Fuel 85 (2006) 26462652 www.fuelrst.

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Ethanol animal fat emulsions as a diesel engine fuel Part 2: Engine test analysis
M. Senthil Kumar, A. Kerihuel, J. Bellettre *, M. Tazerout
` mes Energe partement Syste tiques et Environnement, Ecole des Mines de Nantes, 4 rue Alfred Kastler, De BP 20722, 44307 Nantes, Cedex 03, France Received 9 March 2005; received in revised form 22 May 2006; accepted 23 May 2006 Available online 23 June 2006

Abstract This work aims on the ecient use of animal fat in a diesel engine by making its stable emulsions with ethanol and water. A single cylinder direct injection diesel engine is tested using neat diesel, neat animal fat and animal fat emulsion (optimal emulsion) as fuels under variable load operating conditions. Results show increased peak pressure and ignition delay with ethanol animal fat emulsion as compared to neat fat. Heat release pattern shows improvement in the premixed combustion phase with animal fat emulsion as compared to neat animal fat. Drastic reduction in smoke, nitric oxide, hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions are observed with the emulsion as compared to neat fat and neat diesel mainly at high power outputs. Only, hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions are found as high with the emulsion at light loads. In general, animal fat emulsion shows considerable reduction in all emissions and improvement in engine performance as compared to neat fat. 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Diesel engine; Ethanol; Animal fat emulsion

1. Introduction Diesel engines are mainly used in industrial, transport and agricultural applications due to their high eciency and reliability. However, they suer from high smoke and nitric oxide emissions [13]. The increase in prices of diesel fuel, reduced availability, more stringent governmental regulations on exhaust emissions and the fast depletion of world-wide petroleum reserves provide a strong encouragement to the search for alternative fuels. It is commonly accepted that clean combustion in diesel engines can be achieved only if engine development with fuel reformulation and the use alternative fuels are implemented [46]. In the name of energy security, regional air quality and greenhouse gas emissions reduction, use of oxygenated alternative fuels are advocated to reduce emissions in diesel

Corresponding author. Tel.: +33 251858296. E-mail address: Jerome.Bellettre@emn.fr (J. Bellettre).

engines. In this regard, animal fats have come across good choice to use as fuel in diesel engines [7,8]. As a compression ignition engine fuel animal fats have cetane number and caloric value very close to diesel. The added advantage is that animal fats have xed oxygen present in it [9]. Hence they can increase the local oxygen concentration in the fuel mixture when used as fuel in diesel engines. Contrary to fossil fuels animal fats are free from sulfur. However, the high viscosity and poor vaporization characteristics of animal fats indicate that they need modications before using them in diesel engines. Animal fats oer the advantage of freely mixing with alcohols (both methanol and ethanol) and these blends can be used in the existing diesel engines without modications. This is a simple process. The major advantages of the blending are the absence of technical modications and the ease of implementation. Blending of animal fats with alcohols results in signicant improvement in physical properties [10]. Viscosity and density are considerably reduced. Volatility is also improved. Although both methanol and

0016-2361/$ - see front matter 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2006.05.023

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ethanol reduce emissions in diesel engines, ethanol has the advantage of having higher miscibility with diesel, vegetable oils and animal fats. Besides being a biomass-based renewable fuel, ethanol has cleaner burning characteristics and a high cetane rating than methanol [11,12]. It has been reported that the application of ethanol as a supplementary compressionignition fuel can reduce environmental pollution, strengthen the agricultural economy and reduce diesel fuel requirements [1316]. Therefore, the use of ethanol in compression ignition engines has received considerable attention in recent years. Though several research projects have been carried out on a number of alternative fuels in diesel engines, not much data is available on the performance of constant speed stationary diesel engine fuelled with animal fat. Moreover, study of ethanol animal fat emulsions on diesel engines seems to be not done anywhere in the past. In Europe, the production of animal fat is very high. Hence it nds attraction to use as fuel in diesel engines. Since low horsepower stationary diesel engines are commonly used in agricultural and transport sectors, there is a need to study their performance using alternative fuels. This can be further extended to high power output multi cylinder engines also. Therefore, a study is undertaken with the objective of nding out the performance of a diesel engine operated on the fuels completely obtained from renewable energy sources such as animal fat and ethanol. The chemical composition and the dierent properties of the tested fat and its

emulsion have been measured in the rst part of this work [17]. 2. Experimental setup and experimental procedure 2.1. Engine test cell A single cylinder air cooled Lister Petter diesel engine developing a power output of 2.8 kW at 1500 rev/min is used for the work. The Schematic of the experimental set up is shown in Fig. 1. An electrical dynamometer is used for loading the engine. An orice meter connected to a large tank is attached to the engine to make air ow measurements. The fuel ow rate is measured on the volumetric basis using a burette. Chromel alumel thermocouples in conjunction with a slow speed digital data acquisition system is used for measuring the exhaust gas temperature. 2.2. Combustion data acquisition A high-speed digital data acquisition system (AVLIndiwin) in conjunction with two AVL piezoelectric transducers is used for the measurement of cylinder pressure and fuel line pressure histories. An optical shaft position encoder is used to give signals at TDC. Engine in cylinder pressure and crank angle are sampled for 100 consecutive cycles at increments of 0.1 crank angle and averaged to obtain combustion parameters.

13

14

Diesel Tank 4 7 8 9

Diesel Tank 3

12 19 6 20 10 5 1

15
10

16

11

17 2 18

1. Test Engine 2. Dynamometer 3. Animal Fat Tank 4. Diesel Tank 5. A/D Card for Pressure 6. A/D Card for Analyser 7. Air Tank 8. Burette for diesel 9. Burette for Animal Fat 10. Charge Amplifier

11. Fast Data Acquisition Sysytem 12. Slow Data Acquisition system 13. Cylinder Pressure Sensor 14. Injection Pressure Sensor 15. Diesel Filter 16. Animal fat Filter 17. TDC Encoder 18. Speed Sensor 19 Exhaust gas Analyser 20. Smoke Meter

Fig. 1. Schematic of experimental setup.

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2.3. Emission instrumentation An infrared (COSMA) exhaust analyzer is used for measuring hydrocarbon (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions. NO in the exhaust is measured by using a Beckman chemiluminescence NOx analyzer. Smoke levels are measured using a standard HARTRIDGE smoke meter which works on light absorption technique (passing a light beam through the exhaust sample and the fraction of light is absorbed by the exhaust gas). Light extinction coecient K is used as the measure of smoke density. 2.4. Experimental procedure Experiments are initially carried out on the engine using diesel and neat fat as fuels. The injection timing is set at 20 before TDC for all the tested fuels. The engine is stabilized before making all measurements. Readings for engine speed, fuel ow, air ow, exhaust gas temperature etc. are recorded for obtaining performance parameters. Exhaust gas analyzers are calibrated before making measurements. Observations are made for smoke, NO, HC and CO to analyze the emission characteristics. In all cases pressure crank angle data are recorded and processed to get combustion parameters. Optimum animal fat emulsion obtained, based on viscosity, stability and micro-structure is nally tested in the same engine at the same operating conditions. Performance, emission and combustion characteristics of the optimum emulsion are analyzed and compared with neat fat and neat diesel. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Combustion parameters The variation of maximum cylinder gas pressure at dierent power outputs for neat diesel, neat animal fat and its ethanol emulsion is shown in Fig. 2. Neat animal fat results in lower peak pressure as compared to neat diesel. The maximum cylinder pressure is found as 92 bar with neat diesel and 80.7 bar with neat fat at peak power output. However, except at lightest loads the maximum cylinder pressure increases with the animal fat emulsion. It is found as 87 bar with animal fat emulsion at peak power output. The increase in peak pressure with the emulsion of animal fat can be explained by the higher premixed burning rate of emulsion due to the long ignition delay (will be seen later). The low cetane number and high latent heat of vaporization of ethanol in the emulsion results in increased ignition delay. The increase in ignition delay results in a strong premixed combustion phase and gives rise to the cylinder gas pressure with the emulsion. This behavior becomes more obvious at high engine loads. The increase in the ignition delay with the ethanol animal fat emulsion increases the amount of fuel burned within the premixed burning phase. At high engine loads more fuel is burned in the premixed burning phase, causing high value of peak pressure and rate of pressure rise.

Peak Pressure (bar)

80 70 60

Neat Diesel
50 40 300 700 1100 1500 1900 2300 2700 3100

Speed : 1500 rpm Inj. Timing : 20 BTDC

Neat Fat Ethanol Emulsion

Power (watts)

Fig. 2. Variation of cylinder pressure with animal fatethanol emulsion.

Fig. 3 illustrates the heat release pattern with neat diesel, neat animal fat and its ethanol emulsion at maximum power output. Neat animal fat and its emulsion follow the trend similar to diesel. It can be seen that the combustion is more pronounced at the diusion phase rather than premixed phase with neat fat. However, ethanol animal fat emulsion indicates improvement in heat release rate at the premixed combustion period. It clearly shows a delay at the starting position of heat release as compared to that of the diesel fuel and neat animal fat. The presence of ethanol and water fraction in the emulsion decreases the cetane number of the emulsion and increases the ignition delay period. This results in increased amount of combustible fuel to be prepared within the period of ignition delay and increases the heat release rate. It is important to note that although more fuel is needed for the emulsion to obtain the same power as compared to diesel, the increase in fraction of the premixed burning phase and shortening in diusive burning phase could be still achieved with the emulsions. At low engine loads (not shown), the heat release curve revealed a sharp and short premixed burning
100
Neat Fat Heat Release Rate (kJ/m3 deg) Ethanol Emulsion Neat Diesel

80

60

40 20

Speed : 1500 rpm Inj.Timing : 20 BTDC Load : 100 %

-20 15 25 35 45
Crank Angle (CA)

55

65

75

Fig. 3. Variation of heat release rate with animal fatethanol emulsion.

M.S. Kumar et al. / Fuel 85 (2006) 26462652

18 16 14 Ignition delay (CA) 12 10 8 6 4 2 300 700 1100 1500 1900 2300 2700 3100 Neat Diesel Neat Fat Ethanol Emulsion Speed : 1500 rpm Inj. Timing : 20 BTDC

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60 50 40 30 20 Neat Diesel 10 0 300 700 1100 1500 1900 2300 2700 3100 Power (watts) Speed : 1500 rpm Inj. Timing : 20 BTDC Neat Animal Fat Ethanol Emulsion

Power (watts)

Fig. 4. Variation of ignition delay with animal fatethanol emulsion.

Fig. 5. Variation of combustion duration with animal fatethanol emulsion.

pattern. This can also be explained by the inuence of the ignition delay as long ignition delay will make the combustion to postpone to a late stage. At low power outputs the combustion becomes inferior with the emulsions due to very low temperature of the cylinder. Hence the heat release becomes very weak at low power outputs. Fig. 4 shows the ignition delay for neat diesel, neat animal fat and its emulsion with ethanol and water at all power outputs. As expected, ignition delay decreases with increase in power outputs for all the tested fuels. The decrease in ignition delay with the increase in engine load is due to the inuence of cylinder gas temperature within the ignition delay period. The gas temperature is higher at high engine loads than that at low engine loads. It is seen that the ignition delay is more with the emulsions as compared to neat fat and diesel at all power outputs. It is found as 8 CA with neat fat, 6 CA with neat diesel and 10 CA with ethanol animal fat emulsion at peak power output. The increase in ignition delay with the emulsion can be explained by the vaporization of ethanol and water in the emulsion which causes the injected fuel spray into a relatively low gas temperature environment and increases the period of ignition delay. It can be further explained by the low cetane number of ethanol emulsion. The total combustion duration decreases with the animal fat emulsion as compared to neat fat as seen in Fig. 5. This is mainly due to the increase in rapid burning rate of the emulsion. The addition of ethanol with the animal fat emulsion promotes combustion and shortens the combustion duration. As being explained in the above section of heat release analysis, the faster combustion rate in the premixed burning phase and shorter diusive burning phase decrease the total combustion duration of the animal fat ethanol emulsion. 3.2. Performance parameters The relationship between power output and specic energy consumption with neat animal fat and its ethanol

emulsion is shown in Fig. 6. The specic energy consumption decreases with the increase in engine load. After a certain percentage of maximum load, any further increase in brake load causes only a small increase in brake horsepower. This results in increased specic energy consumption at very high power outputs. It is seen that neat animal fat results in higher SEC as compared to neat diesel. This can be explained by the poor combustion of the injected fat as a result of high viscosity and density. However, there is an improvement in SEC with the emulsions of animal fat. Minimum value of SEC is found at 60% of the maximum load with the emulsion. The improvement in specic energy consumption with the emulsion is attributed to the changes occurring in the combustion process. The physical and chemical dierences in fuel structure of ethanol and fat lead to a combination of changes in the combustion process. The physical properties of animal fat are changed when ethanol is added. The addition of ethanol causes the viscosity of animal fat to decrease. Presence of

Combustion Duration (CA)

70000 60000 50000 SEC (kJ/kW.hr) 40000 30000 20000 10000 0 300 Speed : 1500 rpm Inj. Timing : 20 BTDC 700 1100 1500 1900 2300 2700 3100 Neat Diesel Neat fat Ethanol Emulsion

Power (watts)

Fig. 6. Variation of specic energy consumption with animal fatethanol emulsion.

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700 600 Exhaust gas temperature (C) 500 400 300 200 100 0 300 700 1100 1500 1900 Power (watts) Speed : 1500 rpm Inj. Timing : 20 BTDC

M.S. Kumar et al. / Fuel 85 (2006) 26462652

700 Neat Diesel 600 Hydrocarbon (ppm) 500 400 300 200 100 0
2300 2700 3100

Neat Fat Ethanol Emulsion Speed : 1500 rpm Inj . Timing : 20 BTDC

Neat Diesel Neat fat Ethanol Emulsion

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700

1100

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1900

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2700

3100

Power (watts)

Fig. 7. Variation of exhaust gas temperature with animal fatethanol emulsion.

Fig. 8. Variation of hydrocarbon emission with animal fatethanol emulsion.

Carbonmonoxide (ppm)

water in the emulsion leads to secondary atomization (micro-explosion) of the fuel and results in more complete combustion and rapid energy release. All these factors result in low specic energy consumption with the emulsion. The variation of exhaust gas temperature at dierent power output conditions for neat diesel, neat animal fat and its emulsion with ethanol and water is shown in Fig. 7. It is clear from the gure that as the power increases, the exhaust gas temperature increases with all the fuels. The maximum exhaust gas temperatures of 540 C, 595 C and 480 C are observed at maximum power output when the engine is running on diesel, neat animal fat and ethanol animal fat emulsion respectively. The variations in exhaust gas temperature indicate that the type of fuel and engine brake load have a signicant eect on exhaust gas temperature. It is seen that animal fat emulsion has lowest exhaust gas temperature as compared to neat diesel and neat animal fat. This can be explained by the high latent heat of vaporization of water and ethanol which results in lower burning temperatures with the emulsion. In addition to that, the shorter diusive combustion reduces the late burning of fuel. Neat fat due to its slow burning (late combustion) characteristics produces highest exhaust gas temperature. 3.3. Emission parameters Hydrocarbon emissions emitted from neat diesel, neat animal fat and its emulsions are shown in Fig. 8. Compared to neat diesel, neat animal fat emits more hydrocarbon emissions at all operating conditions. The maximum hydrocarbon emission is found as 126 ppm with neat diesel and 625 ppm with neat fat at peak power output. The main reason for the higher hydrocarbon is the result of incomplete combustion of neat fat. Animal fat emulsion shows lower hydrocarbon emissions (about 215 ppm) as compared to neat fat mainly at high power outputs. Improved

vaporization and atomization of the emulsions result in better mixing with air and leads to complete combustion of the fuel at high loads. However, at low power outputs emulsion shows higher hydrocarbon emissions. The hydrocarbon emissions tend to increase because of the quench layer of unburned ethanol present in the combustion chamber at low power outputs. In addition to that the high latent heat of vaporization of water produces slow vaporization and mixing of fuel and air. In homogeneity of the air fuel mixture may also contribute to leaner mixture in some regions of combustion chamber and results in more unburned fuels at low power outputs. Neat animal fat results in higher carbon monoxide emissions as compared to neat diesel as shown in Fig. 9. Neat animal fat results in fuel richness and leads to more carbon monoxide emissions. It is observed that animal fat emulsion also results in higher carbon monoxide emission than neat diesel and neat fat at low power outputs. The increase

3000 Neat Diesel 2500 Neat fat Ethanol Emulsion 2000 Speed : 1500 rpm Inj. Timing : 20 BTDC 1500

1000

500

0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400 2700 3000 Power (watts)

Fig. 9. Variation of carbon monoxide emission with animal fatethanol emulsion.

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in the carbon monoxide levels with ethanol emulsions is the result of incomplete combustion of the ethanolair mixture at light loads. Factors causing combustion deterioration such as high latent heats of vaporization can be responsible for the poor oxidation reaction rate of carbon monoxide and increased CO production. As mentioned earlier, a thickened quench layer created by the cooling eect of vaporizing alcohol can play a major role on CO production at part loads. Although the CO level is higher at light loads for the ethanol animal fat emulsion, the CO level is fairly lower than that of neat animal fat and neat diesel at high power outputs. Since ethanol has less carbon than diesel fuel and its oxygen content increases the oxygen to fuel ratio in the fuel rich regions. The increased airfuel ratio due to the increased volumetric eciency leads to more complete combustion of the fuel. The presence of atomic bound oxygen in the fuel satises positive chemical control over CO formation. The black smoke emission resulting from combustion of diesel, neat animal fat and its emulsions is plotted in Fig. 10. Smoke levels are high at high power outputs with diesel and neat animal fat. This is due to the presence of fuel rich core at high loads. The maximum smoke level is found as 7.7 K with neat diesel and 3.6 K with neat fat. It is seen that the smoke level is lower with neat animal fat than neat diesel. The result of low smoke emission with neat animal fat is due to the presence of low carbon content in the fat. In addition to that the oxygen present in the fat helps in smoke reduction. Smoke emission is further reduced with animal fat emulsion. The trend shows drastic reduction (about 0.3 K) in smoke emissions with ethanol animal fat emulsion. The reduced smoke at high loads can be explained by the reasons that the use of ethanol, an oxidizer is eectively introduced to the fuel-rich regions and suppress soot formation in combustion chamber. Ethanol does not provide the initial radicals for the formation of aromatic rings. The charge cooling increases ignition

delay and thus, enhances the mixing of fuel with air which in turn makes better air utilization. The high oxygen content of the emulsion combined with low C/H ratio and aromatic fractions contributes to the reduction of smoke. High level of oxygen atoms present in the fuel also results in overall leaner mixture. All these factors result in overall reduction in smoke emission. The NO emission of the engine operating on diesel, neat animal fat and ethanolanimal fat emulsions is given in Fig. 11. It shows that the NO emission is reduced with neat fat as compared to neat diesel. The maximum NO emission is found as 1480 ppm with neat diesel and 965 ppm with neat animal fat. The reduction in NO emission with neat fat is due to the reduced premixed combustion as a result of slow burning. The NO emission is further reduced with the emulsions of animal fat as compared to neat diesel and neat fat. The minimum value of 246 ppm at maximum power output is found with the animal fat emulsion. The main reason for the drastic reduction in NO emissions is again due to the high latent heat of vaporization of water. In the absence of nitrogen in the tested fuels, the formation of NO mainly depends on thermal NO and prompt NO. The kinetics formation of thermal NO are governed by the extended Zeltovitch mechanisms. Since the latent heat of vaporization of water is high, the charge temperature becomes low when the fuel is injected into the combustion chamber. As a result the peak combustion temperature becomes low and leads NO to diminish. Presence of ethanol in the emulsions also helps to suppress the formation of thermal NO. The formation of prompt NO is initiated by the reaction between hydrocarbon radicals and molecular nitrogen. This kind of NO is principally formed in fuel rich conditions. As the appearance of micro-explosion results in a better air/fuel mixture, it prevents rich pockets. Indeed, with animal fat emulsions the formation of prompt NO is reduced to.

9 8 7 Smoke No. (m-1) 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 300 700 1100 1500 1900 2300 2700 3100 Power (watts) Speed : 1500 rpm Inj. Timing : 20 BTDC Neat Diesel Neat fat Ethanol Emulsion
Nitric Oxide (ppm)

1800 Neat Diesel 1500 Neat fat Ethanol Emulsion 1200 Speed : 1500 rpm Inj. Timing : 20 BTDC

900

600

300

0 300 700 1100 1500 1900 2300 2700 3100 Power (watts)

Fig. 10. Variation of smoke density with animal fatethanol emulsion.

Fig. 11. Variation of nitric oxide with animal fatethanol emulsion.

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M.S. Kumar et al. / Fuel 85 (2006) 26462652 [5] Satge de Caro P, Mouloungui Z, Vaitilingom G, Berge JC. Interest of combining an additive with dieselethanol blends for use in diesel engines. Fuel 2001;80(4):56574. [6] Canakci M, Van Gerpen JH. Comparison of engine performance and emissions for petroleum diesel fuel, yellow grease biodiesel and soybean oil bio diesel. American society of agricultural engineers 2001, Paper No. 016050. [7] Ali Yusuf, Eskridge KM, Hanna MA. Testing of alternative diesel fuel from tallow and soybean oil in Cummins N14-410 diesel engine. Bioresour Technol 1995;53(3):24354. [8] Ali Yusuf, Hanna MA, Borg JE. Optimization of diesel, methyl tallowate and ethanol blend for reducing emissions from diesel engine. Bioresour Technol 1995;52(3):23743. [9] Senthil Kumar M, Kerihuel A, Bellettre J, Tazerout M. Investigations on the use of preheated animal fat as fuel in a diesel engine. Renewable Energy 2005;30:144356. [10] Kerihuel A, Senthil Kumar M, Bellettre J, Tazerout M. Use of animal fats as CI engine fuel by making stable emulsions with water and methanol. Fuel 2005;84:17136. [11] Hansen AC, Zhang Q, Lyne PWL. Ethanoldiesel fuel blends a review. Bioresour Technol 2005;96:27785. [12] He BQ, Shuai Shi-Jin, Wang Jian-Xin, He Hong. The eect of ethanol blended diesel fuels on emissions from a diesel engine. Atmos Environ 2003;37(35):496571. [13] Irshad A. Oxygenated diesel: emissions and performance characteristics of ethanol- diesel blends in CI engines. Society of automotive engineers 2001, Paper No. 2001-01-2475. [14] Czerwinski J. Performance of HD-DI diesel engine with addition of ethanol and rapeseed oil. Society of automotive engineers 1994, Paper No. 940545. [15] Ajav EA, Singh Bachchan, Bhattacharya TK. Experimental study of some performance parameters of a constant speed stationary diesel engine using ethanoldiesel blends as fuel. Biomass Bioenergy 1999;17(4):35765. [16] Ajav EA, Singh Bachchan, Bhattacharya TK. Thermal balance of a single cylinder diesel engine operating on alternative fuels. Energy Conversion Manage 2000;41(14):153341. [17] Kerihuel A, Kumar MS, Bellettre J, Tazerout M. Ethanol animal fat emulsions as a diesel engine fuel Part 1: Formulations and inuential parameters. Fuel, in press. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2006.05.002.

4. Conclusions Inuence of ethanol on engine performance, emissions and combustion characteristics of a diesel engine fuelled with the optimum animal fat emulsion (explained in Part 1) is studied experimentally. Ethanol animal fat emulsion shows increased cylinder peak pressure and ignition delay. Higher premixed combustion and lower combustion duration are found with the emulsions as compared to neat fat. Further, improvement in performance and signicant reduction in smoke, nitric oxide emissions, hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions are achieved mainly at high power outputs. Emulsication of animal fat with ethanol and water can be a promising technique for using animal fat eciently in diesel engines without any modications in the engine. Simultaneous reduction in nitric oxide and smoke can be achieved with the use of animal fat emulsions. However, poor part load performance needs attention. Techniques like exhaust gas recirculation, cetane improvers etc. can further improve the emulsion performance at part loads. References
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