (cf. Fishman 1978:534). Moreover, once it emerges in one media, the theme is often amplified by other media because journalists pick stories from their competitors. Other pick up the theme and amplify it further (Fishman 1978:51).
News sources: There must be a sustained supply of crime incidents to fit within the theme.

The sources that supply information to the media become important. For example, the police, politicians, government officials and agencies may supply the media with selected information to fit within the theme. Other officials begin to respond. The media begins to report on the doings and sayings of the authorities such as official statements, new legislations debates, formation of new police units, medical institutions actions, and community conferences of the social problem (Fishman 1978:541). Fishman (1978) concludes that many issues reported and presented by the mass media as social problems may be reporting waves constructed by the media.. Indeed, sociologists now consider a social problem not as an objective problematic situation in a society but as a particular situation that is defined as a problem by certain dominant interest groups.

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(ACTIVITY: Refer back to the broadcast news in South Africa or any other country from any form of media that created a crime wave owing to distorted dissemination of news: 30 marks). Code of conduct 1. A journalist has duty to maintain the highest professional and ethical standards. 2. A journalist shall at all times defend the principle of freedom of the press and other media in relation to the collection of information and the expression of comment and criticism. He or she shall strive to eliminate distortion, news suppression and censorship. 3. A journalist shall strive to ensure that the information he or she disseminates is fair and accurate, avoid the expression of comment and conjecture as established fact and falsification by distortion, selection or misrepresentation. 4. A journalist shall rectify promptly and harmful inaccuracies, ensure that corrections and apologies receive due prominence and afford the right of reply to persons criticized when the issue is of sufficient importance. 5. A journalist shall obtain information, photographs and illustrations only by straightforward means. The use of other means can be justified only by the overriding considerations of the public interest. The journalist is entitled to exercise a personal conscientious objection to the use of such means. 6. Subject to justification by overriding consideration of public interest, a journalist shall do nothing which entails intrusion into private grief and distress. 7. A journalist shall protect confidential sources of information 8. A journalist shall not accept bribes nor shall he or she allow other stimulus to influence the performance of his or her professional duties. 9. A journalist shall not lend himself or herself to the distortion or the suppression of the truth because of advertising or other consideration. 10. A journalist shall not originate material which encourages discrimination on the grounds or race, colour, creed, gender or sexual orientation. 11. A journalist shall not take private advantage of information gained in the course of his or her duties before the information is public knowledge. 12. A journalist shall not engage in plagiarism and shall ascribe information used in articles to the original source or individual, organization, media channel or news agency.

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Study Unit 3
MEDIA POLICY 3. What is Media Policy? Debates about media policy have been on the international agenda for decades. While these debates primarily started in developing countries during the 1960s and 1970s, they have in recent years also increasingly been addressed in developed society like the United Kingdom and the United States of America. Unesco defines Media Policy as a set of principles and norms established to guide the behaviour of communication systems. Media Policy has likewise been defined (Mowlana and Wilson, in Frederich, 1992: 138-139) as systematic, institutionalized principles, norms and behavior that are designed

through legal and regulatory procedures and/or perceived through historical understanding to guide formation, distribution, and control of the system in both its human and technical dimensions.

The process of media policy-making has been described as a reaction to a challengeintended to find a reasonable balance between forces of change and forces of preservation (Siune, McQual and Truetzchler, 1994: 1). Looking at the above definitions, the following main elements can be identified: Media policies are norms, principles or guidelines. They are established either legally, or through historical understanding They guide the behaviour (i.e. formation, distribution and control) of communication systems within a society. They come about as a result of change within a societys social, economic, political and technological fibre. 3.1 Media Ownership and Control Media ownership and control inevitably have an influence on the distribution of information to society. Three or four decades ago, a large section of the worldwide communication industry was owned and controlled by states or governments. In recent years, this has changed. Hardly, any government had increased state ownership of the media by the late 1990s. The media have fallen mainly into the hands of private ownership.

Structure and ownership

The core matters relate to the degree of freedom enjoyed by the media and also the degree of freedom and access of citizens to media of their choice. The question of freedom arises both in relation to the state but also in relation to economic and other powerful interests in the society. The essential norm is that media should have certain independence, sufficient to protect free and open public expression of ideas and information. The second part of the issue raises the question of diversity, a norm that opposes concentration of ownership and monopoly of control, whether on the part of the state or private media industry. The guiding 33

principle is that citizens should have access to media that reflect their ideas and meet their interests and needs. In addition, the many and diverse would-be voices in the society have wide opportunities to use media to communicate to the wider society (McQuail, 144).

Reorganization of media ownership through black empowerment

Ownership changes in post-apartheid South Africa have also been characterized by increased black ownership of especially the press and radio. These developments largely started in 1993 when the former Argus newspaper group decided to transfer the daily newspaper Sowetan to Dr Nthato Motlanas New Africa Investment Limited (Nail). Nail received a majority of the shares (52, 2%), with Independent Newspapers keeping 42, 5% of the shares. Nail also bought the former New Nation in March 1995. Other newspaper groups have subsequently also introduced black ownership. Times Media, for instance, sold 30% of its Eastern Cape operations to a consortium led by black businessmen in April 1996. Nasionale Pers also planned to sell a major share of City Press to a black business consortium in the Western Cape. Within the Sunday newspaper market, the Sunday Times was effectively put under black ownership with the acquisition of Johnnic by the National Economic Consortium (NEC). Concern has also arisen around the concentration of black media ownership. Only a handful of black businessmen have been in a position to acquire newspaper titles. If these trends continue, large sections of the media would be in a position similar to what it was for more than four decades, with only a few companies enjoying a monopoly within the market (Mabote, 1996). Despite these issues, the majority of South African newspaper groups seem destined to be under black ownership and control in the years to come. The South Africa government has indicated that it could refuse to advertise in newspapers which do not represent South Africas demographics. This might imply that a newspaper should express itself in a certain way, which apparently would be contrary to the principle of freedom of speech. 3.1.1 Ownership and control as seen by McQual Fundamental to an understanding of media structure is the question of ownership and how the powers of ownership are exercised. The belief that ownership ultimately determines the nature of media is not a Marxist theory but virtually a common-sense proverb summed up in Altschulls (1984) second law of journalism: the contents of the media always reflect the interests of those who finance them. Not surprisingly, there are several different forms of ownership of different media, and the powers of ownership can be exercised in different ways. As implied by Altschulls remark, it is not just ownership that counts, it is a wider question of who actually pays for the media product. Although there are media whose owners do personally pay for the privilege of influencing content, most owners just want profit, and most media are financed from different sources. These include a range of private investors (among them other media companies), advertisers, consumers, various public or private subsidy-givers, and governments. It follows that the line of influence from ownership if often indirect and complex-and it is rarely the only line of influence. 34

3.1.2 Media Ownership by Werner A. Meier In addition to ownership concentration of the mass media industry, content provision, packaging and distribution have also become a standardized production and marketing process in which the messages communicated are constrained and directed in both quantity and quality to meet the economic imperatives of that process (Melody 1978: 219). What are the implications of this? The result is that what most people hear and see in mass media is remarkably uniform in content and world-view (Neuman 1991: 130). Giddens goes even further when he calls for the democratizing of the democracy. He criticizes the untamed power of media owners:
The mediahave a double relation to democracy. On the one handthe emergence of global information is a powerful democratizing force. Yet, television, and the other media, tend to destroy the very public space of dialogue they open up, through relentless trivializing, and personalizing of political issues. Moreover, the growth, of giant multinational media corporations means that unelected business tycoons can hold enormous power (Giddnes 1999: np)

The problem of media ownership and concentration is perceived quite differently from a political economy perspective. In this context, the mass media industry is said to play a significant role in legitimating inequalities in wealth, power and privilege. When the control of the flow of information, knowledge, values and images is concentrated in the hands of those who share the power of the dominant class, the ruling class will establish what is circulated through the mass media in order to reproduce the structure of class inequalities from which they benefit. The mass media industry is crucial for the creation of reliable information, knowledge, ideology and propaganda in contemporary capitalist societies. As Strinati (1995: 137) argues, its structure of ownership and control are equally crucial. Marxist critical studies claim that the mass media assume an all-encompassing conspiracy by monopolist (Gomery 2000: 507). Political economists like Golding and Murdock (1997) see the relationship between ownership and control as an indirect and mediated one. Control is not always exercised in a direct way, nor does the economic structure of media institutions always have an immediate impact on their output. Mainstream communication researchers criticize the conspiracy theories of the media on theoretical as well as on empirical grounds, arguing that political economists views are supported only by unreliable evidence. Research is needed to assess political outcomes and alternative ways in which the media can be made more accountable to all the mediating institutions of civil society. This is a project that would seek to transform the corporate media industry into an independent media trust that would strengthen the public media system to secure both the public interest and democracy. To cite John Dewey: Talk of democracy has little content when big business rules the life of the country through its control of the means of production, exchange, the press and other means of publicity, propaganda and communication. The Media Development and Diversity Agency was established by an Act of Parliament (Act 14 of 2002) to enable historically disadvantaged communities and persons not adequately served by the media" to gain access to the media. Its beneficiaries are community media and small commercial media. MDDA was established as a partnership between the South African Government and major print and broadcasting companies.

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MDDAs objectives are to: Encourage ownership and control of, and access to, media by historically disadvantaged communities, historically diminished indigenous language and cultural groups; encourage the channelling of resources to community and small commercial media; Encourage human resource development and capacity building in the media industry, especially amongst historically disadvantaged groups; Encourage research regarding media development and diversity. 1.1.1 Primary Objectives of the Research In keeping with MDDAs first objective: encouraging ownership and control and access to media by historically disadvantaged communities as well as by the historically diminished indigenous language and cultural groups, the Agency commissioned Z-Coms to conduct a research study into trends of the existing ownership and control of media in South Africa. The research was conducted with a particular focus on categorising the trends by province and where possible by district municipality. 4. Political Issues in Media Policy Development Probably one of the most salient characteristics of South African society towards the end of the 1990s was its radical political transformation. Negotiations on political change were relatively peaceful and without widespread violence, except for a number of incidents in KwaZulu-Natal. What was even more remarkable was that negotiations were conducted among former opponents at the most extreme ends of the political spectrum. The full transition to democracy has, however, not been made and all difficulties have not been sorted out. Even a few years into democracy, the country is still faced with the challenge of ensuring political and economic stability, and simultaneously of working towards improving its international position. Media institutes equally face the challenge of contributing to political transformation by promoting democratic principles and ideals. This is related to issues of government censorship and control as well as freedom of speech and expression. Control, regulation and censorship The political changes necessitated innovative and radical rethinking of the medias position. Various players were involved in the decisions taken and the changes brought about. Among these were the government, the media industry itself, political parties, and labour unions and other organizations related to the media. In the past the South African media was said by many to prominently serve, support and strengthen the ideals of the state. Political changes inevitably imply a number of questions relating to censorship, freedom of speech and overall free flow of information worldwide, but especially so in South Africa. Keane (1993) highlights the aspects discussed below. 4.1. The future of media freedom and state censorship What is censorship?

Censorship -- the control of the information and ideas circulated within a society -- has been a hallmark of dictatorships throughout history. In the 20th Century, censorship was achieved through the examination of books, plays, films, television and radio programs, news reports,
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and other forms of communication for the purpose of altering or suppressing ideas found to be objectionable or offensive. The rationales for censorship have varied, with some censors targeting material deemed to be indecent or obscene; heretical or blasphemous; or seditious or treasonous. Thus, ideas have been suppressed under the guise of protecting three basic social institutions: the family, the church, and the state.
Censorship is the suppression of speech or deletion of communicative material which may be

considered objectionable, harmful or sensitive, as determined by a censor. The rationale for censorship is different for various types of data censored. Censorship is the act or practice of removing material from things we encounter every day on the grounds that it is obscene, vulgar, and/or highly objectionable. Whether it is on TV, in music, books, or on the Internet, censorship is an inescapable part of human society.
Whereas the South African media were considered by many to be among the freest in Africa, the state of emergency in the mid-1980s saw a number of incidents which demonstrated the contrary. After the 1994 elections many thought that the media would finally be free from state intervention, as freedom of speech (being able to speak freely without censorship) and expression was guaranteed in the countrys constitution. Again, some incidents illustrated that the road to press freedom would not be smooth and that the countrys media were still subject to political pressures in way or another. The year 1996 saw a number of occasions in which the press (especially the black press) was criticized by President Mandela and his government for not reporting positively on the actions of the government (Tomaselli, 1996: 187). 4.2 Multinational involvement, electronic media and technological convergence Critics from both sides of the spectrum state that these elements could either be very positive, or very negative for democracy (Metalitz, 1994). As with multinational involvement, technological development could also either enhance or restrict the freedom and flow of information. Technological developments like the Internet have potential to launch those who were previously deprived of information into cyberspace. However, it could be argued (and rightfully so) that if someone does not have the skills, expertise and access to the equipment required to operate these systems, he or she would still be excluded from the multitude of information available via the network. However, if such systems were utilized properly, the potential could be unlimited. One example of where information technology could be utilized to the benefit of a wide range of the South African community is the plan by the Department of Post and Telecommunications to launch three million South African households into the information age through the concept of Public Internet Terminals (PIT). These terminals would be situated at the post offices and would give everyone with postal address access to public Internet terminals. Every user would be assigned an encoded card with a personal identification number which would give users access to information on the Internet, almost on the same principles automatic teller machines used by banks. At the end of each month, users would be individually billed for the number of times they had accessed information through the terminal. This is one positive step initiated by South African government to 37

encourage freedom of speech and expression, as well as to provide access to large volumes of information by means on information technology. If utilized properly, this development would definitely contribute rather than hamper the democratization process. 4.2.1 The free and equal flow of information to and for all citizens While elements of the South African past did hamper the equal flow of information to all segments of society, initiatives were taken by the post-apartheid government to address the situation. Through envisaged projects like the PIT and the establishment of community radio stations, a more equal flow of information was encouraged. In the process of issuing community licenses to campus radio stations and segments of the rural community, large segments of the South African society which had previously been excluded from information could not only be informed, but also entertained on a much larger scale than in the past. 4.2.2 The consequences of free media system for democracy This question was specifically applicable to the issues of freedom of expression and freedom of the media at all costs. Many countries which encourage freedom of expression face the challenge of coping with crime and corruption as well as the invasion of privacy through the Internet. This could also apply to the South African situation. While the government stated in August 1995 that it fully recognized and accepted the role of the media to be a critical commentator on government activity in the country and that the media should be beyond the control of government, it has been indicated earlier how many in government positions have not sat comfortably with criticism coming their way through either the print or the electronic media. 5. Political Challenges in Media Policy Development With political transition in the country having been made relatively peacefully, South Africa had to look towards implementing policy guidelines which were unique to the country s social, political and economic conditions. Policy-makers had to be particularly cautious not merely to adopt Western communication model as blueprints. While these were probably successfully in other societies, they would not necessarily provide the solution to all the questions related to regulation, control and media freedom in South Africa. One of the major challenges regarding peaceful and successful political transformation in South Africa was for citizens to comprehend the idea that freely elected governments who rule over them are theirs, that is, they shared the responsibility for the government actions. Citizens can only be aware of and respond to this responsibility if they are properly informed through uncontrolled and independent media systems. 5.1 Social and cultural issues in Media Policy Development The far-reaching political and economic changes in post-apartheid South Africa would have been impossible without changes in the cultural and social fabric of society. Societal changes were also linked to the concept of culture. Although difficult to describe, one would state that culture helps provide a source of identity, means social change and sense of community (Stevenson 1995: 47). Within the scope of the concept culture and cultural change, several aspects are predominantly, among them language, minority interests, illiteracy, nationalism, and the conservation of cultural heritage.

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5.2 Language Among the many cultural elements which influence media policy, language is of central concern. Language is a carrier of identity within the South African society (Smuts, 1996). As such, language would still be a symbol of divided history, fortunes and misfortunes for years to come. Only when South Africans have together experienced enough history as an undivided society, would language unify rather than divide the country. As such, language is likely to remain high on South Africas media policy agenda. Especially in relation to the broadcasting industry and technological developments like the Internet, concerns have been expressed worldwide that local languages have become underutilize and overshadowed by English. In the process of empowerment and redressing imbalances of the past, language has been an extremely important tool in South Africa. This already started in 1976 (during the Soweto uprisings) when black pupils demanded education in their native languages instead of in Afrikaans. Since then, the focus has shifted more towards the language or preference in the press, the advertising industry and public broadcasting. The issue became especially contentious towards the end of the 1990s when the SABC shifted Afrikaans broadcasts into a down-market broadcasting channel. This move resulted in another dilemma for the corporation, as many Afrikaans viewers decided not to pay their license fee, or only paid a percentage of the license fees based on the percentage of broadcasting time devoted to Afrikaans programmes. Language has also become an issue in the advertising industry. While many advertisers have long regarded English as a dominant broadcasting language, research has shown that South Africans prefer to be addressed in their own language. Audiences understand more of the intended advertising message, and the likelihood that consumers would prefer a product or service of which the commercials address them in their own language would also increase. 5.3 Representing and accommodating minority interests Balanced representation of minority interests presents an important challenge to governments and policy-makers alike. Media policy can, for instance, ensure that minority groups are involved in decision-making processes. Even more importantly, it needs to encourage minority groups to participate in policy-making and become involved in community development programmes. It may seem as if the above factors present daunting challenges for media restructuring and policy developments, especially against the background of South Africas cultural and ethnic diversity. However, the potential of these elements should be underestimated. A lack of dialogue would restrict communication and interaction between social and cultural groups, making society ill-equipped to deal with social differences. Worse still, it could highlight social and cultural differences between groups, instead of unifying the voices and interests to the benefit of all. 6. Technological Issues in Media Development The latter part of the twentieth century has most definitely been marked by the explosion in technological advances in products and services, coupled with the disappearance of the traditional boundaries between communication services (a process commonly known as 39

convergence). These developments have not only affected the role and function of the media, but also society at large, including its economic, political, cultural and social spheres. Telecommunication For many years developing countries seemed unaware of telecommunications contribution to economic development and democratization. Governments did not regard providing and supporting telecommunication infrastructure and services as important. This attitude has changed in recent years. Increasingly, governments and businesses have started to realize (Mowlana, 1996: 56) that: Telecommunication is the most critical area for influencing the nerve system of modern society. It must be seen as a major component of a conglomerate global sector comprising the management and transportation of information. The advantages of telecommunication development are manifold: Reduction of physical distance between people, both nationally and internationally, enabling them to coordinate their activities by linking them with others around the world Reduction of time differences between communities Related advantages in education (i.e. utilizing satellite links to teach people in remote areas), agriculture (e.g. setting prices for local goods and encouraging rapid and effective distribution), administration, provision of medical services and local economic planning. As stated earlier, South Africas telecommunication industry has been in a process revision under the ANC governments privatization programme. Towards the late 1990s, large parts of the country still lacked proper telecommunications services, while inequalities existed in service provision and maintenance. Although Telkom set out to address these problems, little progress has been made, mainly due to a lack of finances. As foreign investors start to utilize opportunities presented by the newly liberalized telecommunication market, many of these problems could be addressed more easily. 6.1 Telecommunication challenge in Media Policy Development After re-entering the international arena, the South African government and policy-makers realized the importance of re-establishing links with communities around the globe. At first, though, it was important to solve internal problems related to providing and sustaining sufficient local telecommunication products and services. Thereafter, South Africans could start to deploy their managerial and technical expertise in Africa, as well as worldwide. These processes will increase technological development, as well as employment. The local telecommunication industry has also started to utilize its potential for health education, long distance education and administrative planning and development. Moreover, telecommunication providers have increasingly been involved in local projects like community radio. Telkom, for instance, helped to put people in touch with their world and make their voices heard over the airwaves. In the long run, ventures such as these may not only prove vital for economic growth and stability in the country, but also for overall democratization.

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Telecommunication is also linked to the concept of interactive media (for example, the Internet) related services such as videotext and videoconferencing. In 1997, South Africa had estimated 300 000 Internet users (Murphy, 1997: 36). Looking at these figures, one could say that computer technology has begun to play an important role in informing South Africans of events around the globe. Information technology like the Internet has increasingly also enabled more citizens to publish, write and read information on a much larger scale than in the past. However, with only 6, 7% of South African households having access to personal computers by the late 1990s, one may ask whether information technology does provide equal access to information irrespective of social or economic standing. The great challenge for South Africa would be to recognize and effectively utilize the benefits of telecommunication technology. If this technology is utilized properly, one could see an increase in access to and participation in decision-making processes by citizens (one example is the PIT project). Missed opportunities, on the other hand, may exclude sections of the community from the benefits of technological development. Increased access and participation may, however, also render interactive media open to abuse for crime, empowerment claims by militant groups, and pornography. In short, one could summarize South Africas challenges in terms of telecommunication and information technology as follows (Aldridge, 1996: 200-201): Information technologies present a number of problems toSouth Africa. Factors of cost, education/training and infrastructure development all impact on the relative place of information technologies in the social, economic and political matrices of our local society, in the context of the global information economy. In order for South Africa to develop its information technology infrastructure in terms of both machinery and human capacity, a sustainable development program must be embarked upon, especially in the light of the imbalances resulting from apartheid. Broadcasting When discussing media policy issues in broadcasting, aspects related to all three categories discussed above should be addressed. Changes in the economic, political and cultural environments are highly to affect dissemination of information and entertainment to the worlds audiences. Economically, pressures of deregulation, commercialization and privatization influence the international communication environment. Political and sociocultural developments related to censorship and regulation, as well as cultural issues such as minority languages and interests, similarly challenge the nature and scope of broadcasting. Technologically, cable and satellite broadcasting make it increasingly difficult for individual countries to control the nature and amount of information crossing their borders. In attempts to counteract these situations, the European Union has tried to introduce quotes whereby at least 50, 1% of the programming of any member country has to be European origin. When the market opened up in the late 1990s and the need for alternative forms of broadcasting developed, South Africa introduced satellite television. While the SABCs analogue Astrasat system was not fully off the ground by mid-1997, MultiChoices digital DStv project has proved to be increasingly successful. If South African subscribers could afford the equipment the monthly subscription fees, the countrys rural areas in particular, 41

could benefit from satellite broadcasting. Where in the past rural audiences have been unable to receive certain terrestrial services owing to weak signal distribution, they could be reached as easily with satellite broadcasting as urban audiences. Improved broadcasting technology has presented South African communities with a multitude of new opportunities. Not only have viewers been offered a wider range of broadcasting at extended broadcasting hours, but the quality of the broadcasting signal to rural areas has been improved. The SABC as a public service broadcaster The SABC has to determine how and at what cost it would be able to serve the television audiences needs. Because it reshuffled broadcasting schedules, the SABC has witnessed increasing numbers of South Africans not watching their services anymore. This phenomenon has become known as the Big Yawn or the Big Turn-off. Of even greater concern for the SABC is the fact that millions of (mainly white) South Africans have refused to pay their television licenses. By 1996, it was estimated that pirate viewing stood at 65% compared to 52% in 1993, with an estimated 960 000 television licenses not being renewed. This resulted in the SABC facing huge financial losses. The corporation estimated by the middle of 1997 that it would need billions of rands to fulfill its responsibilities for 1998. Newly developed satellite broadcasting system These systems are new challenges which face the South African broadcasting environment of the last decade of the twentieth century. Whereas the previous challenge points more towards financial, political and social issues which face SABC as a public service broadcaster, this is more specifically related to accommodating technological advances I the broadcasting industry. The industry needs to manage and utilize the newly developed satellite broadcasting system to the benefit of as many South Africans as possible. Whereas terrestrial broadcasting faces the challenges of equally distributing a quality signal to all parts of the country, satellite broadcasting makes it possible for remote areas to be reached as easily as urban ones. This presents opportunities not only in information and entertainment, but also in terms of education and community development programmes.

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Study Unit 4
APPROACHES TO MEDIA STUDIES 4. WHAT IS THEORY? 4.1 The value of theory In common usage, the word theory is often used to signify a conjecture, an opinion, a speculation, or a hypothesis. In this usage, a theory is not necessarily based on facts; in other words, it is not required to be consistent with true descriptions of reality. In her book, Communication theory in action (2000), Julia Wood explains that apart from having a scientific value, theory has a practical value. The section below is based mainly on her explanation. Theorys scientific value is that it teaches us how to describe, interpret, understand, evaluate and predict a phenomenon. It also provides us with an overview of the development of a regulation, its relation(s) with other disciplines and its possible future developments. For example, although it may not be the explicit purpose of media theory to provide a historical overview of the discipline, if we study media theory as it developed over time and as it focused on different issues in different historical periods, then it reveals much about the development of the discipline. If theory teaches us the skills of describing, interpreting and understanding, evaluating and predicting a phenomenon, such skills can become entrenched in the way(s) we have to deal with our everyday realities. Simple, everyday problems such as tense relationship between colleagues or family members can be solved by carefully describing the problem and reasons responsible for the problem, interpreting them, evaluating the importance of the different reasons for the conflict and then predicting and deciding on solutions for the problem. Reading a newspaper story or watching a television programme can become a descriptive, interpretative, evaluative and predictive exercise, all leading to better understanding, enjoyment and critical awareness. Theory-building skills, once entrenched in ones finances, interpersonal relations, group relations, and so forth. For the theoretician the task is thus to: Describe something as accurately as possible; Interpret it from different perspectives; Evaluate different options; Predict possible outcomes. 4.1.1 The goals of theory Theory can be defined as a human account of what something is, how it works, what it produces or causes to happen, and how that something can be changed, if necessary (Wood 2000: 33). Actually, all of us are theorizing beings. When we tell someone how something happened, why it happened, what our reactions to it were, what we should have done, and

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how the issue or event could have been avoided or directed in another way, we are in fact theorizing about that something. From this definition, it is clear that being a human account of something, theory cannot be objective, or necessarily true. At the most, it provides us with different points of views about the same thing. In media studies, like in all other social and human studies, we therefore have different theories about the same thing: theories about the power and effects of the media; different theories about how audiences use, interpret and understand media content; different theories about the nature of media content, and so forth. Each (new) theory may however, add and/or emphasize a different aspect of the phenomenon and as such contributes to our better understanding of the phenomenon. The goals of theory are then to describe, explain, understand, predict and control, and reform. Describe: Before we comment on how something works, we must first describe that something Explain: Before we understand, predict and or/ change something, we must first explain how something works (Newtons). Understand: Description and explanation lead to understanding Predict and control: On the same basis of (an) understanding, certain predictions of how something works and how it can be controlled can be made. Reform: Description, explanation and understanding with the purpose of predicting and controlling can lead to changing something, (Fourie (ed). 2007). Media Studies Vol. 1. Juta: Cape Town. 4.2 Goals of mass media theory Mass communication theory, which originated from sociology, describes, explains, interprets (understands), predicts and tries to reform the medias social relationships, be it internal relations within the media or external relations with other social structures and the medias audiences. As put by Croteau and Hoynes (2003: 13):

media theory in general asks us to consider the role of the media in our individual lives (the micro level) and in the context of social forces such as the economy, politics, and technological development (the macro level). If we want to understand the media and their impact on our society, we must consider the social relationship (both micro and macro) between media and social world.
Whereas sociology as an academic discipline studies social relationships in general, media studies are more specific. Therefore, the main goal of mass communication and media theory is to describe, and if necessary change, the social relations between the media and society (all the structures in society), the relationships between the media and its audiences (media users), and the relationships within the media.

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There are three types of social relations which are referred to as the object of media theory and research: The relationship between media institutions and other institutions in society (external relations), such as the medias relationships with and to the government, the judiciary, the economy, politics, etc; Relationships within media institutions (internal relations) such as the relationship between an editor and journalists or between the editor and the board of the newspaper and/or newspaper group; the relationship(s) of individual journalists and/or radio and television programme makers with each other; and the relationships between different media in a society, for example the relationships with and between the public broadcaster and newspaper, advertisers, etc; Relationships between media institutions and their audiences and the audiences relationship with the media. What is meant by relationship is how the difference structures and role players are involved with other and influence and impact on each other. For example, what is the impact of the economy on the media? What is the influence of politics on the media? What is the influence a governments media policy or an oppositions media policy may have on the media? As far as internal relationships are concerned, an example is the impact of internal or institutional policy and codes of conduct formulated by boards and managers on the practice of journalists, radio and television programme makers, film makers, internal designers, and so on. All these relationships have an impact on what media users get to see, read and listen to and thus on the content of the media. Through its content the media establish specific relationships with their audiences and vice versa. Such relationships may impact on the ways in which audience or individual members of audiences experience and understand their worlds. 4.3 THEORETICAL APPROACHES There are different theoretical approaches. Different authors may have different ways of categorizing theories. Some theories deal, specifically with media institutions, media content, and media relationship. Positivism originated from the need to place the study of society, its structures and social conditions on par with the scientific method of the natural and physical science of which the history, as we know it today, dates back to the seventeenth century. The scientific method requires that all phenomena should be treated in the same way. In research the same rules and the same requirements had to be applied and met regardless of the nature of the phenomena under investigation. 4.3.1 Positivism Approach The purpose of positivistic approach mass communication is usually to gain a better understanding of exactly how the media work. The purpose of such a study is to contribute to a better and more efficient media planning. Such planning may contribute to the

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achievement of certain goals which may be the economic growth of a media company, to influence peoples minds about politics or other matters, to run effective campaigns, etc. In positivist research, the emphasis is thus mainly on the: Efficient working and management of the media Efficient production of media content; Functions of the media Medias effect on people and society From a methodological point of view, positivism research is usually functionalist. 4.3.1.1 Functionalism Functionalism, which to a great extent directed initial mass communication research, is closely associated with the sociology. Society is seen as an integrated, harmonious, organized whole in which all parts (the school, the church, economic, political and cultural institutions) function to maintain equilibrium, consensus and social order. In other words, it could be viewed as a human body consisting of different organs all functioning together. Should one organ become sick or dysfunctional, it affects the whole body. In the case of mass communication, functionalism sees the media as one of the instruments in society that should contribute to the harmonious and organized functioning of society. 4.3.1.2 Media-Society Theory: Functionalism According to Dennis McQuail (2ooo: 78), functionalism claims to explain social practices and institutions in terms of the needs of the society and of individuals. As applied to the media institution, the presumed need have mainly to do with continuity, order, integration, motivation, guidance, socialization, adaptation, etc. Society is viewed as an ongoing system of linked working parts or subsystems, of which the mass media are one, each making an essential contribution to continuity and order. Organized social life is said to require the continued maintenance of a more or less accurate, consistence, supportive and complete picture of the working of society and of the social environment. It is by responding to the demands of individuals and institutions in consistent ways that the media achieve unintended benefits for the society as a whole.
Functionalist theory of media Under functionalist theory, Mass Media are essential to society for: Integration and co-operation Order, control and stability Adaptation to change Mobilization Management of tension Continuity of culture and values

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4.3.2 Critical Theory Today With the above as foundation, critical theory today amounts to the following: The media are seen to be the most persistent ideological agent in late twentieth and early twenty-first century society. There is hardly a person who does not come into contact with media of one or another kind and the ideas and values they convey, be in newspaper, radio, television, advertisements, popular music or the Internet. Critical theories today are primarily concerned about the medias ideological manipulation of the masses and the capitalistic use and misuse of the media by owners to foster capitalist values. We have to describe as closely as possible the ideological instruments of society. These are instruments such as the church, the economy, the military, the state, educational institutions and the media. These instruments are responsible for the production, circulation and distribution of ideology. The concept ideology is therefore central in the critical approach.

What is ideology?

Ideology is the ideas and belief system in terms of which individuals, society or group(s) in a society understand and interpret their political, social and cultural realities.
Critical theory assumes that the media (in all its variety), are symbolic forms of expression.

Like other forms of symbolic expression (literature, theatre, paintings and other cultural texts), the media communicate values, beliefs and attitudes in a structured way. By so doing the media assign specific meanings to something, be this something a person, an event, a topic or whatever. For example, a newspaper story about the 90 th birthday of the former President of South Africa, Nelson Mandela is not only a story. It is written structured in such a way that it would or could signify the specific newspapers attitude towards the former President and his followers. Another example is SABC televisions programme in 2006 to commemorate 30 years of television in South Africa. This programme was not only a (objective) programme about the history of television in South Africa, but it was produced (structured) in such way as to highlight the accomplishments of the SABC after apartheid. Critical theory assumes that there is a relationship between production conventions (the way in which the media produce content) and ideology. In other words, there is a relationship between the ideology of a media institution (such as a newspaper or broadcast organization) and the way in which that newspaper or broadcast will produce a story or programme about a person, group or organization. A good example is the selection of news. News selection is done in terms of news value (what a media organization will define as news or not). These news values are related to the news organizations political, economic, cultural, social and even religious values.

Criticism of critical theory

From the positivist side, it is often argued that critical theory:

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Does not acknowledge the libertarian, informative, educational and democratizing role of the media; Does not acknowledge the entertainment value of media for billions of people; Makes too rigid a distinction between those with power and the masses who are presumed to be without power; Is too often ignorant of media users ability to judge and be critical

What needs to be acknowledged by critical theory is the concept of pluralism. This concept refers to the variety of available media in a democracy, especially to those with time and money. The underlying premise is that in view of the variety of media (various newspapers, various television stations, various radio stations, films, videos, publishers, and advertising agencies) all ideally looking at reality from different perspectives, it is impossible to make one-sided and limited claims about the way the media function and about its possible impact. If one newspaper or television station adopts a particular ideological perspective, another newspaper or television station is perfectly free to propagate an opposing ideology or point of view. Critical theory tends to ignore this variety or focuses its attention specifically on undemocratic societies. Variety is the only safeguard against the authoritarian misuse of the media. Critical theorys reply to this criticism is that although there may be a variety of media, they are all and collectively owned by a few people. For example, although there may be independent television and radio stations in addition to the public service broadcaster SABC, the media, as in other countries, remain in the hands of a few and the majority of the voices of the populace are still silenced. Summary The positivistic approach, with its emphasis on empiricism and its claim to be a scientific method, aims to improve mass media, to achieve specific goals. The critical approach, with its emphasis on ideology, power and inequity, aims to expose the misuse of the media by power elite with the purpose of spreading and entrenching the ideology(ies) of those in power.

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Study Unit 5
We all know how the media are often blamed for almost everything that can go wrong. Politicians frequently accuse the media of misinterpreting them, of framing them, of lying, of wrongfully criticizing them, and of not doing what they wish the media to do or achieve. Similarly, celebrities and even ordinary people once faced with media are often disillusioned that the story didnt turn out to be what they wanted it to be. Organizations often complain that the media only focus on the negative about them.
Activity:

Write a one-page essay in which you define functionalism with reference to its limitations. Apply Dennis McQuails typology of media functions to one South African mass communication medium: press, television or radio. Provide clear examples of the information, correlation, continuity, entertainment and mobilization functions of the medium.

5. FUNCTIONS OF THE MEDIA 5.1 The role of media in a society Functionalism: Since the beginning of the academic study of mass communication and mass media, scholars have concerned themselves with exactly what the functions of the mass media are or ideally should be. This was done under the influence of sociologists such as Frances Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) and Americas Talcott Parsons (1902-1979). Their research was done predominantly within the context of functionalism (sometimes known as structural functionalism) which dominated sociology at the end of the nineteenth century and the first part of the twentieth century. The bottom line of functionalism is a view of society as integrated, harmonious and organized whole. All parts of society, be it government, non-governmental organizations, privately-owned corporations, educational establishments, the military and economic structures and cultural institutions function to main equilibrium, consensus and social order. Under Wrights model of functions, the main functions of the media are to inform and entertain people and that through such information and entertainment the media contribute either manifestly or latently to cultural growth for both individuals and society. However, this is, as with many other functionalist models, a rather simplistic model, especially when it comes to the political functions of the media.

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The main functions of communication in society, according to Lasswell (1948), were surveillance of environment, correlation of the parts of the society in responding to its environment and the transmission of the cultural heritage. Here is the outline of the set of ideas about the functions of media in a society: Information: - providing information about events and conditions in society and the whole world; - indicating relations of power (between the media, media owners, society, government) - helping with improvement, adaptation and progress (smooth communication within each group in a society, i.e. government, society, media institutions) Correlation/relationship/connection explaining, interpreting and commenting on the meaning of events and information (especially the news that is to be delivered to the public) providing support for established authority and norms (media promotes culture, norms, habits. Rules and regulations should be respected, so media assists in organizational communication) socializing; co-ordinating separate activities; consensus building setting orders of priority and signaling relative status

Continuity/permanence expressing the dominant culture and recognizing subcultures and new cultural developments (the media will always promote culture, it is through the media that we learn of new programmes, the history of some culture is written down and/or we use media to maintain the culture of various groups). - forging and maintaining harmony of values Entertainment????????????????????????????????? providing amusements, diversion and the means of relaxation reducing social tension Mobilization/recruitment-inviting prominent people to support you (this was designed to reflect the widespread application of mass communication to political and commercial propaganda: look at the campaigns or conferences or manifestos that political parties hold sometimes, the mobilize and propose love from the public by giving them T-shirts, brochures, promising them to build houses for them, so on so forth). campaigning for societal objectives in the sphere of politics, war, economic development, work and sometimes religion

Some objectives to functionalism (OSullivan et al 1994: 95-96) are that functionalism often: Tends to overlook the fact that the media do not necessarily function identically for the people or groups. It takes consensus as granted and disregards conflict in social relations. What might be function as information for some might be 50

disinformation to others. What some people might experience as entertainment might offend others. Fails to account adequately for social change and transformation. Media functions in well-established democratic societies might be dysfunctional in societies in a process of change, development and transformation. In such societies, the emphasis on the medias perceived role may be more on its role in development and less on observation, for example. Neglects to provide for feed-back and the fact that feedback modifies both messages and the context. Put another way, functionalism often tends not to acknowledge the importance of context social, political and cultural as an influence on all stages of the communication processes (Fourie 2007: 187).

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Study Unit 6
New Media Technologies Defining media technology: Conceptual framework of new technologies Technological change Global village and globalization Convergence of technologies Digitalization of technologies Practical work: Do some research on the history of media technologies that have been failed. Bring an example of such a failure into class and discuss what the reason given was for the failure. .... 6. A conceptual framework of new technologies We can use conceptual framework to help organize and make sense of the dimensions, qualities and consequences of these new media technologies. One way to map these new technologies is by primary technical functions: production, distribution, display and storage (Pavlik 1998: 2). Although this approach is limited by the convergence of media technologies, and the blurring of lines between different media functions, it is still useful in charting the most distinctive or distinguishing contours of the landscape of new media technologies. The impact of electronics upon ways of creating, storing and disseminating information goes through our whole culture, and the impact of digital technology is truly transforming all forms of human communication. Production Production technologies refer to those used in gathering, processing and producing information. These technologies include computers, electronic photography, optical scanners and remote sensing technologies. Electronic production technologies have not only created new ways to collect and interpret information, but they have enabled us to gather new kinds of information, solve new problems and old problems more rapidly and efficiently. Conversely, the same technologies have sometimes replaced human workers, posed a serious threat to individual privacy, often greatly increased the cost of information and raised difficult questions about the ownership of information. Moreover, they have invariably outpaced human ability to cope with the new possibilities created by these technologies, resulting in information overload. Distribution Distribution technologies refer to those involved in the transformation or movement of electronic information. We can identify six basic technology systems: Over-the-air broadcasting (includes radio and television)

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Land-based telecommunication (include optical fibre and the switched telephone network) Coaxial cable (includes cable TV and undersea continent-to-continent telephone cables) Satellite communications (include direct broadcast satellite) Wireless transmission (includes personal communication services such as cellular phones and WAP phones) Electrical power lines

These technologies have both positive and negative cultural and commercial consequences. On the positive side, they have made information globally available at the speed of light. Many people are now able to work partly or wholly from home through their computer, or become mobile workers, using portable communication devices wherever they are. On the negative side, these distribution technologies have contributed to a number of social ills. The piracy of electronic information, for example, has become multibillion-dollar problem worldwide. Some argue that these technologies have contributed to growing social fragmentation, the division between society s information rich and information poor, and the information of an information underclass. Storage Storage technologies refer to those media used to house information in electronic format. These media are evolving from largely magnetic to optical in format. While the standard computer storage devices have been the floppy magnetic diskette and the magnetic hard drive, the compact disk (CD) emerged in the mid 1990s as the storage medium of choice for storing large amounts of information, such as data, text, audio, video and combined multimedia information. The compact disk-read only memory (CD-ROM) is the most common CD format, although the interactive format (CD-!) is growing in use. The digital video disk (DVD) is now developing as the first standard for digital video storage, with a single DVD capable of storing an entire two-hour feature length video in digital from. 6.1 The consequences of new media technologies The rapid pace of technological change and convergence has made it increasingly difficult to develop a coherent framework for understanding the nature of new media technologies. Nevertheless, we can ask four fundamental questions (Pavlik 1998: 5): How do new media technologies affect the way communication professionals do their work? How do new technologies influence the nature of the communication product or content? How does changing technology affect the structure of communication industries? How do changing technologies affect the nature of media audience and society at large? The table below (Pavlik 1998: 5) presents four types of consequences of new media technologies. The dimensions are the nature of the consequences, intended or unintended,

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and the level of impact on the communication worker, the communication product, the media structure and society, the ultimate media audience. Intended consequences of new media technologies for the communication worker include greater efficiency and flexibility. Unintended social consequences of new technologies include, by contrast, an increasing loss of privacy and an inability for social institution to keep pace with technological change.

Intended consequences

Communication Worker Efficiency low cost Greater speed Health effects

Unintended/ unexpected consequences

Communication Product Interactivity User control Multimedia Freedom Flexibility Information more costly. Intellectual property rights hard define.

Media structure Decentralization Virtual newsroom Telecommuting Content

Society Economic benefit

Redefined roles Privacy lost. within media Pace of organizations technological change faster than societys ability to cope

While it is worth that the consequences of technological change affect all organizations, the changes in media organizations may be more obviously apparent. Flatter management structure replacing pyramid-like hierarchies approximately 70% of journalists use the Internet as a research tool, many use email as a communications tool and almost all file their stories electronically with a computer or digital device. Thus, it may be reasonably argued that unintended consequences of the new media effectively. Technology has affected the structure of communication industries. The convergence of computers and telecommunications has created an era of wired and non-wired network computing. This distributed computing environment has enabled media organizations from newsrooms to advertising agencies to rethink the structure of their offices. Decentralization is the primary shift in the structure of these media organizations. No longer do all employees need to work at the same location, in the same city, or even in the same country. With satellite communications, fibre optics and powerful desktop computers, communication workers can work together, sharing files, sending messages and creating new communication products simultaneously from all parts of the world. 6.2 Global village and globalization In the last four decades, the worlds communication system has changed dramatically, bringing us ever closer to Marshall McLuhans notion of a global village (1964). Arguably, the technical foundation of this global village rests largely on two important innovations: the development of the communications satellite and the Internet. Science fiction writer Arthur

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C. Clarkes 1945 prediction of the communication of the communications satellite was published in Wireless World in an article entitled Extraterrestrial relays. Clarke was predicting a global broadcasting system based on satellite. Since then, satellite technology has advanced significantly, providing two-way transmission capabilities around the world. Communication satellites have redefined the nature of global communications, making possible everything from worldwide financial trading to global television, such as the Cable News Network (CNN) and the BBC World Service. The single most powerful development in global communications has been the satellite, born only three decades ago. Satellite now binds the world, for better or worse, in an electronic infrastructure that carries news, money and data anywhere on the planet at the speed of light. 6.3 Convergence of technologies Convergence is a practical reality that surrounds us in our daily lives. In the context of the huge divide in South Africa, convergence is a crucial trend in that it may influence customers to accept new technologies. At this juncture, Telkoms services and pricing policies could drive customers away. It is clear that only a few privileged people connect to Telkoms services. Convergence is a very complex concept. Within the discipline of media, it implies the combination of two or more kinds of technology. Digitalization, which is the standardization of transmission systems bringing together print and electronic media in a networked form (Doyle, 2002b:3), is the driving force behind convergence. Convergence, then, refers to the power of digital media to combine voice, video, data, text and images across applications, devices and networks (Doyle, 2002b: 3). A more extreme case of digital convergence occurs when a voice signal is converted to digital packets and sent via exactly the same technology as computer data from one end to the other, as occurs in Voice-over-IP (VoIP) technology (http://www.itweb.co.za: 2005). It is seen as the coming together of media technologies, telecommunications and computing at the same time (Doyle, 2002b: 4). The use of the term can also imply the combination of two functions, or the interaction of two firms, where one is a producer and the other a distributor. Describing the phenomenon, Tomaselli and Dunn (2001:1) note that: Convergence is the current buzzword in telecommunications studies. It is the term applied to the standardization of transmission systems, while digitalization is the common factor in transmitting technologies. This occurs through computerization, which brings together print and electronic media channels. This is

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the period during which productive forces have shifted from an industrial to an information-based economy. The potential reach or technology in this epoch is global and trans-disciplinary (Tomaselli, and Dunn, 2001:1). Sentech exemplifies the concept of convergence in two ways: its diversification from providing broadcast signal distribution alone to providing a variety of services, including Internet provision; and its capacity to service SABC together with competing broadcasting stations after its formal separation from SABC.

The concept of convergence focuses on technological changes, the so-called digital convergence (http://www.lboro.ac.uk: 2000). It results in creation of different genre. Convergence has led to new methods of media production and access, demanding new computer-related skills from media workers. Technologically, convergence denotes greater overlap between broadcasting and older media forms such as newspapers. For example, more homes are now linked into the advanced high capacity communication networks and, through these, are able to receive a range of multimedia, interactive and other new media communication services as well as conventional television and telephony (Doyle, 2000b: 3). Digital technologies that first affected convergence in the media, information technology (IT) and telecommunications sectors went on to trigger further convergence in a growing range of communicating consumer electronics devices (http://www.lboro.ac.uk: 2000). 6.3.1 Digitalization of Technologies Digitalization is the reduction of pieces of information to the form of digits in a binary code consisting of zeros and ones (Doyle, 2002b: 3). Digital technology is an important element in the dissemination of information globally. It is worth considering digital technology in the discussion as Sentech strives towards the digital revolution with regards to the transmission of information. The introduction of digital technology allows media enterprises a better and more advanced means of disseminating information. The application of digital technologies has taken place across the world at different paces and with different scope (Thato Foko, 2000: 17). Doyle (2002a) also maintains that the development of digital technology is the great new force affecting the media and it has implications for virtually all aspects of the industry. Digital technology allows both

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traditional and new communication services whether voice, data, sound or pictures to be provided over many different networks (Foko, 2000:17).

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