Teach Yourself Trigonometry

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First printed August 1940
This impression 1967
INTRODUCTION
Two
difficulties present themselves when a book of planned. In tbe first place those who use it may desire to apply it in a variety of ways and will be concerned with widely difierent problems to which Trigonometry supplies the
major
is
this kind
solution.
In the second instance the previous mathematical training

of its readers will vary considerably. To the first of these difficulties there can be but one solution. The book can do no more than include those
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
parts which are fundamental and common to the needs of who require Trigonometry to solve their problems. To attempt to deal with the technical applications of the subject in so many difierent directions would be impossible within the limits of a small volume. Moreover, students of all kinds would find the book overloaded by the inclusion of matter which, while useful to some, won Id be unwanted
all
possible and desirable, the bearing of certain sections of the subject upon technical problems has been indicated, but, in general, the book aims at equipping the student so that he will be in a. position to apply to bis own special problems the principles, rules and formulae which form the necessary basis for practical applications. The second difficulty has been to decide what preliminary mathematics should be included in the volume SO that it may
by others. Where it has been
be
to those students whose previous matheis slight. The general aim of the volumes in the series is that, as far as possible, they shall be self-contained. But in this volume it is obviously necessary to assume some previous mathematical training. Tbe study
intelligible
matical
equipment
PRINTED IN POLAND
Trigonometry cannot be begun without a knowledge of a certain amount of Algebra, and some acquaintance with the fundamentals of Geometry. It may safely be assumed that all who use this book will have a sufficient knowledge of Arithmetic, In Algebra the student is expected to have studied at least as much as is contained in the volume in this series called Teach Yourself Mathematics. That work does not include a' treatment of
of
Arithmetic,
vi
INTRODUCTION
;
INTRODUCTION
vii
" Factors ", but these are not required until Chapter VII. Nor does it touch on quadratic equations these do not
appear however until Chapter XI. A knowledge of logarithms is, however, indispensable, and there can be no progress in the application of Trigonometry without them. Accordingly Chapter II is devoted to a fairly full treatment of them, and unless the student has studied them previously he should not proceed with the rest of the book until he has mastered this chapter and worked as many of the exercises as possible. No explanation of graphs has been attempted in this volume. In these days, however, when graphical illustrations enter so generally into our daily life, there can be few who are without some knowledge of them, even if no study has been made of the underlying mathematical principles. But, although graphs of trigonometrical functions are included, they are not essential in general to a working knowledge of the subject. If the student desires a better understanding of them, he will find a simple
treatment, specially written for the private student, in Vol. I of National Certificate Mathematics, published by the English Universities Press. A certain amount of geometrical knowledge is necessary as a foundation for the study of Trigonometry, and possibly many who use this book will have no previous acquaintance with " Geometry ". For them Chapter I has been included. This chapter is in no sense a course of geometry, or of geometrical reasoning, but merely a brief descriptive account of geometrical terms and of certain fundamental geometrical theorems which will make the succeeding It is not suggested that chapters more easily understood. a great deal of time should be spent on this part of the book, and no exercises are included. It is desirable, however, that the student should make himself well acquainted with the subject-matter of it, so that he is thoroughly conversant with the meaning of the terms employed and acquires something of a working knowledge of the geometrical " theorems " which are stated. The real study of Trigonometry begins with Chapter III, and from that point until the end of Chapter IX there is very little that can be omitted by any student. Perhaps the only exception is the " Product formulae "in 86-89,. This section is necessary, however, for the proof of the important formula of 98, but a student who is pressed for time and finds this part of the work troublesome, may be content to assume the truth of it when studying 98, In Chapter IX the student reaches what may be considered
the goal of elementary trigonometry, the " solution of the triangle " and its many applications, and there many will be content to stop. Chapters X, XI and XII are not essential for all practical applications of the subject, but some students, such as electrical engineers and, of course, all who intend to proceed to more advanced work, cannot afford to omit them. It may be noted that previous to Chapter IX only angles which are not greater than 180 have been considered, and these have been taken in two stages in Chapters III and V, so that the approach may be easier. Chapter XI continues the work of these two chapters and generalizes with a treatment of angles of any magnitude. The Exercises throughout have been carefully graded and selected in such a way as to provide the necessary amount of manipulation. Most of them are straightforward and purposeful examples of academic interest or requiring Special skill in manipulation have, generally speaking,
;
been excluded. Trigonometry employs a comparatively large number of formulae. The more important of these have been collected and printed on pp. 174, 175 in a convenient form for easy
reference.
The author desires to acknowledge his indebtedness to Mr. C. E. Kerridge, B.Sc, for permission to include in this book the greater part of Chapter II and a number of examples and illustrations from Vol. I of National Certificate Mathematics mentioned above also to Mr. H, Marshall, B.Sc., for the inclusion of some examples from Vol. II of the same work. He is further grateful to Mr. Kerridge for assistance in reading the proofs of the book. In writing this book the author has had special regard to the possible needs of those members of the fighting forces who require a knowledge of Trigonometry, and he earnestly hopes tliat the book may prove of some service to them.
;
CONTENTS
FACt
Introduction
CHAPTER
2.
3. 0.
8.
GEOMETRICAL FOUNDATIONS
The Nature of Geometry
Plane Surfaces
,
....
.
13
14
Angles and their Measurement
15 19 27 28
32 37
Geomet.
icaJ
Theorems ; Lines and Triangles

.
16. 17. 19.

i!4.
Quadrilaterals
...
.
The
Circle
Solid
Geometry
......
CHAPTER AND LOGARITHMS
II
.
Angles of Elevation and Depression
INDICES
26. 28.
Laws
of Indices
38 40 42 45 47
1
.
Extension of Meaning of Indices
32
35.
A System
Rules
for
of
Logarithms
of Logarithms
To Read a Table
the Use of Logarithms
Logarithms of Numbers between

39.
and Operations with Negative Logarithms
49
51
CHAPTER
40. 44.
45.
III
THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS

The Tangent
Changes of Tangents in the First Quadrant
Tables of Tangents
46.
47. 49.
Uses of Tangents
The Sine and Cosine
....... ...... ...... ......

in the First
64
57
59 60 63 64
Changes of Sines and Cosines
Quadrant
CONTENTS
AOI 62. 63. 68. 69. 81.
62.
63.
CONTENTS
67
Uses of Sines and Cosines
The Cosecant,
Secant, and Cotangent

.
70
73
73
P..RA.
CHAPTER
VII
Graphs of Trigonometrical Ratios Logarithms of Trigonometrical Ratios

Solution of Right-angled Triangles
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE SIDES OF A TRIANGLE

90.
01.
AND ANGLES
PAGE
78
81
Slope and Gradient

Projections
. , ,
82
92.
03.
The Sine Rule The Cosine Rule The Half-Angle Formulae

.
109
111
113 113 114

115
CHAPTER
IV
Formula
for sin
-g
in term
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS

64. 66. 66.
94.
cos
A A
= cosff sin* 8 + cos' 8 = tan" 8 + 1 = sec

tan
fl
sin
84
1
95.
tan s
86 86 86
96.
08.
cot' 8
cosec1 8
SC tan
2
A -6+
sin
IIS
c
e
COt
,A
I
.
117
CHAPTER V
RATIOS OF ANGLES IN THE
08.
cos
-{ c
cos
120
SECOND
QUADRANT
6S. 69.
70. 71.
Positive
and Negative Lines
....
is
CHAPTER
87
VIII
THE SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES

102.
Direction of Rotation of Angle
SO
91
103.
The sign convention for the Hypotenuse To Find the Ratio of Angles in the Second Quadrant
from the Tables
Case Case Case
I.
Three Sides known
121
73. 74.
76.
To Find an Angle when a Ratio The Inverse Notation
..... .....
Given
VI
II.
02
104.
III.
Two Two
of
Sides and Contained Angle
known
124
Angles and a Side knows
126
127
S3 64
06
105.
106.
Case IV. The Ambiguous Case
The Area
a Triangle
....
IX
130
Graphs of the Sine, Cosine and Tangent between and 360
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
78. 79. 81. S3.
TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS OF COMPOUND ANGLES sin {A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B, etc. sin (A B) = sin A cos B cos A sin B, etc.
tan (A
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS INVOLVING THE SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES

108.
Determination of the Height of a Distant Object

Distance of an Inaccessible Object
134
137
08
100
101
109. 110.
+ B)
and tan (A
B)
Distance between Objects

Triangulation
Multiple and Sub-multiple Formulae
Product Formulae
....
103
-
111. 112.
106
Worked Examples
...... .....
Two
Visible
but
Inaccessible
137
138 130
wl
CONTENTS
CHAPTER X
Mi
114.
1
CIRCULAR MEASURE
Ratio of Circumference of a Circle to
its
Diameter
148
CHAPTER
18.
116.
120,
The Radian To Find the Circular Measure The Length of an Arc
149
of
an Angle
150 151
I.
Trigonometry and Geometry.
is
CHAPTER
XI
TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS OF ANGLES OF ANT MAGNITUDE

123.
Angles
in
the 3rd and 4th Quadrants
153
155
124. 126.
126. 130. 131. 132.
133.
Variations in the Sine between 0" and 360
Variations in the Cosine between 0 and 360 . Variations in the Tangent between 0" and 300
157 158
161
Ratios of Angles greater than 300 Ratios of 8 and

180"
162
f
ff)
102
,
Ratios of S and (300
8\
163
136.
Angles with given Trigonometrical Ratios
165
CHAPTER
13S.
130.
XII
TRIGONOMETRICAL EQUATIONS
Types
of
Equations
8
......
1)
160
171
The Form a cos
b sin
Summary
Tables
of Trigonometrical
.
Formulae
174
170
198
...
derived from the Greek words measure ". It was so called because in its beginnings it was mainly concerned with the " problem of solving a triangle '*. By this is meant the problem of finding all the sides and angles of a triangle, when some of these are known. Before beginning the study of Trigonometry it is very desirable, in order to reach an intelligent understanding of it, to acquire some knowledge of the fundamental geometrical ideas upon which the subject is largely built. Indeed, Geometry itself is thought to have had its origins in practical problems which are now solved by Trigonometry. This is indicated in certain fragments of Egyptian mathematics which are available for our study. We learn from them that from early times Egyptian mathematicians were concerned with the solution of problems arising out of certain geographical phenomena peculiar to that country. Every year the Nile floods destroyed landmarks and boundaries of property. To re-establish them, methods of surveying were developed, and these were dependent upon principles which came to be studied under the name of Geometry ". The word " Geometry ", a Greek one, means " Earth measurement ", and this serves as an indication of the origins of the subject. We shall therefore begin by a brief consideration of certain geometrical principles and theorems, the applications of which we shall subsequently employ. It will not be possible, however, within this small book to attempt mathematical proofs of the various theorems which will be stated. The student who has not previously studied the subject of Geometry, and who desires to possess a more complete knowledge of it, should turn to any good modem treatise on this branch of mathematics.
The name Trigonometry
meaning " triangle " and "
to
'
The Nature of Geometry. Geometry has been called " the science of space ". It deals with solids, their forms and sizes. By a solid " we
2-
13
TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
not consider them further here,
*3
portion of space bounded by surfaces ", and in Geometry we deal only with what are called " regular solids ". As a simple example consider that familiar solid, the cube. We are not concerned with the material of which it is composed, but merely the shape of the portion of space which it occupies. We note that it is bounded by six surfaces, which are squares. Each sq: are is said to be at right angles to adjoining squares. Where two squares intersect straight lines are formed; three adjoining squares meet in a poi nt. These are examples of some of the matters that Geometry considers in connection with this particular
solid.
mean a "
For the purpose of examining the geometrical properties of the solid we employ a conventional representation of the cube, such as is shown in Fig. 1. In this all the faces are shown, as though the body were made of transparent material, those edges which could not otherwise be seen being indicated by dotted lines. The student can follow from this figure the properties mentioned above.
3.
but those who would desire more precise knowledge of them should consult a geometrical treatise. We shall proceed to consider theorems connected with points and lines on a plane surface. This is the part of geometry called " plane geometry ". The study of the shapes and geometrical properties of solids is the function of " solid geometry ", which we will touch on later. 4. Angles are of the utmost importance in Trigonometry, and the student must therefore have a clear understanding of them from the outset. Everybody knows that an angle is formed when two straight lines or two surfaces meet. This has been assumed in 2. But a precise mathematical definition is desirable. Before proceeding to that, however, we will consider some elementary notions and terms connected with an angle. In Fig. 2, (a), tb), (c) are shown three examples of angles. (1) Id Fig. 2 (a) two straight lines OA, OB, called the
Plane surfaces.
Fig.
1.
plane surface. term that everybody understands although he may be unable to give a mathematical definition of it. Perhaps the best example in nature of a level surface or plane surface is that of still water. A water surface is also a horizontal surface. The following definition will present no difficulty to the student. A plane surface is such that the straight line which joins any two points it lies wholly in the surface. It should further be noted that
surfaces which form the boundaries of the cube are level or flat surfaces, or in geometrical terms " plane surfaces ". It is important that the student should have a clear idea of what is meant by a It may be described as a level surface, a
The
amis of the angle, meet at
to form the angle denoted
AOB.
by J
O
is
is
termed the vertex of the angle.
The arms may be of any length, and the size of the angle not altered by increasing or decreasing them. ^ The " angle AOB " can be denoted by AAOB or A OB.
plane surface
(1) (2)
is determined uniquely, by Three points not in the same straight By two intersecting straight lines.
line.
By this we mean that one plane, and one

(I)
AOC.DOA.DOB.
angles.
be noted that the middle letter, in this case, O, always indicates the vertex of the angle. (2) In Fig. 2 (6) the straight line AO is said to meet the straight line CB at 0. Two angles are formed, AOB and AOC, with a common vertex O. (3) In Fig, 2 [c) two straight lines AB and CD cut one another at O. Thus there are formed four angles COB. 6
It should
three given points, or
(2)
two
only, can include given intersecting straight
lines.
be observed that we have spoken of surfaces, points straight lines without defining them. Every student probably understands what the terms mean, and we shall
It will
and
BOD
The pair of angles COB.AOD are termed vertically opposite The angles AOC, BOD are also vertically opposite. Adjacent angles. Angles which have a common vertex and also one common arm are called adjacent angles. Thus in Fig. 2 {b) AOB, AOC are adjacent. In Fig. 2 ic) COB,
are adjacent, etc.
i6
S.

Angles formed by rotation.
We
angle.
must now consider a mathematical conception

line,
of an
Imagine a straight
starting from
fixed position
on OA
(Fig. 3), to rotate about a point indicated by an arrow.
in the direction
called a " straight angle ", complete rotation. Now let the rotating arm continue to rotate, in the same direction as before, until it arrives back at its original position on OA. It has then made a complete rotation. The point C. on the rotating arm, will have marked out the circumference of a circle, as
drcle and the angle formed
GEOMETRICAL FOUNDATIONS AOA' is sometimes
r7
indicated
by the dotted
line.
-a
A'_!_
Fig. 4,
6.
Measurement
(a)
of angles.
Sexagesimal measure. The conception of. formation of an angle by rotation leads us to a convenient method of measuring angles. We
*?
Let it take up the position indicated by OB. In rotating from OA to OB an angle AOB is described. Thus we have the conception of an angle as formed by the rotation of a straight line about a fixed point, the vertex of the
angle.
If
Ac
any point
be taken on the rotating arm,

arc of a circle,
it
will
clearly
mark out an
CD.
\
Fig.
0.
%.
m
V.
Fig.
fi.
j JC
imagine the complete rotation to be divided into 360 equal divisions; thus we get 360 small equal angles, each of these is called a degree, and is denoted by 1.
Since any point on the rotating arm marks out the circircle, there will be 380 equal divisions of this circumference, corresponding to the 360 degrees (see theorem 17), If these divisions are marked on the circumference we could, by joining the points of division to the centre, show the 360 equal angles. These could be numbered, and thus the figure could be used for measuring any given angle. In practice the divisions and the angles are very small, and it would be difficult to draw them accurately, i nis, however, is the principle of the " circular protractor u which is an instrument devised for the purpose of measuring angles. Every student of Trigonometry should provide himself with a protractor for this purpose.
cumference of a
no limit to the amount of rotation of OA and consequently angles of any size can be formed by a straight
is
,
There
line rotating in this half rotation.
tion from
is
OA
way, Let us next suppose that the rotato OB is continued until the position OA *
4), in
reached (Fig.
straight line,
which OA' and OA are in the same The point, C, will have marked out a semi-
IS

Right angles.
The unit
is
k,
represents a complete rotation, such Fig. Let the points and be taken as was shown in Fig. 5. in each semi-circle. half-way between C and The circumference is thus divided into four equal parts. will pass through 0. The straight line The angles COD, DOE, EOF. FOC, each one-fourth of a complete rotation, are termed right angles, and each contains 90. The circle is divided into four equal parts called Quadrants, and numbered the first, second, third and fourth quadrants in the order of their formation. Also when the rotating line has made a half rotation, the angle formed the straight angle must contain 180.
obtained as follows
DF
In a circle, centre O {see fig. 7), let a radius OA rotate to a position OB, such that, the length of the arc is equal to that of the radius. In doing this an angle AOB is formed which is the unit of measurement. It is called a radian. The site of this Angle will be the same whatever radius is taken. It
AB
is
Chapter X. It is very important and the higher branches of mathematics.
absolute in magnitude. In degrees 1 radian 57 17' 44'8" (approx.). This method of measuring angles will be dealt with more fully in
is
always used in
Each degree is divided into 6o minutes, shown by '. Each minute is divided into 6o seconds, shown by ". Thus 37 15' 27" means an angle of
37 degrees, 15 minutes, 27 seconds.
This division into so many small parts is very important in navigation, surveying, gunnery, etc., where great accuracy
is
The student may wonder why the note. number 360 has been chosen for the division of a complete rotation to obtain the degree. The selection of this number was made in very early days in the history of the world, and we know, for example, from inscriptions that it was employed in ancient Babylon. The number probably arose from the division of the heavens by ancient astronomers into 360 parts, corresponding to what was reputed to be the number of days in the year. The number 60 was possibly used as having a large number of factors and so capable of
being used for easy fractions. When the French adopted the (6) Centesimal measure. Metric system they abandoned the method of dividing the To make the system of measuring circle into 360 parts. angles consistent with other metric measures, it was decided to divide the right angle into 100 equal parts, and consequently the whole circle into 400 parts. The angles thus obtained were called grades.
essential. Historical
Fie. 7.
7.
Terms used
to describe angles.
is
An Acute
angle.
angle.
angle
an angle which
is
is
less
than a right
An Obtuse
360
.
angle
one which
is
greater than a riehr *
Reflex or re-entrant angles are angles between 180 and
Consequently
right angle
1 I
(c)
grade
minute
= =
=100
Complementary angles. When the sum of two angles is equal to a right angie, each is called the complement of the other. Thus the complement of 38 is 90 38 = C2.
Supplementary angles. When the sum of two angles is equal to 180, each angle is called the supplement of the other. Thus the supplement of 38 is 180 38 142.
grades.
100 minutes, 100 seconds.
Circular measure. There is a third method of measuring angles which is an absolute one, that is, it does not depend upon dividing the right angle into any arbitrary number of equal parts, such as 360 oi 400.
8.
Geometrical Theorems.
We
will
now proceed
more important geometrical theorems.
to state, without proof,
some of the
30
21

Theorem I, Intersecting straight lines. lines intersect, the vertically opposite If two straight
(See
angles are equal.
4.)
Similarly PR and P t H a are parallel. Hence the following definition. Straight lines in the same plane which will not meet however far they may be produced are said to be parallel.
Parallel straight lines in a plane have the same all sailing North in a convoy are ordered to change direction by turning through the same angle, they will then follow parallel courses.
Direction.
direction.
If
a number of ships,
Terms connected with parallel lines. In Fig. 10 AB, CD represent two parallel
is
straight lines.
Transversal. A straight line such as called a transversal.
PQ
which cuts them
Fig.
8.
In Fig, atO.
8,
AB
and
CD
are two straight lines intersecting
Then
and
LAOC = LBOD
LCOB = LAOD.
The student will probably see the truth of (his on noticing that LAOC and Z.B0D are each supplementary to the same angle, COB.
9.
Parallel straight lines.
set square PRQ (Fig. 9) and slide it along the edge of a ruler. Let PJi l Q 1 be a second position which it takes up.
Take a
Fio. 10
Corresponding angles. On each side of the transversal are two pairs o angles, one pair of which is shaded in the figure. These are called corresponding angles. Alternate angles. Two angles such as AEF, on opposite sides of the transversal, arc called alternate angles.
EFD
Theorem
If
2.
a pair of parallel straight lines
(1)
A ////////////)///////>7//////////////)////A 3
Fig. 9. It is evident that the inclination of P,Qi to AB; since there has
(2)
be cut by a transversal Alternate angles are equal. Corresponding angles on the same side of the trans-
versal are equal.

(3) The two interior angles on the same side of the transversal are equal to two right angles. Thus in Fig. 10. Alternate angles. LEFD; LEFC,
PQ
to
AB
is
the
same
in
as that of direction,
been no change
LAEF =
LBEF =
Corresponding angles.
If
PQ and P$
L.P,Q XB were produced to any distance they would
LPQB =
LPEB = LEFD; LBEF = LDFQ.

Similarly on the other side of the transversa). Interior angles 2 right angles, also 2 right angles.
not meet.
LBEF + LEFD = LAEF + LEFC =
The straight lines PQ and P lQ l are said to be parallel.

10. Triangles.
(2)
AQ
is
Kinds of
triangles.
{3)
AR bisects BC.
B and C
GEOMETRICAL FOUNDATIONS the bisector of the vertical angle at A

It is called a median.
If
23
.
each of the
A right-angled triangle has one of its angles

a right angle. The side opposite right angle is called the hypotenuse.
to
be taken as a vertex, there are two other corresponding medians. Thus a triangle may have three
points
the
medians.
II.
Theorem
The
3.
Isosceles
and equilateral triangles.
In
an Isosceles triangle
An
acute-angled triangle has all its angles

7).
acute angles {see
sides opposite to the equal angles are equal. straight line drawn from the vertex perpendicular to the opposite side bisects that side and the vertical angle.
(a) (o)
An obtuse angled triangle has one of its angles obtuse (see 5 7),
An
equal.
isosceles
triangle has
two of
its sides
Fie. 13.
Fig.
4.
An
equal.
equilateral
triangle
has
all
its
sides
In Fig. 13, is an isosceles to the base from the vertex A

,
ABC
A and AO
is
drawn perp.
Then by
Fig.
11.
the above
LABC = LACB LBAO = LCAO.

BO =*OC
used
Lines connected with a triangle. The following terms are for certain lines connected with a triangle.
Equilateral triangle. The above is true for an equilateral and since ail its sides are equal, all its angles are equal. Note. In an isosceles the altitude, median and bisector of the vertical angle (see 10) coincide when the point .of intersection of the two equal sides is the vertex. If the is equilateral they coincide for all three vertices.
triangle,
Angle properties of a triangle. 4. If one side of a triangle be produced, the exterldr angle so formed Is equal to the sum of the two
12.
Theorem
In
A ABC,
interior opposite angles.

Fig. 12,
(1) AP is the perpendicular from the altitude from the vertex A
to
BC.
It is called
Thus toD.
in Fig. 14
is
one side
BC
of the
A ABC
is
produced
LACD
called an exterior angle.
*4

Then by the above
1-5*
and
1-1*
25
and the angle opposite to the smaller of these

:
Since the exterior angle is equal to the sum of the opposite interior angles, it must be greater than either of them. (2) As each side of the triangle may be produced in turn, there are three exterior angles. Theorem S. The sum of the angles of any triangle is equal to two right angles.
Notes.
(1)
LACD = LABC + LB AC
Notes.
ill 2)
It follows
Each
of the angles of an equilateral triangle is 60*. In a right-angled triangle the two acute angles are
7).
a With B as centre and radius M' circle to cut A X. This it will do in two points, C and C Consequently if we join BC or BC we shall complete given two triangles ABC. ABC each of which will fulfil the There being thus two solutions the case is conditions. " called " ambiguous
.
The construction is as follows Draw a straight iine A X of indefinite length At A construct LB AX = 30 and make AB
(Fig. 15). 1-5 . construct an arc of
complementary *(see
(3)
The sum of the
angles of a quadrilateral
is 380,
since
it
can be divided into two triangles by joining two opposite
points.
13.
Congruency
of triangles.
Triangles which are equal in all respects are Definition. said to be congruent. Such triangles have corresponding sides and angles equal, and are exact copies of one another. If two triangles ABC and are congruent we may express this by the notation A ABC a A D&F.
DEF
Fio. 13.
Conditions of congruency.
triangles are congruent when 6. Three sides of one are respectively equal to the three sides of the other. Two sides of one and the angle they (2) Theorem 7. contain are equal to two sides and the contained angle of the other. Two angles and a side of one are equal (3) Theorem 8. to two angles and the corresponding side of the other.
(1)
14.
Right-angled triangles.
of Pythagoras.
9.
In
Is
Two
Theorem
Theorem Theorem
on the hypotenuse
In Fig. 16 hypotenuse.
every right-angled triangle the square equal to the sum of the squares on the
sides containing the right angle.
the is a right-angled triangle, AB being the three sides squares have been conThen the area of the square described on AB structed. squares on the other is equal to the sum of the areas of the
ABC
On
These conditions in which triangles are congruent are very important. The student can test the truth of them
practically by constructing triangles ditions stated above.
case.
two sides. This we can write in the form
which
fulfil
the con-
AB*
= AC* +BCK
AB
The ambiguous The case of constructing a triangle when there are given two sides and an angle opposite to one of them, not contained by them as in Theorem 7, requires special consideration. Example. Construct a triangle in which two sides are
by c, AC by & and BC If we represent the length of a1 b*. by a, then c* if any two It should be noted that by using this result, can find the sides of a right-angled triangle are known, we other side, for b* c1 ai
b*
c*
- a\
26

The
are two corresponding sides. sides AB, and DF, BC and EF. So also are Fig. 18 shows another example of interest later. are parallel. AB, CD, Then by the properties of parallel lines {see 9)
27
Note.This theorem is named after Pythagoras, the Greek mathematician and philosopher who was born about 569 bo It is one of the most important and most used of all geometrical theorems. Two proofs are given in Vol f of National Certificate Mathematics, published by the English -e
Universities Press.
DE
AC
EF
also
,\
LOAB = LOCD m, I.OEF LOBA = LDDC = LOFE. the triangles OAB, OCD, OEF are similar.
10. If
Property of similar triangles.
Theorem
two
triangles are similar, the correspond-
ing sides are proportional.
Fit,.
IB.
15.
Similar triangles.
Definition. If the angles of one triangle are respectively equal. to the angles of another triangl* the two triangles are said to be similar. The sides of similar triangles which are opposite to equal angles in each are called corresponding sides.
Thus
in Fig. 17
AB = DE AB = DE AC _DF B~C El! AC DF' C~B~FE

'
Similarly in Fig. 18
Sd~ D0~ FO' CD EF ua~oc = oe' etc

AB
AB _CD_EF
Fie.
17.
These results are of great importance in Trigonometry. Note. A similar relation holds between the sides of quadrilaterals and other rectilinear figures which arc
equiangular.
In Fig. 17 the triangles ABC,
DEF are
equiangular
/.ABC
LBAC m, LEDF, ACB = LDFE.
= LDEF,
16. Quadrilaterals..
quadrilateral is a plane figure with four sides, and a straight line joining two opposite angles is called a diagonal.
28

principal quadrilaterals,
the circle.
:
"Xieement
39
The following are among the with some of their properties
parts called It divides the circle into two equal
(1) The square {a) has all its sides equal and all its angles right angles; (b) its diagonals are equal, bisect each other at right angles and also bisect the opposite angles.
chord and is a part of a circle bounded by a the chord the arc which it cuts off. Thus in Fig. 20 larger of these divides the circle into two segments. The is PCQ is called a major segment and the smaller, PISQ, called a minor segment. ..Ktni. i= the circle which is A sector of a circle is that part ofintercepted between arc bounded by two radii and the
PQ
(2)
The rhombus
;
{a)
has
all its sides
equal; (fe) its angles are not right angles (c) its diagonals bisect each other at right angles and bisect the opposite angles.
(2)
Thus in Fig. 21 the figure OPBQ is a sector bounded by the radii OP, 00 and the arc PBQ. joining the An angle In a segment is the angle formed by the segment. of the arc on point a arc to or chord a ends of
_
(3)
sides equal
The rectangle {a) has opposite and all its angles are right
;
angles
(b)
its
diagonals are equal and
bisect each other.
(4)
The parallelogram
sides equal
(a)
has oppo(b)
(c)
site
and
parallel;
its its
opposite angles are equal; diagonals bisect each other.

(4)
(5)
Fig. 20.
Fig, 21.
The trapezium has two
opposite
sides parallel.
17.
The
Circle.
ft
I) Thus in Fig. 22, the ends of the chord AB are joined to DB is the a point on the arc of the segment. The angle A angle in the segment A BCD. the minor segment, If we join A and B to any point D' in then LA D'B is the angle in the minor segment. the angle AOB is If A and B are joined to the centre 0,
has already been assumed that the student understands what a circle is, but we now give a geometrical definition. A circle is a plane figure bounded by one tine which is called the circumference and is such that all straight lines drawn to the circumference from a point within the circle, called the
Definitions,
fl
called the angle at the centre. and the is also said to subtend the arc The angle centre by the the at subtended angle the to be is said /.AOB arc or the chord AB.
ADB
AB
AB
Circles which have the are called concentric circles.
Concentric Circles.
same centre
centre, are equal.
lines are called radii. arc is a part of the circumference. chord is a straight line joining two points on the circumference and dividing the circle into two parts.
These straight
18.
An
Theorems relating to the circle. Theorem It, If a diameter bisects

It Is
diameter,
Theorem
Theorem
12. 13.
a chord, which is not perpendicular to the chord. Equal chords in a circle are equidistant
.
.
.
diameter
is
a chord which passes through the centre of
Irom the centre.
The angle which
is
subtended
at
the
30

It follows
This
is
3*
centre of a circle by an arc Is double the angle subtended at the circumference. In Fig. 23 LAOB is the angle subtended at the centre of the circle by the arc AB, and LADE is an angle at the circumference (see 17) as also is LACB.
from this that equal angles stand on assumed in the method of measuring angles
equal arcs.
6(a).
described in
Then
Also
LAOB = 2LADB. LAOB = 2 LACB.

14.
Theorem
Angles
In
equal to one another.
the same segment of a circle are
In Fig. 23 LACB = LADB. This follows at once from Theorem 13.
Theorem IS. The opposite angles of a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle are rogether equal to two right angles.
Fio. 24.
Lie. 25.
Tangent to a
circle.
tangent to a circle is a straight line which meets the circumference of the circle but which when produced does not cut it. In Fig. 27 PQ represents a tangent to the circle at a point ^ on the circumference.
Fig. 23.
or concychc quadrilateral.
They are therefore supplementary (see 7) Note.A quadrilateral inscribed in a circle is called a cyclic
In Fig. 24,
Then
ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral. LABC + LA DC = 2 right angles LB AD + LBCD ~ 2 right angles.

16.
Theorem
In Fig. 25
The angle
in a
semi-circle
is
a right angle.
AOB is a diameter. The LACB is an angle in one of the semi-circles so formed LACB is a right angle.
Theorem 17. Angles at the centre of a proportional to the arcs on which they stand. ' In Fig. 26,
circle
Fig. 36.
Fio. 27.
are
Theorem
the radius
18.
tangent to
a circle
is
perpendicular to
LPOQ LQOR "
arc arc
PQ
QR.
drawn from the point of contact.
Thus
in Fig. 27
PQ
is
at right angles to
OA
3*
TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY SOLID GEOMETRY

19.
The angle between two planes
is
33
the
We have so far
confined ourselves to the consideration

of figures dra-vn
on plane surfaces. Geometry we are concerned also with " solids " to which we have referred in In addition to these, in surveying and navigation 2. problems, for example, we need to make observations and calculations in different "planes ", which are not specifically the surfaces of solids. Examples of these, together with a brief classification of the diflcrent kinds of regular
of
some of the properties
In
many
of the practical applications of
angle Definition. between two straight lines which are drawn, one in each plane, the plane and from at right angles to the line of intersection oj the same point on it. When this angle becomes a right angle the planes are perpendicular to one another. As a particular case a plane which is perpendicular to a horizontal plane is called a vertical plane (see 3).
solids, will
be given later.
Fig. 1 you If you examine a corner of the cube shown in will see that it is formed by three planes at right angles to be observed in the similar instance one another.
may
corner of a room which

in
is
rectangular in shape.
Angle between two planes. Take a piece of fairly stout paper and fold it Let AB, Fig. 28, be the line of the fold. Draw this
20.
two.
straight
im
uMiimmmm
Fig, 28.
Fio.
line.
M,
represent the two parts of the
21.
Let
BCDA, UEFA
straight line perpendicular to a plane.
paper.
These can be regarded as two separate planes. Starting with the two parts folded together, keeping one part fixed the other part can be rotated about AB into the position indicated by ABEF. In this process the one plane has moved through an angle relative to the fixed plane. This is analogous to that of the rotation of a line as described hi We must now consider how this angle can be definitely 6. fixed and measured. Flattening out the whole paper again take any point P on the line of the fold, i.e.. AB, and draw RPQ at right angles to AB. If you fold again Pit will coincide with PQ. Now rotate again and the line PR will mark out an angle relative to PQ as we saw in 5. The angle RPQ is thus the angle which measures the amount of rotation, and is called the angle between the planes.
Take a piece uf cardboard AB (Fig. 29), and on it draw a number of straight lines intersecting at a point 0. At O
fix
Then OP
that it is perpendicular to all of these lines. said to be perpendicular to the plane AB. A straight line is said to be perpendicular to a Definition. plane when it is perpendicular to any straight line which it meets in lite plane. Plumb line and vertical. Builders use what is called a plumb line to obtain a vertical line. It consists of a small weight fixed to a fine line. This vertical line is perpendicular to a horizontal plane.
a pin
OP so
is
Angle between a straight line and a plane. piece cf cardboard ABCD, Fig. 30, and at a point O in it fix a needle ON at any angle. At any point P on the
22.
Take a
BTRIG.
54
needle pendicular to the board. Draw the line OQR on the board. OQ is called the projection of OP on the plane
TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY stick another needle PQ into the board, and
A BCD.
per-
35
sides are rectangles in all three figures and their planes are perpendicular to the bases. Such prisms are called right prisms. If sections are made parallel to the bases, all such sections A prism is a solid with are identically equal to the bases. a uniform cross section. Similarly other prisms can be constructed with other geometrical figures as bases.
The
î
iii
mui
Fig. 30.
B
(2)
Pyramids.
is is
"
In Fig. 32
(a),
[b),
(c),
are
shown three
projection on the plane is called the angle between OP and the plane. If you were to experiment by drawing other lines from O on the plane you will see that, you wilt get angles of different sizes between and such lines. But the angle POQ is the smallest of all the angles which can be formed in this
its
The angle POQ between
OP
and
typical pyramids.
i.u;
\b)
a square pyramid a triangular pyramid

a hexagonal pyramid.
(4
is
ON
Pyramids have one base only, which, as was the case with prisms,
is
way.
straight line and a plana is the angle between the straight line and its projection on the plane.
Definition.
The angle between a
some geometrical figure. The sides, however, are isosceles triangles, and they meet at a point
called the vertex. The angle between each side and the base can be determined as follows
for
a square pyramid.
In L-ig. 33, let be the intersection of the diagonals of the base. to the vertex O. Join When is perpendicular to the base the
V
23.
right
Some
regular solids.
31(a),
(b),
{e)
Prisms. In Fig, typical prisms. (a) is rectangular, (6)

(I)
are
shown three
pyramid is a pyramid and OP is its axis. Let Q be the mid-point of one of the sides of the base AB. Join PQ and OQ. Then PQ and OQ are perpendicular to AB (Theorem II). It will be noticed that OPQ represents a plane, imagined within the pyramid but not necessarily the surface of a solid. Then by the Definition in 20, the angle OQP represents the angle between the plane of the base and the plane of
the side OA B. Clearly the angles between the other sides and the base will be equal to this angle.
P OP
is triangular and [c) is hexagonal. They have two ends or bases, identically equal and a rectangle, triangle and regular hexagon respectively.
37
Note. This angle mast not be confused with angle OBP which students sometimes take to be the angle between a side and the base.
Sections of right pyramids.
If sections are made parallel to the base, and therefore at right angles to the axis, they are of the same shape as the base, but of course smaller and similar,
(3)
The angle through until it pointed to the top of the spire. which he rotates it, the angle POQ, in Fig. 35 is called the angle of elevation or the altitude of P. Sometimes this is said to be the angle subtended by the building at O.
Solids with curved surfaces.
surfaces of all the solids considered above are plane There are many solids whose surfaces are either surfaces. entirely curved or partly plane and partly curved. Three well-known ones can be mentioned here, the cylinder, the cone and the sphere. Sketches of two of these are shown below in Fig. 34(a) and (6).
The
O
Fic.
3.">.
"
*1
Altitude of the sun. The altitude of the sun is in reality It is the angle made by the angle of elevation of the sun. the sun's rays, considered parallel, with the horizontal at any given spot at a given time.
(6)
Angle
of depression.
Fig. 34.
at the top ot the tower shown in Fig. 35, a telescope were to be rotated from the horizontal till it points to an object at 0, the angle so formed is called the angle of deIf
pression.
This has two bases which cylinder (Fig. 34(a)). are equal circles and a curved surface at right angles to these. A cylinder can be easily made by taking a rectangular piece of paper and rolling it round until two ends meet. This is sometimes called a circular prism. {b) The cone {Fig. 34(6)). This is in reality a pyramid with a circular base. (c) The sphere. A sphere is a solid such that any point on its surface is the same distance from a point within, called the centre. Any section of a sphere is a circle.
(a)
The
Angles of elevation and depression. following terms are used in practical applications of Geometry and Trigonometry.
2-4.
The
(a) Angle of elevation. Suppose that a surveyor, standing at O (Fig. 35) wishes to determine the height of a distant tower and spire. His first step would be to place a telescope (in a theodolite) horizontally at O. He would then rotate it in a vertical plane
LOGARITHMS
a*
39
a*
= *"'
or-*.
and
in general
we can prove
(Tt" =
CHAPTER
I
LOGARITHMS
Logarithms are of the utmost importance in Trigonometry. Without them many calculations would be extremely tedious and in some cases impossible. Lest the student should not have a working knowledge of them we give a brief summary of their nature, properties and uses. Logarithms are Indices viewed from a special standpoint. We must therefore begin by a brief consideration of the laws of Indices. It will be learnt from Teach Yourself Mathematics that a* represents a x a x a x a, where a is any number. The Index " 4 " indicates the number of factors. Generally, if " " stands for any whole number
25.
a"
(3) Law of powers. Suppose we require the value of [a*)*, i.e. the third power This by the meaning of an index is of a*.
a'
a'
x
=1
a*
and by the
first
law of Indices, above,

a*
a*
X a6
{a s}*
U.
In general
27.
a*** 4"*
a" *
(o")"
a"".
Summary
of the
Laws of
Indices.
(1)
(2) (3)
means
Is
a*
26.
called
x a x a x ...ton the nth power of a.
factors
and
Multiplication. Division,
Powers,
a"+". a" X a" a" * a" = a' (amY = a.
Laws of Indices.
proceed to the laws which govern the use of
1
We now
Indices.
(1)
Exercise
Write down the values of

(1) a*
Law
of multiplication.
(i.e.
Since
and
then
*.e.
= axaxaxa the product of" 4 a's ") a* = a x a a {the product of " 3 a's "). a* x a* = the product of (4 + 3)a's, a* x a* = a*** = a'.
a*
x. if
(2) (3)
x a, x 6*. x *4 x
(4)
1*
21
X lx7 X fx\
X
2*.
(5)
**.
(6)
3"
3*
2.
Write down the values of

(1) (2)
a? -^ a'.
(3) (4)
And generally
prove
and are any
positive integers
we can
c"
-^ 6*.
***" 2> 4- 2*.
o" x a"
This law
(2)
o"+".
e.g.
Find the values

(1)
of:
.
is
obviously true for any number of factors, am x a" x a* = a"+"+.
X 1 X X*
a1
Law
of division.
(2)
+ X1 ~ a*.
(3)
a*
**
a x*
(*)
Since
Find the values of

five
(2)
and a 1 = a x a :< a on division the three factors of a* cancel three of the

factors of *.
t5)
no*)*,
3a).
M*.
(2iy.
(2*)*,
h)
7)
(8)
Thus
(5
3}
(3)
i.e.
(|*T.
(3*)*.
2 factors are
38
left,
(4)
40
28.

Similarly
a*
LOGARITHMS
x
a*
41
Extension of the meaning of an Index. The student will readily understand how useful and important indices are in Algebra. He will note that so far they have been restricted to positive whole numbers only, and the meaning given to such a quantity as a" is unintelligible except on the supposition that n is a positive integer. But we will now consider the possibility of extending the uses of indices so that they can have any *
a*
ai'l K
a
(First
law of
indices)
,".
at must be defined as the cube root of a.

in
The same argument may be applied

so generally
other cases, and
alue.
The student may already have noticed one instance will be among those we shall consider in detail later. If we divide a 1 by a* and write this down in the form a X a x * ,. , 1 i we obtam on ""*">=. a x a x a x a x a TW~* or a* If a* be divided by a s according to rule we have
which
'
To
find a meaning for a 1 Applying the first law of indices a'
ai
ai
= a*+l+* = a>
a~
above shows that the
Consequently
it
a'
= =
.*.
a*-*
a- or
a' must be the cube root of a 1

a' => -vâ*
We are thus left with a negative index.
But the working

by a
1
Similarly
a*
m m
tfa?
I/a"
result of the division of a*
is
-'
a*
and generally
appears that a"' means the same thing

.
as -,, or the reciprocal of a1
The student will note that decimal indices to vulgar fractions and defined accordingly.
Thus
can be reduced
it seems that a meaning can be given to a~* which of course, quite different from the meaning when the index is a positive whole number. are therefore led to consider what meanings can be given in all those cases in which the index is not a positive integer, fn seeking these meanings of an index there is one fundamental principle which will always guide us, viz. Every index must obey the laws of indices as discovered for positive integers. In other words, we will assume that the laws of indices, as stated above, are true in all cases.
is,
Thus
a*"
find a
ai
We
= #a
30.
To
meaning for n8
a"
-r
a"
But, using the taw of division for Indices,

a"
a"
.".
= a'-' = a a* =
1
29. Fractional Indices.
We
above
will begin with the simple case of a*. Since, by the principle, it must conform to the laws of Indices, then,
Tt should be noted that a represents any number. result therefore is independent of the value of a.
31,
This
applying the law of multiplication

* X a*
.".
Negative indices.
find
a meaning for a "
=
==
a*
To
a'ara
a""
a"
by
itself,
.".
must be such a quantity that, on being multiplied the result is a. ai must be defined as the square root of a
a\
= =
=
Dividing by a"
a~" + " a"

1
(First
law of indices)
(shown a
or ai
= Va
a-
=i
ez
TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY We may therefore define a- " as the reciprocal of a\

Examples
a
LOGARITHMS
43
without them would be almost impossible o.r very laborious. We will choose a very simple example to explain how they can be used.
We
have seen that
1Q* S
***
10*
'
Now
Also
10-*= 10 1+ *
10
10*
= =
= = =
VTO
= 3-162 approx. (by calculation) - 10 x 10* (First Law of Indices) x 3162 = 31-62
l
*-*=
Va
1
(10*1*
(Third law of Indices)
= VT5* = VTlM
Again
10'
or generally Exercise 2
.V
Ifl
|0"' S
-
l(l\ JO
Also
10*
= 5-62 approx. = (10*)* = -v/iol = v'l-78 = '33 approx.

I
1-78 approx. 10***= 10* x 10* 3- 162 x 1-78
(First
law of Indices)
Where
necessary in
the
following
take
^3"=
1.
1-732,
vT0
Vf=
1-414,
3-162,
each correct to three places of

:
decimals,
Similarly we might calculate a number of powers of 10. Let us now make a table showing II) the numbers above, (2) the indices showing what powers they are of 10,
1
Write down the meanings of

3*. 4"*, 3a-*, 1000, 2~,
i
(4) (5)
(6)
J*
Number.
4*, lQ-.
Index.
2.
Find the values of

(1)
(2) (3)
2'
3*. 3 10* 4- 10*.
x 2*. X 3* x
1-33 1-78
a*
0128 026
0-6
a*.
3162
fi-62
ft
10.
0-76
1-5
31-62
3.
Find the values of

(1)
8.
(4)
(5-*)*.
Now
suppose
we want we x
to find the value of
(2)
(3)
25*.
3-162
1-78
From the
(10)*.
:
table
(6)
(1000)*.
.'.
4.
Find the values of

(1) (2) (3)
3-162
10""* see that 3-162 10-" 1-78 10* X 10"-*' 1-78
(*)-.
(,-
(4) (6)
(8)
(36)--.
(4)'-*.
s.
= a
= =
iQo-s+o-is lO*" 74
(First
law of Indices)
(16}".
Now
(i)-
the table shows us that 10*"

.V
5-62
6. 6.
Find the value of a* x a- * x a* when a Write down the simplest form of

:
2.
3-162
(Note.
All the numbers calculated are approximate.)

an extended us
1-78
5-62
(1)
a*
a*.
(2)
10*
10-t.
You
32.
A system
of logarithms
will see instead of the process of multiplication of the numbers, we use that of an addition of the indices. Much more difficult calculations can be similarly per-
These extensions of the meanings of indices to all kinds of numbers are of great practical importance. They enable us to carry out, easily and accurately, calculations which
formed.
It is evident that if we are to make this method, one thing is essential.
:
of
44
LOGARITHMS
Thus the
characteristic
45
must have a table of the indices which indicate the power any given number is of a selected number such as 10 which we have used for the above example. Such a table is called a table of logarithms and the number, such as 10 used above, with respect to which the logarithms
are calculated,
is called the base of the system. therefore define a logarithm as follows. Definition. A logarithm of a number to a given base is the index of the power to which the base must be raised to
We
always be determined by tables. Inspection, and consequently is not given in the This is one advantage of having 10 for a base.
may
34. Mantissa of a logarithm.
We can
produce the number.
For example,
we know
341
that
The decimal part of a logarithm is called the mantissa. In general the mantissa can be calculated to any required number of figures, by the use of higher mathematics. In most tables, such as those given in this volume, the mantissa
is
|0*aii
(lj
Then by the above

2-6328
is the
definition
to the base
This
we
logarithm of 341 abbreviate into
10
In calculated to four places of decimals approximately. Chamber's " Book of Tables " they are calculated to seven places of decimals. The mantissa alone is given in the tables, and the following example will show the reason why
log 10 168-3 168-3 10 168-3 16-83
2-5328
log 341
(2)
.*.
the base 10 being indicated by the suffix, as shown. The student should carefully note that equations (1) and (2) axe two ways of expressing the same relation between the numbers employed,
33. Characteristic of a logarithm.
integral or whole called the characteristic.
= 2-2261 = 10'" = 10 "" = io*

1
1 4- 10
1-1
(second law of indices)
Similarly
log 10 16-83 Iog 10 1-683

log,,,
= =
and
part of a logarithm
Is
1683
= =
10 ltMl 1-2261 0-2201
3-2261
The
number
This can always be determined by inspection when logarithms are calculated to base 10,
as will be seen from the following considerations;
Since
= = io' = 10 s = 10* 10" 10'
1,
10,
loo, 1000, 10,000, log,, 10,000
og 10 10 log;: loo log,,, 1000
= -
= = =2
1
power of if a number is multiplied or divided by a the characteristic of the logarithm of the result is changed, but the mantissa remains unaltered. This may be expressed as follows
Thus,
10,
Numbers having the same set of significant figures have the same mantissa In their logarithms.
To read a table of logarithms. With the use of the above rules relating to the characteristic and mantissa of logarithms, the student should have
35.
and so on.
From
for
pi
these results
j>
we
see that,
1
numbers between
>i ..
and
>
10
100 1000
10 the characteristic is 100 ,, ,, 1 u 1000 2 10,000 3

J)
.*'.
no
difficulty in reading
a table of logarithms.
table, giving the
Below is a portion of such a of numbers between 31 and 35.

No U*.|
606 1
1 1 3 4
logarithms
and so on.
evident that the characteristic is always one less than the number of digits in the whole number part of the
It is
I
6] hi
6:160
9
60.il
j
3
3
4 4
4 S
;.
7
i
s
11
4966
611(9
WW
6106
4M3 47
613-J
6-jr,3
number.
3 3
Thus
in
!fig 10
log,,,
log 10
3758-7 the characteristic is 3 375-87 2 37-587 1
14
:.
ma mi
11)
Mas
M'Jfl
6211 6340 6363
HSI
M'JO
66D.'
6011 6146 6S7C 6403 6617
603 B 6)30 6172 S-JS3 6301 6410
u
j j
j
MS
6661
1 1
3 3
I I
n
10 Kl
n
12
r.*
4 4
1
5 5
1
6 G a 7
6463
m>;&
647 8
6614
6633
:>
u U
III
46

1
LOGARITHMS
K, Mote.
47
The figures in column numbers from I to 89. column 2 is the mantissa
in the
complete table are the
The corresponding number in of the logarithm. As previously
stated, the characteristic is not given, but can be written down by inspection. Thus log 10 31 1-4914. log 10 310 2-4914, etc. If the number has a third significant figure, the mantissa will be found in the appropriate column of the
As the log tables which will be usually employed by the beginner are all calculated to base 10, the base in further work will be omitted when writing down logarithms. 2-3714, the base 10 being Thus we shall write log 236-2
understood.
Exercise
1.
3,
next nine columns.
Thus
If
log, 3l-l log,, 31-2
= =
1-4928,
Write down the characteristics of the logarithms
of
14942, and so on
the following
15,
numbers
1500, 51-63,
the number has a fourth significant figure space docs not allow us to give the whole of the mantissa. But the next nine columns of what are called " mean differences " give us for every fourth significant figure a number which must be added to the mantissa already found for the first three significant figures. Thus if we want log,, 3 1-67, the mantissa for the first three significant figures 310 is 0-4997. For the fourth significant figure 7 we find in the appropriate column of mean differences the number 10. This is added to 0-4997 and so we obtain for the mantissa 5007.
.'.
31,672, 3874-6,
800,000 597, 8, 325-4 2-615,
2.
Read from
the tables the logarithms of the following

(1) (2)
(3)
numbers
6, 50, 500,
60,000.
4-7, 470, 47,000.
52-8, 5-28, 528.
4}
(5)
.1.
947-8, 9-478, 94,780. 5-738, 96-42, 6972.
log 10 31-67
Find, from the tables, the numbers of which the

2-65, 4-65, 1-65, 1-943, 3-943, 0'943.
1-5007
following are the logarithms

(1)
Anti-logarithms.
usually provided with a table of antilogarithms which contains the numbers corresponding to given logarithms. These could be found from a table of logarithms but it is quicker and easier to use the antilogarithms. The tables are similar in their use to those for logarithms,
is
The student
(2) (3) (4)
0-6734, 2-6734, 5-6734. 3-4196, 0-7184, 2-0508.
36. Rules for the use of logarithms.
but
we must remember:
That the mantissa
of the log
{!)
only
is
used in the
In using logarithms for calculations we must be guided by the laws which govern operations with them. Since logarithms are indices, these laws must be the same in
principle as those of indices. formal proofs are omitted.
(1)
table.
These rules are given below
the significant figures of the number have been obtained, the student must proceed to fix the decimal point in them by using the rules which we have considered for the
(2)
When
characteristic.
Example. Find the number whose logarithm is 2-3714. First using the mantissa viz., 0-3714 we find from the anti-logarithm table that the number corresponding is given as 23S2. These are the first four significant figures of the number required. Since the characteristic is 2, the number must lie between 100 and 1000 (see 33) and therefore it must have 3 significant figures in the integral part. .". The number is 235'2,
Logarithm of a product. of the product of two or more numbers is equal to the sum of the logarithms of these numbers (see first law of indices). Thus if p and q be any numbers
The logarithm
log (p
(2)
q)
log
p +
log
Logarithm of
a quotient.
The logarithm
of diminished indices).
of p divided by
q is equal to the logarithm by the logarithm of q (see second law of
48

Thus
(3)
LOGARITHMS
Example
Let
the the
3.
49
log (p 4- q)
= log p log q
Find
the fifth root of 721-8.
Logarithm oft power.
The logarithm
logarithm of
power of a number Is equal to the number multiplied by the index of

of a
log a*
Then
power (see Thus

(4)
third law of indices).
= n log a
(3)
i
= "'72~P8 = (721-8)1 log* = i log 721-8 = |(2-8584) = 0-5717

x
.".
(see 36(4))
*-
3-730
Logarithm of a root. This is a special case of the above
Exercise
4.
Thua
tog
"a
log a*
= - log a
37.
Use logarithms to 1. 23-4 x 14-73,

2.
find the values of the following

14. 15.
16.
Examples of the use of logarithms.

I.
Example
Let
Find
*
the value of 57-86
4-385.
Then
log
= = =
57 86 x 4-385
log 4-385 1-7624 0-6420 2-4044 log 263-7 log 57-86
No.
67-86 1-7624 4-385 0-6420
!S3'7
43-97 x 6-284. 3. 987-4 x 1-415. 4. 42-7 X 9-746 X 14-36. 11-95. 5. 28-63 6. 43-97 -j- 6-284. 7. 23-4 4- 14-73. 8. 927-8 -H 4165. 27-94. 9. 94-76 x 4-195 15-36 X 9-47 X 11-43 10. 6-632 X 21-85
(15-23)* (5-98)*
X 3142.
16-47.
(91-51*
4-73
16-92*
(8-97)'
17.
x (1-059) 577
4798
18.
(56-2)*
19.
(9-814) 3
'
3-417".
,\
x-2537
2-4044
Notes. fl) The student should remember that the logs in. the tables are correct to four significant figures only. Consequently he cannot be sure of four significant figures in the answer, It would be more correct to give the above answer as 264, correct to three significant figures, (2) The student is advised to adopt some systematic way of arranging the actual operations with logarithms. Such a
11. 12.
18.
(9-478)*. (51-47)*. (1-257)*.
20. v/4-872. 21.

22.
-=
jt
4-738.
! 23. If 24. If tar*
78-6 find r
15-5, find r
when when
-r.
61 :> x 2-73. 3 142. 3-142,
38.
Logarithms of numbers between
and
I.
method
is
shown above.
2.
In 33 we gave examples of powers of 10 when the index is a posiiive integer. will now consider cases in which the indices are negative.
We
Example
Find
the value of
Thus
10* 10" 10-'
=
-
10
1
logio 10 )g,o
1
5-672 x 18-94 1-768
Let
log
5-6 72
x 18 94
No.
log.
io-
.-.
or
= log 5-672 4- log 18-94 log 1-758 = 0-7538 + 1-2774 - 0-2450 = 1-7862 = log. 61 12 *= 61-12 x = 61 (to three significant figures)
x
-1
1-758
6-672 0-7S38 1-2774 S<94
io-
= A = o-i = = ' 01 = = 0001
log,,, 0-1
lof,'
w
1
0-01
= = = = =
2 3
etc.
log,
0-001
2-0312
1-768 0-2460
From
negative.
these results
we may deduce
that
61-12
1-7862
The logarithms of numbers between
and 1
are always
so
LOGARITHMS
by
10,
51
We
we Thus
34) that if a number be divided obtain the log of the result by subtracting 1,
have seen
if
characteristic is point.
,*,
3, there will be two zeros after the decimal

the
From
log 43-8 log 498 log 0-498 log 0498 log 0-00498 the above log 0-498
= 1-6972 = 0-6972 = 0-6972 - 1 = 0-6972 - 2 = 0-6972 3 = 0-6972 - - 0-3028

1
number
is
0003480
5.
Exercise
1.
Write down the logarithms of:

2-798, 0-2798, 0-02798, 4-264, 0-4264, 0-004264. (3) 0-009783, 0-0009783, 0-9783, (4) 0-06451, 0-6451, 0-0006451.
(1) (2)
Now, in the logs of numbers greater than unity, the mantissa remains the same when the numbers are multiplied or divided by powers of 10 (see 34), i.e. with the same significant figures we have the same mantissa. It would clearly be a great advantage if we could find a system which would enable us to use this rule for numbers less than unity, and so avoid, for example, having to write
log 0-498 as
2.
Write down the logarithms

(1) (2)
(3)
of
(4)
0-05986. 0-000473. 0-007963.
0-00009275.
0-6673. 0-07986.
(5)
(6)
3.
Find the numbers whose logarithms are

(1) (2)
(3)
0-3028
This can be done by not carrying out the subtraction as shown above, and writing down the characteristic as negaBut to write log 0-498 as 0-6972 1 would be tive. awkward. Accordingly we adopt the notation 1-6972 writing the minus sign above the characteristic. It is very important to remember that
1-6972
1-3342. 3-8724. 2-4871,
14) (5) (6)
4-6437. T-7738. 8-3948.
39.
Operations with logarithms which- are negative.

is lie
+ 0-6972 = = =
2-6972 3-6972 5-6972 etc.
Thus
Is
in logarithms written in this way the characteristic negative and the mantissa is positive.
needed in dealing with the logarithms of numbers between and 1, since they are negative and, as shown above, are written with the characteristic negative and the mantissa positive. A few examples will show the methods of working.
Care
which
Example
1,
Find
(he
sum
of the logarithms;
With
this notation
log 00498 log 0-00498 log 0000498
1-6173,
2-3415,
16493,
0-7374
Arranging thus
1-6173 2-3415
Note.
The student should
acteristic is numerically the decimal point.
note that the negative charone more than the number of zeros after
the tables
16493
0-7374
2 3465 be specially remembered is that the 2 which is earned forward from the addition of the mantissas is positive, since they are positive. Consequently the addition of the characteristics becomes
Example I. From 003185 and 0003185.
find the
logs
of
0-3185.
The point
to
Using the portion of the tables in the mantissa for 0-3185 will be 0-5031. Also the characteristic is 1
36,
we
see that
.',
Similarly
and Example
log 0-3185 log 0-03185 log 0003185

the
=1-5031 =2-5031
_1_2
From
+ 2=
2
subtract
the
Example
log 3-8453.
2.
the
logarithm
16175
3-5031
log. is 3-5416.
2.
Find
number whose
1-6175
3 8463
From the anti-log tables we find that the significant figures of the number whose mantissa is 5416 are 3480. As the
1-7712
: : :
5a

Here
in " borrowing " to subtract the 8 from the 0, the in the top line becomes 2, consequently on subtract-
LOGARITHMS
Exercise
6.
ing the characteristics
= 2
Example
3.
we have ( 3) =
2-8763 3
Add
together the following logarithms

2-5178 3-2165
+ 3= +
3.
(1)
l
(2)
+ 1-9438 + 0-6138 4+ 3-5189 + 1-3297 +
5-5283. 2-6475.
Multiply Z-8763 by
Find the values of

(1)
(2)
3.
4-2183 0-3987
X x x
5-6257. 1-5724.
(8)
1-6472 2-1085
1-9875. 5-6271.
Find the values of

(1)
36289
the multiplication of the mantissa, 2 is carried 8, forward. But this is positive and as ( 2) X 3 2 the characteristic becomes 6 4.
From
+ =
2)
(3)
1-8732 2-9456 1-5782
2. 3. 5.
W
(6) (6)
(4)
1-5782 2-9947 2-7165
1-5,
0-8. 2-5.
Find the values of

1)
Example
4.
Multiply 1-8738 by IS.
In a case of this kind it is better to multiply the characteristic and mantissa separately and add the results.
2)
3)
3-9778 2-8947 1-6257
X 0-65. x 0-84. x 06.

of
2.
2-
1342
0-4.
1-5.
(5) (6)
1-3164 1-2976
0-8.
Thus
8738 x 13
1-3
= 113694 = - 1-3
we change
it
Find the values

(1)
wholly negative and so make the mantissa positive. Then the product is the sum of
is
1-3
to 2-7, to
(2)
(3)
1-4798 2-5637 4-3178
W
(5) (6)
4- 5. 4- 3
3-1195 4- 2. 1-6173 4- 1-4. 2-3178 4- 0-8.
Use logarithms to
6. 7.
find the values of the fallowing

17.
1-13594
2-7
15-62
0-4732
I-88GM
or
1-8359 approx.
Example 5. Divide 5-3716 by 3. Here the difficulty is that on dividing 6 by 3 there is a remainder 2 which is negative, and cannot therefore be carried on to the positive mantissa. To get over the
difficulty
0-513 75-94 x 00916 x 0-8194. 10. 9-463 4- 15-47. 11. 0-9635 4- 29-74. 569-4. 12. 27-91 5732. 13. 00917 414. 5-672 x 14-83 4- 0-9873.
8. 9.
X 0-987. X 0-694. X 0-0293.
-y i-715
"647-2 4- (3-7 15) 5 18. 19. j (48-62)*. 20

,
142 21. (1-697). 22. (19-72)T

'
^ Y
3-
'
15.
we
write
16.
(0-9173)*. (0-4967)*.
23. 24. 25.
(0-478) ". " (5-684)- 1 1 *. (0-5 173)-**.
or the log as
2 and the division of the positive part 1-3716 gives 0-4572, which is positive. Thus the complete quotient is 2-4572. The work might be arranged thus
3 )8
_ 6= - 6 + 1 6 + 1-3716 Then the division of the 6 gives us

+
1-3716
2+0-4572
2-4572
55
The principle involved is practically the same as that employed in modern methods of solving the same problem. examine it more closely. It will be well, therefore, to note first that it is assumed that the sun's rays are
CHAPTER
111

THE TANGENT
40. One of the earliest examples that we know in history of the practical applications of Geometry was the problem of finding the height of one of the Egyptian pyramids. This
this assumption is parallel over the limited area involved justified by the great distance of the sun. and In Fig. 36 it follows that the straight lines
;
We
RC
PB
which represent the rays

are parallel.
falling
on the tops of the objects

9,
Consequently, from Theorem 2(1),
/.PBQ
As
Z.s
LACB
(J
These angles each represent the altitude of the sun
24).
who lived about 640 B.C. to 550 b.c. For this purpose he used the property of similar triangles which is stated in | 15 and be did it in this way.
cian
i
was solved by Thales, the Greek philosopher and mathemati-
or as written above
PQB and ABC are right angles As PQB, ABC are similar. PQ _4 * QB ~ BC PQ _QB
.
AB
BC'
solution is independent of the length of the stick because if *his be changed the length of its shadow will be
The
AB
changed proportionally. We therefore can make this important general deduction. For the given angle ACB the ratio gj* remains constant
J^,
Fig. 30.
He observed the length of the shadow of the pyramid and at the same time, that of a stick, AB, placed vertically into the ground at the end of the shadow of the pyramid (Fig 36) QB represents the length of the shadow of the pyramid and BC that of the stick. Then he said " The height of the pyramid is to the length of the stick, as the length of the shadow
of the
i.e.
whatever the length of AB. , liJt , . . whatever Thfe ratio can therefore be calculated beforehand be done there is no necessity this If the size of the angled CB. and the value to use the stick, because knowing the angle length of QB, of the ratio, when we have measured the we can easily calculate PQ. Thus if the altitude were found to be 64 and the value of the ratio for this angle had been previously calculated to be 2-05, then we have
and
41.
PQ - QB X
Tangent
of an angle.
2-05.
pyramid
is to the length
of the shadow of the stick."
in Fig. 36,
AB
2.
= Qi BC
this
application of an abstract geometrical principle solution of such a problem,
Then QB, AB, and BC being known we can find PQ We are told that the king, Amasis, was amazed at
54
to the
is so idea of a constant ratio for every angle important that we must examine it in greater detail. Let POQ (Fig. 37) be any acute angle. From points the A, B.C on one arm draw perpendiculars A D, BE, CF to other arm. These being parallel, LsOAD, OBE. OCF are equal (Theorem 2 (1J) and As ODA , OEB, OFC are right- L%.
The
As AOD, BOE, COP
are similar.
36
TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY AD BE CF _, " OD ~ OE = OF Theoreai 10,

.
<

{ IS)
57
UItS
tekm Sn oa
.*,
f 1,ow
'
n matter how mafl y P ints
Thus any one of the three quantities a, b, tan B can be determined when the other two are known,
43.
Notation for angles.
the ratio of the drawn from a point on one arm of the angle perpendicular to the stance distance Intercepted on the other arm is constant
for the angle
POQ
As indicated above we sometimes, for brevity, refer an an<;le by using only the middle letter of the three which define the angle.
(1)
to
Thus we use tan B for tan ABC. This must not be used when there is any ambiguity, for example, when there is more than one angle with vertex at the same point.
(2)
as,
its
When we
gamma).
in
refer to angles in general
we
frequently use
a Greek letter, e.g. (pronounced " theta ") or^ (pronounced " phi ") or tp (pronounced " psi ") or even a, p, or y. (alpha,
beta,
P
f0f a y c ch an S lc h as its own particU K identified .? cular ratio and can be by it S < nt ratio is " ed tn * "ngent of the "angle. TEL n; l The name is abbreviated in use to tan Thus for LPOQ above we can write
44.
Changes
the tangent
in
the
first
quadrant.
S^
Fig. 37.
SS&L
In Fig. 39 let OA a straight line of unit length rotate from a fixed position on until it reaches OY, a straight line perpendicular to OX. From O draw radiating lines to mark 10, 20, 30, etc. perpendicular to OX From A draw a straight line and let the radiating lines be produced to meet this. Let OB be any one of these lines.
OX
AM
Then
42. Right-angled triangles.
tanflO.-l
=^4. OA
Before proceeding further
which
we will consider formally by means of the tangent, the relations
Since OA is of unit length, then the length of BA, on the scale selecte'd, will give the actual value of tan BOA Similarly the tangents of other angles 10, 20, etc., can be read off by measuring the corresponding intercept on
a
Fig. 38.
Let ABC (Fig. 38) be a rightangled triangle. Let the sides opposite the ancles 5 be denoted by a (opp. A), b (opp. 3), e (opp.
exist between the sides and angles of a right-angled triangle.
AM.
If
is
the line
also 45
and
OC corresponding to 45 be drawn then LA CO AC equals OA (Theorem 3, II). AC - I

.-.
..
tan 45'
1.
At the
tangent
initial position,
when OA
is
on
OX the angle is 0",

is
(This
is
angled A.) Then, as shown in
a _ general method of denoting
Q,
the length of the perpendicular from

is
zero,
and the
sides of a right-
also zero.
41
ff
marked on
From examination of the values AM, we may conclude:

(1) (2) (3) (4)
of the
tangents as
tan
,',
a tan
g B
a
tan 0"
is 0.
a b
As
and
=
taii/j'
the angle increases, tan increases. tan 45 1. For angles greater than 45, the tangent
is
greater
than
I.
58
(5)

As the angle approaches
59
90 the tangent increases very rapidly. When it is almost 80 it is clear that the radiating line will meet A at a very great distance, and when it coincides with OY and 90 is reached, we say that the tangent has become infinitely great.
The symbol co, commonly called infinity, means a number ereater than am- conceivable number,
45.
table of tangents.
made of tangents in practical applications and calculations, it is necessary to have a table which will give with great accuracy the tangents of ail angles which may be required. It must also be possible from it to obtain the angle corresponding to a known tangent. rough table could be constructed by such a practical method as is indicated in the previous paragraph. But results obtained in this way would not be very accurate. By the methods of more advanced mathematics, however, these values can be calculated to any required degree of accuracy. For elementary work it is customary to use tangents calculated con-cctly to four places of decimals. Such a table will be found at the end of this book. small portion of this table, giving the tangents of angles from 26" to 29 inclusive is given below, and this will serve for an explanation as to how to use it.
Before use can be
Natural Tangents.
1 R
0'
V
468 4 i San 6117
13 Id
B
.""-Ii
1
IS'
lr
4727 4748 4770 4866 M6(i 9430
16'
w
4
Mean DiOereoCtt.
64'
1
ii
i.i
S
7
?
4 14
11
1ft
1ft 1ft
ft
n-46<l3
471)6
4 791
SIS
4S31
611.'. 1
n
as
SI)
0*877 u-nms
0-6317 6113
IM1
6136
53(12
tui
6161
4(164
ws
6228
64 as
'->!
6D'>D
481H 6073
4
4
u
11
11
MS
MM
Mil
M!
0407 6036
6260
::.''
6372
Stilt.
MM
18 IB
IS
4
4
7
1
WM
6704
6797
6620 6760
11
1-.'
1*
<
IS
The first column indicates the angle in degrees. The second column states the corresponding tangent. Thus tan 27 = 06095. (3) If the angle includes minutes we must use the remain(1) (2)
ing columns.
I
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-9
(a)
If the
number
24'.
of minutes
figures in the corresponding
is a multiple of " 6 ", the column gives the decimal part
of the tangent.
Fig. 38.
column marked
(6)
Thus tan 25" 24' will be found under the From this we see
tan 25 24'
0-4748.
This can be expressed by saying that As approaches 9V, tan approaches infinity.
This
may be
expressed formally by the notatioa

6
when
>
90,
tan 9
<o
of minutes is not an exact multiple of 6, we use the columns headed " mean differences " for angles which are I, 2, 3, 4, or 5 minutes more than the multiple " of " 6
If the
number
60

In Fig,
Thus if we want tan 26 38', this being 2' more than 26 38', wc look under the column headed 2 in the line of 26. The
difference
is 7.
THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS 41 let PQ represent the man and QR represent
6t
the
shadow.
Thus
This is added to tan 26 36', i.e. 0-5008. tan 26 38' 0-6008 -0007
= =
Then PR represents the sun's ray and the sun's altitude.
LPRQ
represents
0-5015.
examination of the first column in the table of tangents will show you that as the angles increase and approach 90 the tangents increase very rapidly. Consequently for angles greater than 45 the whole number part is given as well as the decimal part. For angles greater than 74 the mean differences become so large and increase so rapidly that they cannot be given with any degree of accuracy. If the
tangents of these angles are required, the student must consult such a book as Chambers' Mathematical Tables, where seven significant figures are given. This book should be found in the library of everybody who is studying Trigono-
An
.4
M
Fie. 41
metry and
46.
its
applications.
Examples of the uses of tangents. We will now consider a few examples
illustrating practical
applications of tangents.
The
Now
tan
first
is
suggested by the
- IV = PRQ ){
70
in.
problem mentioned
in 24.
Example
foot of
I.
At a point 168 ft.
a church tower, tower is 3S W.
horizontally distant from the he the angfe le of elevation of 'As top of the
Find
the height above the
In Fig. 40 ground.
PQ
ground of the top of the tower. represents the height of above the
1-0938 (approx.) tan 47 34' J A the sun's altitude is 47 34'. Example 3. Pig. 42 represents a section of a symmetrical (P is the midroof in whuh A 13 is the span, and OP tiie rise. point of A B.) If the span is 22 /(. and the rise 7 /', find the shpe of the roof (i.e. the an<;le OB A).
= =
gj-,-
We
will
assume that the distance from

is
is
represented
16',
byOQ. Then
LPOQ
.-.
the angle of elevation and equals 38
g = tan 38 15' A PQ = OQ x tan 38 15' = 168 x tan 38 15' 168 x 0-7883

Taking logarithms of both sides
log {PQ}
Fio. 42.
A
Example
2.
PQ =
- log 168 + log {0-7883) = 2-2263 + 1-8917 = 2-1220 = log 132-4

132
ft.
approx
S
ft.
OAB is an isosceles triangle, since the roof is symmetrical. .. OP is perpendicular to AB (Theorem 3, 11). OP A tan OBP=fpg
in.
A man, who
is
10 in, in height, noticed
that the length of his shadow in the was the altitude of the sitnl
sun was Sft. 4
What
= LOBP =
yi
0-0304 (approx.)
tan 32" 28' (approx.)

32 28'.
6a

Exercise
1.

SINES
63
7.
In Fig. 43
ABC
AND COSINES
A
drawn
on one arm of the angle to the other arm.
is
a right-angled
triangle with
the
right angle.
47. In Fig. 44
from a point
is
perpendicular to AB and DQ perpendicular to CB. Write down the tangents of ABC and CAB in as many ways as possible, using lines of the figure. 2. In Fig. 43, if .4 B is 15 cms. and AC 12 cms. in length, find the values of tan ABC and tan CAB. 3. From the tables write down the tangents of the following angles:
(1)
Draw
CD
A BC, a perpendicular
seen that the ratio W* = tan ABC. Now let us consider the ratios of each of the lines AC BC to the hypotenuse AB.
We have
and
A.
18".
W
(1) (4)
(2) (5)
43.
(3) (6)
56.
'3.
14 18'.
34 48'.
Write down the tangents

9 17'.
(2) (5)
of
52 27'.
31 45'. 64 40'.
(3)
39
5'.
Fig, 44.
II)
From
(1)
(4)
the tables find the angles whose tangents are 0-5452. (2) 1-8205. (3) 2-8239.
1-3001.
(5)
The
ratio
AC
'-tjL,
La.
the ratio of the side opposite to the
0-6707.
(S)
0-2542.
the altitude of the sun is 48 24', find the height of a flagstaff whose shadow is 26 ft. 6 in. long. 7. The base of an isosceles triangle is 10 in. and each of the equal sides is 13 ins. Find the angles of the triangle. 8. A ladder rests against the top of the wall of a house and maker an angle of 69 with the ground. If the foot is 20 ft. from the wall, what is the height of the house ? 9. From the top window of a house which is 75 yds. away from a tower it is observed that the angle of elevation of the top of the tower is 3G and the angle of depression of the bottom is 12*. What is the height of the tower ? 10. From the top of a cliff 320 ft. high it is noted that the angles of depression of two boats lying in the line due east of the cliff are 21 and 17. How far are the boats apart! 11. Two adjacent sides of a rectangle are 15-8 cms. and 1 1 -9 cms. Find the angles which a diagonal of the rectangle makes with the sides. 1 2. P and Q are two points d ircctly opposite to one another on the banks of a river. A distance of 80 ft. is measured along one bank at right angles to PQ. From the end of this line the angle subtended by PQ is fll. Kind the width of the river.
..
& When
angle to the hypotenuse. This ratio is also constant, as was the tangent, for the angle ABC, i.e. wherever the point A is taken, the ratio of AC to A B remains constant. This ratio is called the sine of the angle and is denoted by
sin
ABC.
Fig. 45.
(2) '
*
The
ratio
Vi, AB
BC
-*-
the ratio of the intercept to the
hypotenuse. This ratio

cosine.
is also
constant for the angle
and
is
called the
denoted by cos ABC. The beginner is sometimes apt to confuse these two
It is
'
6

Then
But

sin
63
ratios. The way in which they are depicted by the use of thick lines in Fig, 46 may assist the memory. If the sides
BOC =
jys
of the angle
&ABC are denoted by a, b, c in ABC by (pronounced tketa).

in 45(a)
the usual
way and
the
Then
stn 8 =
(1)
OB is of unit length. BC represents the value which OA represents unity.

.',
of sin
DOC,
in the scale
in
45(6)
ccs e
=5
=
c sin 8 c cos
(2)
From
..
(1) (2)
we get

b a
Consequently the various perpendiculars which have been drawn represent the sines of the corresponding angles. Examining these perpendiculars we see that as the angles increase from CP to W" the sines continually increase.
Since in the fractions representing sin 8 and cos 8 above, the denominator is the hypotenuse, which is the greatest side of the triangle, then
sin 8 48. Ratios of
and cos
cannot be greater than unity.

angles.
complementary
In Fig. 45, since
LC
/.
is
a right angle.
LA + LB =
sin
W
7).
LA
Also
and
LB
are complementary (see
and
cosB
sin
=c = cos B
is
.*.
The
complement, and vice

This
sine of an angle versa.
equal to the cosine of
its
may be
expressed in the form

sin 8 cos 8
80*
70*
60'
50*
40'
30'20'Ki
= cos (90 - 8) = sin (90 8)

first
Fig. 46.
At 90 the perpendicular coincides with the radius

quadrant.
.-.
49.
Changes
line,
in
the sines of angles in the

,
sin
90=
I.
Let a
is
OA
a unit in
length, rotate
from a fixed position

is
At
0 the perpendicular vanishes.

.'.
(Fig, 46) until it describes
a quadrant, that
to
the
LDOA
In
a right angle.
sin 0
0.
From O draw a
series of radii
the circumference
, . .
Summarising these results

the
(1) (2)
(3)
corresponding to the angles 10, 20, 30, From the points where they meet the circumference draw lines perpendicular to OA. Considering any one of these, say BC, corresponding to
40.
first
quadrant
= 0. sin 90 =
sin 0
As
8 increases
I.
from
0 to 90, sin 8 increases.
Q-TRIG.
W
SO.

Changes
in
the cosines of angles in the first quadrant. Referring again to Fig, 46 and considering the cosines of the angles formed as OA rotates, we have as an example
cos

I
67
BOC
OC
dir
Examples of the use of sines and cosines. Example . The length of each of the legs ofapair of compasses The legs are opened out so that the distance between is 2*5 ins. What is then the angle between the legs ? the points is 2 ins.
52.
In Fig. 47, let

.',
AB,
AC represent
BAC, and
the legs of the dividers.
of unit length. OC represents in the scale taken, cos BOC. Consequently the lengths of these intercepts on OA represent the cosines of the corresponding angles. These decrease as the angle increases. When 90 is reached this intercept becomes zero and at 0 it coincides with OA and is unity.
is
As
before,
OB
These being equal,
BAC is an isosceles triangle.

from the vertex
also the base.
in.
AO the perpendicular to the base BC,

.".
bisects the vertical angle
BO =
OC=\
We require to
find the angle
BAC.
Hence
m
(2) (3)
in the first quadrant cos 0 |. As 9 increases from 0 to 90, cos cos 90 = 0.
decreases
51, Tables of sines
and cosines.
compile tables giving the values of these ratios for all These have been calculated and arranged by methods similar to the tangent tables and the general directions given in 45 for their use will apply also to those
angles.
for sines
As in the case of the tangent ratio, it is necessary in order to make use of sines and cosines for practical purposes to
P/
Fir..
B
48.
Now
*-
=
:C0i
'
and
cosines.
table for cosines is not really essential when we have the tables of sines, for since cos 8 sin (90 6) (see | 48) we can find cosines of angles from the sine table. For example, if we require cos 47, we know that
The
0-4
(from the tables)
Lint
.*,
cos 47
,\
= sin 490 = sin 43.
47)
LBAO = LBAC = LBAC =
23 35' 2 x 2 x 23 35' 47 10'.
LBAO
to find cos 47
we read the value of sin
43 in the sine
table.
In practice this process takes longer and is more likely to lead to inaccuracies than finding the cosine direct from a table. Consequently separate tables for cosines are included at the end of this book. There is one difference between the sine and cosine tables which the student must remember when using 'them. As we have seen in fiO, as angles in the first quadrant increase, sines increase but cosines decrease. Therefore when using the columns of mean differences for cosines these
differences
Example 2. An 80-ft. ladder on a fire engine has to reach a window 67 ft. from the ground which is horizontal and level. What angle, to the nearest degree, must it make with the ground and how far from the building must it be placed?
Let AB {Fig. 48) represent the height of the window at A above the ground. Let AP represent the ladder.
To find
LAPS
we may use
'
its
sine for
must be
subtracted.
AB _ 67 sin APB = ZP~* 80 = 0-8375 = sin 66 53' LAPS = 56 53'
(from the tables)
57 (to nearest degree).
68
TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY To find PB we use the cosine olAPB

cosAPB
.'.
THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS Next find PB, which divided by OP gives cos OPB.
69
for
= P2
= =
80 x cos 56 53'
80
PB = AP cos APB =
PB = AP cos APB
= =
28 cos 12 23'
28 x 0-9788 27-35 approx.

use the
NoU.Vfe could also
Theorem of Pythagoras.
;,
= 43-7 PB == 44
Find
0-5463
ft.
approx.
is
Example
3.
The height of a cone
18
ins.
and
the angle
at the vertex is 88.
the slant height.
Let OABC (Fig. 49) represent the cone, the vertex being O and ABC the base. Let the AOAC represent a section through the vertex and perpendicular to the base. It will be an isosceles triangle and P the centre of its base will be the foot of the perpendicular from to the base. OP will also bisect the vertical angle AOC (Theorem 3). OP represents the height of the cone and is equal to 18 ins. OC represents the slant height.
Fig. 50.
Now
,
Sm
;.
.',
cos
OPB
= log OP = =
.
OP = PB + cos OPB OP = 27-36 4- cos 33
Now
cos POC
;. :.
""
OP SC
OC cos POC OP + cos POC
IB cos 44 18 -r- 0-7193 log 18 log 0-7193 1-2553 1-8569 1-3984 log 26 02
= OP =
OB UP OB
23* 27-35 0-8350 log 0-8350 log 27-36 1-5163 1-9217 1-4370 log 32-75 32-75 ft.
~ -
op
oc
This is equal To find OA We must therefore find OB.

(2)
to
OB -A B.
Taking
logs:
log (OC)
= = =
Now
sin
OPB
OP sin OPB
32-76 x sin 33 23' 32-75 x 0-5603 1-7406 log 32-75 log 18-03 18-03
.'.
OC m
= =
= log OP =
.-.
25
Ins.
approx.
Example 4. Fig. SO represents a section of a symmetrical roof frame. PA = 28ftAB = $fi Z.OPA = &1 findOPandOA. (I) We ean get OP if we find LOPB. To do this we must first find LAPB.
\
and
= OB = OA = OB AB m 1803 - 6
=
12-03 k.
1-2559
sin
APB
=b
*
AB
AJP
I.OPB
= LOPA + LAPB m 21 + 12 23' = 33
6 28
0-2143
Exercise 8.
sin 12 23'.
t.
Using the triangle of Fig. 43 write down in as many

(1) the sines, (2) the cosines, of using the lines of the figure.
ways as possible
23'
LABC and
LCaB,
T
?o
2.
TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY*

Draw a

These reciprocals are called the
cosecant,
secant,
71
circle with radius 1-5 in. Draw a chard of length 2 in. Find the sine and cosine of the angle subtended by this chord at the centre. 3. In a circle of 4 ins. radius a chord is drawn subtending an angle of 80 at tbe centre. Find the length of the chord and its distance from the centre. 4. The sides of a triangle are 4-5 ins., 6 ins., and 7-6 ins. Draw the triangle and find the sines and cosines of the
and
cotangent respectively, abbreviated to cosec, sec
and
cot.
Thus
co,ec0=
sec
ilrU
I
cos
angle.
6.
Mtfl
= ta7n5
From
{1)
the tables write

14 38'.
down
the sines of the following

69 17'.
angles:
(2)
47" 44'.
(3)
6.
From the tables

(1) 0-4970.
write
down
(2)
the angles whose sines are

(3)
0-5115.
0-7906.
7.
From the tables write down

1)
the cosines of the following

22'.
(
angles
A)
8.
20 48'. 38 50'.
(2) {5)
44
79
3> 3)
62 39'.
23'.
18'.
to 57
Fig. 61.
From the
tables write
down
the angles whose cosines

0-3548. (6) 0-5140.
(3)
are:
These can be expressed in terms of the sides of a rightangled triangle with the usual construction (Fig. 51) as
follows
m
(4)
1-5332. o-i 1-2172. o-:
(2)
0-9358.
(5)
07910.
9. certain uniform incline rises 10 ft. 6 ins. in a length of 60 ft. along the incline. Find the angle between the incline and the horizontal. 10. In a right-angled triangle the sides containing the right angle are 4-5 ins.-and 6-8 ins. Find the angles and the length of the hypotenuse. 11. In the diagram of a roof frame shown in Fig. 42, find the angle at which the roof is sloped to the horizontal when OP 4 ft. 4 ins. and OB 18 ft. 12. A rope 65 ft. long is stretched out from the top of a flagstaff 48 ft. high to a point on the ground which is level.
I
AB~ sin AX BC AB AB- cos 8 BC AC tan BC S5~ AC

o, 8,
AC
AB
cosec 8 sec 8
cote
Ratios of
complementary
angles.
In continuation of
since
48
we
note that:
tanj4BC
cot BAC
.*,
= AC -jrp
What
S3.
this point
angle does it make with the ground and from the foot of the flagstaff T
bow
far is
and
= <
=
cot (90*
tin 6
is
8)
cotangent of
its
Cosecant, secant and cotangent.
or the tangent of
an angle
equal
to the
reciprocals of the sine, cosine and tangent we can obtain three other ratios connected with an angle, and problems frequently arise where it is more convenient to employ these instead of using the reciprocals of the original
ratios.
From the
complement.
54.
Changes
In
the reciprocal ratios of angles in the
first
quadrant.
The changes in the values of these ratios can best be examined by reference to the corresponding changes in the

58.

Graphs of the trigonometrical
ratios.
values of their reciprocals (see 44, 49 and 60 in this chapter). The following general relations between a ratio and its reciprocal should be noted
(a)
When
the ratio is increasing
Us reciprocal
is
decreasing,
ana vice
versa.
{&) When a ratio is a maximum its reciprocal will be a mimmum, and vice versa. Consequently since the maximum value of the sine and
and tan 8 respectively for angles in the first quadrant. The student should draw them himself, if possible, on squared paper, obtaining the values either by the graphical methods suggested in Figs. 39 and 46 or from the tables.
In Figs. 52, 63, 64 are
shown the graphs
of sin 8, cos 8
cosine in the first quadrant is unity, the Minimum value of the cosecant and secant must be unity. (e) The case when a ratio is zero needs special examination.
If
a number
if
is
Conversely
it is
very large, very small
its reciprocal is its

is
reciprocal
1,000,000.
is
very small. very large.
Thus the
becomes
reciprocal of
1000000
When a
ratio such as a cosine is decreasing until it finally zero, as it does when the angle reaches 90, the
(f
10* 10* 30* 40*
secant approaches infinity. With the notation employed in 44 this can be expressed as follows.
50' 60*70' 80" 90*
As
55.
ft.
90, sec 9
Fig. 52.
Fig, 63.
Changes
In
the cosecant.
59.
Graph
of sin 6
Graph
ratios.
of cos 0.
in the sine in
(2) (3)
Bearing in mind the above, and remembering the changes the first quadrant as given in 49. (1) Cosec 0 is infinitely large.
Logarithms of trigonometrical
As
8 increases froip 0* to 90, cosec 8 decreases. cosec 90 I.
56.
Changes in the secant. Comparing with the corresponding changes

see:
(1)
we
in the cosine
Calculations in trigonometry are shortened and obtained more accurately by the use of tables giving the logarithms The advantage of their of sines, cosines and tangents. use can be illustrated by the following examples. Find the value of sin 67 x tan 24, (1) We might proceed as follows.
sec0
Let
1,
*
logs,
(2)
(3)
As As
x tan 24" 0-8387 x 04452.

sin 57
8 increases from 8 > 90, sec 8
to 80, sec
- ra
increases.
Taking
log *
m =
log (0-8387)
log (04452)
1-9236
+1-6486
57.
_
Changes In the cotangent. Comparing the corresponding changes of the tan

.
and then we proceed as usual.

B
given in
(1) (2) (3) (4)
44 we conclude
as
As8
As
cot 45 As 8
= >
*.Q,cotg
1.
increases, cot
90,
>.,. decreases.
0.
cot 8
>
This method involves the use of two sets of tables. (a) Tables of trigonometrical ratios. (6) Logarithms. Instead of thus using two sets of tables we can use the tables which give directly the logarithms of the trigonometrical ratios.
74

These are the tables at the end of the book, headed. Logarithms of sines Logarithms of cosines Logarithms of tangents.

and so we reach the same
instead of two.
60. Characteristics of
75
conclusion as above in one step
" logarithms of sines
", etc.
difficulty at first in using these tables of logarithmic sines, etc., on account of the As we have seen, all sines and cosines and characteristics. tangents of angles less than 46 are less than unity. Consefind
The student may
some
quently the characteristics of their logarithms are always negative (see 38). They can be dealt with in two ways (1) The characteristic may be printed in the first column, as in the tables in this book. Thus log (sin 20s } is written 1-6341. In other columns the mantissa only is printed, as with ordinary tables of logs, and the negative characteristic must be supplied by the student. (2) To avoid printing these negative characteristics it has been a custom in most tables to add 10 to the characteristic so that log (sin 20) would be printed as 9-6341, If such tables are used by the student his easiest plan is to subtract 10 from the characteristic when writing down the logarithm. The logarithms of cosecants, secants and tangents are not included in the tables given in this book. The student may use instead the logarithms of their reciprocals, the sines,
cosines
and tangents. For example, since

sec 8
,*.
log sec 6
= * cos 6 = log log cos 9 = log cos = log cos 8

1
(see f 33)
Tt should be noted that the logarithm of a number is equal to (log of its reciprocal). Note. Before proceeding to work examples on these tables the student is advised to revise 39 in the chapter on logarithms.
Worked
tells
Examples.
I .
Example
the top of
(2) The following using these tables. Let x .*, log *
is
the solution of the above problem
me
From a certain point the angle of elevation of a church spire is found to be IP. The guide book that the height of the spire is 260 ft. If I am on the
= sin 67" x tan 24 = log sin 67 + log tan 24 = 1-9236 + 1-8486.
same horizontal level as the bottom of the tower, how far away from it ? In Fig. 66 let AB represent the tower and spire,
am
AB =
260
ft.
: :

Let

Let
77
We
Let
be the point of observation. require to find OB.
X x
logs, log
OB=*x
.",
.A b c =6 t + e COt 2
;
ri
Then
.-.
.*.
= x m x = log * = = = = x=
:
cot 11
Then
(1)
= i^ cot 28 30'.
260 cot 11 260 x 5- 1446 log 260 + log 6-1449 2-4150 0-7113
Taking
log 14-4 4- log cot 28 30'
- log 36 8
Log.
= x=
1-8578 log 0-7206 0-7206
No.
1263 log 1338 1338 ft. approx.

3-
14-4 1-1584 s cot 28 30' 0-2662
36-8
1-4236 1-6668 1-8578
Exercise 9
From
(1)
the tables find the following

cosec 36 cosec 59
24'. 45'.
(4)
Fig. 65. If logarithmic cotangents are used,
2
(3)
(5)
(6)
sec. 53 5'. cot 39 42'.
sec 42 37'.
cot 70 34'.
then from
(1)
1
we
11
get
log *
.".
= + log cot + 0-7113 = 1263 = log 1338 W = 1338 ft

log 260 *= 2-4150
3-
1 1
(or
log tan
From
(1) (2)
(3)
3.
the tables find the angle
When When When
the cosecant is 1-1476. the secant is 2-3443. the cotangent is 0-3779.
= 38 4T.
Let
Example
2.
Find
the
value
of
2 sin
cos
when
height of an isosceles triangle is 3-8 ins, and each of the equal angles is 52. Find the lengths of the equal sides.
The
Then
x log*
.*.
as
= 2 sin 8 cos 6 = log 2 + log sin 6 + log cos 9 = 3010 + 1-7960 + 1-8823 = 1-9893
0-9757.
the value
4. Construct a triangle with sides 5 cms., 12 cms. and Find the cosecant, secant and tangent 13 cms. in length. Hence find the angles from the of each of the acute angles.
tables.
6, A chord of a circle is 3 ins. long and it subtends an Find the radius of the circle. angle of 63 at the centre. 6. man walks up a steep road the slope of which is 8. What distance must he walk so as to rise 100 ft.t 7, Find the values of
Example
c
3.
Find
= n2, a = sr.
Since
b
of -=-5 col ^, 2- when b

1
b+i "
25-9,
and
b
and
6+c= = A - m
b ka 25-6 11-2 36-8 14-4 c
(*>! *" (b) cos A sin B when A

8.
= =
40,
B=
35.
Find the values of

(a) sin*
(6)
57 -H 2
28 30*.
Note,
28. 8 when 9 2 sec 8 cot 6 when

is
42.
sin* 6
the usual
way
of writing (sin 6) 1 .
78
9.

Find the values of (a) tan .4 tanB, when
(6)

To
find
79
AC,
v'16-8*_+ 8-9*
A =
50, b
53
B=
B
29.
66".
(1} (2)
AC =
181
ins.
approx., or
!j? when a
see* 43.
27,
10.
Find the values of;

la)
(i>)
,*.
2 co s' 28, s sin 53 27' 11. Find the value 68 40'' ta tan . 12. Find the value of cos* sin* 9. 37 25'. 59 (1) When 9 (2) When 6
AC g-5 AC = log^C = =
cosec
C C
8-9 cosec log 8 -9
*,
AC =
0-9494 0-3090 1-2584 log 18-13

18-1 ins.
+ log cosec C
approx.
(b)
Given one angle and the hypotenuse.

is
13. If
tan
2
the
V 397 x
value
239 x 25 133
of 2 sin
'
14.
Find
57 14'
and
B=
^-B
+ B. COS
10 25'
Example
angle
2. 27 43'
and
Solve the right-angled triangle in which one the hypotenuse is 6-85 ins.
2
=
when
22 29'.
fi
15. If 16. If
and 6
sin 9 = COti find /4 = i ab sin 0,

17'.
when
find
and
28 V.
A when
a =
28-5, b
46-7
56
Some
applications of trigonometrical ratios.
Fig. 67.
61. Solution of right-angled triangles.
solving a right-angled triangle we mean, if certain sides or angles are given we require to find the remaining
sides
By
In Fig. 57
.
C
A
and
and angles.
= = =
27 43' 90 C 62" 17'.
90
27 43'
Right-angled triangles can be solved (1) By using the appropriate trigonometrical ratios. (2) By using the Theorem of Pythagoras (see Theorem
To
9,
find
,4
BC
AB -AC sin ACB = 6-85 x sin 27

3-
43'
14).
We
{a)
give a few examples. Given the two sides which contain the right angle.
solve this
BC
p 19 Ins. = AC cos ACB = 6-85 x cos 27 43'

=
606
ins.
To
(1) The other angles can be found by the tangent ratios. (2) The hypotenuse can be found by using secants and cosecants, or the Theorem of Pythagoras.
These examples will serve adopted in other cases.

(c)
to indicate the
methods to be
Special cases.
Solve the right-angled triangle where the sides containing the right angle are 15-8 ins. and 8-9 ins.
I
.
Example
(1)
The
equilateral triangle.
Fig. 58 illustrates the problem.
In Fig. 68
ABC
is
an
equilateral triangle,
3, II).
AD
is
the
perpendicular bisector of the base.
To find C, tan
,
= ^ =
=
158
8-9
0-5633
1-7753
=
=
if
tan 29 24'. tan 60 36'.

their
It also bisects
LCAB
(Theorem
To find A tan A
and
90.
LDAB = LABD =
A
30 60
These should be checked by seeing
sum
is
Let each side of the
be a units of length.

Then

Then
Si 9)
DB-j
AD = VAB*
DB>
(Theorem
9)
AB*
* * 4
= a* + = 2a 1 AB = aVl
= AC 21"
= AC* + BC*
a1
(Theorem
-J
=
Sin 45
V3
It of
62.
should which AB
a = m BC AB aV2 VI AC =-= tan 45 a Bt be noted that A ABC represents
cos 45
half
a square
is
the diagonal.
Slope and gradient.
Pig.
in
60 represents a side view of the section of a path
AC
the
which
AB
represents the horizontal level and
BC
vertical rise.
sln 60
= =
.4Z>
Fig. 60.
-'-IStan 60
LCAB, denoted by 8, is the angle between the plane of the path and the horizontal. Then LCAB is called the angle of slope of the path or more
briefly
US
'
LCAB
is
the stops of the path.
Similarly
sin
W = AB
tan 30
BD 30 = AB AD ins
'ZB
Now
tan 8 =
CB 75
V5
-i-
= V3
2
DB =
a 2
aV3
~T
^ J_ V5
Note, The ratios for 30 can be found from those for 60" by using the results of 48 and 63.
(2)
The
right-angled Isosceles triangle.
Fig. 59 represents
and
LA CB =
an
isosceles triangle
with
AC = BC
This tangent called the gradient of the path. Generally, If be the slope of a path, tan is the gradient, A gradient is frequently given in the form 1 in 55, and in this form can be seen by the side of railways to denote the gradient of the rails. This means that the tangent of the angle of slope is A. When the angle of slope is very small, as happens in the case of a railway and most roads, it makes little practical /CB \ difference if instead of the tangent f jg in Fig. 60 1 we take
80.
CB
j^,
i.e.
Let each of the equal sides be a units of length.
the sine of the angle instead of the tangent.
la
8*

it is

Exercise
10
ratios.
83
practice also
between
is
this
and
AB
easier to measure AC, and the difference is relatively -small, provided the angle
small.
If
General questions on the trigonometrical
the student refers to the tables of tangents and sines he will see how small is the differences between them for small angles.
63. Projections.
1. In a right-angled triangle the two sides containing the Find the angles and right angle are 23-4 ins. and 16-4 ins. the hypotenuse. 2. In a triangle ABC, C being a right angle, AC is 12-2 ins., AB is 17-5 ins. Compute the angle B.
In Chapter I, 22, we referred to the projection of a straight line on a plane. We will now examine this further. Projection of a straight line on a fixed line. In Fig. 81, let PQ be a straight line of unlimited length, and another straight line which, when produced to meet PQ at 0, makes an angle 9 with it.
3. 4.
01-4, find
In a triangle ABC, a and b.
90.
If
37 21'
and
AB
is a triangle, the angle C being a right angle. Find the angles A and B. 21-32 ft., BC is 12-56 ft. is the perpendicular on BC: 5. In a triangle ABC, A Bis 3-26 ft, B la 36, BC is 4C8 ft Find the length of and A C. AD, Find also BD, 0. ABC is a right-angled triangle, C being the right angle.
ABC
AC
is
AD
DC
-fH
Fig.
E
til.
From A and B draw

andF.
perpendiculars to meet
PQ
at
378 ft. and c = 543 ft., find A and b. ladder 20 ft. long rests against a vertical wall. By means of trigonometrical tables find the inclination of the ladder to the horizontal when the foot of the ladder is (1) 7 ft. from the wall. (2) 10 ft. from the wall. and travels 18 miles per 8. A ship starts from a point hour in a direction 35 north of cast. How far will it be after an hour! north and east of 9. A pendulum of length 20 cms. swings on either side of the vertical through an angle of 15. Through what height does the bob rise J 10. If the side of an equilateral triangle is x ins., find the
If
7.
EF is
Now
and
Also
.'.
Draw AC
parallel to
EF.
(
called the projection of
.*.
AB on PQ LBAC = iBOF = 9 EF = AC AC = AB cos6 EF = AB cos6.
22).
altitude of the triangle. Hence find sin 60 and sin 30. and OY are at right angles to 11. Two straight lines one another. A straight line 3-5 ins. long makes an angle of 42* with OX. Find the lengths of its projections- on
OX
OX
(Theorem
2)
and OY.
of
(47)
// a straight line AB, produced if necessary, makes an angle 6 with another straight line, the length of its projection on that straight line is A B cos 6. It should be noted in Fig. 61 that
BC = AB sin 9
evident that if we draw a straight line at right angles to PQ, the projection of AB upon such a
it is
walking 500 yards up the line of greatest slope ft. Find the gradient of the hill. 13. A ship starts from a given point and sails 15-5 miles How far has it gone in a direction 41 15' west of north. west and north respectively! 14. A point P is 14 miles north of Q and Q is 8 miles west of R. Find the bearing of P from R and its distance fiom R.
12.
A man
hill rises
94
From which
straight line is
AB sin 9.
r
65. Jin
1
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE RATIOS

8
85
+ cos*8 =
I.
From
Fig. 62
AC + BC* = AB*
CHAPTER
RATIOS
64, Since each of the trigonometrical ratios involves two of the three sides of a right-angled triangle, it is to be expected that definite relations exist between them. These relations are very important and will constantly be used in further work. The most important of them will be proved in this chapter.
{Theorem of Pythagoras,
U)
Dividing throughout by
IV
AB*
****
?,
AC*
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE TRIGONOMETRICAL
'J[E* (cos 0)* (sin 8)
+ JB*=
.
BC*
l 1
or as usually written
sin' 6
+ cos
(2)
This very important result may be transformed and used to find either of the ratios when the other is given.
Thus
.'.
sin*
tan8=
sln6
Similarly
8=1 cos* 8 = VI cos* cos 6 = VI sin* 6

sin 8
(1)
"fl
Combining formulae
and
(2)
tan 8
= cos 8
=
sinfl
sin 8
becomes
tan6
Vl
sin 1 8
It
This form expresses the tangent in terms of the sine only. may similarly be expressed in terms of the cosine
thus
tan6
I
= Vl
1
cos* "8
cos
1
Let ABC (Fig. 62) be any acute angle (8). From a point on one arm draw AC perpendicular to the other arm.
66.
+ tan
4- cot* 8
Then
and
sin8
= AC aB
Using the formula
sin 1 6
= sec 8 = cosec* 6 + cos1 6=1

1
1 8 sec* 8
and dividing throughout by cos 1 8
we
sin 8
sin'
get
cos 8
~JB = AC
_ AC
BC
BC = tan9
gag
cos
AB X AC
tan
AB AB
B~C
cos* 8 tan* 6
"*
= cos
=
Again, dividing throughout by sin
*8
we get
.*.
1+ gpTi = jjjtj + cot* 6 = cosec

.
,
cos* 6
8.
We may
(1)
also write these formulae in the forms
8.
tan 1
Similarly
we may prove
that cot 8
cos 6
and
cot* 8
= =
sec* 6
cosec* 8
1.
sin 6
8*
86

Using these forms we can change tangents into secants vice versa when it is
7
CHAPTER V
and cotangents into cosecants and necessary in a given problem.

Exercise
1
in
If sin = i, find cos and tan 9. Find sin 8 when cos 8 0-47. Find sec 6 when tan 8 1-2799. If sec 8 1 -2062 find tan 8, cos 8 and sin 8, Find cosec 6 when cot 8 = 0-5774. If cot 8 = 1-63, find cosec 8. sin 8 and cos B. 8. if tan 9 (, find expressions for sec 8. cos and terms of t. 9. If cos a = 0-4695, find sin a and tan a 10. Prove that tan 9 + cot 8 = sec 8 cosec 8.
Find tan 8 when sin 6
0-5736 and cos 6
0-8192
TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS OF ANGLES SECOND QUADRANT
IN
THE
sin 6
67. In Chapter III we dealt with the trigonometrical ratios It will be of acute angles, or angles in the first quadrant. remembered that in Chapter I, 6, when considering the meaning of an angle as being formed by the rotation of a straight line from a fixed position, we saw that there was no limit to the amount of rotation and consequently angles
could be of any magnitude. We must now consider the extension of trigonometrical At the present, ratios to angles greater than a right angle. however, we shall not examine the general question of angles of any magnitude, but confine ourselves to obtuse angles, or angles in the second quadrant, as these are necessary in many practical applications of trigonometry.
68. Positive
and negative
lines.
Before proceeding to deal with the trigonometrical ratios of obtuse angles it is necessary to consider the methods by which we distinguish between measurements made on a These will be familiar straight line in opposite directions, It is to those who have studied co-ordinates and graphs. desirable, however, to revise the principles involved before applying them to trigonometry.
X'-Fic. as.
**
Let Fig. 63 represent a straight road XOX'. If now a man travels 4 miles from O to P in the direction
OX
and then turns and travels 6 miles in the opposite direction to P'. the net result is that he has travelled The significance of 2 miles from 0. (4 6) miles, i.e. the negative sign is that the man is now 2 miles in the opposite direction from that in which he started.
87
88
RATIOS OF ANGLES
rF
IN
SECOND QUADRANT
89
In such a way as this we arrive at the convention by which we agree to use and - signs to indicate opposite
two straight lines at right angles to one another, as X'OX, Y'OY, in Fig, 64, such as are used for co-ordinates and graphs, we can extend to these the conventions used for v one straight line as indicated above.
,p
directions. If now we consider
and to the left are ve, Values of y measured up-f- ve, wards are 4- ve, and downwards are ve. This is a universally accepted convention.
P,
lies in
the
first
quadrant and
N
is
is
the foot of the
perpendicular from P, to
OX.
OA^
in the direction of
OX and is + ve;
are (+, +).
N^
is in
Thus the co-ordinates
of
any point
the direction of Ps in the
OY and is + ve.
first
quadrant
The
lines
OX,
are called the of co-ordinates. measures the *-coordinate, called the

abscissa,
OY axes OX OY
Pt
lies in
the second quadrant and
Nt
is
the foot of the
perpendicular from P, to
OX.
0N
t is
in the direction of
and
and is ve; N t Pt is in the direction of OY and is + ve. Thus the co-ordinates of any point Pt in the second quadrant
XO
measures the y-coordinate, called the ordinate. Any point
P
V
l
(Fig.
64),
has a
pair of co-ordinates Each pair (*, y). determines a un lq ue

point.
are (-, +). Similarly the co-ordinates of 3 in the third quadrant are ( ), and of P in the fourth quadrant are (+, ). At present we shall content ourselves with considering points in the first two quadrants. The general problem for all four quadrants is discussed later (Chapter XI).
Fio. 64.
69, Direction of Rotation of Angle.
The area
diagram. Fig. 66, is considered to be divided into four quadrants as shown. Values of x measured to the right are
of the
Th&.direction in which the rotating line turns must be taken into account when considering the angle itself. Thus in Fig. 66 the angle A OB may be formed by rotation
2nd. quad.
1st quad.
+ve- direction
\
N3 M H t
=_
ir
mN
-Jf
4 N,
\
"*-
/
-*-
ve
direction
Fro. 66.
*P>
3rd. quad. Fio. 65.
p*
in
an anti-clockwise direction or by rotation
in
a clockwise and a
4 th.
quad.
direction.
By
convention an anticlockwise rotation
is
positive
clockwise rotation is negative.
90

We
RATIOS OF ANGLES IN SECOND QUADRANT

have already decided on a sign convention
root, so
91
Negative angles wiU be considered further in Chapter XI. In the meantime, we shall use positive angles formed by
anti-clockwise rotation.
70,
for the
OB is + ve. Now the sides required to give the ratios of LXOB are the
The
Sign Convention for the Hypotenuse.
same
change which
Consider a point A in the first quadrant. Draw perpendicular to 'OX meeting it at D (Fig. 87).
AD
The only as those needed for its supplement LEOB, may have taken place is in the sign prefixed to ve in Fig. 67) has become the length of a side. ( (- ve in Fig. 68). Thus we have the following rules:
OD +
OE
RATIO
SIN
ACUTE ANGLE OBTUSE ANGLE
cos
TAN
X'
+ + +
Fig. 69.
O
Fio. 67.
+
The angle
X
Fig. 70.
We see this at once by combining

XOA
angle
Fig. 67
and
Fig.
68 into
OD
Also
is
,
DO A
+ ve
which
and
is
DA
is
ve.
acute.
OA * = OD* + DA
= (+ ve)* + {+ ve)* = + ve quantity = a* (say where + ve)

is
Now the equation OA = a* has two roots OA = a or OA ~ a. so we must decide on a sign convention. We take OA as the + ve root. Now consider a point B in the second quadrant. Draw BE perpendicular to X'OX meeting it at E (Fig. 68).
sin
XOA =
-=-=
-r-^y=
sin
cos cos
XOB = KB OB XOA = OD OA
+v
= +
= +
(see footnote)
v_
+= - +
Fio. 68.
OE
Also
is
ve
and
EB
is
angle
EOB) is obtuse. OB* = OE* + EB* = (- )* + (+
+ ve.
The angle
XOB (=
180
= (+) +
ve)*
XOB = OE OB tan XOA = gj = = + EB tan XOB = OE ~ - ~ Note. We use here the abbreviations
for
(+ve) =
+f e
quantity.
positive quantity
-j- and to stand and a negative quantity respectively.
92
TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY Further, by making AOB = AOAD in Fig.

we
see that
sine of an angle cosine of an angle tangent of an angle
T
RATIOS OF ANGLES IN SECOND
70 and
QUADRANT
93
using the rules
Example
}
= sine of its supplement = cosine of its supplement = tangent of its supplement.

(180cos (180 tan (180
6)
Find (he values of tan 162 and sec 162. rom the above tan 8 = tan (180 0) .", tan 162 = - tan (180 - 162)
2.
These results
may
alternatively be expressed thus
Also
.-.
sin 8 - sin
sec sec 162
cos 8 tan 8
e.g.
= =-
8)
8).
= == == - -
tan 18
0-3249. sec 1180 sec (180 sec 18
1-0515.
6)
162)
100 cos 117 tan 147

sin
= = ~
sin 80
72.
1
Ratios for 180.
cos 63 } tan 33" J
The
reciprocal ratios, cosecant, secant

ratios
have the same signs as the

derived.
.*.
and cotangent will from which they are
These can be found cither by using the same arguments as were employed in the cases of 0 and 90 or by applying the above relation between an angle and its supplement. From these we conclude
sin
180
cosecant has same sign as sine secant has same sign as cosine cotangent has same sign as tangent.
cos 180 tan 180

73.
== 0.
is
To
find
an angle
when
a ratio
given.
in cases
e.g.
cosec 108 121 sec cot 164
= cosec 72 = sec 69 = - cot 36"
When
this converse
problem has to be solved
where the angle may be in the second quadrant, difficulties arise which did not occur when dealing with angles in the The following examples will illustrate first quadrant only.
these.
the ratios of angles in the second quadrant from the tables. As will have been seen, the tables of trigonometrical ratios give the ratios of angles in the first quadrant only. But each of these is supplementary to an angle in the second quadrant. Consequently if a ratio of an angle in the second
71.
To find
Example
1,
Find
the
angle whose cosine
is
0-5577.
is in
a cosine shows that the angle s the seconu quadrant, since cos 8 = cos (180 0).
The negative sign
for
From
.'.
the tables
we find
cos 66
that
6'
4- 0'5577,
quadrant
find its supplement which is an' angle in the first quadrant, and then, by using the relations between the two angles as shown in the previous paragraph we can write down the required ratio from the tables. Example . Find from the tables sin 137 and cot 137*,
is
I
required,
we
the angle required

i.e.
the supplement of this 66" 6' 180

is
123 54'.
Example
2.
Find
the angles
whose sine
0-94S3.
We first find
.'.
the supplement of 137" which 180 137 43.
it
70 From the tables
by
.\
Again
:.
= sin 137 = sin 43, sin 43 = 0-8820 sin 137 = 06820. cos 8 = - cos (180 6) cos 137 = - cos (180 - 137*) m cos 43 m - 7314.
-
that since an angle and Us supplement have We 0-9483, the same sine, there are two angles with the sine and they are supplementary. 0-9483. From the tables sin 71 30* sin (180 sin 8 .". Since 8) 71 30*) sin 180 .-. sin 71 30"
know
= + = = = sin
108 3Q\
There are therefore two answers, 71 30' and 108 30* and there are always two angles having a given sine, one in Which of these the first and one in the second quadrant.
94
is
TEACH TOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

76.

Graphs of
180. sine,
QUADRANT
gs
the angle required when solving some problem must be determined by the special conditions of the problem.
cosine and tangent between 0 and
Example
3.
Find
the angle
whose tangent
is
1-3764.
Since the tangent is negative, the angle required must lie in the second quadrant. From the tables tan 54" 1-3764 and since tan tan [180P 01 .*. 1-3764 tan (180 54) tan 126. 74. Inverse notation. The sign " law 1 1-3674 " is employed to signify " the " angle whose tangent is 1-3674 And, in general sr l x means " the angle whose sine is x " cos' 1 x means " the angle whose cosine is x",
in the ratios of angles in the first and second quadrants are made clear by drawing their graphs. This
The changes
= + =
-t
^s ^
t-
*
*
Q L
30
60
90*
Sis
120*
8.
150
ISO
etc.
Three points should be noted, -1 fl) sin x stands for an angle thus sin-1 \ = 30. ** The 1 " is not an index, but merely a sign to (2) denote inverse notation. _1 is not used, because by 31 it would mean (3) (sin *) the reciprocal of sin * and this is cosec x,
:
Fig. 71.
may be done by
or,
using the values given in the above table

tables.
more accurately, by taking values from the
inspection of these graphs will illustrate the results reached in 73 (second example).
An
75. Ratios of
some Important
angles.
and tangents
values of the sine, cosine of certain angles between 0 and 180. The table will also state in a convenient form the ratios of a few important angles. They should be memorised.
We are now able to tabulate the
W
Sine
45"
eo.
BO"
120.
136
ISff
180=
Increasing and Positive,

]
Decreasing and Positive,
V5
VJ
2
VI
Decreasing and Positive.
J_ V2
1
Decreasing and Negative.
Cosine
V3
.
V3
2
Fig. 72.
71
Increasing and Positive,
VI
VI
eo
j I
Cos
3.
Increasing and Negative.
Tangent
VI
-VI
-1
V3
in each
from Fig. 71, that there are two angles, one quadrant with a given sine. From Figs. 72 and 73, it will be seen that there is only one
It is evident
96
angle between 0" and 180 corresponding to a given cosine or tangent.

3.
QUADRANT
Ic)
97
Find the angles whose cosines are

(a) (d)
0-4540. - 0-9354.
tan tan => tan 8
(ft)
()
0-8131. - 0-7917.
(6)
(/)
0-1788. 0-9164.
I.
Find 6 when
(a)
(e) ()
= =-
0-5543. 2-4333. 0-7142.
tanO
tan tan 8
(d)
(/)
= = = -
1-4938. 1-7603. 1-1707.
5.
Find the values of:

(a)
(e)
cosec 154. cot 163 12'.
(ft)
sec 162 30'.
6.
Find
'a)
'c) ')
when
sec 6 cosec cot 8
7. 8.
Find
= 2-1301. - 2-4586. = 1-6643. {fj cotO = 0-3819. tan the value of when A = 150. B = 163 see
(ft)
= 1-6514. = 1-7305.
I
sec6
(d)
cosec
17'.
li
Find the values

(a)
of
(ft)
sin-
(dj
' 0-9336. tan" 1 1-3764.
cor
{d)
cos"'
0-4226. 0-3907.
Fie. 73.
Tan
0.
Exercise 12
1.
Write down from the tables the

(a) \d)
sines, cosines
and
tangents of the following angles

102.
(ft)
145 16'.
(e)
149 33'. 154 36'.
(e)
109 28'.
2,
Find 8 when:
{a)
(c)
sin 6 sin 8
= 0<650S. = 0-3469.
ft)
sin
d)
sinO
= =
0-9126. 0-7122.
RATIOS OF
Again
sin (A
COMPOUND ANGLES
sin
+ B) =
~
XOZ
CHAPTER
or _ RQ
VI
+PR
OP
''"UP
TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS OF COMPOUND ANGLES

often need to use the trigonometrical ratios of the sum or difference of two angles. If A and B are any two B) and (A B) are usually called comangles, (A pound angles, and it is convenient to be able to express their trigonometrical ratios in terms of the ratios of A and B. B) The beginner must beware of thinking that sin (A He should test this by taking sin B). is equal to (sin A B) for some the values of sin A, sin B. and sin [A, particular values of A and B from the tables and comparing
77.
_m,pR
OP
_
We
MN + PR
OP UP
(MN QM\ /PR PM\ \OM x OP) + \PM X OP} = sin A cos JB + cos A sin B,
them.
78.
We
will first
show that
and
sin (A cos (A
+ B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B + B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B

we
will
To
simplify the proof at this stage
assume that
A, B, and (A + B) are all acute angles. The student is advised to make his own diagram step by step with the following construction.
Construction.
Fie. 74.
Let a staight line rotating from a position on a fixed

line
OX trace
B
out
(1)
the angle
XOY,
(A
equal to
A and YOZ
Note the device of introducing

which is unity, into the Again
cos (A
last line
equal to
(Fig. 74).
. 4 and FM UM
each of
Then
In
LXOZ =
take any point P. PQ perpendicular to
+ B)
but one.
OZ
Draw
OY.
From ioOX. Then

Proof
M draw
OX and PM perpendicular to MN perpendicular to OX and MR parallel
+ B) =
cos
XOZ
= go OP
MR = QN
LRPM = 90 - LPMR = LRMO LRMO= LMOX =A LRPM = A
98
But
(Theorem
2,
fl)
_ ON - NQ OP = 0N _NQ OP OP _RM = ON 0P OP
- (2E x v
=
\OM cos A
0M \ (RM pM \ X "UP) ~ \PM OP) cos B sin A sin B.
r
joo 79. for (A
RATIOS OF
Again
cos LA
COMPOUND ANGLES
XOZ
tat
We
B), viz.: sin [A 8) = sin A cos B cos A sin B cos (A B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
,
will
next prove the corresponding formulae
- B\
= cos
OQ UP
Construction. Let a straight line rotating from a fixed position on OX describe an angle XOY, equal to A and then, rotating in an opposite direction, describe an angle YOZ, equal to B
"
ON + QN
0W
OP
,
m> 75).
QN ~ UP + UP ON RM ~UP + UP~
/ON
cos
~\UM *?)+( P~M

,
OM\
(RM
x UP)
B.
PM\
cos li
sin .1 sin
80. These formulae have been proved for acute angles only, but they can be shown to be true for angles of any collect them for sire. They are of great importance. reference
We
(A cos {A
sin sin
're,
{A
B)
B) B)
=> sin
cos {A
75.
B)
= =
cos B + cos A A cos B sin .1 sin A cos B cos A cos A cos B + sin A
cos
sin sin
B sin B sin B
(1) (2)
(3)
(4)
Then Take a point
XOZ = A-B. P on OZ.

PQ
produced in R.
<= 90
8t. From the above tan {A B) and tan (A
we may
sin
(j4 (/4
find similar formulae for B) as follows

-r
-+-
tan (A
Draw PQ perpendicular toOJf andPMperpendiculartoOi', From M draw MS perpendicular to OX and MR parallel

to
+B)
cos
sin
B) B)
4*
/4
cos B
cos
sin
/J
sin
B B
OX
to meet
cos/4
cosB
sin!B
P*00!
LRPM
- LPMR = LRMY (since PM perp. to OY) = LYOX (Theorem 2, 9}

is
Now
sin {A
=A
Dividing numerator and denominator by cos A cos sin A cos B cos A sin B cos A ens B cos /) cos B we get tan (A B) =
co.i
.1
(..us /s
sin
sin
- B) =
sin
XOZ
cos .4 cos
sin
,4
B
sin
cos A cos B
PQ UP = RQ RP
cos.-l
cosB
A
.-I
= UP~UP
S3 RQ RP
5
sin
1
CDS
sin cos
B
/>'
un
Similarly
(A
" OF ~UP
= /MN [aw = sin A
MN
+ B)
I
tan
RP
OM\
A + tan B tan A tan B

+ un j4
tan
we mav show
'
x o~pj
(RP PM\ ~ \pm x 75F) cos B cos A sin B.
with similar formulae for cotangents.
im
82.

Worked
Examples.
1.
RATIOS OF
If cos .4
COMPOUND ANGLES
Exercise
13
103
Example I. Using the values of the sines and cosines of 30 and 4$> as given in Ike table in 75, find sin 75.
Using
sin (A 4- B)
sin (A
2.
= 0-2 and cosB 0-5, find the values of B) and cos [A B). Use the ratios of 45 and 30 from the table in 75
+
and cos 75". using the formula for sin (A B) prove tnat: sin (90 cos 0. 6)
sin
cos
-f-
cos A sin
to find the values of sin 15

3.
By
and substituting
A we have
sin 75
= 45, B m 30 = sin 45" cos 30 = x "3") +
4.
-f-
cos 46 sin 30*
sin
E
=
Example
tables.
2.
V2 V3 2V2
(
( Vl
2V2
1
^3"
+
=
2vl
and
6. Find sin (A + B) and tan (A + B) when sin A = 0-7 and cos B = 0-32. 6. Use the formula of tan [A + B) to find tan 75. 7. Find tan (A + B) and tan (A B) when tan ,4 = 1-2 and tan B = 0-4. 8. By using the formula for tan [A B) prove that tan (180 A) = tan^. 9. Find the values of
By means of the formulae of = 023 and cos A = 0-309.
80, find sin {A
B) when
//
cos a
f!)
6 and cos
cos
(a
values of sin (a
+
$.
/!),
find without using

/J
= 0>&,
the the
(1)
(2)
10.
We
-, Find the values of

, ,
sin 52 cos 18 cos 73 cos 12

:
must first
results given
find sin a in 66.
and
sin
For these we use the
cos 52 sin 18". + sin 73 sin 12". tan 52 tan 16. _ tan 5r tan 16* tan 64 tan 25
,
,
()
.,
sin a
= Vl
COS* a
11.
'
'
Substituting the given value of cos a

sin a
Prove that sin
[9
+ +
45)
+ tan 64 tan 25" ~L fsin + cos 8).

1
= = = =
Vl - (0-6)* Vl - 036
V(M54
08.
12.
Prove that tan
(0 v
45)
'
^
1
"
tan 6
83. Multiple
and sub-multiple angle formulae.
Similarly
we
find sin
Using sin (A
B)
0-6. = sin A cos B + cos A

ft
sin
the preceding formulae we may deduce others of great practical importance. From 78 sin {A B) sin A cos B cos A sin B. There have been no limitations of the angles.
From
and
substituting
sin (o
we have
.*.
let
B
sin sin
= A.
=
ft)
Also
cos
{a
+ P)
= 0-64 + 0-36 = cos cos ~ sm a sm P = (0-6 x 0-8) - (0-8 x 0-6)

I
(0-8
0-8)
(0-6
0-8)
Substituting
1A
or
If
1A
=3 sin cos A 2 sin cos
+ cos A
sin
A
(1)
2A be replaced by
sinO
Iff
Obviously
.'.
then
2 sin = cos =
is
(2)
and
ft
90, since cos 90 a P are complementary.
+ =
We may use whichever of these formulae venient in a given problem.
more con-
'

Again Let
then
T
sin
RATIOS OF
Formula
(11)
COMPOUND ANGLES
in the
*ej
cosM +fl]
cos
cos A
cosB
sin
B
(+)
above may be written

sin
form;
B =A,
1A =
cos* d(
sin 1
.0 1
|(1
-cos 6)
This
Since
may be
sin*/!
transformed into formulae giving coa/4 or
sinM inteimsof'.d.
then
It is frequently
(1
and
Substituting
Substituting
A = 1 cosM A = J sinM for cos* A in (4) coslA = - 2 sin* A for sinM cos 1A =* 2 cos 1 A
sin 1 cos*
I
+ cosM
= I
0MJ
and
cos 8) is called the versed sine of 8 (1 sin 8) is called the eoversed sine of
cos
0)
is
used in Navigation.
8.
i.e.
1(1
85.
called the "haversine",
half
the
versed sine.
The preceding formulae are so important that

cos A sin B + B) _ sin A cos B + B) =* sin A cos B cos A sin B cos [A + B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B cos [A B) == cos A cos B + sin A sin B tan A + tan B tan (A + B) = tan A tan #' tan/1 tanB =
(A
1
they are
W
(>
collected here for future reference.

rl) sin
2) sin [A (3
(4)
No. 6
may
be written in the form

1
and No, 6 as
cos 2A = + cos 2A = cos 2A

+ cos 2A
.
2 sin .4 2 cos1 A
(6)
These alternative forms are very useful. Again, if (7) be divided by (8)
1 1
tan [A
- B)
sin*
A
,4
(7) (8)
sin
&4
or
If
tan* ,4
1 cos 2X = t tA + cos st
;
cos*
1
cos 2A
m
(6)
+ tan A tan B = 2 sin A cos = cos* A sin* A = 1 2 sin* A = 2 cos* 1

1
.
j4
2 tan be
(8)
2A be replaced by
cos 8
6,
formulae
f'L
(4), (5)
ft
and
may
tan
A A
Variaft
2/4
1
tan*
written in the forms
These formulae should be carefully memorised

tions of
(11)
(12)
1. If sin
(7), (8),
= =
D
,
cos" =
ft
sin*
(9)
in the
form 8 and ^ should also be
cosO
cos
84. Similar formulae
2 sin* ?
remembered.
Exercise 14
2 cos'
/!
may be
found for tangents.
Since
tan
+ A
ran
I, find sin 2A, cos 2/1 an-1 tan 2 4 0-25. 2. Find sin 28, cos 20, tan 28, when sin 8 3. Given the values of sin 45 and cos 4u deduce the
.
A =
Let
=A
Then
or replacing
2^1
""^by 6
tan 6
2 tan
t-tantl
8 tan!
<
13 >
values of sin 90 and cos 90" by using the above formulae. 0-66, find sin 2B and cos 2B. 4. If cos B (1) 2 sin 36 cos 36. 5. Find the values of 1. (2) 2 cos* 36" 6. If cos 2A = I, find tan-4 Use formulae of 83.) (Hint.
a
(14)
=
1
7.
_ Prove that
sin
/l
i-
aI
-cos
jj
tan*
cos
/I
cos 8
io6
8.

If cos
RATIOS OF
Substituting in
COMPOUND ANGLES
and
2
sin
io?
1,
find sin =
and cos
(5), (6), (7)
~.
(Hint.
9.
Use the
If 1
cos 20 =
the tables.
10.
results of the previous question.) 0'72, find sin and check by using
sin
P + sin Q
P+QP-Q t
. cos
(8}
(>
Prove that cos*
(Hint.
11.
Factorise the left-hand
sin
cos 20,
side.)
1
Prove that (sin ^

Find the value
+ cos |V
= sin 0.
'
Q =2 cos ^-^ sin ^-=-^ = 2 cos ^-~2 cos 5^=-^ cos P + cos P ~Q +-i? sin cos Q - cos P = 2 sin
sin
P-
sin
(10)
(11)
(12)
12.
(Hint.
86.
ooi M See formula-Vrf of

83.)
The fonnulae
Fonnulae
(5),
(0),
(7),
(8)
enable us
to
to
change the
product of two ratios into

(9), (10),
a sum.
enable us
change the
Product formulae.
(11), (12)
sum
of 80 give rise to another set of results involving the product of trigonometrical ratios. have seen that
The formulae
of two ratios into a product. Again note carefully the order in {12).
88,
We
Worked
examples.
I.
sin {A sin (A cos {A cos (A
B)
and
+ B) = B) = + B) =
(2)
Adding
+ = cos A cos B +
A cosB A cos B cos A cos B
sin sin
cos/1 sinB cos A sin B sin A sin B sin A sin B
Example
Express as
30.
the
sum
of two trigonometrical
|
(3)
(4)
ratios sin
0 cos
Using 2 sin A cos
B=
sin (A
+ B) + sin + 30) + sin

sin 20)
{A
(50
B) 30)
on substitution
sin 50 cos 30
(I)
sin (A
+ B) + sin + B) _ sin
(4}
(A
(/I
Subtracting
sin (^
Adding
(3)
and
cos (A B) cos (^ Subtracting cos (/4 +B) cos (<4 <4 These can be written in the forms 2 sin A cos sin (4 B) + sin (.4 B) (5) 2 cos A sin sin {A + B) sin (J B) (6) cos 2 A cos cos (/l B) cos (A B) 17) 2 sin sin cos (4 B) cos (A B) (8) Note.The order on the right-hand side of (8) must be carefully noted.
+ -
- B) = 2 sin ^ cos B - B) = 2 cosA sin B - B) = 2 cos 4 cosB - B) = - 2 sin sin B

+
= =
) (sin (60 | (sin
80+
Example 2. Change into a sunt sin 70" sin 20. Using B) 2 sin A sin B cos (A B) cos (A on substitution
B= B= B= B=
+ + -
87.
Let and
A A
Adding
Subtracting
B=Q 2A
+B = P
P+ 2B = P /I =
2
i
= + s cos- (70 + 20)) sin 70 sin 20 = A {cos {70 20) = | (cos 50 - cos 90) = I cos 80' since cos 90 = 0. Example 3. Transform into a product sin 25? + sin 18". Using p j-0 Po * sin P + sin Q = 2 sin J cos j^ 25 + 18 25 ~ 18 cos sin 25 + sin 18 = 2 sin
"
=
i
2 sin 21 30' cos 3

into
30'.
Example Using
cos Q
'
4.
Change
a product eos SO
cos ?6.
B=
P-Q
2
cos P =
2 sin
* 5-^
sin
n>8

cos 39
on substitution
- cos 79 -
2 sin
39
7&
7fl
sin
~
I
39
2 sis 69 sin 29.
CHAPTER. VU
Exercise IS
Express as the sum or difference of two ratios

1.
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE SIDES AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE

which exist between 89. In 61 we considered the relations In this the sides and angles of a right-angled triangle. Chapter we proceed to deal similarly with any triangle. of a In accordance with the usual practice, the angles sides opposite triangle will be denoted by A B. and C. and the to these by a. b, and c, respectively. Note In working examples in this and the following
,
sin 36 cos 0. sin 35 cos 45". cos 50 cos 30. cos 66 sin 39.
cos (C 2D) cos (2C cos 90 sin 30. 2 sin ZA sin A cos (3C 6>) sin (3C
+ D).
5D).
Express as the product of two ratios;

9.
logarithms and chapters, the student will constantly be using It should be trigonometrical ratios taken from the tables.
10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

15. 16.
sin 4/1 sin 5A cos 49
cos A cos 47 sin 49 sin 30 cos 30

sin
cos &A. + cos 36.
sin A. cos 29.
+ sin 2/4,
sin 23.
ft
+ sin 60 cos 60*'

D
Fig.
7fl
fi'
COS a
+ sin + COS
(a).
in these tables are given When they are used correct to four significant figures only. will sometimes in a number of successive operations there in small be an accumulation of small errors which will result accuracy differences in the answers. In general a three-figure
remembered that the numbers
is all
of these errors of approximations arithmetic or the student should consult a good modern Mathea special chapter on them in National Certificate Universities Press. matics, Vol. I, published by the English
that can be relied upon.
For a general treatment
90.
The
sine rule.
sines every triangle the sides are proportional to the of the opposite angles. There are two cases to be considered (Fig. 76(a)). (!) Acute-angled triangle (Fig. 76(6)). (2) Obtuse-angled triangle
In
tog
1
iio
In each figure draw produced {Fig. 76(b)).

In In Fig. 76(6).
l
AD
perpendicular to BC, or to
BC
3.
A ABD. AD = e sin B A ACD, AD = 6 sinC since ACB and ACD are
m
(2)
4! 5.
THE SIDES AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE When A = 70, C = 58 16', 6 = 6 ins., find a and c, When A = 88, B = 36, a = S-5 ins., find 6 and e. When B = 75, C = 42, b = 26 cm., find a and c.
The cosine
rule.
91.
supplementary
sin
ACD =
(2)
sin
ACB
== sin C.
As in the case of the sine rule, there are two cases to be considered. These are shown in Figs. 77(a) and 77 (6).
Equating
(I)
and
c sin
.
Bm
b
6 sin C
"
Similarly
c~ sinC
a
6
_ sinfi
sin
,4
_
~~
sinB
and
These results
a
c
_ sin ,4
sinC
in
B
the one formula
C
(6J.
may
be combined
Fie. 77
sin A
_ sinB _
sinC
a b c These formulae are suitable for logarithmic calculations Worked example. // in a triangle ABC A = 52 15' ' = 70 26' and a Z 94 ms., find b and c. Using the sine rule
6
_ sin B
sin
/I r
a
.
.
a sin
;
MB.
:.
B A
;
log b
= log a + log sin B log sin A = log 9-8 + log sin 70 26' - log sin 52 = 099 12 + T-9742 - 1-8980 - 10674 = log 11 -68
=
1 1
15'
.".
-7
(approx.)
Similarly c
may be
found by using
sin
-^L^ A'
x in Fig. 77(a) a in Fig. 77(6) AD* = ,4B - B>* = c* - ** ^D' = AC* - CD* In A4CA = 6-(a-*)'inFig.77(a) = 6* (* a)' in Fig. 77{6) Also ( - *)* = {* - a}* equating (1) and (2) b* - (a x)* = c* x* 6* a* + 2ax x* = c* x* 2ax = a* + c* b*. :. x => c cos B But 2ae cos B = a* + e 6* a* + c cos B = 2c b* + c a*
CD = CD =
a
BD =
(I)
(2)
.-.
.'.
.".
ft*
Similarly
cos .4
2bc
Exercise 16
cosC
The formulae may
c*
ias - Sad * and c. b 16-2 ins., find '
a*
+ b' c'
2ob
ABC
o'
the foIlowme Problems connected with a triangle
2 a
St A a When
c.
60
and
A = 5i B T 6T a ~ I3S 38 15'. B = 29 38',

-
also be written in the forms

-{-
>
a1
t
= a* + b* lab cos C. = b* c 2bc cos .4. = a* + e' 2ec cos B.

!
r
113

5. 6.
THE SIDES AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE

If
113
These formulae enable us to find the angles of a triangle when all the sides are known. In the second form it enables ns to find the third side when two sides and the enclosed angle are known.
14
ins.,
6
ft.,
8-5 ins., c =* 9 ins., find the greatest
angle of the triangle.
When
64
67
ft.,
and
82
ft.,
find the
smallest angle of the triangle,
Worked
example.
Find the angles of the triangle
a=
Using
Ins..
=
a* g
whose sides ar 9 Ins., c => 12 fas.
The half-angle formulae. The cosine formula is not suitable for use with logarithms and is tedious when the numbers involved are large: it is
92.
cosC
+ 6' c*
Tab
the basis, however, of a series of other formulae which are

easier to ironipulate.
+ 8 I2 2x8x9 64 + 81 - 144
93.
To express the
sides.
in
sines of half the angles In
terms of the
2x8x8
As proved
91
b'
+c _
i
a*
cos.-f
whence
Again,
COS
C=
A
144 0-0069 89 36'. 61 e
26c
but
cos
.4
2 sin .4
:
(83)
9*
- a' 26c + 12' 8

+
x
9
I-2*m'
*
J
^ =
1
2 81 2 161
144
12
2 sia
- &i
m+
<6
(6 1
c*
a1
a1 )
64
26c
x 9 x
12
26c- -
+ e1 c*
26c
whence
Similarly, using
A=
cos
" 216
0-7464
41 48'. a*
26c- - 6
+ a* + c*)
26c
a'b*
26c
B _
+ c*
2ac
26c
aFactorising the numerator
(6
- c)'
we
get
B=
=
41*4! f
180.
26c
48" 36'.
Chech
A +B
+C
48 38'
89 36'
2sin4=ta +
The
the "
-C
j- 6 +
C?
(A)
s"
To simplify this s " notation. notation, as follows

;
further
we
use
Exercise
17
in
Let 2s
4.
Find the angles of the triangles

2. 3. 4.
which
Then
Again
Similarly
l.a a
a a
= 3 ins., e = 4 ins. = 71 ins., c = 83 ins. b - 19 c => 26 = 2-6 ins., 6 = 2-86 ins., c 4-7 ins. = =
=
2 ins., 6
ins.,
ft.,
64 24
ft.,
ft.
+ *.. the perimeter of the triangle. 2o = a+6+c 2a = 6 +c a 2s 26 = a-i-6+c 26 = a 6 +e 2s 2c = a + 6 c.

c,
2*
U4
These

may
be writ tea

(1)
115
2
2( 2(* 2(4
=a +b+c - a) = b + c a 6) = a b + c ~ c) = a + b e
(a '
2)
(3) (*>
Substituting .A 2 cos* 7T
2(5 -*
s(s
^ a)
be
a)
2s
26c
and
cos
t j4
From
(A)
above
:m i
.A d
2
= ~
+6-c)(a-6+c)
2to _.
Replacing the factors of the numerator by their equivalents in formulae (3) and (4) 2 (s c >* 2 t' 6)
Similarly
.,
cos cos
B - = ^/( 2
Cs
2
"
~~
c)
ft)
we have
2sin'4
2
26c
Cancelling the " 2's."

sin 1
.
V
A
("
a 00
of half the angles of a triangle
A ^ 2
Is
!
p b\ be
c) is
i
^5.
To express the tangents

In
terms of the
sides.
or
"-W^f^
sbîy.
Since
2= A
s
Sm
A
2
*,f-JEE3f
'"f-V
"-!--'"
+e*- a*
2bc
1
2
cos
we can
substitute
for
A sin and
the expressions
found above.
6)
tan-
[s
-^~c)
94.
To express the
In
cosines of half the angles of a triangle

sides.
terms of the
Then
be
Since
6'
cos ,4
Simplifying and cancelling

ibc
+ cosj4 + cos A =
b*
+ e' - **
{Chapter VI,
Mn
83)
V
^ .
(8 s(8
- a)
but
2 cos
Simflariy
and
T-^ tan = = /
tan
7"
%
c
"
26e
(6
%. To
=
_
b + c a = a +b +c =
+ c)* - a1 + c a] [b + c + a)
express the sine of an angle of a triangle the sides. Since

sin
in
terms of
[b
2 sin -s cos
A -g
(on factorising the numerator)

2{$
substituting for sin
-5
but
a)
and cos -= the values found above 2 ""* 2

(s
A
c)
and
2s
'-s/^^*V*i
- 6)
-)
ii6
sin

2 A = g^v*(#
a}[a
THE SIDES
Using
AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE

l
117
.'.
b)[a c),
on simplifying.
tan
{s-a)[s-b)
(
Similarly
sin
V
;
<0
B m ^V(s-a)(s-b)(*-e)
C=
C= tan
l
I 322
VI586
1-8329
X X
151 113
and
sin
log tan
4(log 322
+ log 161 (see
log 686
log 113)
^ Vs(#
example.
o)(#
- b)(s - c)
and
working)
No.
Log.
= 40 36'
97.
Worked
C=
81
12'.
322 2-5079 151 2-1790

4-6869
Tae working involved
very similar. We be found in the next chapter.
in the use of all these formulae is will give one example only : others will
586 2-7670 112 2-0531

4-8210
-1-2
The sides of a triangle are a

the greatest angle.
= 264, 6 =
436,
473.
Find
The greatest angle is opposite to the greatest side and is therefore C. In questions of this type it is very important to employ a clear and methodical arrangement of the working. Unless this is done loss of time and inaccurate results will follow. Checks should be employed at suitable stages. The following arrangement is suggested. Begin by calculating values of the " s " factors and setting out their logarithms.
logs.
1-8059
19329
Exercise 18
1.
Using the formula for tan
find the largest
angle in
the triangle whose sides are 113

2.
ft..
141
ft.,
214
ft.
Using the formula for
sin
-=,
find the smallest angle in

ft.,
=. 264
the triangle whose sides are 483 ft, 316

3.
and 624
a
ft.
b=
c
= m
435 473
1172
Using the formula for cos ^

221
find
B when
15
ft.,
2s
and
s
s 6= s c=
a=
2s
s =-
586 2-7R79 322 2-5079

151 113 2-1760
ft., c = 286 ft. Using the half-angle formulae find the angles of the triangle when a 160, b = 220, c = 340. 6. Using the half-angle formulae find the angles of the
4.
20531
whose sides are 73-5, 65-6 and 75. Using the formula for the sine in 96 find the smallest angle of the triangle whose sides are 172 ft., 208 ft. and 274 ft.
triangle
6.
93.
Check Nate.s
=1172
(s
To prove
that in any triangle

tan
(s
- a) +
(s
- b) +
4s
c) =
B-C b-e
sinB
b
(a
+b +
c)
2s.
used, but the tangent formulae involves only the " s " factors, all the logs of which are set out above.
of the half angle formulae
Any
may be
From
90
_ sinC ~ e
A.
Let each of these ratios equal

7
U)
(2)
IlS
TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY Then sin B = bk

sin
(1)
119
and Adding
Similarly
.
ch k (b
and
(2)
(2)
sin
B + sin C =
tan
A-C j
A ~B
=
c)
a +e
:
cot
-=
(3)
,
Subtracting
from
(3)
sin
B
B
(1)
sin sin
= k(b c)
b 6 sin
sin
Dividing
(4)
by
W
sin
sin
tan
J+ft
cot
C
2
sin sin
+ sin C & e
6
G +e
+e
and
B B +
C C
This formula is well adapted for use with logarithms, and although at first sight it may look a complicated one it is not difficult to manipulate. On the right-hand side we have quantities which are known when we are given two sides of a triangle and th
contained angle.
Applying to the numerator and denominator of the right-
hand
side the formulae, 9
10 of 87.
We get
b-c
b~+l
B +C icos
2
2 2 sin
B-C '-5
cos
Consequently we can &nd

Since/3
is
B C 5
= =
and so
C,
180
known we can find B
Let
u +c
BC=
2B
2C
...
+C=
+ C forB + C =
(note *
a.
$
at
and g are now known)
B
cos
-C
2
cos
+C
2
Adding
Subtracting
p &
B-+Z
=
all
?L
+ l andC =
B-C tan ____

tan
^
= 35.
Hence we know
the angles of the triangle.
Since
(B
fl
+ CI m
,
+^w
180
A
A
*
Worked example. In a triangle A =

Find
.
75 12'.
b=^43.c
_ Using
B and C.
tan
.
.A B-C j b-c g-^ cot

1
^ "~ c
B-C tan =
tan (90
and substituting
.
tan
B-C 3
JL cot 37 36*
- ^\
log tan 5-=-^
(see 53)
tan
B-C =
2
To
001
whence
B-C ~2~
= log 8 + log cot 37s = 1-1245

7 35'
WNo.
log 78
Log.
8 0-9031
cot 37 36'
cot^
b-c b + 6
and
Also
(1)
BC= B+C=
15 10'
0-1135
1-0186 1-8921
n*^
b-c COt A
6
Adding
.*.
and
2B = B=
76 12' 180 104 48'

119 58' 59 59* 60 approx.
78
log tan 7* 35'
1-1246
+c
B=
lao
(2)

Subtracting 2C
and
99.
C=
in
89 38' 44 49'.
To prove
in
that
any triangle
a
As
In Fig. 78(a)
cos
C +c
cos
B
CHAPTER
VIII
90 there are two cases.
But and
.*.
= BD + DC BD c cos B >C = 6 cos C

BC
a

100. Thb formulae which have been proved in the previous chapter are those which are used for the purpose of solving a triangle. By this is meant that, given certain of the sides and angles of a triangle, we proceed to find the others. The parts given must be such as to make it possible to determine If, for example, all the angles are the triangle uniquely. given, there is no one triangle which has these angles, but an infinite number of such triangles, with different lengths Such triangles are similar, but not of corresponding sides. congruent (see 15). The conditions under which the solution of a triangle is possible must be the same as those which determine when The student, before proceeding triangles are congruent. further, should revise these conditions (see Chapter I,
I 13>-
= BD + DC = e cos B + b cos C
a
Fig. 78
d
(a).
^*
c
(6).
Fig. 78
In Fig. 78
since cos
.*.
c cos B 6 cos i4CD = c cos B b cos (180 C) => c c os B + b cos C (180 B) = cos B (see
(6}
BC-BD-DC
a t=
.:
It should
now with
70)
101.
be understood, of course, that we are not dealing right-angled triangles, which have already been
considered (see Chapter III,
62).
in
each case
C e cos cos C c cos and c cos + fa cos A Referring to 5 63 we see that is the projection of AB on BC, and BC is the projection of on BC ; in the second case BC Is produced and the projection must be regarded as negative. Hence we may state the Theorem thus Any side of a triangle is equal to the projection on It of the other two sides.
Similarly
o 6
= = =
b cos
B BD AC
B A
From
the
that a triangle are given
Theorems enumerated in 13, it is clear can be " solved " when the following parts
Exercise
19.
Case I. Three sides. Case II. Two sides and an included angle. Case III. Two angles and a side. Case IV Two sides and an angle opposite to one of them. This last case, however, is the Ambiptous Cast (see 13) and under certain conditions, which will be dealt with later,
Use the formula proved in
98 to find the remaining
angles of the following triangles 1. a 171, c 288. B 108s . 2. a 37 26'. 786, b 854, C 3. e H6, 6 63 40/. 602, A 4. a 60. 185, 6 ill, C 5. a 29 14'. 421, b 387, C 6. a 72 14'. 759, c 567, B
= = = =
= = = a =
=
= = = =
may be two solutions. In the previous chapter, after proving the various Formulae, examples were considered which were, in effect, concerned with the solution of a triangle, but we must now proceed to a systematic consideration of the whole problem.
there 102. Case I. To solve a triangle when three sides are known. The problem is that of finding at least two of the angles,
121
T
raa

To
find
"3
because since the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180*, when two are known the third can be found by subtraction. It is better, however, to calculate all three angles separately and check the result by seeing if their sum is 180.
A
to
Formula
be used
tan
Am 2
-
l
{
s-
b ){s-c)
\J
s(s
a)
Formulae employed.
(1)
Taking logs
The
cosine rule.
coSi4
The formula
b*
+ c 26c
log a*
tan|
will give .d, and and C can be similarly determined. As previously stated, however, this should only be used if the numbers are small, since it is not suitable for logarithmic calculations.
(2)
.*.
and
- [{tog(5 - b) + log(s - e)} - {logs + logfs - }}] Logs. = 1-8035 (from working) = log tan 32 28" s -b 2-1741 s e 20800 ^ = 32 28' A = 64 56'. 4-iifl50
I
The
half angle formulae.

is
The
best of these, as pres
viously pointed out,
the tan
formula, viz.
a
j-
2-5867 2-0622
48479
tan
-b){s-c)
!
1-6071
I
However, the formulae

(3)
for sin
-g
and cos d may be
1-8035
used.
The
sine formula
To find B.
siaA =.j-Vs(s
a}(s
b){s
c)
Formula used
This is longer than the half-angle formulae, though suitable for logarithmic calculations.
mm B 2
Taking logs
log tan
A/
t (s-*Hs-c} s(s b)
Worked
example.
Solve ike triangle in which
= 269-8, b =
|-
I[flog(
- a) + log(s - c)J- {log s + logfs - 6)}]

Logs.
i i
235 -9,
264-7.
=
and
Data and
legs.
a
b
269-8 235-9 e m, 264-7
=
=
1-6916 log tan 26 11'

26 11'
|= Bm
a
e
2-0622 2-0809
52 22'.
s
41431
s
Check
770-4 s 3852 s - a = 1164 * - 6 = 149-3 s - c = 120-6 2s = 770-4

2s
.'.
Logs. 2-6857 2-0622 2-1741 2-0809
-b
5-2
2-5857 2-1741
4-7508
1-3838
1-6916
. ,
1*4

find

Data and
logs
125
To
C. Formula used
Taking logs
log tan
= = c + c b= A = - 6)} - {log j + tog(* - ]

Logs.
s
b c b
294 406 700

112
35 24'
2-4883 2-6085 2-8451 2-0492
~a) + logfs | = hilog(s I1

1-7848 log tan 31 21'
A
"S-
=> 17 42'
0-4960
(log cot
therefore
+B=
is
:
4)
144 36'
= C |
31 21' 62 42'.
a -b
2-0622 2-1741
This form
used since
c> b, and
> B,
Formula used
4-2363
t tan
Check
A = B = C-
f
64 58' 52 22' 82 42* 180 00'
*
2-5857 2-0809
4 6606
'.
log tan
p = s
B e~b 2 = r+b
log(c
cot
.A
2
Jj
4 + B + C=
1-6897
T'7648
= 1-7001 = log tan 26 38' C-B = 26 38' C - B = 63 16'

Also
b) + log cot ^ - log{e + &} i

Logs.
112
cot 17
42'
2 0492 O-4960
Exercise 20.
+B= =
2C
Solve the following triangles

1.
2. 3.
a
a a a
=j 252, &
4.
5.
= = =
=
342, c 488. b 11, e 12. 208-5, 6 => 177, c 295. 402-6. 6 773-5, c 1001. 95-2, 6 162-4, c =. 117-6.
10,
Also
2B
a.
= B=
C=
144 36' 197 52' 98 56' 91 20' 45 40'.
2-5452
700
tan 26 38'
2-8451
-7001
l"l
= =
To find
Formula used
sin
Given two sides and the contained angle. (1) The cosine rule may be used. If, for example, the given sides are b and c and the angle A then
103.
II.
,
Case
,',
log a
a
will give a.
6* -f e i
.*.
a
is
= = = =
sin B log b
+ log sin A
log sin
B
Logs.
2-4683 1-7629 2-2312 1-8545
2-3767
2-3767
log 238-
26c cos
238 approx.
sin
The solution
294 35 24'
Hence, since all sides are now known we can proceed as in Case I. The drawbacks to the use of this formula were given in the previous case. (2) Use the formula
tan
B= C a
45 40" 98 56'
sin 45 40'
238.
238
Exercise 21
B-C
when
294, c
&+-c COt
t
~ c ea A
2
which
Solve the following triangles: 60 1. b 189, c 1 17-7, A

2.
3.
is
suitable for use with logarithms.
Solve the triangle
406,
35 24'
4.
5.
= = a = a =
a
= = 36'. = 159-4, C = 80 58'. 39-6, c 711, B = 85 1C. 266, 6 = 175, C = 78. = 230-1, c - 269-5, B = 30 2r.
94, b
126
104,
If

Case III. Given two angles and a side. two angles are known the third is also known, since
of all three angles is 180.

To
find a.
127
Using
a
b log a
sin^l
sin
the sum be stated as
This case
may
therefore
Git en the angles and one side.
The
best formula to use is the Sine rule, Nate. It has previously been stated that
.*.
= -= =
log b log 55 55.
+ log sin A
log sin
B
Logs.
I
1-7403627
'0-063
sin4I'' 13'
8979775
-8188779
if
greater
22"
required than can be obtained by the use of foura book giving seven-figure tables is necessary. In order that the student may have some idea of these tables and their use, they will be employed in the following worked example. Many students will certainly need these more exact tables when they apply their trigonometry to practical problems they are therefore advised to obtain a copy of Chambers' " Tables ". The use of them differs in some respects from those employed in four-figure tables, but a full explanation is given in an introduction to the
accuracy
is
figure tables,
1-7168554
sin 71" 19'
6"
55
1-9764927
The
solution
is
17403627
A = 41 = 55
c
13'
22*
77-085.
book
itself.
Worked
and b
example.
Solve the triangle in which
=. 71 19' 5*,
C=
67 27' 33*
It will be observed that the angles are given to the " nearest second " and the length of the side to 5
Note.
79063.
Exercise 22 Solve the triangles 74 18', C 24 14'. 1. a 141-4, A 95 41', B 41 38'. 2. b 208-5, A 29 66', C 3. A 108, a 112-8. 32 41', C 49 38'. c 4. B 117-6. 41 22'. 5. b 11-74, A <m 27" 45', B
=
= =
= =
= =
= = = =
significant figures.
Required to
find,
A, a and
(71 22'.
c. 5*
Now A
To find
= =
c.
180 " 1 41
3'
87 27' 33*)
Formula used
whence
log c
b~ c
_ sinC
sinB
6 sine
Case IV. Given two sides and an angle opposite to one of them. This is the ambiguous case and the student is advised to revise Chapter 1, 13, before proceeding further. As we have seen if two sides and an angle opposite to one of them be given, then the triangle is not always uniquely determined as in the previous cases, but there may be two
105.
solutions. will now consider view how this ambiguity
We
from a trigonometrical point of
may
arise.
sinB
log sin
log 6
.*.
C=
+ log sin c = 1-8869718 = log 77085

7f08S.
B
Logs.
70-063
sin 67 27'
33"
1-8979776 1*9654810
1-8634645 1-9764927
Fio. 79.
sin
71" 19' 5'

77-086
8869718
In the
A ABC
(Fig, 79), let
c, b.
be known.
T
128
129
As previously shown in 13 the side b may be drawn in two positions AC and AC. Both the triangles ABC and ABC satisfy the given conditions.
(1) (2)
(3)
Consequently there are
in C, we have the minimum (1) If this arc touches length of b to make a triangle at all (Fig. 80(a)). The triangle is then right-angled, there is no ambiguity and
BX
Two Two Two

the
values for a, viz. EC and BC. values for LC, viz. ACB or ACB. values for LA, viz. BAG or BAC.
is isosceles,
b
(2)
= c sin B.
c
If
is
points
C and
>
c sin
B but <
then
BX
is
cut in two
(Fig. 80(6}).
Now
.'.
A ACC
:.
since
AC = AC
LACCÂCC,
oiACB.
viz.
But ACC
also
is
the supplement
ACC is the supplement of ACB.
*. the two possible values of LC, supplementary.
ACB and ACB
are
Solution.
Since
t.e.
c, b,
are known,
sin
can be found by the sine

sin
rule.
Fig. 80
(*).
f' IG -
80
ffl-
we use
B B
7-6,
There are two As ABC,
ABC and the case
is
ambiguous.
whence
Let us suppose that
sinC
c
c sin
~b~
=
-
=
7-6
8-7, 6
20. 8-7
Then
.*.
C log sin C
sin
8-7 sin 25
log
87
+ log sin 25
log 7-8
sin 26
Logs. 0*9395 1-6269 0-6854
d\-t
Fig. 80
(c).
log sin
wm I 6846.
log 7*8
0-8808
T-6846
c, is cut at two points C and (Fig. 80(c)), (3) If b but one of these produced in the other direclies on tion and in the A so formed, there is no angle B, but only its supplement. There is one solution and no ambiguity. .*. There are two solutions only when b, the side opposite to the given angle B, is less than c, the side adjacent, and greater than c sin B. Ambiguity can therefore be ascertained by inspection.
>
BX
BX
have seen in 73 that when the value of a sine is given, there are two angles less than 180 which have that sine, and the angles are supplementary. Now from the tables tiie acute angle whose log sine is I -6846 is 2ff* 88'. 28 3&, i.e. 151 4. *. I -6846 is also the log sine of 180 Consequently there are two values for C, viz. 28 56' and 151 4'.
We
Exercise 23. In the following cases ascertain if there solution. Then solve the triangles
is
Let us examine the question further by considering the

consequences of variations relative to c in the value of b, the side opposite to the given angle B. As before draw BA making the given angle B meet BX, of indefinite length. Then with centre A and radius b draw an arc of a circle.
more than one
1.6=
2. 3. 4.
= a =
b a ==
= 34-8, B - 25. = 85-3, B = 40. 96, c = 100, C = 66. 91. e 78, C = 29 27'.
30-4, c 70-25, c
E TRIG.
130
106,

Area of a
triangle.
'

Substituting this for sin A in the formula
131
practical points of view, e.g. surveying, the calculation of the area of a triangle is an essential part of solving the triangle. This can be done more readily when the sides and angles are known. This will be apparent in the following formulae.
From many
A =
^bc sin
A
t-
A=
.".
\bc
Vi(s
A = Vs (s
o) {S
b){s 6) (s c)
a){s
c)
(1)
The
base and altitude formula.
In using this formula with logs the student should revise the hints given in the worked example in 87, Chapter VII.
Fig. 80(d),
student is probably acquainted with this formula which is easily obtained from elementary geometry. Considering the triangle ABC in
The
Worked
(1)
examples,
the
= 406, A =
A = A= A=
A =
I
Find
aria of the triangle solved in 35" 24*.
103, viz. b
= 294,
Using the formula:

ibc sin
From A.
Let
a.
Fig; 80(d). vertex of the triangle,
draw AD perpendicular
log
A
sin 35 24'
x 294 x 406 x
to the opposite side.
AD
A and let
Then
If
A = the area of A = ZBC x AD
log (0-5)
4' 5387
the triangle.
.-.
+ log
294
+ log 406 + log sin
35 24'
1
34S70 sq. units.
_
0-5
Logg.
1-6990 2-4683 2-8083 I-762B 4-S337
vie,
\ak.
perpendiculars be drawn from the other vertices B and may be obtained. It will be noticed that A is not calculated directly in any of the formulae for the solution of a triangle. It is generally more convenient that it should be expressed in terms of the sides and angle. Accordingly we modify this formula in (2).
C, similar formulae
(2)
294 408
sin 36 24'
34S70
The
sine formula.
= 2698, b =
A =
(2)
Find
(he
area of
235-9, c
Ms
triangle solved 264-7.
in
102,
Using the formula and taking values of

in 102 sin b
s, s
, etc.,
as
Referring to Fig. 80{d)
AD = aS
.-.
C
.-.
log
A ==
sinC
sin
Substituting for A in formula above,
A = A =
\ab
A= = = A =
Vs($
|(log
a){s s
+ Iog(s -
i)(s
a)
c) + log(j b) + log(s - c)
Log.
1 -a s -A m s c =*
4-4515 log 28280
28280
sq. units.
Similarly using other sides as bases
385-2 115-4
2-5857 2-0622
This
is
}bc sin A jac sin B. a useful formula and adapted to logarithmic
149 3
120-5
4- 2
21741
2-0809 8-9029
4-45 IS
be expressed as follows The area of a triangle Is equal to half the product of two sides and the sine of the angle contained by them.
calculation.
It
(3)
may
28230
Exercise 24
6
We
Area in terms of the sides. bave seen in 96, Chapter VII, that sinA
2 a)(s m rz'^sis
b)[s
=
2.
Find the area of the triangle when a <m 6-2

7-8 ins.,
11 ins.
ins.,
52.
c)
BC =
Find the area
and
LABC -
of the triangle 70*.
ABC when AB =
14
ins.,
1
i$z
3.

If
'33
the area of a triangle is 100 sq. ins. and two of its sides are 21 ins. and 16 ins., find the angle between these
sides.
CD =
10.
3-8 ins,, lengths of the diagonals.
LA BC =
O on
ins.
95,
LBCD =
115 s
Find the
AB =
18-fl
Find the area of the triangle when a = 98-2 cms., c = 73-5 cms. and B = 135 20*. 5. Find the area of the triangle whose sides are 28-7 ems., 35-4 cms. and SI -8 cms. 6. The sides of a triangle are 10 ins., 13 ins. and 17 ins. Find its area. 7. Find the area of the triangle whose sides are 23-22 31-18 and 40-04 chains. 8. Find the area of the triangle whose sides are 325 m., 256 m. and 189 m. 9. A triangle whose sides are 13-5 ins., 32-4 ins. and 35ins. is made of material whose weight per sq. in. is 2-3 02s, Find the weight of the triangle in lbs. 10. Find the area of a quadrilateral ABCD, in which
4.
From a
point
a straight line OX,

are
of lengths 5 ins. so that
and 7
OX
ZAOP=32
OP and OQ drawn on the same side of and LX0Q = 56. Find the
length of PQ.
14-7 cms.,
cms. and
11. ABC is a triangle with sides BC 35 cms., cms., 29 cms. A point lies inside the triangle and is distant 5 cms. from BC and 10 cms. from CA Find its distance from AB.
LABC =
BC =
9-8 cms.,
137.
CD =
21-7 cms.,
AB =
AD = CA = 26
and Q on a horizontal beam are 16 ins. 11. Two hooks apart. From jP and Q strings PR and QR, 8 ins. and 8 ins. Find the distance long respectively, support a weight at R. of R from the beam and the angles which PR and QR make with the beam. 12. Construct a triangle A BC whose base is 5 ins. long, the 55 and the angle ABC 48. Calculate the angle BAC lengths of the sides AC and BC and the area of the triangle. The first 13. Two ships leave port at the same time. steams S.E, at 18 m.p.h., and the second 25 W. of S. at 16 m.p.h. Calculate the time that will have elapsed when they are 86 m. apart. are 14. AB is a base line of length 3000 yds., and C, points such that LBAC 32 15', LABC 119 ff. 60 W, 78 46', A and D being on the same side of BC. Prove that the length of CD is 4406 yds.
LDBC =
15.
LBCD -
approximately.
Exercise 25
AD =
36 yards long.
ABCD
4-2*.
LABC
is
a quadrilateral.
109,
LBAD =
If
AB
38*,
BC =
6-9",
123, find the area
of the quadrilateral.
Miscellaneous Examples
of the angles are 37 16' and 48 24'. Find the greatest side. 2. The sides of a triangle are 123 yds., 79 yds. and 97
1.
The
least side of a triangle
is
Two
yds.
3.
Find Given and a.

4.
its
angles as accurately as you can. 632-4, c 647- 1, A 75 14',
16. A weight was hung from a horizontal beam by two chains 8 ft. and 9 ft. long respectively, the ends of the chains being fastened to the same point of the weight, their other ends being fastened to the beam at points 10 ft. apart. Determine the angles which the chains make with the
find
B,
beam.
BC
A C and AB, 6. In a quadrilateral ABCD, AB = 3 ins., BC = 4 ins., CD = 7-4 ins., DA = 4-4 ins. and the LABC is 90. Determine the angle A DC.
sides
7. When a 50 determine how many 26, b = 30, A such triangles exist and complete their solution. 8. The length of the shortest side of a triangle is 162 ft.
In a triangle A BC find the angle ACB when A B 92 ft., 50 ft. andCrf 110 ft. 5. The length of the side BC of a triangle ABC is 14-5 ins, LABC 71, LBAC 67. Calculate the lengths of the
If
two angles are 37

9.
15' and 48" 24' find the greatest side. In a quadrilateral ABCD, A B = 4-3 ins., BC 3-4 ins..
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS
theodolite the angle of elevation of be found.
135
viz.
AB,
LAOB, can
CHAPTER
IX
AB = OBta&AOB. Then The case of the pyramid considered in Chapter III, It was assumed that distance 40, is an example of this.
When
the point on the ground vertically beneath is not accessible.
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS INVOLVING THE SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES

107. It is not possible within the limits of this book to deal with the many practical applications of Trigonometry. For adequate treatment of these the student roust consult the technical treatises specially written for those professions in which the subject is necessary, AH that is attempted in this chapter is the consideration of a few types of problems which embody those principles which are common to most of the technical applications. Exercises are provided which will provide a training in the use of the rules and formulae which have been studied in previous chapters. In other words, the student must learn to use his tools efficiently and accurately.
from the point vertically below the top of the pyramid could be found.
(6)
the top of the object
In Fig. 82 AB represents the height to be determined and To determine ^B we can proceed as is not accessible.
follows
From a suitable point Q, a theodolite.
LAQB
is
measured by means of
Then a distance PQ is measured so that P and Q are on same horizontal plane as B and the A APQ and AB are in the same vertical plane. Then L APQ is measured.
the
.',
in
AAPQ.
is
Fig. 81.
108.
Determination of the height of a distant object.

S
This problem has occupied the attention of mankind throughout the ages and is not less important in these days of aeroplanes and balloons. Three simple forms of the problem may be considered here.
()
known, is known. LAQP is known, being the supplement of LAQB, The A APQ can therefore be solved as in Case III,
Z.,4
PQ
PQ
104.
When A P is known.
Then As a check
(e)
When
is
the point vertically beneath the top of the

accessible.
AB = AP sin APB AB = AQ sin AQB

in
object
In Fig. 81 AB represents a lofty object whose height is required, and B is the foot of it, on the same horizontal level as O. This being accessible a horizontal distance represented by OB can be measured. By the aid of a
134
By measuring a horizontal distance
any direction.
not always easy to obtain a distance PQ as in the previous example, so that A APQ and AB are in the same
It is
vertical plane.
I3&

following
let
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS
137
The
In Fig. 83
AB
method can then be employed.

represent the height to be measured.
Taking a point P. measure a horizontal distance any suitable direction.
PQ
in
109, Distance of an Inaccessible object. Suppose A (Fig. 84) to be an inaccessible object whose distance is required from an observer at P. A distance PQ is measured in any suitable direction. is LAPQ, the bearing of A with regard to PQ at
measured.
Fro. 83.
At
(1)
P measure
AAPQ.
Is
Fro. 84.
LAPB, the angle of elevation of A. (2} LAPQ, the bearing of Q from A taken at P. At Q measure LAQP, the bearing of P fromO, taken at O,
Then
in
Also LAQP, the bearing of measured.
A with
regard to
PQ
at
PQ
.-.
is
known.
Thus
in
AAPQ can be solved as in Case III, of Thus AP is found and LAPB is known. AB -m AP sin APB
.*.
LAPQ is known. LAQP is known.
.*.
A^PQ. PQ is known. LsAPQ, AQP A v4PQ can be solved
104.
Thus
AP may
are known. as in Case III, 104. be found and, if required, AQ.
As a check Then
It should determined
LA QB can be observed and A Q found as above. AB = AQ sin AQB. be noted that the distances PB and QB can be
required.
if
Alternative method. Instead of measuring the angles using a theodolite, measure LBPQ at and LPQB at Q
APQ, AQB, we may, by
Then
in
A PQB. PQ
is
known.
as in Case HI, 104.
110. Distance
Z.9
.".
Thus Then
A PQB can be solved PB is determined. LAPB being known
BPQ, BQP'aie known.

Fro, 85.
AB = PB tan APB
As a check, AB can be found by
using
BQ and LAQB.
between two visible but inaccessible objects. Let A and B (Fig. 85) be two distant inaccessible objects. Measure any convenient base line PQ.
138
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS
39
At P observe Zs APB, BPQ. At Q observe AaAQP, AQB. In A APQ.
PQ
.*.
is
known.
are known.
III, 104,
LsAPQ, AQP
can be solved as in Case
and
AQ
can be
marked out with very great accuracy on suitable ground. and Q, Then a point A is selected and its bearings from LsAPQ, AQP. are observed. PQ being known, the i.e. A APQ can how be solved as in Case III and its area determined. Next, another point B is selected and the angles BPA,
found. Similarly
A BPQ can
Then in
A AQB.
be solved and
QB
BAP measured.
can be found.
,\
A AQB A APB.
AQ is known. QB is known. LAQB is known.

can be solved as in Case
II, 103.
Hence, as PA has been found from A be solved (Case III) and its area found.
APQ, A APB can

can be found.
Thus the area

determined.
of the quadrilateral This can be checked by joining BQ.
PQAB
The As BPQ,
ABQ
can now be solved and their areas

of the quadrilateral
Hence *4B
A
the
is found. check can be found by solving in a similar manner
III. Triangulation.
Hence we get once more the area QAB. A new point C can now be chosen. Using the same methods as before
The methods employed

principle, those
in the last
which are used

to the
the
name given
method
two examples are, in in Triangulation. This is employed in surveying a
A ABC can
By repeating
of triangles
be solved.
obtaining its area, etc. In practice there are complications such as corrections for sea level and, over large districts, the fact that the earth is approximately a sphere necessitates the use of spherical trigonometry. Over small areas, however, the error due to considering the surface as a plane, instead of part of a sphere, is, in general, very small, and approximations are obtained more readily than by using spherical trigonometry. The method employed is, in principle, as follows:
district,
Not
this process with other points and a network district can be covered. only is it essential that the base line should be
a whole
measured with minute accuracy, but an extremely accurate measurement of the angles is necessary. Checks are used at every stage, such as adding the angles of a triangle to
see
if their sum is 180, etc. The instruments used, especially the theodolite, are provided with verniers and microscopic attachments to
secure accurate readings. As a further check at the end of the work, or at any convenient stage, one of the lines whose length has been found by calculation, founded on previous calculations, can be used as a base line, and the whole survey worked backwards, culminating with the calculation of the original
measured base
1
line.
12,
some of the above methods, as well as other problems solved
We
Worked examples. will now consider some worked examples

Two
illustrating
by
similar methods. points

lie
Example I. and are 1000

This
is
dm W.
of a stationary balloon
yds. apart. points are 21 IS' and 18.
The angles of elevation at the two Find the height of the balloon. an example of the problem discussed under (1)
A measured
distance
PQ
(Fig. 86), called
a base
line, is
in 108,
Ho

.'.
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS
Hi
In Fig. 87
,\
LAQB = LAQP = LAPQ = LPAQ =
21 15' 158 45' 18 3 15'
In Fig. 88 PQ represents the height of the balloon at above the ground.
A APQ is solved
as in Case III.
LNAQ = LABQ = LPAQ =
33" 12' 21 27' 53 25'
AP
sin
PQ
sin
A QP
P4Q
AF
sin 168 45'
IQOO
sin 3 15*
We first solve the A ABQ and.so find AQ. LBAQ = 180 - 33 12' = 146 48 LAQB = 180 - {BAQ + ABQ)
=
m
180 168 15' 11 45'
log ^-P = log 1 000 + log sin 1 58 45' Vsin 158 and 46'= sin 21 15' ( 70) whence AP = 6305 [see working)
.
log sin 3
1000
3
6'
Fig. 88.
also
whence
AB = PA sin 18 = 6395 sin 18 logAB - 3-2958 (see working)
Logs.
The Then
A ABQ
can now be solved as

sin
in
Case III,
sin 21 15'
1-5593
AB =
1976 yd j.
2-5603
sin 3
5'
1
AQ ABQ
AB
sin
A QB
1000
AQ
log/IQ
2-753B
"" sin 21 27' sin 11 45'
6395
stn 18
3-8058
whence
1-4900
AQ = 1796 (see working) Now PQ m A Q tan PA Q

log
log 1000
+ log sin 21 27'

+
log sin 11 46'
Logs.
1976
3-2058
whence
PQ m PQ =
PQ=
1796 tan 53 25' log 1796 log tan 63 25' 2419 (see working)
1000
sin 21* 27'
3 1-5031
A balloon is observed from two stations A and horizontal level, A being 1000 north of B At a given instant the balloon appears from ft, A to be a direction N. 33" 12' E., and to have an elevation S3 25' while from B it appears in a direction N. 21 27' Find the height of the balloon. B
Example 2. at the same
sin tl*45'
2-5631 1-3080
1790 3 2542
tan 53* 25' 0-1295

2419
3*3837
This
is
an example of
(c)
above.
I42

3.
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS
Example
4.
M3
find the width of a river measures along a level stretch on one bank, a line AB, on the 10 yds. long. From A he observes that a post 61" 20', and opposite bank is placed so that L.PAB 62 IB'. What was the breadth of the river J /.PBA
to
Example
A man who
wishes
and Q are are two ships at sea. two stations, 1100 yds. apart, and approximately on the same subtends an angle of horizontal level as A and B. At P, 49" and subtends an angle of an angle of il". AtQ, 60 and an angle of 6*2. Calculate the distance between
A and B
BQ
AB AB
AP
In Fig. 89,
long.
AB
represents the measured distance, 150 yds.
the ships.
Pis the post on the other side of the river. PQ, drawn perpendicular to AB, represents the width of
the river.
Fig. 90 represents the given angles and the length PQ not drawn to scale) AB can be found by solving either A PAB or A QAB. To solve A PAB we must obtain AP and BP. AP can be found by solving A APQ. BP can be found by solving A PBQ. In both As we know one side and two angles. the A can be solved as in Case III.
Fig. 80.
To find PQ we must first solve the A APS, Then knowing PA or PB we can readily find PQ,
A APB
.-.
is
jLPAB
solved as in Case III, 51 20',
LPBA -
62 12*
LAPB = 180 - (61 20' + PB _ sin 51 20' AB sin 66 28'

PB
log
.-.
62 12*)
86 28'
Via. 90.
(1)
To
solve
A APQ
and find
AP.
150
sin 51 20'
In
A APQ
.".
sin 66 28'
LAPQ = LAPB + JLBPQ = 49+ 31"= 80

LPAQ=>
,
PB
=> log 160
PB,-
+ log sin 61 20'

(see
log sin 06
Logs.
.,
180
(80
62)
38.
127-7
working)
Again
.*.
PQ = PB sin
whence
PQ = This may be checked by finding PA in A PAB and then finding PQ as above.

I 1
logPQ
= log
62 12' 160 21761 127-7 log sin 82 12' sin 61 20' 1-8925 (see working) 3 yds.
Using the sine rule

:.
4.u
AP
1
log
AP = AP =
log
sin 60 28'
2-0686 1-9623
100 log sin 82 3-1980 (see working) 1578
-pQ-^^, +
sin 62"
log sin 38"
Logs.
1100
sin 62
3-0414
10459
127-7
sin 62 12'
21063 20873
1-9467
sin 38
1-7893
3-
113-0
20530
1578
1980
T44
(2)
TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY To solve A BPQ and find BP.

.*.
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS
(4)
*45
To
find
AB
LPQB = LAQB + LAQB = 60 4- 62 = 122 LPBQ = 180 - (31 + 122) = BP sin 122 Using sine rule
PQ
log
27s
.".
= BP = 2055
BP =
log 1 100 3 3128
+ log sin
sin 27" 123
log sin 27*

T U5gs "
AB _ AP AB log i4B =
use the sine rule. sin 48

Loge.
sin 49 26'
1578 x sin 49
sin 49 26' log 1578 log sin 49 log sin 49 26'
1578 31980
sin 49*
(see
working)
1100
sin 122
3-0414 I-B284
g-tttt 1-6570
3-1952 .*. 1568 (see working). This can be checked by solving A AQB and so obtaining AQ and QB. Exercise 26,
= AB =
1-8778
sin 49 26'
3-0758 1-8806
3 1952
1568
sin 27
2055
(3)
3-3128
We
,'.
To solve A APB and find AB. know AP = 1578 (= c say)

2055 = b) 48 (=,!) Solve as in Case II, 103.
BP = LAPB =
20B5 1 078
b
B
Formula used.
tan
- e - 477 + C = 180" s
m
131
3633
49*
-C
2
6
b
c
+e
.j4
observes that the angle of elevation of a tree is 32, He walks 80 ft. in a direct line towards the tree and then finds that the angle of elevation is 43. What is the height of the tree T 2. From a point Q on a horizontal plane the angle of elevation of the top of a distant mountain is 22 18'. At a point P, 1500 ft. further away in a direct horizontal line, the angle of elevation of the mountain is 16 36'. Find the height of the mountain. 3. Two men stand on opposite sides of a church steeple and in the same straight line with it. They are 1500 ft. apart. From one the angle of elevation of the top of the tower is 15 30' and from the other 28 40'. Find the height of the
1.
A man
steeple.
4. A man wishes to find the breadth of a river. From a point on one bank he observes the angle of elevation of a high building on the edge of the opposite bank to be 31. He then walks 1 10 ft. away from the river to a point in the same plane as the previous position and the building he lias observed. He finds that the angle of elevation of the building is now 20 55'. What was the breadth of the
Substituting
s tan
log tan
-c
"2
'
B-C = log 477

= 1-4595
477 cot 24 30' 3633
+ log cot 24' 30' - log 3633

16 4'
(see
B-C =
Also
.*.
= log tan
16 4'
working)
Logs. 2-6785 cot 24" 30' 0-3413
river J
B - C = 32 8' B + C=131
%B
2C
477
are two points on opposite sides of swampy point outside the swamp it is found that PA is 882 yards and PB is 1008 yards. The angle subtended at P by AB is 65 40'. What was the distance
6.
A and B
ground.
From a
.*.
= C= LPAB =
= =
LPBA =
163 8' 81 34' 98 52' 49 26' 81 34' 49 26'
between
3633
16" 4'
3-0198 3-5003 1-469*
points 180 yards apart on a level piece of a river. is a post on the opposite bank. It is found that Z.PAB 62 and 48. LPBA Find the width of the river. 7. The angle of elevation of the top of a mountain from
6.
A and B I A and B are two
of ground along the
bank
146
T
is
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS
horizontal plane as the foot of a church tower PQ. angle of elevation of the top of the tower at A is 35,
62
M7
The
the bottom of a tower 180 ft. high is 26 25'. From the top of the tower the angle of elevation is 25 18'. Find the height of the mountain. 8. Two observers 500 yds. apart take the bearing and elevation of a balloon at the same instant. One finds that the bearing is N. 41 E. and the elevation 24. The other finds that the bearing is N. 32 E. and the elevation 26" 37' Calculate the height of the balloon. 9. Two landmarks A and B are observed by a man to be at the same instant in a line due east. After he has walked 4$ miles in a direction 30" north of east, A is observed to be due south while B is 38 south of east. Find the distance between A and B. 10. At a point P in a straight road PQ it is observed that two distant objects A and B are in a straight line making an angle of 35 at P with PQ. At a point C 2000 yards along the road from it is observed that LACP is 50 and angle BCQ is 64. What is the distance between A and Bl 11. An object P is situated 345 ft. above a level plane. Two persons, A and B, are standing on the plane, A in a d irection south-west of and B due south of P. The angles of elevation of P as observed at A and B are 34 and 20" respectively. Find the distance between A and B. 12. and Q are points on a straight coast line, Q being 5-3 miles east of P. A ship starting from steams 4 miles in a direction 65J" N. of E. Calculate
LQAB
and L.QBA is 48. What is the height of the tower ? 17. A and B are two points 1500 yards apart on a road running due west, A soldier at A observes that tbe bearing of an enemy's battery is 26 48' north of west, and at B, 31 30' north of west. The range of the guns in the
battery is 3 miles. How far can the soldier go along the road before he is within range, and what length of the road is within range!
(1)
(2)
(3)
The distance the ship is now from the The ship's bearing from Q, The distance of the ship from Q.
.
coast-line.
At a point A due south of a chimney stack, the angle of elevation of the stack is 55 s From B due west of A such that AB 300 ft., the elevation of the stack is 33' Find the height of the stack and its horizontal distance
13.
from
14.
AB is a base line 500 yards long and B is due west of A. At S a point P bears 65 42' north of west. The bearing of P from AB at A is 44 15' N. of W. How far is from A t 15. A horizontal bridge over a river is 380 ft. long. From one end, A it is observed that the angle of depression of an object, vertically beneath' the bridge, on the surface of the water is 34, From the other end, B, the angle of depression of the object is 62. What is the height of the bridge above the water ? 18. A straight line AB, 115 ft. long, lies in the samo
n
CIRCULAR MEASURE
This constant
is
149
letter
denoted by the Greek

circumference ~ -^ diameter
(pro-
nounced " pie
"),
CHAPTER X
Hence since
.*.
it
CIRCULAR MEASURE
3. In Chapter I, when methods of measuring angles were considered, a brief reference was made to " circular measure " (5 6 (c)), in which the unit of measurement is an angle of
1 1
circumference or e
= x = 2ttr
7t
diameter
where
circumference and r =
radius.
rc
fixed magnitude, and not division of a right angle. in more detail,

1
dependent upon any arbitrary We now proceed to examine this
By methods of advanced mathematics culated to any required degree of accuracy. To seven

places
can be
cal-
x-
3I4IS927
Ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter. The subject of "circular measure" frequently presents difficulties to the young student. In order to make it as simple as possible we shall assume, without mathematical proof, the following theorem.
14.
For many purposes we take it= 31416

Roughly
22
The
Is
a fixed
ratio of the circumference of a circle to one for all circles.
its
diameter
This
may
be expressed in the form Circumference a constant. diameter
It is not possible to find any which arithmetical fraction exactly represents the value
of it. Hence n is called cotnmensttrable ".

116.
" inFig. 01.
be noted that the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its radius is also constant and the value of the constant must be twice that of the circumference to the diameter,
115.
It should, of course,
The unit of circular measure.
The value of the constant ratio of circumference to diameter.

is
The student who
interested
may
mation to the value of the constant by various simple experiments. For example, he may wrap a thread round a cylindera glass bottle wiil do and so obtain the length of the circumference. He can measure the outside diameter by callipers. The ratio of circumference to diameter thus found will probably give a result somewhere about 3-14. He can obtain a much more accurate result by the method devised by Archimedes. The perimeter of a regu iar polygon inscribed in a circle can readily be calculated. The perimeter of a corresponding escribed polygon can also be obtained. The mean of these two results will give an approximation to the ratio. By increasing the number of sides a still more accurate value can be obtained.
148
obtain a fair approxi-
in 6(e) the unit of circular measure the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an are whose length is equal to that of the radius. Thus in Fig. 91 the length of the arc AB is equal to r, the radius of the circle. The angle A OB is the unit by which angles are measured, and is termed a radian.
is
As has been stated
Definition of a radian.
radian
is the
angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an
arc equal in length to the radius.
Note that since

the circumference is the semicircular arc or arc of semicircle
it
is tc
times the diameter times the radius

tw.
By Theorem
arcs
The angles cm which they stand.
17, 18. at the centre
of a circle are proportional
to ike
Now
in Fig. 91 the arc of the semicircle
ABC
subtends
ISO
CIRCULAR MEASURE
119.
*5*
two
right angles, and the arc subtends 1 radian and as semicircle arc is tc times arc .'. angle subtended by the semicircular arc is jt times the angle subtended by arc AB.
*
AB AB
To convert degrees
180
to radians.
Since
tc
radians
"
and
120.
"
= =
radians
iio
(
or
1
2 right angles 180
jt jt
radians
radians.
6*
) radians,
of radians in angle.
17.
The number of degrees In a radian, As shown above re radians =180

. ,
Let
Toflnd the length of an arc = length of arc

8
radian =s
180
tc
and
number
Then as shown
-f.
in 118
.-.
radian
=
57
1
57-2958 approx, 7' 45* approx.
= number of radians in the angle the arc subtends,

a
8
(5
radius
118)
18.
The
circular
measure of any angle.
and
= r8
121, In more advanced mathematics, circular measure is always employed except in cases in which, for practical purposes, we require to use degrees. Consequently when we speak of an angle 0, it is generally understood that we are speaking of radians. Thus when referring to it
radians, the equivalent of two right angles, we commonly speak of the angle tc. Hence we have the double use of
Flo. 92.
let
In a circle of radius r. Fig. 92, Z.AOB represent a radian.

.'.
let
AOD
be any angle and
the symbol constant ratio of the circumference of a (1) As the circle to its diameter radians, i.e. the equivalent of 18(r. (2) As short for tc this use of it, angles axe frequently with In accordance expressed as multiples or fractions of it. 380 2tc Thus
Jt
length of arc
AB
r.
2
jt
= = =
"
90
Number
',
of radians in
LAOD m ^?Jj Z.AOB

arc
45
4
it
By Theorem
17 quoted above
60
LAPP _
ZJLOB
If
AD
is
3
TC
sxcAB
tc
= number of radians in LAOD ire AD then 6 =
30
not usually evaluated in such cases, except for some
special purpose.
15*

Exercise 27
in
L What is the number of degrees

angles expressed in radians: H, r
2. 3' 12'
each of the following

*!?
4 Write down from the tables the following ratios:
4L 2* 3'
w
(d)
CHAPTER
XI
sin
(ft)
cos |.
S)
**
cos^
(f+J>
11-4 ins., radius 6-6 cms., radius
TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS OF ANGLES OF ANY MAGNITUDE

Chapter III we dealt with the trigonometrical acute angles, t.s, angles in the first quadrant. In Chapter V the definitions of these ratios were extended to obtuse angles, or angles in the second quadrant. But in mathematics we generalise and consequently in this chapter we proceed to consider the ratios of angles of any magnitude. In 5, Chapter I, an angle was defined by the rotation of a straight line from a fixed position and round a fixed centre, and there was no limitation as to the amount of rotation. The rotating line may describe any angle up to 360 or one complete rotation, and may then proceed to two, three, four to any number of complete rotations in
122. In ratios of
3.
following arcs
(a)
(b)
Express in radians the angles subtended by the

arc arc
= =
'
= =
2-4 ins, 2-2 cms.
i.
Express the following angles in degrees and minutes

(a)
0-234 radian.
(ft)
l-se radian.
6.
of
8.
Express the following angles in radians, using fractions

(a) 16. (ft) 72s , 68. (C ) (d) 106. Find the length of the arc in each of the following
cases:
addition to the rotation

123.
made
initially.
(1)
r r
(2)
= =
2-3 ins., 6 126 ft., 6
= =
2-64 radians. 1-4 radians.
Angles
In
the third and fourth quadrants.
7. A circular arc is 12 ft. 10 ins. long and the radius of the arc is 7 yards. What is the angle subtended at the centre of the circle, in radians and degrees? 8. Express a right angle in radians, not using a multiple 9.
The angles
Express them
m radians.
of
a triangle are in the
ratio of 3: 4-
fi
with angles in the third and fourth quadrants, and thus include all those angles which are less than 360 or a complete rotation. Before proceeding to the work which follows the student is advised to revise 68, in Chapter V, dealing with positive and negative lines. In 70 it was shown that the ratios of angles in the second quadrant were defined in the same fundamental method as those of angles in the first quadrant, the only difference being that in obtaining the values of the ratios we have to take into consideration the signs of the line* employed, i.e. whether they are positive or negative. It will now be seen that, with the same attention to the signs of the lines, the same definitions of the trigonometrical ratios will apply, whatever the quadrant in which the angle occurs. In Fig. 93 there are shown in separate diagrams, angles ia the four quadrants. In each case from a point on the rotating line a perpendicular PQ is drawn to the fixed line OX, produced in the cases of the second and third quadrants. Thus we have formed, in each case, a triangle OPQ, using
will first deal
We
*53
134

we
obtain, in each quadrant, the ratios
RATIOS OF ANGLES OF ANY MAGNITUDE

(3)
153
the sides of which
as follows, denoting
LAOP by 8.
In
Then,
in
each quadrant
the third quadrant. and
OQ
tan
.*.
PQ
OQ
(4)
sin 8 cos 8
fj
is is is
PQ ve
are
-ve
ve
4-ve
is
cos 6
In
the fourth quadrant.
tan6
UP PQ
Hote.
PQ
.",
sin 6 is cos 8 is tan 8 is
ve ve
+ve
ve
will, of course,
We now
consider the signs of these lines in each quadrant.
The cosecant, secant and tangent

Quadrant
r sin,
II
have the same signs as their reciprocals. be summarised as follows
These results
I
may
Quadrant
sin,
sine
+J
I
cos,
tan,
ve ve
III
+ve
+vei
cos, 4-ve > all tan, +vej
Quadrant
sin,
tan
+
,
cos,
ve ve
+ve
sin,
Quadrant IV vel
,
cos^
-f-ve > cos
tan,
tan
ve J
124. Variations in the sine of
an angle between 0* and 360^.
These have previously been considered for angles in the Summarising these for comfirst and second quadrants. pleteness, we will proceed to examine the changes in the
(1)
In
the
first
quadrant.
All the lines are +ve. .'. All the ratios are +ve.
(2)
and fourth quadrants. Construct a circle of unit radius (Fig. 94} and centre O, Take on the circumference of this a series of points F Pt and draw perpendiculars to the fixed line XOX\ P Then the radius being of unit length, these perpendiculars, in the scale in which OA represents unity, will represent the sines of the corresponding angles. By observing the changes in the lengths of these perpendiculars we can see, throughout the four quadrants, the changes in the value of the sine.
third
.
In
the second quadrant.
In
quadrant
sin 8
is
OQ
sin
-ve 8 is +ve
is
+ve
II
and Increasing from
to
1.
cos 6 is tan 8 is
ve ve
In
quadrant
sin 8
Is
+ve
and decreasing from
to 0.
sj6
In

quadrant
sin 9
is
III
1

25.
157
Graphs of
sin
and cosec
0.
~ve.
Now the actual lengths of the perpendiculars is increasing,

but as they are
decreasing-,
.V
ve,
and at 270
is
the value of the sine equal to 1
is
actually
The
sine decreases in this quadrant
from
to
I.
using the values of sines obtained in the method (Fig, 94) or by taking the values of sines from the tables, a graph of the sine between 0 and 360 can now be drawn. It is shown- in Fig. 95, together with that of cosec (dotted line) the changes in which through the four quadrants can be deduced from those of the sine. The student should compare the two graphs, their signs, their
By
shown above
maximum and minimum
values, etc.
Fig, 95.
Graphs of
sin
is
E>
and
cosec 9.
{Cosec S
dotted.)
126. Variations in the cosine of 360.

_
an angle between 0 and
In
quadrant IV
sin
is
ve.
The lengths of the perpendiculars are decreasing, but as they are ve, their values arc increasing and at 360^ the sine is equal to sin 0 and is therefore zero.
/.
If the student will refer to Fig, 94, he will see that the distances intercepted on the fixed line by the perpendiculars from Pi, t viz. OQ x OQt ., will represent, in the scale in which OA represents unity, the cosines of the corresponding angles. Examining these we see
(1)
In
quadrant
is
I.
sin 6
Is
increasing from
to
0.
The cosine
+ve and
decreases from 1 to
0.
1
158
(2)

In
159
quadrant
is
I!,
The
(3)
cosine
In
always
III.
ve and
decreases from
to
I.
right angles to
From A and A ' tangents XOX'.
are
drawn
to the circle
and at
Considering any angle such as
AOP u
quadrant
The cosine Is ve and always and cos 270 = 0.

(i)
Increasing from
to
In
quadrant
Is
IV.
The cosine since cos 380
+ve and
cos 0
always Increasing from

1.
to
Consequently , represent the tA' lA, PÂ, t A', numerical value of the tangent of the corresponding angle. But account must be taken of the sign.
, ,
fa)
560'
Fig. 95.
Graphs
127.
of cos
and
sic 8 (dotted curve),
Fig. 97.
Graphs of cos 9 and sec
8.
In Fig. 96 is shown the graph of cos 9. which can be drawn as directed for the sine in 125. The curve of its reciprocal, sec 9, is also shown by the dotted curve. These two curves should be compared by the student.
128. Variations In the
In quadrants II and III, the denominator of the ratio 1 in numerical value, while in quadrants III and IV the numerator of the fraction is ve. Consequently the tangent is +ve in quadrants I and III and ve in quadrants II and IV. Considering a particular angle, viz. the LA'OPi in the
is
quadrant III
tangent between 0" and 360. tan 9
c in the value of tan 6 between 0 and 360 can be seen in Fig. 97, which is an extension of Fig. 39. The circle is drawn with unit radius.
The changes
tan A'OPt
is
ZfoA'
PtA'.
+ve and
is
represented numerically by
i6o

130. Ratios of angles greater than 360.
161
observations of the varying values of tan the changes between 0 and 360 can be determined as
follows
(1)
From such
In
quadrant
is
tan It is
(2)
always
+ ve
at 0 and
II
and increasing.
at 90.
>- a>
In
quadrant
is
Let LAOP (Fig. 99) be any angle, 8, which has been formed by rotation in an anti-clockwise or positive direction from the position OA Suppose now that the rotating line continues to rotate in the same direction for a complete rotation or 360 from OP so that it arrives in the same position, OP, as before. The total amount of rotation from OA is now 360 + 8
.
tan 8
always
ve
and Increasing
at 180.
infinitely small ve.
or
(2ji
8)
radians.
from
to
Note.
above
90, the
When 6 has increased an

tangent becomes
i --:
at 90 to
amount
*F;::::tj::;::::::::
2
. i
-.<..-.]. --- r --j c

t ---.(,
L
J
2
:
the trigonometrical ratios of this new angle 2 must be the same as 8, so that sin (2?t sin 9, 8) and so for the other ratios. Similarly if further complete rotations were made so that angles were formed such as 4js 0, fe 8, etc., it is evident that the trigonometrical ratios of these angles will be the same as those of 8.
Clearly
_,
..........
^
*
.__
._ J
jl o*-
Z_-

t.
--i
t
?
?
3w
-j.
ac^::::::z7o",;::::-ê
e-
- ;
-1 ::::::::::::;i:::: :::::::::J.:^.:i ^ j :::::::: i :::i::c::: 1 f -5 ::::::::! :: a :::.;:: * | J :::::::: :: ::::"]:: llj U_ :::::::: :3t---- -t1 t i
j
_i
"
-3:::::::::E::;:
Graph
(3)
j:
Fig, 98. of tan 8
Turning again to Fig. 99 it is also evident that if a comwere made in a clockwise, i.e. negative, direction, from the position OP. we should have the angle 2it + 8. The trigonometrical ratios of this angle, and also such angles as 4jt -|- 8, Git + 8, will be the same
plete rotation
and cot
6 {dotted line)
as those of
9.
AH such
quadrant III always +ve and Increasing, At 180 the tangent is and at 270 tan 6
In
angles can be included in the general formula
2mt
-{-8
tan
Is
where " "

^-eo
(4)
In
tan 8
quadrant IV Is always ve and increasing

oo
from
129.
at 270 to
8
at 360.
Graphs of tan
and cot
8.
In Fig. 98 are shown the graphs of tan 8 and cot 8 (dotted curve) for values of angles between 0 and 380,
integer, positive or negative. Referring to the graphs of the ratios in Figs. 85, 98 and 98, it is clear that when the angle is increased by successive complete rotations, the curves as shown, will be repeated cither in a positive or a negative direction, and this can be done to an infinite extent. Each of the ratios is called a " periodic function " of the angle, because the values of the ratio are repeated at intervals of 27t radians or 360, which is called the period of the function.
is
any
FTRIG,
162
131.

Trigonometrical ratio of
let
tfi3
8.
the rotating line OA rotate in a clockwise, i*. negative, direction to form the angle AOP. This will be a negative angle. Let it be represented by 8. Let the angle AOP' be formed by rotation in an anticlockwise i.e. +ve direction and let it be equal to 9, Then the straight line P'MP completes two triangles.
In Fig, LOO
In Fig. 101 with the usual construction let LPOQ be any acute angle, 8. Let PO be produced to meet the circle again in P'. Draw PQ and P'Q' perpendicular to XOX'.
Then
and
LP'OQ'
LAOP'
= LPOQ = = 180 +8.
(Theorem
1, 8)
OMP and OMP'

These triangles are congruent {Theorem 7, 13) and the angles OMP, OMP' are equal and right angles.
.'.
Fig. 100.
Then
but
sin
(-
PM
6)
Fig. 101.
P'M
PM = OP
sin
OF
sin 8
The As POQ, P'OQ' are congruent

P'Q'
and
OQ'
sin 6
= -PQ = - OQ
6) 0)
Similarly
cos
= sin = OM = OM TTrv = OP
0)
0)
Now
COS 6
= (jjs
m
sin
Similarly
tan
sin
{ ( ( (
= UnD
and
sin (180
+
sin
8)
AOP'
Collecting these results,
cos tan
0) 8)
= sin 8 = cos = tan 8
similarly
these results the student will be able to construct the curves of sin 8, cos 8 and tan 8 for ve angles. He will see that the curves for ve angles will be repeated in the opposite direction.
By
and
1
cos 8 tan
8= - sin (180 + 8) = cos 80 + 8= tan (180 +8)

(
1
8)
33.
To compare
the ratios of
and 360
132.
To compare the trigonometrical

180
Note.
+ 8,
If
ratios
of or
tc
and
is
an acute angle, then 180
+8
an angle
+ 8 is
in the third quadrant.
8 is an angle Note. If is an acute angle, then 360 in the fourth quadrant. In Fig. 102 if the acute angle A OP represents 8 then the re-entrant angle AOP, shown by the dotted line represents 360 8. The trigonometrical ratios of this angle may be obtained
8.
16*
from the sides of the
TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY A OMP in the usual way and

will
165
the same as those of 8 (see 131). .". using the results of 131 we have
sin (360
be
Consequently
sin (180
65)
cos (360 tan (360
- 8) = - sin 8 6) = cos = tan 9

e)
= - sin 66 = - 09063.
of cos 325.
Example
2.
Find
the value
This angle is in the fourth quadrant and so 9 (see 133). formulae for values of 360 In this quadrant the cosine is always -f-ve cos 326 = cos (380 - 36) cos 36
we
use the
= =
133)
0-8192.
Example
3.
is
Find
This angle
.-.
the value of tan 392?. greater than 360 or one whole revolution. 32) tan (360 tan 392
= = =
tan 32
0-6249.
Example
4.
Find
the value of sec 253.
This angle is in the third quadrant. .*. we use the formula connected with (jt 8) (see 132). Also in this quadrant the cosine, the reciprocal of the
secant
Fig. 102.
1
is
ve.
sec 253
34. It will
some
be convenient for future reference to collect of the results obtained in this chapter, as follows
- sec (180 + m sec 73 - 3-4203.

Exercise 28
73)
sin 6
sin
(jc
6)
cos
tan 9
1
= =
cos tan
(tc
(it
= sin + 9) = - sin (In 9) - sin ( 9) = cos + 6) = cos (2* 9 6) = cos ( 9 9} = tan + 9) => - tan = tan ( 6)
(it (it (it
1.
Find the
(a)
(c)
sine, cosine
and tangent of each of the

(b)
follow-
ing angles
25T.
(2rt
B)
2.
315 20'. Find the values of:

(a)
(e)
\d)
201 343
13'.
8'.
possible, by use of the above results and using the tables of ratios for acute angles, to write down the trigonometrical ratios of angles of any magnitude. few examples are given to illustrate the method to bo
35. It is
now
sin sin
((-
61.) 138).
lb) [d)
cos (-42). cos (- 266),

sec 300. sec 235.
3.
Find the values

la)
of:
(b)
employed.
4.
I.
Example
.'.
Find
the
value of sin 245.
cosec 251. (e) cot 321. Find the values of: 57). (a) sin (it
(d)
(6)
We first note that

its sine
(4 tan
(2it
52).
(d)
cos {2n sin (4w
- 42). + 36).
this angle is in the third
quadrant
Next, by
"Thus
negative. using the form of (180 sin 245 sin (180
must be
136.
To
find find
the angles which have given trigonometrical

all
+ 9) + 65")
+ 8)
ratios.
()
To
the angles which have a given sine (or
we can
use the appropriate formula of 134, viz.

sin 8
cosecant).
sin {n
We have already seen in 73 that corresponding to a given sine there are two angles, 9 and 180 9, where 9 is

in the second
167
the acute angle whose sine is given in the tables. Having now considered angles of any magnitude i t becomes necessary to discover what other angles have the given sine. An examination of the graph of sin 6 in Fig. 95 shows that only two of the angles less than 360 have a given sine, whether it be positive or negative, the two already mentioned above if the sine is +ve, and two in the third and fourth quadrants if it be ve. But the curve may extend to an indefinite extent for angles greater than 360". and for negative angles, and every section corresponding to each additional 360, positive or negative, will be similar to that shown. Therefore it follows that there will be an infinite number of other angles, two in each section which have the given sine. These will occur at intervals of 2n radians from those in the first quadrant. There will thus be two sets of such angles.
and third quadrants. These two angles are and 360 6. 9 and 2ji 6 in radians. or the case of the sine for angles greater than 380 or As in for negative angles, there will be two angles with the given
expressed by
sine in the section corresponding to each additional 360. There will therefore be two sets
(1) 9.
(2)
2n
2*
+ 8,
9,
4te
4*
+ 9,
9,
6*
9,
These can be combined in one set, viz. {any even multiple of jt) 9
or if be any integer, positive on negative, this can be expressed by
2wi
,\
9.
all
(1) (2)
9,
2w
+
0,
0, 4ti
3*
+ 9,
e, 5ti
.
. . .
0,
the general formula for

is:
angles
with a given
sines.
(1)
These two sets include all the angles which have the given They can be summarised as follows
(2)
cosine
2j*r
9.
(any even multiple of n) (any odd multiple of n)
9. 9.
The formula
for the secant will
be the same.
These can be combined together m one formula as follows Let w be any integer, positive or negative. Then sets {1) and (2) are contained in tc+ ( ])e The introduction of { 1)" is a device which ensures that when n is even, i.e. we have an even multiple of n, { 1) = 1 and the formula becomes nit + 6. When is odd { 1)" = 1 and the formula becomes nit 9.
.". the general formula for given sine is
(e) To find all the angles (or cotangent).
which have a given tangent
An examination of the graph of tan 9 (Fig. 98),' shows that there are two angles less than 360 which have the same tangent, viz,
6
and 180
it
+6
or
9 and
+9
before, there will be other angles at intervals of 2n which will have the same tangent. Thus there will be two
As
sets, viz.
all
angles
which have a
9,
tc
2rc
0,
l7C
(-
l)-6
is
+
3it
9,
4re
+ 6,
5rr
+ 6, + 9,
.
.
.
. . .
where is any integer +ve or ve, and angle having the given sine. The same formula will clearly hold also for
[b) To find (or secant). all
the smallest
Combining these
general formula
it is
clear that all are included in the
the cosecant.
.*.
{any multiple of
If
it)
+9
Is
n be any
integer, positive or negative,

all
the angles which have a given cosine
The general formula for
angles with a given tangent
Examining the graph of cos 9 (Fig. 96), it is seen that there are two angles between 0 and 360 which have a given cosine which is +ve, one in the first quadrant and one in the fourth. If the given cosine is ve, the two angles lie
*m
occur in the next chapter.
+
will
The same formula holds for the cotangent. Exercises which involve the use of these formulae
1
169
38.
Some
of the different types of equations will
now be
considered.
(a)
Equations which involve only one ratio.
CHAPTER
XII
in the previous paragraph is the simplest form of this type. Very little manipulation is, as a rule, required unless the equation is quadratic in form.
The example considered
Trigonometrical equations axe those in which the unknown quantities, whose values we require, are the trigonometrical ratios of angles. The angles themselves can be determined when the values of the ratios are known. The actual form which the answer will take depends on
137.
Example.
Solve the equation
6 sin 1 8
7 sin 8
+2-
for values of 8 between 0" and 360". Fact oris ing (3 sin 2) (2 sin 8 whence 3 sin 8 or 2 sin 8
whether we require only the smallest angle corresponding to the ratio, which will be obtained from the tables, or whether we want to include some or all of those other angles which, as we have seen in the previous chapter, have
the same ratio. This can be shown in a very simple example. Example. Solve the equation 2 cos 0-842,
= 2 = =
1)
1
(1) (2)
From
.".
(I)
sin
== |
0-8667
from the tables
=
less
41 49'.
The only other angle

180
than 360* with this sine

138 II
is
- 0=
sin 8
From
(2)
(1)
The
smallest angle only

2 cos
may be required.
.-.
= =
4
30.
Since
From the tables = 65 6'. (2) The angles between 0* and 360" which satisfy the equation may be required. As we have seen in 136(6) there is only one other such
angle, in the fourth quadrant.
It is
.-.
cos6
= =
0-842
and the other angle with

.*.
this sine is 180"

is
0421
30 150
the complete solution
41" 49', 138 II', 30, Note.

in
150.
If
one of the values
of sin 8
or cos 6 obtained
given by This angle
,".
The two
or 360 360 05 8' 204 54'. solutions are 65" 6' and 294 54'.
2^
an equation is numerically greater than unity, such a root must be discarded as impossible. Similarly values of the secant and cosecant less than unity are impossible solutions from this point of view.
(c)
Equations containing
is
more than one
ratio
of the
general expression for equation may be required.

(3)
all
angles which satisfy the
angle.
Manipulation
necessary to replace one of the ratios
In this case one of the formulae obtained in the previous
chapter will be used.
by its equivalent in terms of the other. To effect this we must use an appropriate formula connected with the ratios
such as were proved in Chapter IV.
Thus
in the
in 130(6) all angles
with a given cosine are included
formula
2nr.
Example
65 6'. solution is 2n;i cos ' 0-421. The inverse notation (see 74) is used to avoid the incongruity of part of the answer 2>m being in radians, and the other in degrees.
.'.
In this example
Obtain a complete solution of the equation = 2 cos* 8. 3 si n
The
The best plan here is to change cos* 8 into its equivalent value of sin 9. This can be done by the formula
sin* 8
whence
+ cos' cos 8=1

1
1
sin 1 8
68
170

3 sin 8
.*,
139. Equations of the
J71
Substituting in the above equation
form
2(1
sin' 0)
cos 8
2 sin1 8
+
J)
3 sin 6
2=
+ b sin 8 =
c. in electrical
Factorising,
(2 sin 8
where a, b, e are known constants, are important work and other applications of trigonometry.
cos 8
whence
or
+ 2) = sin 0+2 = 2 sin

(sin8
1
This could be solved by using the substitution
Vl
sin'
(1)
(2)
From
This
(I)
sin 8
2
not provide a
but the introduction of the square root is not satisfactory. We can obtain a solution more readily by the following
device.
impossible, and therefore does solution of the given equation.

is
From
(2)
.".
2 sin 8 sin 8
Since a and b are angle a, such that
known
it is
always possible to find an
tan a
a
z
Tie smallest angle with

sine, viz.
twr
m
or
-;
this sine is 30
all
radians.
as the tangent
Fig. 98).
is
capable of having any value (see graph,
Using the general formula for
angles with a given
Let (Fig. J 03) be a right-angled A in which the sides congaining the right angle are a and b units in length.
ABC
(- !)
8
is
The general
solution of the equation

e
fin
+
=
(-
1)"?
Example
2.
Solve the equation
sin 20
cos* 6
giving the values of 8 between 0 and 360 which satisfy the equation.
Since
.*.
Hence
or
From From
and whence
Also
.".
(1)(2)
= 2 sin 8 cos 8 2 sin 8 cos 8 = cos' 8 cos 8 = 2 sin 6 = cos 8 8 = 90 or 270 2 sin 8 = cos 8 2 tan 8 = tan 8 = 0-5 8 = 26 34' tan = tan (180 +
sin 20
.*,
(see 83)
11) (2)
Then
,*,
tan
ABC = AABC =
tt
By
and
the
Theorem
of Pythagoras
Va
Va
AB = vV + = sin + b*
b
b*
8)
(see 132)
is
,*.
=
6*
COSB
The other angle
less
than 360 with this tangent
in the
equation a cos
*,
,-.
The The
26 34' 208 34' 26 34' or 206 34', solution is 8 required solution is 90s , 270", 130
+
.
6 sin 8
Divide throughout by Va*

26 34' or
+ b*
b
sin 8
206 34'.
cos 6
Va' +fr
=
Va'
Va* +b*
fc
172

sin a cos 6
Exercise 29
1. Find the angles less following equations
173
+ cos a sin =
sin (6
than 360 which satisfy the

(2) (4)
.'.
+ a) =
Va*
+ 6*
(see 80,
No,
1)
(1)
sin 9
0-8910.
Now
say
p.
-^ V*"
+o
:.
= can be 1
evaluated, since a,
is
b,
c are
known
(3)
2 tan 6
8-7.
cos 6 sec 6
= 0-4179. = 2-375.
and provided
it is less
than unity it
a,
the sine of some angle,
2. Find the angles less following equations
than 360 which satisfy the
and Thus the

Example.
=
is
3.
(2) 3 sin 29 = 1-8. (1) 4 cos 2 9 3 = 0. Find the angles less than 360 which satisfy the
least value of
a determined.
following equations
(1) (3)
Solve the equation
6 sin 8 3 cos*
= tanO. 9+5 sin* =

less
(2)
(*)
4 cos 6 4 cos 9
3 tan
3 sec
6.
9.
3cos&
In this case
.',
+
=
4 sin 9
3, b
3-5
4.
Find the angles

(1) (2)
than 360* which satisfy the
Va"
Thus tan a oc j, (from the tables). .". Dividing the given equation by 5
i cos 9
.*.
4, 6* = V9 + + 16 = 5. sin = j, cos a = | and

a
following equations
2 tan* tan 9 5 tan* 8 sec* 8 4 sin 1 9 ScosO sin 8 sin* 9 0.
8-3
-
36 52'
5.
(3)
(4)
+ 1 = 0. 11. = 1-5.
sin
a cos 6
.*.
+ t sin = + cos * sin 6 = 0*7 sin (9 + a) = 0-7

is
Find general formulae for the angles which satisfy the following equations
(1)
(21
(3) (4)
But the angle whose sine

.*.
0-7
is
44 25',
6.
0-6578= 0. 2 cos 6 0-3174. } sin 29 sin 6 cos 26 1. tan 9 cot 9 4.
= + +
or
9 a 36 52' .-. 8
+ = 44 25' 44 25' = 44 25' = 7 33'.

;
Find the smallest angles which satisfy the equations

sin B sin 9 (3) 2 cos
(1) (2) (4)
36 52'
+ cos 9 = 1-2. cos 9 <= 0-2. + sin 9 = 2-1.

+
3 sin 9
4 cos 9
5.
39. Variations of
a cos
sin 9.
This expression is an important one in its application, and the graphical representations of its variation may have to be studied by some students. Its variations of the expression may be best studied by using, in a modified form, the device employed above. By means of the reasoning given in the previous paragraph, the expression can be written in the form
Va*
+ &'lsin
(0
+ )}
assigning different values to 9, the only variable in the expression, the variations can be studied and a graph constructed.
By
SUMMARY OF FORMULAE
6.
'75
Solutions of a triangle.
SUMMARY OF FORMULAE
1.
Case
I.
Three
coSj-1
sides
known.
(if
Complementary
angles.
sin 6
6*+_c*_.
a, b, c
are small)
cos tan
2.
= cos (90 0) = sin (90 = cot (90 6)

6)
tan
A
2
=
m
J V
l
(s
-b)(s'-c)
s(s
be
(for use
*
a)
^ th
'
Supplementary angles,
sin 6 cos 6 tan 8
A
{
[s-b){s-c)
= sin (180 - 6) = cos (180 8) = tan (180 - 0)

tan
A _ '2 m
sin
3.
Relations between the ratios.

sin* 8
/ s(s
a){s
~be
sin
^Vsfs
b){s
c).
cos 1 tan 1 8
<
0=1 + = sec'
I
cos 6
Case
II.
cot* 8
4.
cosec* 6
Two sides and contained angle known. B -C b =. tan e COt.A

i
6 4- c
Compound
angles.
= sin A cos B + cos A = sin A cos B cos A = cosA cos B sin A = cos A cos B + sin A tan A + tan B m tan ^+ B = l-tan^tanB
sin (A B) sin Li B) B) cos {A cos [A -~ B)
,
Case
sin sin sin sin
III.
Two
angles and a side

sin
known.
+ +
.
B
B
_ sin B _ sin C
0
B B
7.
Ratios of angles
between
and 360
(it
sin6
cos
tan (A
sin sin
B]
=
1
tan
tan B tan A tan B
tan
8.
= sin 6) = sin + 8) = - sin (2* - 61 = cos {k 8) = cos (n + 6) = cos (2* 0) = tan (n - 8) = tan + 0) = - tan (2* 6)
(it (r.
Ratios of 6 and
0.
P+ P
P + Q
sin
sin
Q=
Q Q
2 sin
^
-
cos
-
7
^
9.
sin
= 2 cos
'
i
j-
sin
cos 8 tan 8
= sin ( 6) = cos ( = tan 8)

8)
(
cos
cos
ft.
cos
cos
2 cos
:
P+g
P+
~ir
2 sin
^p
P-G * ~^~~ PQ j* sin

.
General formulae for angles with the same ratios as

sine cosine tangent
0.
nn
je
{
8
1)"0
2nr:
Multiple angles.
or
= 2 sin cos sin' COS 20 = cos* = 2 cos 1 6 = 1-2 sin' 8 cos 1 8 = i(l + cos 20) sin' 8 = |(l -cos 28) 2tan8 tan 26 = 1 tan*
sin 20
I
--'
10.
Circular measure.
1
radian
57 17' 45* (approx.)
To convert degrees
6
to radians. (e
=
=
radians.
-jIq)
Length of an
arc.
rG (0 in radians).
LOGARITHMS
of
numbers 100 to 549

Proportion*! Parti
LOGARITHMS
4
of numbers 550 to 999

Proportions Parte
(
113
4
4
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5*
9
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7 5 5 5 S 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
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j
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11 11
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8
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51
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A1.
bwABC-^-^
tan
CQ
~>D
tf?.
(2}
ioo\/io.
2.
3.
47
1. !.
Exercise 3
3. 4, 2. 0,
5, 1
D CAB - AC - CD Q tan ABC a t, tan CAB = j.

(1)
" QB
QB
DQ
AD
'CD'
CD
AD'
(B>
(OJ
DQ
1.
3,
0,
2.
0-3249.
(3) (4)
t-
0-6990. 1-6990 2-6990, 4-6090. 2-6721 4-6721. (2) 0-15721 (3) 1-7226, 0-7226, 27220 2-9767, 0-9767, 4-9787 (*> (S> 0-7688, 1-9842, 3 8433 (1) 446-7, 44670, 44-67. (3) 4-714, 471-4, 471,400 2) 87-70, 8770, 8-770. (4) 2028, 5*229, 1140.
(1)
D4S2S. 01636.
0-6188.
1-4826. 3-2709. 3) 0-8122. 4) 1-3009.

3)
0-2549.
06950.
2-1123.
(6) (5)
(6)
28" 01
6. 9.
36'.
18'.
7.
70 30'.
62--26'.
14'.
33" 51'.
(4)
U'
52-1
16'.
ft.
J9-8,
67 23', 67 23', 45
8.
12.
211 144
ft.
ft.
10
213
ft.
appro*.
11. 37"; B3 appro*.
p.
1.
49
Exercise 4
9.
p.
69
1
Exercise 8
344-6. 2. 278-4. 3. 1397.

4,
14-:
6977.
2-396.
10. 11. 12. 13.

14.
13l
851-3.
2650.
3137.
728-8.
6. 7. 8.
8-99%
1-589. 222-8.
16.
16.
21 72.
104-6.
17. 1656. :;!). 18. 19. 1 *jy. 20, 1 -695, 21. 2-321. 22. 2-786. 23. 6-002. 24. 1546.
i
1.
198
AC = DQ = CD = Cg AD sin ABC AB DB C~B CD " AC CB - QB - DB . DQ - CD Sin CAB sin DB~CB^~CDAC =^B = gB DB DQ CD CB co&ABC AB = DB = C~B "* CD = AC AC DQ = CD _CQ = AD cos CAB AB " 235 CB ** UD AC
1 '
'
aoo
2.
3.

Cosine
is 0'
ANSWERS
p.
301
Length
approx. Sines 0-6 and

0-2521.
1109, sine is 0-9939. 5' 14 ins. appro*,, distance from centre 3 08 ins.
0'8, cosines 0-8
(2) <2)
96
sues are
cosines are
Exercise 12
0-9781. 0-5088.
(e)
1.
and
6.
(3)
{d)
(c}
0-9428. 0-6698.
()
0-4289.
29 48'.
0-9350. 0-7149.
57 47'. 20 39'.
6',
m m
(4)
1
(4)
0-7400. 30 4$'. 0-4694. 0-7789. 6B 14'.
0-9353.
3)
(5)
82
14'.
01883.
0-5390. 37" 43'. 69 4'.
tangents are
H
(6)
(6)
-0-2079. -0-8621. -4-7046. -0*5879.
-0-3333. Pi -0-8218,
(#)
-0-9033. -0-4748.
-2-8291.
{)
-0-6933
20'
77 27'.
12'.
(6}
40 36' or 139 24'. 66 52' or 114 8

117*.
7-34 ins.; 37- 48'; 52
11. 13 66'. 12. 47-36'; 43-8 approx.
Exercise 9
(1)
144 24'. 151 s . 123- 48',

2-2812. 127 16'. II 8.
(ej 35 18' or 144-42'. 0-5530(a) *) 69 or 111* (b)
100 18'. 169 18'. 112 18'. 119 38'.
18' or 159- 42'. 46 26' or 134 35', t) 142-21'. " 166-15', 144 28'. 130 23'.
fjj
(2)
2.
1-7283. 1-1676.
-3589. 1-6849.
1
1
i.
B
B, 7.
(1) 60" 37'. 4-62 ins. 22 37', 67" 23'. 2-87 ins.
64 46'.
10. (a)
(b)
1-2046. 0-3628. <3) 69 18'.

(6)
(0)
-10435.
149.
-3-3122.
24 or 166.
110 54'.
<<;)
1-869.
718
to) (6} (a)
(6)
ft.
approx,
1-S6 approx. 11. 0-5602. 12. (1) 0-2616.

(2)
54.
66"
(d)
113*.
0-3466.
-0-4696.
p.
04394.
0-2204. 2-98S. 0-7357.
1-691.
13. 37 8'.
14
1-2234.
103
0-6630; 0-9486.
Exercise 13
0.
a)
(6)
15, 0-09601. 16. 553-5.

2.
Each
is
Vs-i
2-/2
{note that sin

6.
- cos (90 2
fl)J.
p1.
83
35I',
Exercise 10
54-69'. 28-6.
4. 6.
9.
0-8545.
3. 4. 6. 6. 7. 8. 9.
2. 44-12'. 72*6. 30 30', = 59 30'. 2-66 ft., 1-87 ft., 2-81 ft., 44 8', b = 300 ft. (approx,). A s 69 31', 80. 10-3 miles 14-7 miles E.
0-8945;
(1) (a)
-2.
vT.
7. (2)
(6)
3-0777; 05407.
0-4 1-4848. 1-8098. OS
A =
a <- 66-5, b
AD = -
10.
0-55B2. 2-4751.
BD =
DC
>
AC =
3-87 ft
p.
1.
105
0-96, 0-28, 3-428.
Exercise 14
6. 8. 9.
0-08 cm.
10.
at
11. 2-60*; 2-34* {both approx.). '13. }? 2 36 14. 31-60'W.ofN.; 17-1 miles.
p.
1.
0-4838, 0-8752, 0*6528. 0-1233. 4. 0-9917, 6, (1) 0-9511. (2) 0-3O8O.

2.
0-5. 0-5;
08660.
0-6001 approx.
12.
0268 approx.
10-2
m. W.,
11-7 '"- ra. N.

p. 108
Exercise 15
9.
86
0-7002.
i;
f.
Exercise
3.
1.
25. 7. 8.
0-8827. 4. 1-6243,
6.
1
0-6745, 0-8290, 05592. 1-9121; 0-5230; 0-8523.

sec 9
11547.
.
9. sin
- vT+Tt. cos S = -^== 0-8829; tan a = 1-8807.
i.
sin
'
VI
i**
8.
+ sin 20). - sin 10). + cos 20). (sin 89 sin 20). {cos 3{C + O) + cos 1(1 - sin 30) - 1. cos 24 cos rfJL 4 (sin 6C Sin 10D).
Ifsin 49 {sin 80 (cos 80-
(C
D)}.
10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

16.
2 sin 3.-1 cos A. 2 COS 3.-1 sin 2A 2 sin 30 sin (0). 2 sin ZA sin 2A. 2 cos 41 cos 6, 2 cos 36 sin 13. cot 15.
tan
+P
w p. HO
1.

Exercise 16
ANSWERS
p,
30$
18-8; e 2. 20-3; e 3. a =. 7-18; tf
a =
6
m =
H-7.
30-4. 8-50.
c =. 7-88; b 6. * - 17-3; a
4.
129
Exercise 23
solutions
;
8-59. 23-1.
1.
Two
Two
One
=
=.
4-96 or 58; 128 4' or 3 66'. 28 56' or 151-4'.
P-
H2
1.
Exercise 17
2.
solutions
2.
3. 4.
6.
28" 57', B 40 7', 62 IT. S jf A =. 28 s 64', 108 13'.
^ A -
- 46 34', C - 104" 29', - 57" 54', C - 81 58'. 44" 26', C - 73 23'. B - 32, C - 119 6'.
6.
= =.
21-44or 109-2.
11 19' or 88 41'. 128 41' or 51 19'.
3.
4.
Two
solution solutions
;
43 81'.
= A = B b
8708,
61 18', A 143 or 16-34. 35 or 148. 115- 33' or 6' 33'.
B-
62
42',
P-
117
1.
4.
5. 8.
Exercise 18 114 24'. 2. 29 62'. 22 18', B A 31 28', C 126 68"; 62 20': 62 4(1' (all appro*.). 38 62.
p. 131
8.
Exercise 24
7,
S. 9.
48*27'.
1.
14',
2. 3. 4.
5.
19-05 sq. ins. 72-38 sq. ins. 39 26'.
P- 120
1. 2.
Exercise 19
2637 sq. cms. 485 sq. cms.

84-8 sq, ins.
10
11
301-3 sq. chains. 24-17 sq. m. 31-44 lbs. 239-8 sq. cms, 10 cms.
A -28-30';
A -
C-
6.
3. 4.
6.
64" 19'; B 89 46'; C 83*25'; 36 36'. S72'; 83 44'.
B -
48 30'. 78 17',
16 34'.
6.
p.
132
Exercise 25
66 6'; 42 41'
p. 124
1.
2. 8. 4,
5.
A A A A 4 -
29 61 43 2136
24'; 19'; 31'; 46'; 23';
B B B a -
B -
Exercise 20 41 44'; C 108 62'. 69 10'; C 69 31'. 35 11'; 100-18'. 46 27'; C 112 47'. 45 40'; C 98 57'.
C-
= -
69-4 yds. 39" 56'. C 88- 4', B A B 46 12', C 69 34', a 68 6'. C 10-35 ins., 13-82 ins.
= = -
- 62 s - 726.
.
41.
Two
8.
triangles
BCe
113* 10' or 88 50' 16- 60' or 63 10'. 9-46 or 29-1.

12. 4-8 ins., 6 las.; 11 sq. ins. 13. 41 hrs. 16. 30-52 sq. ins. 16. 4928'; 68 45'.
267
6-08
ft.
approx.
p- (25
1.
9.
ins., 5-71 ins.
Exercise 21
2.
3.
4. 5.
168-8; B - 81- 24'; C - 38. e - 172; A = 32- 42'; B - 66 20'. b - 86-28; A - 33 26'; C - 81 25'.
a
e
10.
11,
309
3-99 o
ins.
- 29 66'.
Exercise 26
ft.
ft.
ins.,
P-
26 20',
286-4; 136-6;
^ A -
85 18'; 68 38';
B C -
36- 42'. 90*68'.
p.
145
162
p. 127
1.
2.
3.
4.
6.
6 a =
6
145-2, e 312, e 161-4. 162-7, 6 8-27, c
83-4, A - 97 41'. 16-59, C - 110 64'.
Exercise 22 60-2, B - 81 28'. 213, C = 42 41'. 21S, B = 42" 3'.
1838
276
ft.
193 ft. approx. 889 yds. approx, 126 yds approx.
3700
ft.
1199 yds. 2-88 na. approx.
10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 16. 18. 17.
2170 yds. 500 ft. approx. 304 m.; 4B-W. ofN. 219ft,; 153 ft.
1246 yds. approx. 189 ft. approx. ft. approx. 1593 yds.; 8018 yds.
5-15 m.
63-7
M
p.
1.

Exercise 27
IB",
152
80,
Mathematics Books
in the
270' ', 120, 135. 2. (a) 0*5878, U) 0-3090. 0-9239, fc> (d) 0*3827.
3. 4. la) \a)
0) 0-9656.
2-546.
4-75,
lb)
(6)
13 24'.
89 23*.
TEACH YOURSELF SERIES
Teach Yourself
>
6. 7, 8.
W
(1)
ff
B:
5lT
6*842 ins. f| radians 3S. 1*67 approx.
T
(2)
* Sf
17-6 ft
,
'
f
:
ALGEBRA
P.
Exercise 28
12"
ABBOTT,
B.A.
p. 165
1.
(a)
lb)
-0*3619; - 0-9322; 0*3882. \ -0-7030; 0*7112; - 09B84. (e W) -0-2901; 0*9670; - 0-3032.

1.
(a)
(b)
-09744;
0-2260; 4*3315.
"It covers the ground from the very beginnings Regarded as a textbook, this is probably the best value for money on the market." Higher Education Journal
3,
(a)
0*7771. 0-7431. 1-0678.
[c)
(a)
(c)
- 0*6691. - 0*2419. - 1-2349.

-1-7434.
Teach Yourself
ARITHMETIC
L. C.
a)
4.
2.
(d)
Ic)
la)
(6)
0*8387. 0*7431.
\d)
1*2799. 0-5878,
PASCOE, M.A.
covered
full
"A wide very efficiently and

illustrated
field of topics in general arithmetic is

skilfully.
p.
I.
173
(1) (2}
|l) (1)
Exercise 29
83". 117*.
by many
Explanations aie worked examples."
and
Technical Journal
2. 8.
(2)
(3)
65 18', 204" 42', 20 42', 169" 18'. 0, 180, 80" 32', 279 35'.. 43* 62', 138 8'.
19' 18', 199 18'. (4) 65 8'. 294" 54'. 6 (2) 18 26', 71 34'.
(3)
Teach Yourself
CALCULUS
P.
45", 135, 225, 315. (4) 30, 150, 210. 330. 4. (1) 26 34', 45, 208 34', 226*. (2) 60, 270, 300. (3j 60, 300, (4) 0, 120, ISO". 240. 6. (1) Znw cos -> 70 48'. 1)" sin-* IB" 42*. (2)
ABBOTT,
B.A.
"Students
who
are beginning to study calculus
method
will derive great help
from this book." Faraday House Journal
+ (nit
Teach Yourself
(3)
na or
f (-
l)-g*
GEOMETRY
P.
+
2'. 8'.
-^ or fur
ABBOTT,
logical
B.A.
concise,
j-j-
6. (1) 13 (2) 63
(3) 6 29'. (4}
36 62'.
"The course is clear, serve us purpose."
and
and should well Higher Education Journal
Teach Yourself
MATHEMATICS
JOHN DAVIDSON,
M.A,
This volume is intended to help the student to master the elementary principles of Mathematics, and to apply them to the purely practical calculations of ordinary life.
Teach Yourself
THE SLIDE RULE

BURNS SNODGRASS,
"Here
of the
it
M.B.E., A.R.CSc.
is a work which gives not only the fundamentals implement but numerous practical applications of to various trades and professions." The Times Educational Supplement
Teach Yourself
STATISTICS
R.
GOODMAN,
M.A., B.Sc.
"Students of statistics will find this book a useful introduction to the subject. It presents the general basic principles in a terse and understandable form." journal of the Royal Statistical Society
Teach Yourself
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P.
ABBOTT,
B.A.
"Simply written, bears evidence of long teaching experience, and is a straightforward account of the foundations of the subject." The Polytechnic Magazine
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Ifij

THE TEACH YOURSELF BOOKS

Teach Yourself Mechanics

THE ENGLISH UNIVERSITIES PRESS LTD

HOUSE WARWICK LANE LONDON E.C.4

First printed August 1940

This impression 1967

In the second instance the previous mathematical training

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

by others. Where it has been

Angles and their Measurement

Theorems ; Lines and Triangles

16. 17. 19.

Angles of Elevation and Depression

Extension of Meaning of Indices

the Use of Logarithms

Logarithms of Numbers between

and Operations with Negative Logarithms

THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS

The Sine and Cosine

....... ...... ...... ......

Changes of Sines and Cosines

Uses of Sines and Cosines

Secant, and Cotangent

Graphs of Trigonometrical Ratios Logarithms of Trigonometrical Ratios

RELATIONS BETWEEN THE SIDES OF A TRIANGLE

Slope and Gradient

The Sine Rule The Cosine Rule The Half-Angle Formulae

113 113 114

RELATIONS BETWEEN THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS

= cosff sin* 8 + cos' 8 = tan" 8 + 1 = sec

and Negative Lines

THE SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES

Direction of Rotation of Angle

Case Case Case

Three Sides known

To Find an Angle when a Ratio The Inverse Notation

Sides and Contained Angle

Angles and a Side knows

Case IV. The Ambiguous Case

Graphs of the Sine, Cosine and Tangent between and 360

78. 79. 81. S3.

PRACTICAL PROBLEMS INVOLVING THE SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES

Determination of the Height of a Distant Object

Distance between Objects

Multiple and Sub-multiple Formulae

The Radian To Find the Circular Measure The Length of an Arc

TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS OF ANGLES OF ANT MAGNITUDE

the 3rd and 4th Quadrants

Variations in the Sine between 0" and 360

Ratios of Angles greater than 300 Ratios of 8 and

Ratios of S and (300

Angles with given Trigonometrical Ratios

The Form a cos

The name Trigonometry

meaning " triangle " and "

TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

amis of the angle, meet at

to form the angle denoted

termed the vertex of the angle.

By this we mean that one plane, and one

three given points, or

only, can include given intersecting straight

TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY