Final Revised Mech Engg Labs - Manual 2014

Laboratory Manual For MECHANICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY ME F215
Prepared by DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT DIVISION

Birla Institute of Technology & Science, Pilani K.K. Birla Goa Campus GOA- 403 726
2013-2014
Part I Mechanics and Dynamics of Solids
INDEX
Experiment No. 1. 2. 3. 4. Name of Experiments Measurement of tensile strains and modulus of elasticity. Measurement of bending moment and deflections in beam. Measurement of stiffness of helical springs. Measurement of hardness using Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine and Vickers Hardness Testing Machine. Estimation and comparison of shock resistance qualities of the 5. 6. 7. materials by conducting Impact Test. Study of Gyroscopes Study of Dynamic Balancing Machine 16 19 21 11 Page No. 2 5 8
EXPERIMENT NO. 1 MEASUREMENT OF TENSILE STRAINS AND MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

NAME_______________________ SEC. NO. ____________________ DATE _______________________ OBJECTIVE To measure tensile strain by an extensometer during tension test on a given tensile specimen; and to determine the value of modulus of elasticity. ACCESSORIES 10000 N (10 Tonne) 'FIE' Hydraulic Universal Testing Machine (UTM); extensometer; Mild steel Test specimen (or specimen of any other material); micrometer (screw gauge); and Vernier Calipers. THEORY If a bar or a sheet of steel is pulled at its ends, with the application of force, it is stressed and elongated (strained). Strain may be calculated as the ratio of change in length to the original length. The stress to which the material is subjected, can be calculated by dividing the load with the area of cross section. If the deformation of the bar is within the elastic limit, there is a linear relationship between stress and strain. A graph between stress and strain, therefore, results in a straight line. The slope of such a straight line is constant and gives the value of modulus of elasticity. Usually the deformation is recoverable on release of load and it is known as elastic deformation If the deformation of the bar is beyond the elastic limit, there is a nonlinear relationship between stress and strain. A graph between stress and strain, therefore, results in a curved line. The slope of such a straight line is dependent on Local variations of strain with respect to stress. Usually the deformation is not recoverable on release of load and it is known as plastic deformation. PROCEDURE 1. Study the UTM carefully. Identify different parts of the UTM. (Refer to the user Manual of the UTM). Note down the different measuring instruments available on this machine. Draw a figure of the UTM putting the different labels of each component and attach with your report. (Pencil sketch) 2. Take specimen and inspect it for smoothness. Make a drawing of it. 3. Using a micrometer, determine the diameter of the specimen at five different locations within the gauge length. (Gauge length is that length in which the strain or elongation is expected to be uniform. This enables us to use an extensometer to be fixed within this gauge length). Determine the average of these 5 readings. Find the area of cross section. (Enter the measured values in the observation table of next section) 2 ID NO _______________________________ BATCH NO___________________________ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE __________
4. Firmly grip the upper end of the specimen in the movable crosshead of the testing machine. Grip the lower end of the specimen in the bottom crosshead, after adjusting the required height.
5. Fit the extensometer firmly on the specimen. Switch on the power supplies to the
computer and the Microprocessor of the machine. Click on the software of the machine. 6. Enter the values of the variable displayed by the software. Note all the data entered into the
computer on your notebook for your reference and study.
7. Run the hydraulic testing machine at the slowest loading rate. Make simultaneous record of the observations of load and extension, at discrete points of load, by freezing the values displayed by the microprocessor. (By freezing these observation points, the test does not stop, but it facilitates recording of the values.) 8. The test is completed now. Unload the specimen and proceed with the calculations. Study your observations in the table below. OBSERVATIONS Total length of the test specimen (mm) Gauge length of specimen (of the extensometer): (L) mm Least count of extensometer, mm (Note it from the console reading of the computer) Diameter of specimen, (to be measured) mm Area of cross section of specimen(calculate)= A in mm2 Obs. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. STRESS-STRAIN GRAPH & RESULT: Report the graphs obtained. Show your calculations. a. Load Vs Displacement, b. Stress Vs Strain Value of E for given (record the material) specimen is: 3 kN/mm2 ( Gpa) Load on specimen (T) (kN) Stress (T/A) (kN/mm2) = = = = = Strain X 10-5 SL/L
Extensometer Reading (from the console) (SL)
Is the E value in agreement with the accepted value? What is the error in the obtained value? Can more accuracy be expected in the Value E?
Yes / No
Examine the Uncertainties in the measurements so obtained. Give your analysis? LEARN MORE: Draw stress-strain diagram for a ductile and a brittle material? Explain plastic deformation occurs in metals with the help of figures? List out few mechanical properties of metals with the help of figures? List out few examples of stress strain behaviour of for ceramics, polymers and composite materials? 5. Can you characterize mechanical behavior of a material by its stress strain diagram? 1. 2. 3. 4.
EXPERIMENT NO. 2 MEASUREMENT OF BENDING MOMENT & DEFLECTIONS OF A BEAM

NAME_______________________ SEC. NO. ____________________ DATE _______________________ OBJECTIVE: To measure the deflections of a given beam by dial gauge indicator during bending test; and hence to determine the value of modulus of elasticity of the material and also the bending stresses. ACCESSORIES: Beam, dial gauge indicator, Loading frame (Simply supported conditions provided). THEORY: For a simply supported beam of span L, carrying a load W at the middle of the span, the maximum bending moment, Mb, is given by MbY/ Iyy. In this formula Y is the distance of the neutral axis for a rectangular beam is at the centre of the beam. From the surface and is equal to half the thickness of the beam. Iyy is the second moment of the area of cross- section of the beam about its neutral axis and is equal to 1/12(Width * thickness3). The maximum stress, on the convex side of the beam, is tensile in nature. The deflection in the beam due to point load applied to beam can be measured with dial gauge indicator. LG ID NO _______________________________ BATCH NO___________________________ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE __________
B
LW N A
PROCEDURE
a) Adjust a convenient length L of the simply supported beam by adjusting the distance of the flexible fixture from the fixed fixture. b) Adjust the Load hanger, such that it should be placed exactly at the LW of the beam, and note down the no load reading (WEIGHT OF THE LOADING PAN) initially. c) Place a load on the hanger and record the corresponding dial gauge readings. Make such observation for increase of load in discrete steps. d) Record the dial gauge readings for decrease of load in the same steps as used for increase of load. 5
OBSERVATION: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Length of the beam in between two supports (L) =______ m Width of the given beam (b) = ______ m Thickness of the given beam (t) = _____ m Etheoretical documented value for MS specimen/Wood = 210 GPa / 12 GPa No load reading of dial gage indicator = _____
Calculations and Observation table:

Calculation of Bending Stress (b) in N/m2
b = [ Mb y / Iyy ] Where, Mb = WL/4 for simply supported beam with load acting at the center of beam in N-m. y = Distance from the center of neutral axis to the upper most fiber of specimen in meters Iyy = Area moment of inertia for a given specimen in m4
Calculations of Youngs Modulus (E) in N/m2
For load (W in kg) acting at center (L/2), theoretical deflection equation is given as follows, Y = WL3/48 E Iyy -----------(1) Obs. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Load (W) in Kg Dial Gauge reading y in mm at L/4 distance Bending stress (b ) In N/m2 Expt. Youngs Modulus (Eexp) in N/m2
Note: 1. Refer Chapter-8 of Mechanics of Solids text book to derive deflection equation considering simply supported beam condition for a location at L/4 (Since dial gage was fixed at L/4). Accordingly the derived deflection equation as to be rearranged to find Eexp values for a different dial gage readings. 2. Take the E documented value for wooden specimen as 12 GPa and if MS specimen as 210 GPa for your calculations. 3. Further, rearrange the terms having constant values from derived deflection equation and get the equation as follows, 6
Eexperiment = K (W/y ) ----------(3) 4. Where, K (CONSTANT) in per meter and (W/y ) is the stiffness in N/m obtained from plotting a best fit graph of Load versus dial gage deflection. The value of E obtained from equation (3) must be used to measure the error involved when compared against the E value obtained from the documented E value for a given specimen. Conclusions: Is the E value in agreement with the accepted value? Yes / No What is the error in the obtained value? Can more accuracy be expected in the Value E? Examine the Uncertainties in the measurements so obtained. Give your analysis?
Note: In this experimental set up Different set of readings can be taken by changing 1. The arrangement of both the end fixtures 2. The distance between the end fixtures 3. The material of the test bar
Recommendations: It is possible to use strain gauge circuit along with strain indicator for measuring the accurate value of strain in the bar specimen. Make a diagram of strain gauge circuit and study the measurement of strains. Learn More: 1. Derive a deflection equation considering simply supported bean for a location at L/2 and L/3. 2. Observe the plot of stress Vs Strain while loading and unloading the specimen give your comment on the nature of graph in both the condition.
EXPERIMENT NO. 3 MEASUREMENT OF STIFFNESS FOR HELICAL SPRING

NAME_______________________ SEC. NO. ____________________ DATE _______________________ OBJECTIVE To find the characteristic load behavior of a helical spring or a given machine element and to determine the stiffness of the spring from load versus deflection curve. ACCESSORIES Spring Testing Machine, given spring test specimen, micrometer / Vernier calipers THEORY A tension (Helical coil) spring is the one, which is subjected to a tensile load, and the resistance is mainly due to its coils and the spring wire. The spring wire is subjected to torsion, when the spring is loaded under tension or compression load. Closely coiled helical springs subjected to axial pull fall under this category. Such springs are made of rod or wire in the form of a helix described on a right circular cylinder. It is assumed that this type of helical spring is so closely coiled that each turn is practically a plane at right angle to the axis of the helix and the stresses upon the material are almost of pure torsion. The bending couple is negligible in comparison with the torsion couple. They are used in shock absorbers, railway wagon couplers, spring balances, Bicycle brakes, Vibrators, and many other engineering applications. PROCEDURE Study the machine carefully.. The machine can be run on automatic loading mode or hand loading mode using crank lever. (a) Fix ends of the given spring between upper hook and lower hook of the machine. (b) By cranking lever, apply the required load, measure the deflection under compression of the given spring using measuring scale. (c) Using a micrometer, determine the mean diameter of the coil for the spring at least five different locations. Determine the average of these reading.
(d) Using a micrometer, determine the Mean diameter of the wire for the spring at five different
ID NO _______________________________ BATCH NO___________________________ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE __________
locations. Determine the average of these reading, to find the mean diameter. (e) Draw a graph between load versus deflection, calculate the slope which gives the stiffness of the spring. 8
OBSERVATIONS
Total no. of coils: (N) = _________ Mean radius of coil (D) = ________ mm Diameter of the wire (d) = _______ mm The axial movement or deflection of the free end of spring is = 8 (W D3 N)/ Gd4 ; Spring stiffness (k) = (Gd4/ 8 D3 N) [ can be best determined by slope of W- curve] Where G is Rigidity modulus of given material of spring Obs. No. Pressure applied in ( kPa) Area of the Piston in mm Deflection of the free end Scale reading () Deflection of the free end using theoretical analysis
Force (N)
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Draw the Load Extension (or Compression) diagram. Determine the slope of the W- curve obtained. LOAD-DEFLECTION GRAPH & RESULT: Value of Stiffness k for Mild steel spring is: Stiffness from graph: N/mm (as calculated) N/mm
PART B: LOADING AND UNLOADING OF SHOCK ABSORBER: The shock absorber is tested on similar lines of spring testing by fixing one end-applying load on the other end. Note the deflections at every stage of loading and unloading the shock absorber. Draw the load versus deflection curve for the shock absorber. Study and interpret the results. LEARN MORE: 1. Classify springs? 2. Explain the main purpose of spring in engineering applications? 3. When two springs with stiffness k1, k2 are combined in series and parallel, can you derive the overall stiffness for the series & parallel combinations?
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EXPERIMENT NO. 4 MEASUREMENT OF HARDNESS OF THE GIVEN SAMPLES AND TO CORRELATE THEM WITH THE ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH OF THE MATERIALS USING VICKERS HARDNESS TESTING MACHINE
NAME_______________________ SEC. NO. ____________________ DATE _______________________ ID NO _______________________________ BATCH NO___________________________ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE __________
OBJECTIVE To measure the hardness of the given samples and to correlate them with the ultimate tensile strength of the materials using Vickers Hardness Testing Machine. ACCESSORIES Power operated Vickers hardness testing machine, Microscope (to measure impressions), Steel ball or diamond indentors and specimens (Mild Steel, Brass, Aluminum, Cast Iron). THEORY Hardness is defined as resistance to indentation or resistance to localized plastic deformation. The Vickers test for hardness consists of the application of a hard steel ball or diamond of known diameter under a known load for the specified time period, to the surface of specimen under test. The diameter or diagonal of the resulting impression is measured by means of a microscope. PROCEDURE a) The specimen is supported on the hardened steel platen located by a robust steel screw, which is adjusted by means of a hand wheel. b) An adjusting wheel on the indentor column enables the ball holder to be brought into contact with specimen by judging through the microscope. c) The load P is applied by means of a single lever mounted on the knife-edges, which carries a hanger for loose weights. d) An indicator at the front of the machine shows the position of the loading lever and indicates the speed of application of the load P. e) After the load P is applied with the indentor the diagonal D1 and D2, in mm is measured by Vickers microscope. The mean of the diagonal is calculated. f) Finally, the VHN of the given specimen is shown on the screen by pressing READ switch. 11
OBSERVATIONS Materials given: _________________ Diagonal D1 = ________ mm and D2 __________ mm of the impression. Load applied (P): _____ kg SL No. Material Load on specimen (P) Diagonal D1 Diagonal D2 VHN
RESULT AND CORRELATION WITH THE UTS (ULTIMATE STRENGTH) Hardness number is often used as an indicator of tensile strength of steel. Using graph shown in figure 1. Estimate the tensile strength of steel specimen given to you by applying 3000 kg load and use 10mm standard steel ball for indentation. Compare this figure with tensile test results obtained from your tensile test stress-strain graph.
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PART B OBJECTIVE To measure the hardness of the given samples and to correlate them with the ultimate tensile strength of the materials using the Rockwell hardness testing machine. ACCESSORIES Direct reading Rockwell hardness testing machine, Diamond cone and steel ball indentors and specimens (Mild Steel, Brass, Aluminum, Cast Iron, Broken HSS bits). THEORY The Rockwell test for hardness consists of the application of a hard indentor of known diameter under a known load for the specimen time period, to the surface of specimen under test and the Rockwell hardness of material by measuring the depth of penetration of standard indentors under standard loading conditions, and gives a visible indicator of degree of hardness according to established scales. The dial indicator eliminates the requirement of a microscope for measuring the indentation. The following table gives the standard loads and scales used:
Scale Symbol A B C PROCEDURE
Indentor Diamond cone Steel ball Diamond cone
Table 1 Minor Load kg 10 10 10
Major Load kg 50 90 140
a) The specimen is placed on the table and rotating the hand wheel clockwise until contact is made with the indentor raises the table. b) Continue rotating the hand wheel until the small indicator on the dial indicates the set. c) In the preliminary setting operation as the minor load of 10kg is applied automatically, the major load P is applied by adjusting back the lever on the right hand side of the machine to its full extent. d) As soon as the reading of the depth indicator becomes steady the major load is removed automatically and the hardness degree may then be read from the scale A or scale B or scale C as the case may be. e) The initial load may be removed by rotating the hand wheel anti clockwise and lower the elevating screw to facilitate the removal of the specimen without damaging the indentor.
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OBSERVATIONS Materials given: Diameter or angle of indentor: Type of Indentor: Load applied (P): Reading of scale A or B or C: Rockwell Hardness: SL NO. Material Load on specimen (P) Type of Indentor Rockwell Hardness A or B or C kg mm
RESULT AND CORRELATION WITH THE UTS (ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH) (Please refer to section on hardness and its correlation with strength in the chapter of mechanical properties of materials: Callisters book on Material Science and Engineering) Hardness number is often used as an indicator of tensile strength of steel. Using graph shown in figure estimate the tensile strength of steel specimen given to you. Compare this figure with tensile test results obtained from your tensile test experiment.
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LEARN MORE 1. Why diamond tip is preferred for indentor? 2. Explain the choice of Vickers and Rockwell Harness testing machine is for measurement? 3. Explain the use of VHN in materials terminology? 4. List out materials in which order the hardness will have for metal, ceramics, polymers, and composites?
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EXPERIMENT NO. 5 ESTIMATION AND COMPARISON OF SHOCK RESISTANCE QUALITIES OF THE MATERIALS BY CONDUCTING IMPACT TEST
NAME_______________________ SEC. NO. ____________________ DATE _______________________ OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the energy absorbing characteristics of various materials using the Impact testing Machine by the Charpy and Izod Tests. EQUIPMENT: Model: Impact testing machine model -IT 30 D. Description of the control panel: digital control panel and microprocessor based measuring is used which takes digital pulse input from the rotary encoder and accurately evaluates the energy absorbed by the test specimen during the test(Charpy/Izod test). It has 4 soft keys to set the machine namely TEST, START, RESET and PRINT Keys and a 4 digit 7.seg display on the front panel. ID NO _______________________________ BATCH NO___________________________ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE __________
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PROCEDURE: 1. Preparation of the Apparatus: Perform a routine procedure for checking impact machines at the beginning of each day, each shift, or just prior to testing on a machine used intermittently. It is recommended that the results of these routine checks be kept in a log book for the machine for future use. Visually examine the striker and anvils for obvious damage and wear. Check the zero position of the machine. 2. Error measurement: The pendulum is raised to initial position and locked with safety locking mechanism. The dial is set to zero, and the braking mechanism is checked to ensure that it is deactivated. The supporting bed is checked to ensure that no specimen is mounted. The safety lock is then removed, and the pendulum is released. After the swing is completed, the reading of the dial is noted, and the brake is applied to stop the swinging of the pendulum. 3. Specimen clamping: Means shall be provided for clamping the specimen in such a position that the face of the specimen is parallel to the striker within 1:1000. The edges of the clamping surfaces shall be sharp angles of 90 61 with radii less than 0.40 mm (0.016 in.). The clamping surfaces shall be smooth with a 2-m (63-in.) finish or better, and shall clamp the specimen firmly at the notch with the clamping force applied in the direction of impact. For rectangular specimens, the clamping surfaces shall be flat and parallel within 0.025mm (0.001 in) The dimensions of the striker and its position relative to the specimen clamps shall be as shown in following figure.
Specimens and Loading Configurations for (a) Charpy V-Notch and (b) Izod Tests (as per ASTM E 23) 17
TEST RESULTS: Impact properties of test materials Property Charpy impact strength Izod impact strength Initial reading in Energy absorbed Joule (1) Joule (2) in Error = (2) (1)
CONCLUSIONS: The relative toughness between the materials selected was determined using the Charpy and Izod impact tests, and the modes of fracture were identified by visual inspection of the specimens after fracture.
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EXPERIMENT NO. 6 STUDY OF GYROSCOPE

OBJECTIVES: To study the gyroscopic effect using the gyroscope.
EQUIPMENT USED: The gyroscope is a device which is mainly used for measuring the orientation. It works on the principle of conservation of angular momentum. A gyroscope comprises of a rotor disc whose axle is fee to take any orientation. The rotation of the rotor disc can be measured using a noncontact type tachometer. A protractor is fixed at the base to measure the angular displacement of the outer gimbal. A constant torque is provided to the rotor shaft by means of weights suspended at one end of the inner gimbal. THEORY: The gyroscope consists of a rotor disc which has to be rotated at a higher speed in order to get sufficient gyroscopic effect. Once the rotor disc starts rotating, the torque on the gyroscope applied perpendicular to its axis of rotation and also perpendicular to its angular momentum causes it to rotate about an axis perpendicular to both the torque and the angular momentum. This effect is known as gyroscopic effect. PRECAUTION: The apparatus is very delicate. Readings are to be taken in a careful manner in order to get close results. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE: 1. While holding the shaft on which the rotor disc is fixed, rotate the disc at a speed greater than 200 rpm. At the same instant, start a stop watch. 2. Use a non-contact type tachometer to note down the speed of the rotor disc. 3. Release the inner gimbal and note down the time, the instant it is released. 19
4. With split timing, measure the time from the moment the inner gimbal is released till rotation of the outer gimbal stops. 5. Note down the angle of rotation of the outer gimbal. 6. Take 8 to 10 readings by varying the speed of the disc. CALCULATIONS: Gyroscopic torque: T = I * * p where, I = Moment of Inertia of the rotor disc I = (MR2/2)-(M R2 /2) central hole - 4*{( MR2/2)+( M* d2)} outer hole = 0.0058 kg/m2 = angular velocity of the rotor disc = (2N/60) rad/s p = angular velocity of precession p = (d/dt) rad/s Theoretical torque: T=F*r F=Weight of the mass attached at one end of the inner gimbal (Kg m/s) TABULATION:
Final speed (rpm) Mean speed (rpm) Time (s) Angle (degree) Angular velocity of disc (rad/s) Angular velocity of precession (rad/s) Moment of inertia (kg-m^2) Experimental gyroscopic torque (kg-m) Force applied (kg) Perpendicular distance (m) Theoretical torque (kg-m)
N2
dt
T exp
T th
0.0058 0.0058
RESULT: Thus the study on gyroscopic effect has been done with gyroscope and the readings showing the theoretical and experimental torque has been tabulated.
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EXPERIMENT NO. 7 STUDY OF DYNAMIC BALANCING MACHINE

OBJECTIVES: 1. To study the Dynamic Balancing Machine. 2. Balancing the rotating mass using Dynamic Balancing Machine. 3. To gain insight into the causes of undesirable vibration of rotors and to understand static and dynamic unbalance conditions of rotors. THEORY: There are various rotating components which are required as parts in assembly or independently. Balancing of rotating components is extremely essential in order to avoid Dynamic failure, as centrifugal force acting on shaft is directly proportional to square of angular speed. Balancing of rotating components can be done by dynamic balancing or static balancing. Production tolerances used in the manufacture of rotors are adjusted as closely as possible without running up the cost of manufacturing prohibitively. In general, it is more economical to produce parts, which are not quite true, and then to subject them to a balancing procedure than to produce such perfect parts that no correction is needed. Typical examples of such machinery are crankshafts, electric armatures, turbo-machinery, printing rollers, centrifuges, flywheels, and gear wheels. Some common causes of irregularity during production are machining error, cumulative assembly tolerances, distortions due to heat treatment, blow holes or inclusions in castings, and material non-homogeneity. Because of these irregularities the actual axis of rotation does not coincide with one of the principal axes of inertia of the body, and variable disturbing forces are produced which result in vibrations. In order to remove these vibrations and establish proper operation, balancing becomes necessary. The forces generated due to an unbalance are proportional to the rotating speed of the rotor squared. Therefore, the balancing of high-speed equipment is especially important. Although there are many possible causes of vibration in rotating equipment, this technique will deal only with that component of vibration, which occurs at running speed (frequency), and is caused by a mass unbalance in the rotor. The condition of unbalance of a rotating body may be classified as static or dynamic unbalance. In the case of static unbalance, the unbalance appears in a single axial plane. In the case of dynamic unbalance, the unbalance can be in different axial planes. As a result, while in rotation, 21
the two unbalanced forces form a couple, which rocks the axis of rotation and causes undesirable vibration of the rotor, mounted in its bearings. Effect of Unbalance:- The forces of unbalance increase the loads on bearings and stress in the various members, but also produce unpleasant and even dangerous vibrations.
Machine Elements: The machine elements consists of Machine Bed(37) Drive Stand(26) Balancing Stands(4) Machine Bed (37): - It is made of one piece of cast iron and reinforced underneath by cross ribs for rigidity. On its platform there are two slide rails and center guide. The slide rails serve as bearings for the balancing stand and pass over the whole length of the machine bed. Drive Stand (26): - It is fabricated body and is placed on the foundation to the left hand end of the bed of the machine by 4 foundation bolts. The driving unit consists of the main driving motor, set of pulleys and belts, which are all housed inside this stand. The phase generating unit, comprising of moving magnet and fixed coil is fitted, at the left side of the driving stand. The driving spindle which runs in ball bearings projects out from the case and carries a graduated disc. Above the graduated disc is an arrow, which indicates the direction of rotation of the spindle. For easy access to the driving motor which is fastened to a plate at the back of the stand, a cover plate is provided with air vent holes for ejection of the generated warm air. 22
The driving stand also houses the on/off switch (2) and the two speed rotary switch (1), along with the starter (27) of the motor. The grease system with the brake lever (25) for stopping the rotating specimen is also housed in the driving stand. Balancing Stands (Left and Right) (4) The balancing stands, also made of cast iron, have a broad base resting over the slide surfaces of the machine bed. The to and fro movement of the two balancing stands No.1 can be controlled by the travel wheels (5) at the bottom of the stands. It contains a work- support, which is rigidly supported by two vertical side plates. It is possible by means of adjusting screws (35) to very height of the roller assembly for true adaptation to the respective shaft diameters of the rotors. The cradle consists of roller plate (34) to hold the balance system. The roller plate can be clamped in any particular position by means of the clamp screws (33). The safety guard (8) is attached to the cradle by means of the hinge (32). The retaining clamp (9) is fastened to the safety guards (8). The safety guard (8) can be fixed in position by means of the hinge screw (31). The roller plate (34) supports a set of rollers (7).A graduated scale is provided on the cradle to adjust the height of the roller bearings according to the diameter of the rotor placed on the balancing stands for balancing. Pressure transducers (11) are fixed on the rear side of the balancing stands and are pre-loaded spring (3) from opposite side. The balancing stands can be fixed at any position of the bed to the machine by means of the T bolts (36)
PRINCIPLE OF BALANCING Whenever a certain mass is attached to a rotating shaft, it exerts centrifugal force, whose effect is to bend the shaft and to produce vibrations in it. In order to prevent the effect of centrifugal force, another mass is attached to the opposite side of the shaft, at such a position so as to balance the effect of the centrifugal force of the first mass. Therefore the process of providing the second mass in order to counteract the centrifugal force of the first masses called Balancing of Rotating Masses. The Balancing is done in two methods they are:I. Balancing of a single rotating mass by a single mass rotating in the same plane. II. Balancing of a single rotating mass by a two masses rotating in the different plane. The rotor is placed on a work support which is rigidly fixed by side plates. They prevent any moment of rotor while rotating. Rotor rotates around its shaft axis. The centrifugal force resulting from the unbalance is absorbed by the work- support. A pressure transducer senses the centrifugal forces transmitted by the work-support and produces an electrical signal, which is proportional to the rotor unbalance. The electrical signal is amplified in various stages by electronic circuit and processed through the analogue computer to read the angle of unbalance and the amount of unbalance on two different displays. Unbalance readings of both left and right planes are measured during a single run of rotor.
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PRECAUTIONS: 1. For balancing bodies with high unbalance, the safety guards should be used. The retaining clamps should be fitted with pressure. 2. There operation of drilling out material, welding etc. should not be carried out directly on the machine. 3. Before starting the experiment check that all the bolts should be tight. 4. Machine should be covered when it is in not use.
Different keys and their function: Data Key: It is a key to enter the data. Store Key: It is a key to store the data. Rotor No Key: It is a key to enter the rotor number. Program PROG: This key is to select the program. RUN Key: The key starts the execution of the computation program. Calibration CAL Key: This is active only when the machine is running and is used to calibrate the machine. Serial No. Key: This key is used to enter the serial No. for the rotor when large No of rotors are to be balanced. EXPERIMENT ANALYSIS:
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Constant values: A - The distance between left support and left plane in mm B - The distance between the two supports in mm C - The distance between the two planes in mm r1 - Radius of correction in left plane in mm r2 - Radius of correction in right plane in mm tl1 - Tolerance for left plane in gm, mm tl2 - Tolerance for left plane in gm, mm PROCEDURE: Initial make some unbalance by putting some weight (wt1 in gm) on the rotor of left plane or right plane. 2. Switch on the machine and it displays the current Rotor No. 3. Select the program 1 by pressing the PROG key. 4. Measure the values of constants A, B, C, r1, r2 etc. 5. Enter the data for constants press DATA key, the system displays constant A and its present value. 6. Enter the value of A and press STORE. The value of A is stored and the system displays B and its value. 7. Continue the procedure till all the data up to tl2 are entered and stored. After tl2 is stored the system displays the constants A and its value again. 8. Check the correction mode in + by seeing the display on LED. 9. Run the program by pressing the RUN key. 10. Start the machine by pressing the START button by 2 times. 11. Wait for 1 to 2min so that the machine should stop and take the readings of magnitude (gm) and direction (deg) for left and right plane. 12. According to the readings displayed apply the magnitude (gm) in a given direction (deg) and make them balance. READINGS TABLE 1.
DISTANCE IN mm
INITIAL READING
CORRECTION Mass added gm
FINAL READING
MASS gm
@ANGLE in degree
@ANGLE in degree
MASS gm
@ANGLE in degree
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RESULTS The Dynamic balancing machine was studied and balancing was done on a rotating shaft. Unbalance mass has been calculated and tabulated.
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Part I Summary Sheets
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SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENT NO. 1 MEASUREMENT OF TENSILE STRAINS AND MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

NAME_______________________ SEC. NO. ____________________ DATE _______________________ ID NO _______________________________ BATCH NO___________________________
OBJECTIVE: To measure tensile strain by an extensometer during tension test on a given tensile specimen; and to determine the value of modulus of elasticity. OBSERVATIONS Total length of the test specimen (mm) Gauge length of specimen (of the extensometer): (L) mm Least count of extensometer, mm (Note it from the console reading of the computer) Diameter of specimen, (to be measured) mm Area of cross section of specimen(calculate)= A mm2 Obs. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. STRESS-STRAIN GRAPH & RESULT: Report the graphs obtained. Show your calculations. c. Load Vs Displacement, d. Stress Vs Strain Value of E for given (record the material) specimen is: Is the E value in agreement with the accepted value? 28 kN/mm2 ( Yes / No Gpa) Load on specimen (T) (kN) Stress (T/A) (kN/mm2) = = = = = Strain X 10-5 SL/L
Extensometer Reading (from the console) (SL)
CONCLUSION:
MARKS OBTAINED_____________ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE_________________
29
SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENT NO. 2 MEASUREMENT OF BENDING MOMENT & DEFLECTIONS OF A BEAM

OBJECTIVE: To measure deflections of a given beam by dial gauge indicator during bending test; and hence to determine the value of modulus of elasticity of the material and also the bending stresses OBSERVATION: Length of beam between simply supported ends = L = Width of beam = b = Thickness of beam = t = No load reading of dial gauge indicator = Calculation of stress: b= Mb y/ Iyy Where Mb= WL/4, Iyy= bt3/12 (as applicable for rectangular beam), y = t / 2 Bending stress b= W* [1.5L/bt2] kgf/cm2 Where Load multiplier = 1.5L/bt2 Obs. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 1/cm2 : Dial gauge reading (y mm)
Load on hanger W (kg)
LOAD-DEFLECTION Graph: Plot a graph between load and deflection and measure the slope of load deflection curve. Calculate k / E value from geometry. Is the E value in agreement with the accepted value? Yes / No What is the error in the obtained value? 30
Can more accuracy be expected in the Value E? Examine the Uncertainties in the measurements so obtained. Give your analysis? w Value of E for given specimen = k . y
CONCLUSION:
31
SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENT NO. 3 MEASUREMENT OF STIFFNESS FOR HELICAL SPRING

OBJECTIVE: To find the characteristic load behavior of a helical spring or a given machine element and to determine the stiffness of the spring from load versus deflection curve.
OBSERVATIONS:
Total no. of coils: N Mean radius of coil, D: Diameter of the wire, d: The axial movement or deflection of the free end of spring is = 8 (W D3 N)/ Gd4 ; Spring stiffness = k = (Gd4/ 8 D3 N) [ can be best detaermined by slope of W- curve] Where G is Rigidity modulus of given material of spring Obs. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Draw the Load Extension (or Compression) diagram. Determine the slope of the W- curve obtained. Load applied to specimen (kg) Deflection of the free end Scale reading () Deflection of the free end using theoretical analysis mm mm
32
LOAD-DEFLECTION GRAPH & RESULT: Value of Stiffness k for Mild steel spring is: Stiffness from graph: N/mm (as calculated) N/mm
CONCLUSION:
33
SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENT NO 4
MEASUREMENT OF HARDNESS OF THE GIVEN SAMPLES AND TO CORRELATE THEM WITH THE ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH OF THE MATERIALS USING VICKERS HARDNESS TESTING MACHINE
OBJECTIVE: To measure the hardness of the given samples and to correlate them with the ultimate tensile strength of the materials using Vickers Hardness Testing Machine. OBSERVATIONS Materials given: Diagonal D1 and D2 of the impression : Load applied (P): SL No. Material Load on specimen (P) mm kg Diagonal D1 Diagonal D2 VHN
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TESTING
Scale Symbol A B C
Indentor Diamond cone Steel ball Diamond cone
Minor Load kg 10 10 10
Major Load kg 50 90 140
34
OBSERVATIONS Materials given: Diameter or angle of indentor: Type of Indentor: Load applied (P): Reading of scale A or B or C: Rockwell Hardness: SL NO. Material Load on specimen (P) Type of Indentor Rockwell Hardness A or B or C kg mm
CONCLUSION:
35
SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENT NO. 5 ESTIMATION AND COMPARISON OF SHOCK RESISTANCE QUALITIES OF THE MATERIALS BY CONDUCTING IMPACT TEST.
OBJECTIVE: To study the gyroscopic effect using the gyroscope. OBSERVATION TABLE: Impact properties of test materials Material Property Charpy impact strength Izod impact strength
CONCLUSIONS:
36
SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENT NO. 6 STUDY OF GYROSCOPES

OBJECTIVE: To study the gyroscopic effect using the gyroscope. CALCULATIONS: Gyroscopic torque: T = I * * p where, I = Moment of Inertia of the rotor disc I = (MR2/2)-(M R2 /2) central hole - 4*{( MR2/2)+( M* d2)} outer hole = 0.0058 kg/m2 = angular velocity of the rotor disc = (2N/60) rad/s p = angular velocity of precession p = (d/dt) rad/s READINGS:
Final speed (rpm) Mean speed (rpm) Time (s) Angle (degree) Angular velocity of disc (rad/s) Angular velocity of precession (rad/s) Moment of inertia (kg-m^2) Experimental gyroscopic torque (kg-m) Force applied (kg) Perpendicular distance (m) Theoretical torque (kg-m)
N2
dt
T exp
T th
0.0058 0.0058
CONCLUSIONS:
37
SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENT NO. 7 STUDY OF DYNAMIC BALANCING MACHINE

OBJECTIVES: 1. To study the Dynamic Balancing Machine. 2. Balancing the rotating mass using Dynamic Balancing Machine. 3. To gain insight into the causes of undesirable vibration of rotors and to understand static and dynamic unbalance conditions of rotors. READINGS:
DISTANCE IN mm
INITIAL READING
CORRECTION Mass added gm
FINAL READING
MASS gm
@ANGLE in degree
@ANGLE in degree
MASS gm
@ANGLE in degree
CONCLUSIONS
MARKS OBTAINED_____________ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE_________________ 38
Part II Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics
39
INDEX
Experiment No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Name of Experiments Verification of Bernoullis theorem. Study of flow measurement Study of temperature measuring devices Study of pressure measurement Study of Reynolds apparatus. Study of viscometers Study of Pressure Losses in Pipe and Pipe Fittings Study of Impact of jets and Free and Forced Vortices Page No. 41 47 59 64 69 73 79 82
40
EXPERIMENT NO. 1 VERIFICATION OF BERNOULLIS THEOREM

OBJECTIVES The goal of this experiment is to understand and experimentally verify Bernoullis equation for incompressible fluid flow The objectives of this experiment are: 1. 2. 3. 4. To record the pressure head, flow rate and pressure differential To calculate velocity (from measured flow rate) and pressure To analyze the relationship between pressure and velocity To plot the total energy line versus distance
APPARATUS The experimental set-up for verifying Bernoullis theorem is self-contained recirculating unit. The set-up accompanies the sump tank, constant head tank, centrifugal pump for water lifting, measuring tank etc. A control valve and by-pass valve is provided to regulate the flow of water in constant head tank. A conduit, made of Perspex, of varying cross section provided, which is having converging and diverging section. Piezometer tubes are fitted on this test section at regular intervals. The inlet of the conduit is connected to constant head tank. At the outlet of conduit, a valve is provided to regulate the flow of water through the test section. After achieving steady state, discharge through test section can be measured with the help of measuring tank and stopwatch. UTILITIES REQUIRED 1. Water supply 2. Electrical supply: single phase, 220 Volts, 50 Hz, 5 Amp with earth connection. THEORY The Bernoullis theorem states that when there is a continuous connection between particles of flowing mass of fluid, the total energy at any section of flow will remain the same provided there
41
is no reduction or addition of energy at any point. Thus for a steady, inviscid, incompressible flow, the same can be expressed in mathematical form as follows:
P+
where P = pressure of fluid, Pa u = velocity of fluid, m/s = density of fluid, kg/ m3 = specific weight (N/m3) Z = elevation (m)
1 2 u + z = constant along a streamline 2
(1)
Basic assumptions used in the derivation are: 1. 2. 3. 4. Viscous effects are assumed negligible The flow is assumed to be steady The flow is assumed to be incompressible The equation is appropriate only along a streamline
An alternative but equivalent form of the Bernoulli equation is obtained by dividing each term by the specific weight, = g to obtain
1 u2 + z = constant along streamline 2 g
(2)
Each of the terms in this equation has the units of energy per weight or length (m) and represents a certain type of head. The elevation term z is called elevation head P The pressure term, , is called the pressure head and represents height of a column of
the fluid that is needed to produce the pressure P. u2 The velocity term, , is the velocity head and represents vertical distance needed for a 2g fluid to fall freely if it is to reach velocity u from rest.
The Bernoullis equation thus states that the sum of the pressure head, the velocity head, and the elevation head is constant along a streamline. Thus if 2 points along a streamline is considered then the Bernoullis equation can be written as follows:
42
E=
P1
2 1u1 P 1 u2 + z1 = 2 + + z2 2 2 2 g
(3)
where E = total energy per unit weight or total head available at any point along a streamline P1 = pressure of fluid at point 1 on the stream line under consideration P2 = pressure of fluid at point 2 on the streamline under consideration u1 = velocity of fluid at point 1 on the stream line under consideration u2 = velocity of fluid at point 2 on the stream line under consideration = density of fluid g = acceleration due to gravity
P1
= pressure energy per unit weight of fluid or pressure head at point 1 on the stream line under
consideration P2 = pressure energy per unit weight of fluid or pressure head at point 2 on the stream line under
consideration u12 = kinetic energy per unit weight or kinetic head at point 1 on the stream line under 2g consideration 2 u2 = kinetic energy per unit weight or kinetic head at point 2 on the stream line under 2g consideration Z1 = Potential energy per unit weight or potential head at point 1 on the stream line under consideration Z2 = Potential energy per unit weight or potential head at point 2 on the stream line under consideration
43
SKETCH OF APPARATUS
PROCEDURE 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Close the drain valves provided. Fill the sump tank with clean water. Close the valve given at the end of test section. Open by-pass valve given on the water supply line to overhead tank. Ensure that all ON/OFF switches given on the panel are at OFF position. Now switch on the main power supply (220 V AC, 50 Hz). Switch on the pump ensuring supply of water back to the sump tank through the already open by-pass valve 8. Slowly open the valve connecting the sump and over head tank closing the by-pass valve at the same time. These ensure that water is directed to the overhead tank for filling. 9. Once the overhead tank is filled to the desired level, regulate flow of water through main test section with the help of given gate valve at the end of the test section. The water in this case flows back into the sump tank 10. Measure flowrate using measuring tank and stopwatch. When measuring flowrate, ensure that the water is directed to the measuring tank before measurement. 11. Repeat the experiment for different flow rates. Closing Procedure 1. When experiment is over, switch off pump. 2. Switch off power supply to panel. PRECAUTIONS 1. Ensure that the sump tank is filled with water before start-up. 2. Keep periodic watch on the pump ensuring it runs smooth without getting hot. 3. Do not run the pump at low voltages. (Less than 180 V). 44
4. Never at any time fully close the Delivery line and By-pass line Valve simultaneously. OBSERVATIONS Known data Cross sectional areas at peizometric points Peizometric point 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Peizometric point 6. 7. 8. 9. Distance from Reference point. in m 0.03 0.07 0.11 0.15 0.19 Distance from Reference point. in m 0.23 0.27 0.31 0.35 Cross- sectional area at test points in m2 6.1707 x 10-4 5.0074 x 10-4 4.1620 x 10-4 3.3329 x 10-4 2.7172 x 10-4 Cross- sectional area at test points in m2 3.3006 x 10-4 4.2273 x 10-4 5.1794 x 10-4 6.4063 x 10-4
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2; A = area of measuring tank = 0.1 m2 Data Acquisition Height of water Time of collected collection in in measuring seconds tank in cm Peizometric column height.
Run. No.
45
CALCULATIONS Run No. = Discharge or volumetric flowrate (Q) in m3/s =
height of water collectedin measuring tank (m) c/s area of measuring tank (m 2 ) time of collection(s)
Velocity of flow (u) in m/s = volumetric flowrate / cross sectional area at test point DATA REDUCTION Tube no. V (m/s) P / g = h
(m)
u2/2g (m) Z (m) E
EXPECTED RESULTS 1. Do calculations and tabulate results as shown above for different runs, i.e. different flowrates. 2. Plot a graph and observe the variation of total energy (y axis) across the peizometric points, i.e. Plot the energy grade line with peizometric distance for each run. 3. Interpret the result obtained and present conclusions for the same. 4. Understand and explain the significance of the hydraulic grade line.
REFERENCES 1. McCabe, W. L.; Smith, J. C. and Harriott, P. Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering 2. Fox and Mcdonald, Introduction to fluid mechanics
46
EXPERIMENT No. 2 STUDY OF FLOW MEASUREMENT

NAME_______________________ SEC.NO. ____________________ DATE _______________________ ID NO _____________________ BATCH NO_____________________ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE_____
OBJECTIVES The goal of this experiment is to measure flow of fluid using different measuring devices. The objectives of these experiments are 1) To measure water flow using different apparatus like venturimeter, orificemeter, rotameter, and water meter 2) To calculate point velocity in a fluid using pitot tube 3) To calculate the calculate coefficient of discharge of venturimeter and orificemeter 4) To calculate accuracy of rotameter and water meter APPARATUS The experimental setup consists of flow measuring devices like venturimeter, orificemeter, pitot tube, rotameter, and water meter as shown in the figure below:
47
The setup consists of the above mentioned devices, a supply tank for storing and supplying water, a pump for closed loop circulation of water, acrylic tank with graduations for measuring discharge of water and differential pressure measuring tubes fixed on a stand alone structure. UTILITIES a. Water supply b. Electric power supply 230V, 50Hz, 5 Amps single phase supply GENERAL START-UP PROCEDURE 1) Remove the supply tank and fill it with distilled water. Place the supply tank at its location. Ensure that the measuring tank drainpipe is inside the supply tank. 2) Ensure that the vent valve on the rubber bulb is fully closed. Keep the flow regulating valve (V1) 50% and valve (V2) 100% open and switch on the pump. 3) Check the working of rotameter by manipulating flow-regulating valve (V1). 4) Set the flow rate to 60 lph. Press rubber bulb 2-3 times to lower down the water levels in the manometer tubes. Gently tap the manometer tubes to remove air entrapped. 5) Loosen the vent valve on the rubber bulb slightly. The water will rise in manometer tubes. Set the water level at mid scale of the manometer. Ensure that all air bubbles are removed by varying the flow rate from minimum to maximum range. (The average level in the manometer can be raised by slightly venting out the air from vent valve of the air bulb or it can be lowered by pumping air by rubber bulb). THEORY AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE FOR VENTURIMETER, ORIFICEMETER, PITOTTUBE, ROTAMETER AND WATERMETER a) Venturimeter Theory The venturi is particularly adapted to installation in pipelines not having long, unobstructed runs. The flow of fluid through the venturi tube establishes the pressure differential, which can then be measured and related to the flow rate. Because of the gradual reduction in the area of flow there is no vena contracta and the flow area is a minimum at the throat so that the coefficient of contraction is unity. The meter is equally suitable for compressible and incompressible fluids. Following figure shows general construction details.
48
Experimental Procedure 1) Start the set up as explained under general start-up procedure section. 2) Adjust rotameter flow rates in steps of 50 lph from 60 to 600 lph and wait for few minutes till the steady state is reached. 3) Note the pressure difference across the venturi meter. 4) Close the outlet valve at the measuring tank. 5) Measure the time required for collecting 1.5 lit of water in measuring tank by stopwatch. 6) Drain the measuring tank by opening the drain valve (immediately). b) Orificemeter Theory The orifice meter consists of a thin circular metal plate with circular sharp edge hole in it. The concentric orifice is by far the most widely used. As the fluid passes through the orifice, it contracts in area. The minimum flow area is called vena contracta. Different types of taps are used for orifice mete. The flow of fluid through the orifice meter establishes the pressure differential across the orifice plate, which can then be measured and related to the flow rate.
Experimental Procedure 1) Start the set up as explained under general start-up procedure section. 2) Adjust rotameter flow rates in steps of 50 lph from 60 to 600 lph and wait for few minutes till the steady state is reached. 3) Note the pressure difference across the orifice meter. 4) Close the outlet valve at the measuring tank. 5) Measure the time required for collecting 1.5 lit of water in measuring tank by stopwatch. 6) Drain the measuring tank by opening the drain valve (immediately).
c) Pitot tube
Theory The Pitot tube is primarily a device for measuring fluid velocity. It is combination of a total head tube and a static tube. It consists simply of a tube supported in the pipe with the impact opening 49
arranged to point directly towards the incoming fluid. This is called the impact opening and is used to measure the stagnation pressure. The static pressure is measured through the ordinary pressure tap. The difference between impact pressure and static pressure represents velocity head.
Experimental Procedure 1) Start the set up as explained under general start-up procedure section. 2) Adjust rotameter flow rates in steps of 50 lph from 60 to 600 lph and wait for few minutes till the steady state is reached. 3) Note the pressure difference between impact pressure and static pressure. 4) Close the outlet valve at the measuring tank. 5) Measure the time required for collecting 1.5 lit of water in measuring tank by stopwatch. 6) Drain the measuring tank by opening the drain valve (immediately). d) Rotameter Theory Rotameter is a variable area meter. In the variable area meter, the drop in pressure is constant and the flow rate is a function of the area of the constriction. A rotameter consists of a tapered tube with the smallest diameter at the bottom. The tube contains a freely moving float, which rests on a stop at the base of the tube. When the fluid is flowing, the float rises until its weight is balanced by the up thrust of the fluid, its position then indicating the rate of flow. The area for flow is the annulus formed between the float and the wall of the tube. (The figure below shows schematic details of rotameter tube and float. Use top edge of the float to note rotameter reading)
50
Experimental Procedure 1) Start the set up as explained under starting of equipment sub heading. 2) Adjust rotameter flow rates in steps of 50 Lph from 60 to 600 Lph and wait for few minutes till the steady state is reached. 3) Close the outlet valve at the measuring tank. 4) Measure the time required for collecting 1.5 liters of water in measuring tank by stop watch. 5) Drain the measuring tank by opening drain valve (immediately). e) Water meter Theory Water meters are used for measuring cumulative water flow. The meter contains a rotating vanes housed in side a cylindrical body. The flow of water through the meter results in the positive displacement of vanes. The water enters in to slotted casing forcing the vanes to rotate about vertical axis. The cumulative flow of water is obtained by gearing rotational motion of the vanes to a counter. (The figure below shows internal construction of water meter. Black digits show cumulative flow in Kiloliters. Next two digits in red color show reading in further decimals of kiloliters. The small round dial in red shows reading in liter. The wiper blades can be used for cleaning the cover window from inside.)
51
Experimental Procedure 1) Ensure clean water in supply tank and switch on the pump. 2) Ensure that the outlet valve at the measuring tank is open. 3) Adjust Rotameter flow rate to say 300 lph and wait for few minutes till the steady state is reached. 4) Note reading of water meter and start the stop watch. 5) Note the water meter reading after some time interval say 15 minutes.
OBSERVATIONS a) Venturimeter Known data Inlet pipe diameter (D) Throat diameter (d) Acceleration due to gravity Quantity of water measured (Q) Density of water () Viscosity of water () = 0.0185 m = 0.010 m = 9.81 m/s2 = 1.5x 10-3 m-3 = 998 kg/m3 = 1.00x10-3 kg/m.s
52
Data acquisition Time (t) required for 1.5 litres Pressure difference across venturi in (m)
S.No
Rotameter reading (lph) 60 100 150 200 250
1 2 3 4 5 b) Orificemeter Known data Inlet pipe diameter (D) Orifice diameter (d) Acceleration due to gravity Quantity of water measured (Q) Density of water () Viscosity of water () Data acquisition
= 0.0185 m = 0.0122 m = 9.81 m/s2 = 1.5x 10-3 m-3 = 998 kg/m3 = 1.00x10-3 kg/m.s
S. No
Rotameter reading (Lph) 60 100 150 200 250
Time required for 1.5 lit. (sec) t
Pressure difference across orifice (m)
1 2 3 4 5 c) Pitot tube Known data Inlet pipe diameter (D) Acceleration due to gravity Quantity of water measured (Q) Density of water () Viscosity of water ()
= 0.0185 m = 9.81 m/s2 = 1.5x 10-3m-3 = 998 kg/m3 = 1.00x10-3 kg/m.s 53
Data acquisition Time required for 1.5 litres (sec) Pressure difference across pitot tube (m)
S.no
1 2 3 4 5
d) Rotameter Data acquisition S.no 1 2 3 4 e) Watermeter Data acquisition Rotameter reading in lph 60 100 150 200 250 Initial Watermeter reading in liters Final Watermeter reading liters Rotameter reading in lph 60 100 150 200 Time required for 1.5 liters. in sec
S.no 1 2 3 4 5
CALCULATIONS a) Venturimeter Inlet area of the venturimeter (a1) =
xD 2 m2 xd 2 m2
Throat area of the venturimeter (a2) = 54
Venturimeter constant (K) =
a1xa2 a12 a22
2g
Actual discharge (Qa) =
V 3 m /s t
Theoretical discharge (QT)= K H m3/s Coefficient of discharge (Cd) = Velocity of pipe (u)= Qa/a1 Reynolds number = Re = Data reduction Rotameter reading (Lph) 60 100 150 200 250 Time required for 1.5 lit. (sec) t Pressure Actual Theoritical diff.across Coeff.of Reynolds discharge discharge discharge number Venturi (Lph) (Lph) (m) H
Du Du =
Qa Actual discharge = QT Theoritical discharge
S.no 1 2 3 4 5
Required results 1. Determine Coefficient of discharge of Venturimeter. 2. Draw Graph for coefficient of discharge versus Reynolds number. 3. Draw Graph for actual discharge versus theoretical discharge. b) Orifice meter Inlet area of the orifice meter (a1) = Area of the orifice (a2) =
xD 2 m2
xd 2 m2 4 V Actual discharge (Qa)= m3/s t a2 Theoretical discharge (QT)= 2 2 a1 a2
2 xgxH m3/s
55
Coefficient of discharge (Cd)= Velocity of pipe (u)= Qa/a1 Reynolds No.= Re = Data reduction Rotameter reading (lph) 60 100 150 200 250
Qa QT
Du Du =
S.no 1 2 3 4 5
Time required for 1.5 liters (sec)
Pressure Actual Theoritical diff.across Coeff.of Reynolds discharge discharge Venturi discharge number (lph) (lph) (m) H
Required results 1. Determine Coefficient of discharge of Orificemeter. 2. Draw Graph for coefficient of discharge versus Reynolds number. 3. Draw Graph for actual discharge versus theoretical discharge. c) Pitot tube Inlet area of the Pitot tube (a1) =
xD 2 m2
V Actual discharge (Qa)= m3/s t

Theoretical fluid velocity (V)=
2xgxH m/s
Theoretical discharge (QT)= A x Vm3/s Coefficient of discharge (Cd)= Velocity of pipe (u)= Qa/A Du Reynolds No.= Re =
Qa QT
56
Data reduction Time required for 1.5 liters (sec) Pressure Actual Theoritical diff.across Coeff.of Reynolds discharge discharge Venturi discharge number (lph) (lph) (m) H
Sr.No
1 2 3 4 5
Required results 1. 2. 3. Determine Coefficient of discharge of Pitot tube. Draw Graph for coefficient of discharge versus Reynolds number. Draw Graph for actual discharge versus theoretical discharge.
d) Rotameter Actual discharge =
1.5x3600 Time required for1.5 liter water
Error = Rotameter reading- actual discharge Accuracy=
Error x100 Full flow of Rotameter
Data reduction Rotameter reading (Lph) 60 100 150 200 Time required for 1.5 lit. (sec) t Actual discharge (Lph) Error (Lph) Accuracy %
S.no
1 2 3 4
Required results
1) Determine Accuracy of Rotameter in %. 2) Draw Graph for actual discharge versus rotameter reading. 3) Draw Graph for accuracy versus rotameter reading.
57
e) Watermeter Water quantity by water meter= Final water meter reading Initial water meter reading Error= Water quantity by water meter-Water quantity by Rotameter Accuracy =
Error x 100 Indicated water quantity
Data reduction
Water quantity by Rotameter (Liters) F*t/60
S. no
Rotamet er reading (lph) F
Initial Watermet er reading Liters, A
Final Watermeter reading Liters, B
Water quantity by Watermeter, lit (B-A)
Error (Liters)
Accuracy %
1 2 3 4 5
60 100 150 200 250
Required results
1. Determine accuracy of Watermeter in %. 2. Draw Graph for actual discharge versus watermeter reading
LEARN MORE:
1. Other flow measuring devices. 2. Why rotameter tube is tapered? 3. Why vena contracta forms at distance after crossing orifice? 4. Which is the best flow-measuring device out of five available in the lab? 5. Different applications of flow measuring devices.
REFERENCES
McCabe, W. L., Smith, J. C. and Harriott, P. Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering
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EXPERIMENT No. 3 STUDY OF TEMPERATURE MEASURING DEVICES

OBJECTIVES The goal of this experiment is to study various temperature measuring devices, their characteristics and time constants. Different temperature measuring devices are: A) Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) B) Thermistor C) Thermocouple D) Liquid filled thermometer E) Bimetallic Thermometer APPARATUS The temperature-measuring set-up consists of temperature sensors such as mercury in glass thermometer, bimetallic dial Thermometer, RTD, thermistor and thermocouple. It has a hot water bath, ice bath, multimeter and 4.1/2 digit milivoltmeter and a temperature indicator. It also has bare elements of RTD, thermistor, and thermocouple to visualize actual elements. Using the Multimeter it is possible to check the output of RTD, thermistor and thermocouple. The RTD type temperature sensor shows resistance in , the Thermistor type sensor shows resistance in K and thermocouple type sensor gives out put in milivolts.
UTILITIES 1. Electric supply: single phase, 220V AC THEORY Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) A resistance temperature detector (RTD) is a transducer. The metallic resistance of RTD increases with the temperature. This increase is nearly linear. Metals used in these devices vary from platinum, which is very repeatable, quite sensitive and very expensive, to nickel, which is not quite as repeatable, more sensitive and less expensive. An RTD is simply a length of wire whose resistance is to be monitored as a function of temperature. The construction is in general such that the wire is wound in form of a coil to achieve small size and improve thermal 59
conductivity to decrease response time. In many cases, the coil is protected from the environment by a sheath or protecting tube that certainly increases response time but may be necessary in hostile environments. Thermistors Thermistors are semiconductors made from carbon, germanium, silicon and mixtures of certain metallic oxides that show high temperature coefficients. The resistance temperature relationship of a thermistor is negative and highly nonlinear. Thermistors are usually designated in accordance with their resistance at 25C. The commonly used ratings are from 1 Kohms to 470 Kohms. Thermocouples A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar metals, joined together at one end, which produce a small unique voltage at a given temperature. This voltage is measured and interprets for temperature measurement. Thermocouple gives an economic means of measuring temperature. It is capable of measuring over wide temperature ranges. Thermocouples are easy to install and are available in many forms, from probes to bare wires or foil. The thermocouple is essentially a differential rather than an absolute temperature measuring device, one junction must be at a known temperature to find the temperature of the other junction. Liquid Filled Thermometers Liquid filled thermometers operate on the principle of liquid expansion with increase of temperature. The glass thermometer was the first closed thermal expansion system. Liquid filled thermometers are intermediate in cost and performance between the simplest measuring devices like bimetallic thermometers and the more complex electrical measuring elements. Mercury or some other liquid (alcohol, pentane) fills the glass bulb and extends in to the capillary bore of the stem. Bimetallic Temperature Sensors Bimetallic devices take advantage of the difference in rate of thermal expansion between different metals. Strips of two metals are bonded together. When heated, one side will expand more than the other, and the resulting bending is translated into a temperature reading by mechanical linkage to a pointer. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Use of Multimeter and milli-voltmeter 1. For measuring the response of RTD and Thermistor, take the out put to multimeter and adjust the multimeter for reading the resistance 2. For reading the response of the thermocouple, the milivoltmeter provided can be connected to the thermocouple output in addition to using the multimeter.. 60
For finding out the time constant of the temperature measuring device (as per instructor) 1. Heat the water in electric kettle, to some fixed temperature (say 90 oC) and maintain the temperature constant. 2. Adjust the timing of the beep near to a pre-decided value. 3. Dip the particular temperature sensor in the electric kettle and note the response of the sensor at each beep. 4. Plot the time vs response curve for each temperature sensor. 5. Find out the time constant, i.e. the time taken for the sensors to reach 63.2 % of the total change indicated. 6. Classify the sensors in terms of the responsiveness based on the results of the experiment For plotting the characteristics of different sensors and calibration 1. Take some crushed ice in the thermos and dip the resistance sensor to be studied along with a thermometer. 2. Allow time for steady state to reach and then note down the temperature of the bath and the reading shown by a particular temperature sensor in appropriate units. 3. Remove some ice and add some water and thus slightly increase in the temperature of the water. Note corresponding sensor reading. 4. Repeat step 3 till room temperature is reached noting sensor reading (for each temperature rise). 5. Now shift the sensor probe and the thermometer to the electric kettle. Switch on the heater. 6. Increase the temperature in steps and allow steady state to reach at each step before recording the reading of the particular sensor. 7. Plot the temperature vs resistance curve for the sensor. 8. For thermocouple, keep one probe always dipped in ice bath and follow same steps from 1-6 mentioned above and plot temperature vs milivolts curve. 9. Now these curves can give the value of temperature for a particular value of resistance or voltage and gives us a calibration of a particular temperature sensor. PRECAUTIONS 1. Take care while handling hot water so that it does not spill on you 2. Thermometers should be handled with care to avoid any kind of breakage 3. Never switch on the heater when no water is there in the electric kettle.
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OBSERVATIONS
Time Response of various Temperature Sensors
Beep interval in seconds (T):

Observed Temp. (Bimetallic thermometer reading) C Observed Resistance (RTD reading) Observed Voltage (Thermocouple reading) milivolts
Reading No.(beep)
Time in seconds
Observed Temp. (Thermometer reading) C
Observed Resistance (Thermistor reading) k
0 (Initial) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Up to Steady State
Observation table of RTD
Approx. temperature at readings to be taken. C 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Thermometer reading C
Resistance of RTD
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Observation table of Thermistor
Resistance of Thermistor k
Observation table of Thermocouple
Approx. temperature at readings to be taken. C 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 EXPECTED RESULTS
Output of Thermocouple (milivolts)
1. Determine the time constant for various temperature-measuring instruments studied. 2. Understand the variation of resistance with temperature for RTD and thermistor. 3. Plot necessary graphs as instructed. TO LEARN MORE 1. Find out the various applications for each of the temperature sensors 2. Identify various sources of errors in measurement of temperature and also find out possible remedies for the same. REFERENCES 1. McCabe, W. L.; Smith, J. C. and Harriott, P. Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering
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EXPERIMENT NO. 4 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

NAME_______________________ SEC.NO. ____________________ DATE _______________________ ID NO _____________________ BATCH NO_____________________ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE_____
OBJECTIVES The goal of this experiment is to understand the concept of pressure and the various instruments used for measuring the same. The objectives of this experiment are: 1. To understand pressure, atmospheric pressure, barometric pressure, standard pressure and vacuum 2. To understand the difference between absolute and gauge pressures 3. To study the working principle of various pressure measuring devices like Bourdon gauge, diaphragm gauge, U-tube and inclined manometers, etc. 4. To convert gauge pressure into absolute pressure 5. To calculate pressure from the density and height of a column of fluid 6. To understand the concept of pressure gauge calibration APPARATUS Pressure test bench consisting of different pressure measuring devices (for measuring pressure above and below atmospheric pressure) UTILITIES 1. Air compressor with appropriate 3 phase electric supply for the same 2. Oil for hydraulic comparator 3. Vacuum pump with appropriate single phase supply THEORY Pressure is defined as the normal force per unit area. The SI unit of pressure is Pa or N/m2. The pressure at the bottom of a static (non-moving column of fluid is given by
P=
F = gh + Po A
64
where P = the pressure at the bottom of the column of fluid F = force A = area = fluid density g = acceleration due to gravity h = height of fluid column Po = pressure at the top of the column of fluid Pressure like temperature can be expressed by either absolute or relative scales. Whether relative or absolute pressure is measured in a pressure-measuring device depends on the nature of the instrument used to make the measurements. Gauge pressure is pressure measured relative to atmospheric pressure while absolute pressure is pressure measured relative to absolute zero or complete vacuum. The pressure of air that surrounds us all the time is referred to as atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric pressure is measured using a barometer and is also referred to as barometric pressure. The atmospheric pressure must never be confused with standard atmospheric pressure. The standard atmosphere is defined as the pressure in a standard gravitational field (g = 9.80665 m/s2) and is equivalent to 1 atmosphere or 760 mm of mercury or other equivalent value, whereas atmospheric pressure must be obtained from a barometer each time it is needed. The value of standard atmospheric pressure in SI units is 101325 Pa (1 Pa = 1 N/m2). Pressures are measured using pressure-measuring devices like manometers, pressure gauges, pressure transducers etc. These devices can be used to measure pressures above and below atmospheric, the latter referred to as negative pressure or vacuum. The values of gauge pressures obtained from pressure measuring devices can be converted into absolute pressure using the relation Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure (for pressures above atmospheric) Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure - gauge pressure (for pressures below atmospheric) Several instruments are available for measuring pressure. In the case of a U-tube manometer, a state of hydrostatic balance is reached wherein the manometric fluid is stabilized and the pressure exerted at the bottom of the U-tube in the part of the tube open to the atmosphere or vacuum exactly balances the pressure at the bottom of the U-tube in the part of tube connected to the system whose pressure is to be measured. Another type of common measuring device is the visual Bourdon gauge which normally (but not always) reads zero pressure when open to the atmosphere. The pressure-sensing device in the Bourdon gauge is a thin metal tube with an elliptical cross section head at one end that has been bent into an arc. As the pressure increases at the open end of the tube, it tries to straighten out and the movement of the tube is converted into a dial movement by gears and levers. Similarly a diaphragm gauge is used for measuring pressure of corrosive fluids. 65
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Pressures above atmospheric: In this case emphasis is placed on understanding the working principle of various instruments for measuring pressures above atmospheric pressure using a pneumatic system. The pressure unit 2 (shown in figure below) has been provided with two numbers gauge connection station and one micro adjuster cylinder to raise or lower pressure as required while maintaining the same above atmospheric. The micro adjustor cylinder is capable of generating adequate pressure for pressure gauges, manometers (if needed without help of any external source)
Inclined Manometer
0
Fine Adjusting Screw Pressure Gauge Diaphragm Gauge Standard Gauge
Priming needle
U-Tube Manometer Pressure adjusting Lever To Compressor
Pressure unit 1 (Hydraulic) Pressure unit 2 (Pneumatic) Bourdon gauge 1. 2. Start the air compressor. Using the pressure regulator and valves (operate and release valves) provided for the pneumatic comparator, control flow of air to the Bourdon gauge and read different values of pressure from the gauge dial. Use the operate valve to allow air into the gauge (to increase pressure). The release valve can be used to lower pressure reading on the gauge. Use the micro adjustor if needed to get the exact reading on the gauge. Visually observe the working principle of the gauge.
3. 4.
U tube manometer 1. Isolate the compressor before connecting the manometer to the gauge connection provided for the same. To isolate the compressor, close all relevant valves which will stop flow of air 66
from the compressor to this section. In addition before connecting the manometer, ma ensure that the pressure levels at each gauge station is reduced to zero. 2. Manually using the micro adjustor vary pressure and for each value of pressure note the difference in level of mercury in the limbs of the manometer. Inclined manometer 1. Isolate the compressor before connecting the manometer to the gauge connection provided for the same. To isolate the compressor, close all relevant valves which will stop flow of air from the compressor to this section. In addition before connecting the manometer, ma ensure that the pressure levels at each gauge station is reduced to zero. 2. Carry out this test after disconnecting the U U-tube tube manometer from the comparator. 3. Connect the inclined tube manometer and as in the case of the U-tube U tube manometer, manually using ing the micro adjustor vary pressure and for each value of pressure note the height of fluid column in the manometer. Pressures below atmospheric atmospheric: The unit for vacuum measurement contains two gauge stations and one micro adjustor cylinder to alter the amount mount of vacuum generated. The two gauge stations are connected to a single limb and U-tube tube manometer respectively. Start vacuum pump and using the operating and release valves, adjust the vacuum at each gauge station to a desired value. Read the dial gaug gauge and respective manometers. Repeat the experiment by altering the vacuum level at the stations.
Pressure measurement using hydraulic comparator This system is provided to understand the concept of calibration and the function of a diaphragm gauge. 67
1.
2. 3. 4. 5.
Prime the system to ensure that no air is trapped within. Keeping the release valve open, rotate the screw handle clockwise and anticlockwise several times until air stops coming our from the oil cup. Lock the release valve at the end of the priming operation. To start the experiment rotate the screw slowly clockwise to generate the pressure required and subsequently calibrate the instrument gauge using the master gauge provided. Rotate the screw in anti-clockwise to release pressure. Ensure full pressure release using the release wall. Always keep the release valve closed to prevent repeated priming. CALCULATIONS The difference in mercury level in the U-tube manometer can be converted into pressure units using the relation
P = gh
In case of the inclined manometer, the pressure reading in Pa can be calculated using
P = gh sin
REQUIRED RESULTS 1) Measure the pressure difference using different instruments like Bourdan gauge, mercury manometer, diaphragm gauge, and inclined manometer. 2) Convert the measured pressure into SI units then to absolute pressure. 3) Calibrate diaphragm gauge mounted on the hydraulic unit using master gauge. TO LEARN MORE 1. Study construction of a Bourdan, diaphragm gauge. 2. Which is more sensitive Bourdan gauge or mercury manometer? 3. How you can measure absolute pressure directly? REFERENCE McCabe, W. L., Smith, J. C. and Harriott, P. Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering
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EXPERIMENT NO. 5 STUDY OF REYNOLDS APPARATUS

OBJECTIVES The goal of this experiment is to study the flow regime for fluid flow in a pipe. The objectives of this experiment are 1. To demonstrate the transition between laminar and turbulent flow 2. To calculate the Reynolds number and hence determine the type of flow 3. To determine the transition or critical Reynolds number and comparison of the same with accepted values APPARATUS The apparatus consists of a glass tube with one end having bell mouth entrance to a water tank. At the other end of the glass tube a cock is provided to vary the rate of flow. Flow rate of water can be measured with the help of measuring cylinder and stopwatch. A capillary tube is introduced centrally in the bell mouth. To this tube dye is fed from a small container, placed at the top of constant head tank, through polythene tubing. UTILITIES REQUIRED 1. 2. Water supply Electric supply for pump: 0.3 kW, 220 V AC, 50 Hz, 5 Amps, single phase supply
THEORY Osborne Reynolds (1842 - 1912), a British scientist and mathematician was the first to demonstrate possible flow regimes when a fluid flows through a pipe. These regimes are classified as laminar, transitional and turbulent. For a given pipe size and fluid, laminar flow exists at low velocity characterized by ordered sliding past of liquid layer over one another without lateral mixing while turbulent flow is observed at velocities in which the flow pattern is random and there is intense lateral mixing in the fluid. In between these two extremes, a transition flow regime is observed in which the flow alters between laminar and turbulent flows. Reynolds found that the nature of flow depends on the diameter of the pipe, viscosity, density 69
and average velocity of the fluid and these factors can be combined into one dimensionless group, called Reynolds number, the magnitude of which would indicate the flow regime. The Reynolds number, Re is defined as
Re =
Du Du =
(1)
where D = inner diameter of glass tube, m u = fluid velocity, m/s = fluid density, kg/ m3 = fluid viscosity, Ns/m2 = kinematic viscosity, m2/s Physically, Reynolds number can be interpreted as the ratio of the inertial force to viscous force acting on the fluid. The minimum Reynolds number at which laminar flow disappears is called the critical or transitional Reynolds number. This value depends on the geometry of the flow domain (circular or rectangular pipe, open or closed channel, flat plate etc) and flow configuration (flow around bluff body, in packed bed etc). EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 1. 2. 3. 4. Close the drain valves provided. Close flow control valve given at the end of test section i.e. glass tube. Fill storage tank with clean water and ensure to the maximum that the water is clean. Prepare a dye solution in clear water in a separate vessel. Close the control valve for dye, given on the polythene tubing. Put the dye solution in dye vessel after ensuring that there are no solid particles in solution. Regulate minimum flow of water through test section with the help of given gate valve at the end of test section. Then adjust the flow of dye through the capillary tube so that a fine streak of dye is observed indicating laminar flow. Measure the volumetric flow rate using measuring cylinder and stopwatch. Increase the flow through the glass tube marginally and observe the streak again. If it is still straight, the flow is still laminar. Measure volumetric flowrate again. Continue increasing the flow of water slowly in this manner simultaneously making volumetric flowrate measurements until some undulations commence in the dye streak. Note the corresponding volumetric flow rate, from which the critical Reynolds number may be calculated. Appearance of the undulations signifies the initiation of intermediate or transition flow. At this point the undulations will be unstable so that there will be some portion of the dye streak which will be undulating and some portion which will not. Keep increasing the flow rate slowly making volumetric flowrate measurements at each stage until at one point there is found a complete dispersion of the dye just as it comes out of the injection needle. This point shows the conversion to a fully turbulent regime. Note the corresponding volumetric flow rate. 70
5.
6. 7. 8.
9.
PRECAUTIONS 1. Conduct the experiment when water flowrate is steady 2. During flowrate measurement, take readings thrice and then compute average 3. Always keep apparatus free from dust and use clean water OBSERVATIONS Known data D = ID of glass tube = 25 mm = 0.025 m = kinematic viscosity of water at 0 oC = 1.788 x 10-6 m2/s = kinematic viscosity of water at 20 oC = 1.006 x 10-6 m2/s = kinematic viscosity of water at 40 oC = 0.657 x 10-6 m2/s = kinematic viscosity of water at 60 oC = 0.478 x 10-6 m2/s Data acquisition Volume ( V ) of water collected in ml Time ( t ) of collection in seconds
S.no
CALCULATIONS The volumetric flowrate can be evaluated using Q = V / t, where V is in m3 The fluid velocity in m/s in the pipe is computed using u= Q / A where Q = volumetric flowrate (m3/s) A = area of glass tube = D2 / 4 The Reynolds number can then be evaluated using Re =
Du Du =
71
DATA REDUCTION Volumetric flowrate ( Q ) in m3/s
S.no
Velocity ( u ) in m/s
Reynolds number (Re)
Nature of flow
REQUIRED RESULTS 1. Calculate the Reynolds number at the measured flowrates and find the value corresponding to the transition flow and turbulent flow. 2. Compare the critical Reynolds number and the Reynolds number for fully turbulent flow observed with those reported in literature. 3. Analyse and comment on the results obtained giving valid explanations wherever possible. REFERENCES 1. McCabe, W. L., Smith, J. C. and Harriott, P., Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering 2. Perry, R. H. and Green, D., Perrys Chemical Engineering Handbook 3. Munson, B. R., Young, D. F. and Okiishi, T. H., Fundamentals of fluid mechanics
72
EXPERIMENT NO. 6 STUDY OF VISCOMETERS

OBJECTIVES The goal of this experiment is to determine fluid viscosity of given sample using Ostwald viscometer, Saybolt viscometer and Redwood viscometer. The objectives of this experiment are: 1. To calculate absolute and kinematic viscosity of a given fluid sample using different types of viscometers 2. To understand the effect of temperature on viscosity measurement APPARATUS Viscometer bath with temperature controller, Ostwald viscometer, Say Bolt Viscometer and Redwood viscometer UTILITIES 1. Water for water bath 2. Different fluid samples 3. Electric supply: single phase THEORY The viscosity of a fluid may be thought of as a measure of willingness to flow. When two layers of fluids pass one another with certain relative velocity, both the layers experience a force, which tends to oppose their relative motions. The magnitude of this force is dependent on two factors, namely the area of the plane of contact between the layers and the velocity gradient normal to it. Mathematically the effect is expressed as
FA
du dx
(1)
73
where du = difference in velocity between fluid layers, (m/s) dx = difference in position, normal to flow, between two fluid layers (m) A = area of contact (m2) The introduction of constant of proportionality yields after subsequent rearrangement
F du = A dx
The proportionality constant is called absolute or dynamic viscosity of the fluid. Thus any fluid du element which when subject to a shear stress experiences a rate of deformation given by is dx known a Newtonian fluid. This law is referred to as Newtons law of viscosity. Fluids, which do not obey this law, are called non-Newtonian fluids. If one considers deformation of two different Newtonian fluid subject to the same shear stress (for example glycerin and water), one recognizes that it will deform at different rates and that glycerin exhibits a much larger resistance to deformation than water. We say glycerin is much more viscous than water. In the SI system the units of viscosity is kg / m.s or Pa.s (1 N.s /m2). Another well-known unit of viscosity (in the metric system) is called a Poise (1 Poise = 1 g / cm.s). The absolute viscosity divided by density at the same temperature of measurement is defined as kinematic viscosity. The units of kinematic viscosity is cm2/sec usual referred to as 1 Stoke. Viscosities are measured using viscometers. Viscometers measure viscosities at ambient and other different temperatures. They commonly come in the form of a calibrated capillary tube through which a liquid is allowed to pass at controlled temperature in a specified period of time. Some of the common viscometers used in engineering applications are Ostwald, Saybolt, Redwood and Brookefield viscometers. While the Ostwald viscometer measures absolute viscosity, the Saybolt and Redwood viscometers are useful in determining kinematic viscosity. Ostwald viscometer The Ostwald viscometer is a U-shaped instrument, with a wide arm that serves as a reservoir and a thin arm (with a capillary) that is calibrated with two lines on the tube. The essential principle of this measuring instrument is the timing t (seconds) of the passage through the capillary of a fixed volume of liquid under a fixed mean hydrostatic head of the liquid. Say Bolt viscometer: This viscometer is largely used to determine the Saybolt viscosity of petroleum products and lubricants. The Saybolt viscosity is measured in seconds and is the time in seconds required to fill a 60 ml flask with a liquid preheated to a standard temperature through an orifice of specified diameter. The Saybolt universal viscometer is mainly used only for oils with times of flow more than 32 seconds. 74
Redwood viscometer: The Redwood viscometer is based on the principle of laminar flow through a capillary tube of standard dimension under falling head. The viscometer consists of vertical concentric cylinders with an orifice at the centre of the base of the inner cylinder. The annular space between the cylinders is filled with water and provided with a water heater), which can maintain temperature of the liquid to be tested at required temperature. The Redwood viscosity is measured in seconds which is the time required in passing 50 cc of oil through an orifice of specified diameter. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Ostwald viscometer 1. Throughly clean the viscometer with acetone and dry it before mounting in the constant temperature bath. 2. Fill the bath with water upto a level that that the heater is completely immersed in it. 3. Connect the plug to the supply and switch on the mains on the control panel. The temperature indicator in addition to a set-point value will display the temperature of water in the bath. 4. Switch ON the stirrer motor uniform temperature of bath. 5. To start with measure the viscosity of water (which will be used as the standard fluid) at room temperature without switching on the heater. 6. To make this measurement, introduce water into the bulb of Ostwald viscometer, then sucked through other side of it until the meniscus is above the upper mark. 7. The liquid is then allowed to freely fall into the bulb and time interval which elapses between the two marks is measured. 8. Repeat the above procedure thrice and find the mean time taken and use this mean time for calculating the viscosity of water at room temperature. 9. Switch ON the heater and rise the bath temperature in a manner that the temperature of water in the viscometer is set to a pre-decided value. 10. At this value of temperature, note the time taken for water to flow between the two marks on one limb of the viscometer. 11. Repeat the experiment at different temperatures. Say Bolt viscometer 1. Clean the oil tube of the viscometer. 2. Ensure that the cork stopper is inserted not less than into the lower end of the air chamber at the bottom of the oil tube. 3. Pour the fluid to be tested, i.e. oil into the oil tube until it ceases to overflow into the gallery. Keep it well stirred. 4. Fill the water bath to a height roughly corresponding to that in the oil tube. 5. Switch on the heater to increase water temperature in the bath, thereby increasing the temperature of oil. Adjust the power input to the heater such the oil temperature is maintained at a pre-decided set value. 6. Place the receiving flask in position below the orifice at the bottom of the viscometer.
75
7. Snap the cork from its position and at the same instant start the stop watch. Stop the watch when the bottom of the meniscus of the liquid reaches the 60 ml mark of the receiving flask. 8. Repeat the above thrice and find the mean time taken and use this mean time for calculating the kinematic viscosity. 9. Insert the cork stopper back in position and clean the flask subsequently ensuring it is dry. 10. Switch ON the heater and rise the water bath temperature in a manner that the temperature of oil in the viscometer is set to a pre-decided value. 11. At this value of temperature, snap the cork stopper from its position and at the same instant start the stop watch. Stop the watch when the bottom of the meniscus of the liquid reaches the 60 ml mark of the receiving flask. 12. Repeat the experiment at different temperatures. Redwood viscometer 1. Fill the water bath to a height roughly corresponding to a point of the gauge in the oil cylinder. 2. Place the brass sphere in position to close the orifice at the bottom. 3. Fill the oil cylinder upto the index mark with oil. 4. Place the receiving flask in position below the orifice at the bottom of the viscometer. 5. Lift the ball valve and at the same instant start the stop watch. Stop the watch when the bottom of the meniscus of the liquid reaches the 60 ml mark of the receiving flask. 6. Close the orifice again and clean the receiving flask. 7. Switch ON the heater and rise the water bath temperature in a manner that the temperature of oil in the viscometer is set to a pre-decided value. 8. At this value of temperature, start the flow of oil through the bottom orifice by lifting the brass sphere and 9. Repeat the experiment at different temperatures. Precautions 1. Ensure extra care when handling the Ostwald viscometer 2. Ensure no spillage of oil occurs at the time of filling the Saybolt and Redwood viscometers 3. Ensure extra care when handling fluids at higher temperature. Observations: Data acquisition Ostwald viscometer Temperature ( ) in Celsius in oC Time (t) in seconds
S.No.
76
Say Bolt viscometer Temperature ( ) in Celsius in oC Time (t) in seconds (SUS)
S.No.
Redwood viscometer Temperature ( ) in Celsius in oC Time (t) in seconds
S.No.
CALCULATIONS Ostwald viscometer The absolute or dynamic viscosity of water at room temperature can be evaluated using
f = 0.00002414 10J
(2)
247.8 where J = T 140

The viscosity of water at higher temperatures can be evaluated using
t = s s t s
(3)
where s and s denote the viscosity and density of water at room temperature The density of water at room and higher temperatures respectively can be evaluated using
where v = 9.9917 104 + t (6.5 108 + 3.83333 109 t ) 77
Saybolt viscometer The kinematic viscosity in centistokes is evaluated using the formula v = 0.226 x SUS
195 (for SUS values between 32 and 100) SUS 135 (for SUS values greater than 100) SUS
(4)
v = 0.220 x SUS
(5)
SUS is referred to as Saybolt Universal seconds and is the time required to collect 60 ml of oil Redwood viscometer The kinematic viscosity in stokes is evaluated using the formula v = Ct -
B t
(6)
where B and C are equipment constants and t is the time in seconds to collect 50 cc of oil. The values of B and C are given below: Temperature 1 to 37C > 37C REQUIRED RESULTS 1. In case of Ostwald, Saybolt and Redwood viscometer, determine the viscosities of respective test fluids at room and higher temperatures. 2. Plot and explain the variation of viscosity with temperature for all three viscometers. 3. Explain the effect of temperature on viscosity had the fluid been a gas. LEARN MORE 1. What is the effect of pressure on viscosity? 2. In case of non-newtonian fluids, how is flow characterized? REFERENCES McCabe, W. L., Smith, J. C. and Harriott, P. Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering B 1.79 0.50 C 0.00260 0.00247
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EXPERIMENT NO. 7 PRESSURE LOSSES IN PIPE AND PIPE FITTINGS

NAME_______________________ SEC. NO. ____________________ DATE _______________________ OBJECTIVE To study the minor and major losses in pipe and determine the relationship between the loss of head, hf, and the velocity V in both the cases. ID NO _______________________________ BATCH NO___________________________ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE __________
THEORY When a fluid flows through a pipe, the fluid experiences some resistance due to which some of the energy of fluid is lost. Lose of head due to friction in a pipe is known as major loss and it is calculated by Dracy- Weisbach formula. The loss of energy due to change of velocity of the flowing fluid in magnitude and direction is called minor loss. The minor loss of energy includes head loss due to sudden contraction, enlargement, and an obstruction in a pipe; bend in a pipe or because of various pipe fittings. In case of long pipe the above losses are small as compare with the loss of head due to friction and hence they are called minor losses and even may be neglected without serious error. But in case of a short pipe, these losses are comparable with the loss of head due to friction.
DESCRIPTION This experiment consists of Hydraulic bench, Set of pipes for minor and major losses. There are three sets of pipes. First set consists of three pipes of different materials to calculate the major losses in pipes. Remaining two sets are exclusive for minor losses. Minor losses for sudden contraction, expansion, gate valve, ball valve and bends can be determined with these sets.
PROCEDURE 1. Place the equipment on the Work Area of the Hydraulic Bench
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2. Connect the flexible pipe to the test section chosen for experimentation. Other end of it is already connected to the outlet of the Pump. 3. Another flexible pipe is used to connect the outlet of the test section. The second end of the flexible pipe is put in the tray of the hydraulic bench. 4. Adjust the flow rate using combination of bypass and supply valve. Here measure only two parameters a. Pressure drop across test section in m of water column. b. Discharge/ flow rate in m3 /sec. 5. Measurement of Pressure Drop: a. Each section is provided with a water manometer. b. When using a manometer, remove air bubbles using the vent cocks provided and/ or by gently taping the manometer tubes c. Use the balloon provided for adjusting the water level in the manometer tube. d. Difference in both the limbs is measured with the scale provided. 6. To Measure Flow Rate/Discharge To measure flow rate, a timer is provided. Press RST on the digital timer before measure the flow rate. Timer should display steady 0 reading. While water is flowing, close the Return Valve. The measuring tank starts filling up. As the tank starts filling up, the digital timer starts time counting. When the measuring tank is filled up to a predefined level, the timer stops counting. A value of time is displayed on the digital timer display. This is time in second. Note this time. Then open he return valve. Caution: If the return valve will be opened before noting the reading and if the level in the measuring tank goes below a pre-defined level, the timer may restart and the previous reading may be lost. 7. Note the readings in the observation table. 8. Repeat the procedure above for 4-5 different discharge at various flow rates.
FORMULAE 1. Reynolds No. =
V d 104
80
Where,
Velocity, V =
Area (A) = d = =
Discharge, Q area
d2
4 Diameter of Pipe (m) Kinematics viscosity = 0.008 cm2/ sec.
hf d (Major Losses) V2 L 2g
2. Friction Factor f =
Where,
h f (m) = h 1 h 2
V g
= =
Velocity in m/s 9.81 m/ s2

hf V2 2g
3. Loss Coefficient kL =
(Minor Losses)
EXERCISES
1. Find the Reynolds no. 2. Calculate the friction factor 3. Write your comments
PRECAUTIONS & MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS

1. Never switch on mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF switches given on the panel are at OFF position. 2. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 volts and above than 240 volts. 3. Always ensure that bypass valve is fully opened before switching on the pump. 4. Partially close bypass valve gradually and gently after switch on the pump. 5. Dont play with the balloon or manometer limbs. 6. Always keep the apparatus free from duct.
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EXPERIMENT 8-A IMPACT OF JET

NAME_______________________ SEC. NO. ____________________ DATE _______________________ OBJECTIVE To compare the momentum in a fluid jet with the force generated when it strikes a fixed surface. ID NO _______________________________ BATCH NO___________________________ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE __________
THEORY The liquid comes out in the form of a jet from the outlet of a nozzle, which is fitted to a pipe through which the liquid is flowing under pressure. If some plate, which may be fixed or moving, is placed in the path of the jet, a force is exerted by the jet on the plate. This force is obtained from Newtons second law of motion or from impulse- momentum equation.
DESCRIPTION This experiment consists of Impact of Jet model, Hydraulic bench, Set of weights, Hemispherical and Flat plate. The impact of jet model is having a lever, which one end is pivoted and at other end plate is mounted. When jet is strikes to the plate the lever gets lifted. With the help of balancing weights it can be brought to horizontal position. Once lever comes to horizontal position, with the help of lever rule actual jet force can be calculated. With the help of momentum equation theoretical jet force can be calculated and values of both the forces can be compared.
PROCEDURE Procedure for changing the plates. 1. Remove the entire plate assembly by removing rod screw. 2. Unscrew the plate by turning it anticlockwise. 3. Screw the new plate at same location. 4. Fit the entire plate assembly by screwing the plate screw. 82
Procedure to conduct experiment 1. Place the equipment on hydraulic bench work area. 2. Connect the flexible pipe to the inlet of the apparatus. 3. Adjust the flow rate using by-pass valve and supply valve. 4. At a particular flow the plate with lever arrangement will be lifted up. 5. Keep known weights at a suitable distance on the top of the lever arrangement to make the lever perfectly horizontal. 6. Measure the flow rate as explained To measure flow rate, a timer is provided. Press RST on the digital timer before measure the flow rate. Timer should display steady 0 reading. While water is flowing, close the Return Valve. The measuring tank starts filling up. As the tank starts filling up, the digital timer starts time counting. When the measuring tank is filled up to a pre-defined level, the timer stops counting. A value of time is displayed on the digital timer display. This is time in second. Note this time. Then open he return valve. Caution: If the return valve will be opened before noting the reading and if the level in the
measuring tank goes below a pre-defined level, the timer may restart and the previous reading may be lost.
7. Take different sets of readings by varying the flow rate by using the valve provided at the outlet of the pump.
FORMULAE: 1. U = 2. Q =
Q An
Volume of water collected Time
3. V = U 2 (2 gh) 4. Fth = QV ------ For Flat Plate
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5. Fth = 2 QV ------ For Hemispherical Plate 6. Fexp. =
WB L1 + WA L L
NOMENCLATURE Q = An = U = V = h = = Fth = Fexp.= WA = WB = L = L1 = Discharge, m3/ sec. Area of nozzle, m2. Velocity at nozzle, m/ sec. Velocity at Vane, m/ sec. Distance between nozzle and plate, m. Density of water, kg/ m3. Theoretical Jet force exerted on the plate, N. Actual Jet force exerted on the plate, N. Weight of assembly i.e. weight of plate and rod, N. Balancing weight, N. Distance of plate from pivot, m. Distance of balancing weight from pivot, m
EXERCISES 1. Determine theoretical value of jet force by using momentum equation. 2. Calculate actual force exerted on the plate by Jet. 3. Write your comments on above results. PRECAUTIONS & MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS: 1. Never switch on mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF switches given on the panel are at OFF position. 2. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 volts and above than 240 volts. 3. Always ensure that bypass valve is fully opened before switching on the pump. 4. Partially close bypass valve gradually and gently after switch on the pump. 5. Always keep the apparatus free from dust.
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EXPERIMENT 8-B
FREE AND FORCED VORTICES
OBJECTIVE To Study Free and forced vortices.
THEORY Vortex flow is defined as the flow of a fluid along a curved path or the flow of a rotating mass of fluid is known a Vortex Flow. The vortex flow of two types: a. Forced Vortex Flow: It is defined as the type of vortex flow, in which some external torque is required to rotate the fluid mass. b. Free Vortex Flow: When no external torque is required to rotate the fluid mass, that type of flow is called free vortex flow.
DESCRIPTION The apparatus consists of a transparent cylindrical vessel mounted on a rigid M.S. Plate which can be horizontally rotated. The plate is rotated by a variable speed FHP gear motor which can be regulated by a dimmerstat. The Disc is rotated with a belt drive from Motor. A drain pipe with valve is fitted at the centre of the tank of the apparatus. For obtaining free vortex a fine mesh is provided after the inlet copper tubing in the set up. A horizontal and vertical traversing probe is provided to plot surface profile of water EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE A) Free Vortex 1. Place the equipment on the Work Area of the Hydraulic Bench 2. Place wire mesh cage provided along with the set-up in the transparent tank concentrically and copper tube provided 85
3. Connect the flexible pipe to the inlet of the equipment. 4. Adjust the flow rate using combination of bypass and supply valve. 5. In the annular space between the mesh and tank sides a continuous water in flow is maintained. 6. Allow water to flow out through the bottom drain valve. 7. Go on adjusting the bottom valve slowly and simultaneously adjust supply valve to get constant head in the tank and free vortex formed at the centre of the tank is seen stabilized. 8. Normally only upper surface profile of the free vortex is traceable. 9. Skillfully adjust the pointer scale in the vortex profile to get X -Y co-ordinates
at individual points and plot the profile on paper. 10. Vary the water flow rate and get various forms of free vortex profiles. (Note -The
maximum allowable flow rates are limited and beyond certain flow rates free vortex will not be possible to obtain ) 11. To achieve more clearly free vortex profile, allow the container to rotate at slow speeds by using motor and dimmerstat. 12. Measure the flow rate as explained To measure flow rate, a timer is provided. Press RST on the digital timer before measure the flow rate. Timer should display steady 0 reading. While water is flowing, close the Return Valve. The measuring tank starts filling up. As the tank starts filling up, the digital timer starts time counting. When the measuring tank is filled up to a pre-defined level, the timer stops counting. A value of time is displayed on the digital timer display. This is time in second. Note this time. Then open he return valve. Caution: If the return valve will be opened before noting the reading and if the level in the measuring tank goes below a pre-defined level, the timer may restart and the previous reading may be lost.
86
B) Forced Vortex 1. Fill water to a depth of 100 mm. Or more max. 200 mm in the Acrylic Tank and remove wire mesh and copper tube inside. 2. Ensure that the dimmerstat is connected to the motor. 3. Ensure that bottom drain valve of the Perspex tank is closed. 4. Connect 230 V AC supply. 5. Now start rotating the disc slowly by varying the dimmerstat position slowly. 6. You will observe that after some limiting speed vortex will start forming in the water. 7. Go on increasing acrylic cylinder. 8. Speed of the rotating disc can be measured by tachometer at the periphery and rpm can then be calculated. 9. Plot the vortex profiles at various speeds and study effect of speed on vortex profile. 10. Conduct the experiment at various water levels (Limit conditions is 120mm to 50 mm) and plot the vortex profiles. the speed and observe the forced vortex profile through
EXERCISES 1. Plot forced and free vortex profile. PRECAUTIONS & MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS 1. Connect the dimmerstat carefully to the motor. 2. Operate dimmerstat smoothly and gently. 3. Keep the mesh cage care fully & place the copper tube properly in glass tank 4. Never switch on mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF switches given on the panel are at OFF position. 5. Always ensure that bypass valve is fully opened before switching on the pump. 6. Partially close bypass valve gradually and gently after switch on the pump. 7. Always keep the apparatus free from dust.
87
Part II Summary Sheets
88
SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENT NO. 1 VERIFICATION OF BERNOULLIS THEOREM

OBJECTIVES: 5. 6. 7. 8. To record the pressure head, flowrate and pressure differential To calculate velocity (from measured flowrate) and pressure To analyze the relationship between pressure and velocity To plot the total energy line versus distance
OBSERVATIONS Known data Cross sectional areas at peizometric points Peizometric point 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Peizometric point 6. 7. 8. 9. Distance from Reference point. in m 0.03 0.07 0.11 0.15 0.19 Distance from Reference point. in m 0.23 0.27 0.31 0.35 Cross- sectional area at test points in m2 6.1707 x 10-4 5.0074 x 10-4 4.1620 x 10-4 3.3329 x 10-4 2.7172 x 10-4 Cross- sectional area at test points in m2 3.3006 x 10-4 4.2273 x 10-4 5.1794 x 10-4 6.4063 x 10-4
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2 A = area of measuring tank = 0.1 m2
89
Data Acquisition Height of water collected in measuring tank in cm Time of collection in seconds Peizometric column height. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Run. No.
CALCULATIONS Run No. = Discharge or volumetric flowrate (Q) in m3/s =
height of water collectedin measuring tank (m) c/s area of measuring tank (m 2 ) time of collection(s)
Velocity of flow (u) in m/s = volumetric flowrate / cross sectional area at test point DATA REDUCTION Tube no. V (m/s) P / g = h
(m)
u2/2g (m) Z (m) E Descries how far the objectives of the experiments have been fulfilled (add separate sheet, if required) Conclusion:
MARKS OBTAINED_____________ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE________________ 90
SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENT NO. 2 STUDY OF TEMPERATURE MEASURING DEVICES

OBJECTIVES: to study various temperature measuring devices, their characteristics and time constants. Different temperature measuring devices are: A) Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) B) Thermistor C) Thermocouple D) Liquid filled thermometer E) Bimetallic Thermometer OBSERVATIONS
Time Response of various Temperature Sensors
Beep interval in seconds (T):

Observed Temp. (Bimetallic thermometer reading) C Observed Resistance (RTD reading) Observed Voltage (Thermocouple reading) milivolts
Reading No.(beep)
Time in seconds
Observed Temp. (Thermometer reading) C
Observed Resistance (Thermistor reading) k
0 (Initial) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Up to Steady State
91
Observation table of RTD

Observation table of Thermistor
Resistance of RTD
Resistance of Thermistor k
92
Observation table of Thermocouple
Output of Thermocouple (milivolts)
Conclusion:
93
SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENT NO. 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT

OBJECTIVES: 5) To measure water flow using different apparatus like venturimeter, orificemeter, rotameter, and water meter 6) To calculate point velocity in a fluid using pitot tube 7) To calculate the calculate coefficient of discharge of venturimeter and orificemeter To calculate accuracy of rotameter and water meter OBSERVATIONS a) Venturimeter Known data Inlet pipe diameter (D) Throat diameter (d) Acceleration due to gravity Quantity of water measured (Q) Density of water () Viscosity of water () Data acquisition Time (t) required for 1.5 litres Pressure difference across venturi in (m) = 0.0185 m = 0.010 m = 9.81 m/s2 = 1.5x 10-3 m-3 = 998 kg/m3 = 1.00x10-3 kg/m.s
S.No
1 2 3 4 5
94
b) Orificemeter Known data Inlet pipe diameter (D) Orifice diameter (d) Acceleration due to gravity Quantity of water measured (Q) Density of water () Viscosity of water () DATA ACQUISITION Rotameter reading (Lph) 60 100 150 200 250 Time required for 1.5 lit. (sec) t Pressure difference across orifice (m) = 0.0185 m = 0.0122 m = 9.81 m/s2 = 1.5x 10-3 m-3 = 998 kg/m3 = 1.00x10-3 kg/m.s
S. No
1 2 3 4 5 c) Pitot tube Known data Inlet pipe diameter (D) Acceleration due to gravity Quantity of water measured (Q) Density of water () Viscosity of water () Data acquisition
= 0.0185 m = 9.81 m/s2 = 1.5x 10-3m-3 = 998 kg/m3 = 1.00x10-3 kg/m.s
S.no
Time required for 1.5 litres (sec)
Pressure difference across pitot tube (m)
1 2 3 4 5
95
d) Rotameter Data acquisition S.no 1 2 3 4 e) Watermeter Data acquisition Rotameter reading in lph 60 100 150 200 250 Initial Watermeter reading in liters Final Watermeter reading liters Rotameter reading in lph 60 100 150 200 Time required for 1.5 liters. in sec
S.no 1 2 3 4 5 CALCULATIONS a) Venturimeter
Inlet area of the venturimeter (a1) =
xD 2 m2 xd 2 m2
2g
Throat area of the venturimeter (a2) = Venturimeter constant (K) =
a1xa2 a12 a22
Actual discharge (Qa) =
V 3 m /s t
Theoretical discharge (QT)= K H m3/s Coefficient of discharge (Cd)= Velocity of pipe (u)= Qa/a1
Qa Actual discharge = QT Theoritical discharge
96
Reynolds number= Re = Data reduction Rotameter reading (Lph) 60 100 150 200 250 Time required for 1.5 lit. (sec) t
Du Du =
S.no 1 2 3 4 5
Pressure Actual Theoritical diff.across Coeff.of Reynolds discharge discharge Venturi discharge number (Lph) (Lph) (m) H
Required results 4. Determine Coefficient of discharge of Venturimeter. 5. Draw Graph for coefficient of discharge versus Reynolds number. 6. Draw Graph for actual discharge versus theoretical discharge. b) Orifice meter Inlet area of the orifice meter (a1) = Area of the orifice (a2) =
xD 2 m2
4 V Actual discharge (Qa)= m3/s t
xd 2 m2
a a2 Q Coefficient of discharge (Cd)= a QT

2 1
Theoretical discharge (QT)=
a2
2
2 xgxH m3/s
Velocity of pipe (u)= Qa/a1 Reynolds No.= Re =
Du Du =
97
Data reduction Rotameter reading (lph) 60 100 150 200 250 Time required for 1.5 liters (sec) Pressure Actual Theoritical diff.across Coeff.of Reynolds discharge discharge Venturi discharge number (lph) (lph) (m) H
S.no 1 2 3 4 5
Required results 1. Determine Coefficient of discharge of Orificemeter. 2. Draw Graph for coefficient of discharge versus Reynolds number. 3. Draw Graph for actual discharge versus theoretical discharge.
c) Pitot tube Inlet area of the Pitot tube (a1) =
xD 2 m2
V Actual discharge (Qa)= m3/s t

Theoretical fluid velocity (V)=
2xgxH m/s
Theoretical discharge (QT)= A x Vm3/s Coefficient of discharge (Cd)= Velocity of pipe (u)= Qa/A Du Reynolds No.= Re =
Qa QT
98
Sr.No
Time required for 1.5 liters (sec)
Pressure Actual Theoritical diff.across Coeff.of Reynolds discharge discharge Venturi discharge number (lph) (lph) (m) H
1 2 3 4 5
Required results 4. 5. 6. Determine Coefficient of discharge of Pitot tube. Draw Graph for coefficient of discharge versus Reynolds number. Draw Graph for actual discharge versus theoretical discharge.
d) Rotameter Actual discharge =
1.5x3600 Time required for1.5 liter water
Error = Rotameter reading- actual discharge Accuracy=
Error x100 Full flow of Rotameter
Data reduction Rotameter reading (Lph) 60 100 150 200 Time required for 1.5 lit. (sec) t Actual discharge (Lph) Error (Lph) Accuracy %
S.no
1 2 3 4
Required results
1. Determine Accuracy of Rotameter in %.

99
2. Draw Graph for actual discharge versus rotameter reading. 3. Draw Graph for accuracy versus rotameter reading. e) Watermeter Water quantity by water meter= Final water meter reading Initial water meter reading Error= Water quantity by water meter-Water quantity by Rotameter Accuracy =
Error x 100 Indicated water quantity
Data reduction
Water quantity by Rotameter (Liters) F*t/60
S. no
Rotameter reading (lph) F
Initial Watermet er reading Liters, A
Final Watermeter reading Liters, B
Water quantity by Watermeter , lit (B-A)
Error (Liters)
Accuracy %
1 2 3 4 5
60 100 150 200 250
Conclusion:
100
SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENT NO. 4 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

OBJECTIVE: 1. To understand pressure, atmospheric pressure, barometric pressure, standard pressure and vacuum 2. To understand the difference between absolute and gauge pressures 3. To study the working principle of various pressure measuring devices like Bourdon gauge, diaphragm gauge, U-tube and inclined manometers, etc. 4. To convert gauge pressure into absolute pressure 5. To calculate pressure from the density and height of a column of fluid 6. To understand the concept of pressure gauge calibration CALCULATIONS The difference in mercury level in the U-tube manometer can be converted into pressure units using the relation
P = gh
In case of the inclined manometer, the pressure reading in Pa can be calculated using
P = gh sin REQUIRED RESULTS
4) Measure the pressure difference using different instruments like Bourdan gauge, mercury manometer, diaphragm gauge, and inclined manometer. 5) Convert the measured pressure into SI units then to absolute pressure. 6) Calibrate diaphragm gauge mounted on the hydraulic unit using master gauge.
Conclusion:
101
SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENT NO. 5 STUDY OF REYNOLDS APPARATUS

NAME_______________________ SEC. NO. ____________________ DATE _______________________ OBJECTIVE: 1. To demonstrate the transition between laminar and turbulent flow 2. To calculate the Reynolds number and hence determine the type of flow 3. To determine the transition or critical Reynolds number and comparison of the same with accepted values OBSERVATIONS Known data D = ID of glass tube = 25 mm = 0.025 m = kinematic viscosity of water at 0 oC = 1.788 x 10-6 m2/s = kinematic viscosity of water at 20 oC = 1.006 x 10-6 m2/s = kinematic viscosity of water at 40 oC = 0.657 x 10-6 m2/s = kinematic viscosity of water at 60 oC = 0.478 x 10-6 m2/s Data acquisition Volume ( V ) of water collected in ml Time ( t ) of collection in seconds ID NO _______________________________ BATCH NO___________________________
S.no
CALCULATIONS The volumetric flowrate can be evaluated using Q = V / t, where V is in m3 The fluid velocity in m/s in the pipe is computed using u= Q / A
102
where Q = volumetric flowrate (m3/s) A = area of glass tube = D2 / 4 The Reynolds number can then be evaluated using Re = DATA REDUCTION Volumetric flowrate ( Q ) in m3/s
Du Du =
S.no
Velocity ( u ) in m/s
Reynolds number (Re)
Nature of flow
Conclusion:
103
SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENT NO. 6 STUDY OF VISCOMETERS

OBJECTIVE 1. To calculate absolute and kinematic viscosity of a given fluid sample using different types of viscometers 2. To understand the effect of temperature on viscosity measurement OBSERVATIONS: DATA ACQUISITION Ostwald viscometer Sr. No. Temperature ( ) in Celsius in oC Time (t) in seconds
Say Bolt viscometer Sr. No. Temperature ( ) in Celsius in oC Time (t) in seconds (SUS)
Redwood viscometer Sr. No. Temperature ( ) in Celsius in oC Time (t) in seconds
104
CALCULATIONS Ostwald viscometer The absolute or dynamic viscosity of water at room temperature can be evaluated using
f = 0.00002414 10J
247.8 where J = T 140
The viscosity of water at higher temperatures can be evaluated using
(2)
t = s s t s
(3)
where s and s denote the viscosity and density of water at room temperature The density of water at room and higher temperatures respectively can be evaluated using
where v = 9.9917 104 + t (6.5 108 + 3.83333 109 t )
Saybolt viscometer The kinematic viscosity in centistokes is evaluated using the formula
v = 0.226 x SUS
195 (for SUS values between 32 and 100) SUS 135 (for SUS values greater than 100) SUS
(4)
v = 0.220 x SUS
(5)
SUS is referred to as Saybolt Universal seconds and is the time required to collect 60 ml of oil Redwood viscometer The kinematic viscosity in stokes is evaluated using the formula
v = Ct -
B t
(6)
where B and C are equipment constants and t is the time in seconds to collect 50 cc of oil. The values of B and C are given below: 105
Temperature 1 to 37C > 37C
B 1.79 0.50
C 0.00260 0.00247
CONCLUSION:
106
SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENT NO. 7 PRESSURE LOSSES IN PIPE AND PIPE FITTINGS

NAME_______________________ SEC. NO. ____________________ DATE _______________________ OBJECTIVE: To study the minor and major losses in pipe and determine the relationship between the loss of head, hf, and the velocity V in both the cases. OBSERVATION TABLE Pipe Friction Observations: 1. Diameter (d) a. Aluminum: 12 mm b. Copper: 12.5 mm c. Steel: 11 mm 2. Volume of measuring tank: 12.2 lit. 3. Effective Length = 1 m Sr. No. Time (sec) Water head (m) h1 h2 Discharge (m3/sec) Q Velocity ( m/sec) V Friction factor f ID NO _______________________________ BATCH NO___________________________
107
Sudden Contraction Pipe Observations: 1. Diameters; d1 : 27 mm d2 : 15 mm
2. Volume of measuring tank: 12.2 lit.
Sr. No.
Time (sec)
Water head (m) h1 h2
Discharge (m3/sec) Q
Velocity ( m/sec) V
Loss coefficient kL
Sudden Expansion Observations: 1. Diameter; d1 : 15 mm d2 : 27 mm
2. Volume of measuring tank: 12.2 lit.
Sr. No.
Time (sec)
Velocity ( m/sec) V
Loss coefficient kL
108
Long Bend Observations: 1. Diameter: d : 27 mm 2. Volume of measuring tank: 12.2 lit. Sr. No. Time (sec) Discharge (m3/sec) Q Velocity ( m/sec) V Loss coefficient kL
Short Bend Observations: 1. Diameter: d : 15 mm 2. Volume of measuring tank: 12.2 lit.
Sr. No.
Time (sec)
Velocity ( m/sec) V
Loss coefficient kL
109
900 Bend Observations: 1. Diameter: d : 15 mm 2. Volume of measuring tank: 12.2 lit. Sr. No. Time (sec) Discharge (m3/sec) Q Velocity ( m/sec) V Loss coefficient kL
Ball Valve Observations: 1. Diameter: d : 15 mm 2. Volume of measuring tank: 12.2 lit.
Sr. No.
Time (sec)
Velocity ( m/sec) V
Loss coefficient kL
110
Gate Valve Observations: 1. Diameter: d : 15 mm 2. Volume of measuring tank: 12.2 lit. Sr. No. Time (sec) Discharge (m3/sec) Q Velocity ( m/sec) V Loss coefficient kL
111
SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENT NO. 8 STUDY OF IMPACT OF JETS AND FREE AND FORCED VORTICES
OBJECTIVE: To compare the momentum in a fluid jet with the force generated when it strikes a fixed surface.
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Volume of measuring Tank 2. Diameter of nozzle 3. Distance of plate from pivot (L) 4. Distance between nozzle and flat plate 5. Distance between nozzle and hemispherical plate 6. Weight of rod 7. Weight of flat plate 8. Weight of hemispherical plate 9. Density of water
= = = = = = = = =
12.2 lit 0.01 m 0.17 m 0.08 m 0.075 m 0.34 N 0.42 N 1.37 N 1000 kg/ m3
112
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Flat plate Sr. No. Time required to fill the tank (sec.) Balancing weight (WB) (N) Weight at dist. (L1) (m) Fexp (N) Fth (N)
Hemispherical plate Sr. No. Time required to fill the tank (sec.) Balancing weight (WB) (N) Weight at dist. (L1) (m) Fexp (N) Fth (N)
RESULTS:
113
FREE AND FORCED VORTICES

OBJECTIVE: To Study Free and forced vortices. Observations 1. Initial water level :________________
2. Disc Diameter (D) :________________ Observation Table: Free Vortex Flow rate of S.No. water (m3/sec) 1 2 3 4 5 6 Forced Vortex Speed of rotating S.No. disc (rpm) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Water Head in cylinder (m)
Horizontal radius of vortex (m)
Vertical height of the pointer (m)
Water Head in cylinder (m)
Horizontal radius of vortex (m)
Vertical height of the pointer (m)
Part III Electrical and Electronics Engineering
115
INDEX
Experiment No. 1. 2. 3. 4. Name of Experiments Measurement of electrical variables in single phase circuit Tests on single phase transformer Tests on DC shunt motors Tests on single phase induction motors Page No. 118 124 127 131
116
EXPERIMENT NO. 1 MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRICAL VARIABLES IN SINGLE PHASE CIRCUIT

NAME_______________________ SEC. NO. ____________________ DATE _______________________ OBJECTIVES 1. Measurement of electrical quantities in single phase circuit with i] R-L series load ii] R-C series load REQUIREMENT: Voltmeter, Ammeter, Variac, Wattmeter, Variable Resistor load, Variable Inductor load, Variable capacitor load, connecting wires. PRECAUTIONS: 1. Confirm your proper dress code (wear rubber sole shoes, do not wear loose clothes) before you enter the lab. 2. Select the measurement equipments (type and range). 3. Do not leave loose wires. 4. All connections should be tight. 5. Get the circuit connections verified by the instructor before you switch ON the power supply. 6. Keep safe distance from the live circuit during observations. 7. Switch on or switch off the load carefully. 8. Never exceed the permissible values of current, voltage of any apparatus, load, etc. 9. Do not touch live terminals while performing the experiment. 10. Turn off the supply immediately when your task is over. STEPS OF THE EXPERIMENTS
RUN 1:
ID NO _______________________________ BATCH NO___________________________ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE __________
For the given set of instruments, note down the observations below.
117
OBSERVATION TABLE 1.1 DESCRIPTION OF ITEM VOLTMETER AMMETER Its type It reads No. of terminals available The terminals are identified as Its scale Multi.factor of wattmeter (from the panel of the meter) Selected Current range ( connections of B1,B2,E1,E2) Total no. of divisions on the scale Its ranges Input voltage given to variac Output ac voltage range from variac
RUN 2:
WATTMETERVARIAC
Connections of voltmeter, ammeter, and wattmeter and variac in the circuit, are as shown in following fig 1.1 ,1.2,1.3,&1.4 .
Fig 1.1: Voltmeter connections in circuit
Fig 1.2: Ammeter connections in circuit
Fig 1.3: Variac connections in circuit
Fig 1.4: Wattmeter connections in circuit
118
RUN 3:
Assemble the circuit for R-L and R-C combination as per the circuit diagrams given below (fig 1.5 &1.6)
Fig 1. 5: Circuit Diagram for measurement of electrical variables in 1 circuit. (R-L Load)
Fig 1. 6: Circuit Diagram for measurement of electrical variables in 1 circuit. (R-C Load)
119
RUN 4:
Calculate the Multiplication Factor of the wattmeter for the selected ranges. OBSERVATION 1.4: Multiplication Factor (MF) of the Wattmeter (WM) = (P.C. range C. C. range pf) = (Total no. of divisions on the scale) = ___________
RUN 5:
Note the meter readings for R-L and R-C combination in the observation table 1.2. OBSERVATION TABLE 1.4.1 (R-L Load) Voltage across the Resistive Load(VR) (volts) Voltage across the Inductive Load(VL) (volts) Ammeter Reading (IL) (ampere) Wattmeter Reading MF (watts)
S.No
Step-I Step-II Step-III Step-IV Step-V
120
OBSERVATION TABLE 1.4.2 (R-C Load) Voltage across the Resistive Load(VR) (volts) Voltage across the Capacitive Load(Vc) (volts) Ammeter Reading (IL) (ampere) Wattmeter Reading MF (watts)
S.No
Step-I Step-II Step-III Step-IV Step-V
CALCULATIONS: Calculate the following at full load 1. Resistance = R = VR/ IL = ____________________________. 2. Inductive reactance, XL = 2 f L = VL / IL= _______________ Therefore, L = ___________________________________ 3. Phase difference between V and I for R-L series circuit = = tan-1(XL / R) =__________ 4. Capacitive reactance, XC=1/ (2 f C) =VC / IL= ______________ Therefore, C = _________________________F 5. Phase difference between V and I for R-C series circuit = = tan-1(XC / R) =_________
121
RESULTS: 1) Draw the phasor diagram for R-C and R-L load, in the blank space given below.
Fig: Phasor diagram for R-C series load 1) R, at full load =
Fig: Phasor diagram for R-L series load
______________________________
2) L, at full load = ______________________________

3) C, at full load = ____________________________
CONCLUSIONS: 1. For R-L series load:
2. For R-C series load:
122
EXPERIMENT NO. 2 TESTS ON SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

NAME_______________________ SEC. NO. ____________________ DATE _______________________ OBJECTIVE: To conduct tests on a single phase transformer and determine its turn ratio, voltage ratio, current ratio and percentage regulation. REQUIREMENTS: Single phase transformer, single phase auto transformer, voltmeter, ammeter, wattmeter, resistive load and switches. PRECAUTIONS: 1. Set variac pointer to 0 before you switch on DPSTS in the circuit. Follow the same before you switch off the power supply of circuit after completing the experiment. 2. Select proper ranges of the measuring instruments. 3. No loose connections. 4. Verify your circuit connections with the instructor before you switch on the supply. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: ID NO _______________________________ BATCH NO___________________________ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE __________
S1
Fig: 3.1 Circuit Diagram for test on a single phase transformer 123
OBSERVATIONS 3.0 SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER Pri.Volt. Sec.Volt KVA rating SINGLE PHASE VARIAC Input Output(max)
STEPS OF EXPERIMENT: RUN 1: To determine Voltage Ratio and Current Ratio of the transformer. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram(Fig 3.1). Set the variac to its minimum output and keep all the switches to open (off). Switch on the supply and adjust the variac output to the rated value. Switch on few load switches to get suitable currents. Note the readings of all meters. Enter the readings in observation table 3.1. Put all the switches of the loads in off position. Put switchs in OFF position on secondary side in OFF position and switch off the input AC supply.
OBSERVATION TABLE 3.1
S.No.
Calculations Voltage Regulation Ratios Volt-amps Voltage Current Power Voltage Current Power V1/V2 I2/I1 V1I1 V2I2 % Primary Side
(V1) (I1) (P1) (V2) (I2) (P2) Volts Amps Watts Volts Amps Watts
Observations Secondary Side
V-A V-A
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
124
RESULTS:
CONCLUSION:
125
EXPERIMENT NO. 3 TESTS ON DC SHUNT MOTORs

NAME_______________________ SEC. NO. ____________________ DATE _______________________ OBJECTIVE: 1. To control the speed of D.C. shunt motor byi) Armature control. ii) Field control. REQUIREMENTS: D.C.shunt motor, voltmeter, 2 ammeters, 2 rheostats, tachometer, connecting wires. PRECAUTIONS: 1. Select proper ranges & type of measuring instruments. 2. Do not touch live terminals. 3. All connections should be tight. 4. Do not leave loose wires. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: ID NO _______________________________ BATCH NO___________________________ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE __________
Fig 5.1: Speed Control of DC Shunt Motor
PROCEDURE
126
RUN 1 Operation: - Connection, starting & running: 1) Connect all the instruments and the machine as shown in Fig.5.1 2) See that Ra is fully included in the circuit; Rf must be fully excluded. (These may be achieved by placing the wipers of rheostats at the appropriate ends.) 3) Switch on d.c supply; slowly decrease Ra till Ra is completely cut off. For normal running, the d.c motor attains a specified speed. 4) Measure (i) The speed (ii) Armature current Ia (iii) Field current If In order to reverse the direction of rotation: (a) Supply terminal may/may not be interchanged. (b) Armature terminals may be interchanged and / or field terminal may be interchanged. RUN 2: Speed Control by using Armature control method. 1) Start the machine again as done earlier. Vary Ra (from maximum to minimum, keeping Rf at minimum position) and take readings of speed N, Armature voltage (reading on voltmeter V2). 2) Plot the variation of speed vs armature voltage. OBSERVATIONS TABLE 5.1 No of readings 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 RUN 3: Armature Current (Ia) (Amps) Armature Voltage (Va) (Volts) If = _________ A ( Rated) Speed(N) Rpm
Speed Control by using Field control method. 1)Start the machine as done erlier.Vary Rf from minimum to maximum keeping Ra at minimum position and take speed vs If readings. 2) Plot the variation of speed Vs If 127
OBSERVATIONS TABLE 5.2
Va = _________ V ( rated) Speed(N) Rpm
No of readings 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Field Current(If) Amps
MODEL GRAPH
TABLE 5.3
DESCRIPTION OF ITEM Voltmeter (V1) Ammeter (Ia) Ammeter (If) Rheostat (Ra) Rheostat (Rf)
It measures Its scale is Range Resistance
128
Current range Any other description
RESULTS:
CONCLUSIONS:
129
EXPERIMENT NO. 4 TEST ON SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORs

OBJECTIVE: To obtain the efficiency of Single phase induction motor by operating in Clockwise mode and Anti clockwise Mode. REQUIREMENTS: Single phase capacitor start Induction Motor, Voltmeter, Ammeter, Wattmeter and Tachometer. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
STEPS OF EXPERIMENTS: RUN 1: ( Clockwise operation) 1) Check the terminals marked as RW1,RW2,SW1,SW2 and S1,S2,CS1,CS2 on the motor.(RW1 & RW2 is running winding, SW1 & SW2 is starting winding and CS1,CS2 are the terminals of a non polarized capacitor and S1,S2 is centrifugal switch terminals.)
130
2) Check the ranges and scales on the measuring instruments used(i.e. Voltmeter, Ammeter and Wattmeter) 3) Note name plate details of the motor. 4) Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.Switch on supply. 5) Enter all the readings in the observation table upto rated values of current. RUN 2 ( Anti clockwise operation ) 1) Switch off the supply 2) Interchange RW1 and RW2. (Now note the motor direction again Anticlockwise). RUN 3: 1) Increase the load step by step by adjusting Break drum wheel. 2) Note the voltmeter, ammeter, and wattmeter readings and measure the Rpm of the motor. 3) Calculate the efficiency of the motor for different loads. OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS: Dynamometer Constant = _________________ N-m Table 6.1 Volt meter (V) Am meter (A) Watt Speed meterMF (N) rpm (I/P)
Watts
Spring Spring Difference Torque= Balance1 Balance2 of spring 0.75 (F1~F2) (F1) kg (F2) kg Balance (F1~F2)kg N-m
W=2NT Efficiency= /60 (o/p)/(i/p) O/P

(Watts)
131
RESULTS: Graph : ( Both Modes of operation ) (i) Efficiency versus Load current (ii) Efficiency versus Output power
CONCLUSIONS:
132
Part III Summary Sheets
133
SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENT NO. 1 MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRICAL VARIABLES IN SINGLE PHASE CIRCUIT

NAME_______________________________ ID NO.________________________ SEC NO._________ BATCH NO._________ DATE._________________________
OBJECTIVES:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
134
RESULTS: Electrical Quantity Load Type Resistor, R Voltage (Volts) Current (Amps) Power (Watts)
Inductor, L Capacitor, C
CONCLUSIONS: For Resistive Load:
For Inductive Load:
For Capacitive Load:
MARKS OBTAINED_____________ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE________________
135
SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENT NO. 2 TESTS ON SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

OBJECTIVE:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
136
RESULTS:
CONCLUSIONS:
MARKS OBTAINED___________ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE________________ 137
SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENT NO. 3 TESTS ON DC SHUNT MOTOR

OBJECTIVE:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
138
RESULTS:
CONCLUSIONS:
MARKS OBTAINED_____________ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE______________ 139
SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENT NO. 4 TESTS ON CAPACITOR START SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
NAME_______________________________ ID NO.________________________ SEC NO._________ BATCH NO._________ DATE_________________________
OBJECTIVE:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
140
RESULTS:
CONCLUSIONS:
142

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Final Revised Mech Engg Labs - Manual 2014

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Laboratory Manual For MECHANICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY ME F215

Prepared by DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT DIVISION

Part I Mechanics and Dynamics of Solids

EXPERIMENT NO. 1 MEASUREMENT OF TENSILE STRAINS AND MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

Extensometer Reading (from the console) (SL)

EXPERIMENT NO. 2 MEASUREMENT OF BENDING MOMENT & DEFLECTIONS OF A BEAM

Calculations and Observation table:

EXPERIMENT NO. 3 MEASUREMENT OF STIFFNESS FOR HELICAL SPRING

ID NO _______________________________ BATCH NO___________________________ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE __________

Scale Symbol A B C PROCEDURE

Indentor Diamond cone Steel ball Diamond cone

Table 1 Minor Load kg 10 10 10

Major Load kg 50 90 140

EXPERIMENT NO. 6 STUDY OF GYROSCOPE

OBJECTIVES: To study the gyroscopic effect using the gyroscope.

EXPERIMENT NO. 7 STUDY OF DYNAMIC BALANCING MACHINE

CORRECTION Mass added gm

Part I Summary Sheets

SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENT NO. 1 MEASUREMENT OF TENSILE STRAINS AND MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

Extensometer Reading (from the console) (SL)

MARKS OBTAINED_____________ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE_________________

SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENT NO. 2 MEASUREMENT OF BENDING MOMENT & DEFLECTIONS OF A BEAM

Load on hanger W (kg)

MARKS OBTAINED_____________ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE_________________

SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENT NO. 3 MEASUREMENT OF STIFFNESS FOR HELICAL SPRING

MARKS OBTAINED_____________ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE_________________

ROCKWELL HARDNESS TESTING

Indentor Diamond cone Steel ball Diamond cone

Major Load kg 50 90 140

MARKS OBTAINED_____________ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE_________________

MARKS OBTAINED_____________ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE_________________

SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENT NO. 6 STUDY OF GYROSCOPES

MARKS OBTAINED_____________ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE_________________

SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENT NO. 7 STUDY OF DYNAMIC BALANCING MACHINE

CORRECTION Mass added gm

MARKS OBTAINED_____________ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE_________________ 38

Part II Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics

EXPERIMENT NO. 1 VERIFICATION OF BERNOULLIS THEOREM

1 2 u + z = constant along a streamline 2

1 u2 + z = constant along streamline 2 g

CALCULATIONS Run No. = Discharge or volumetric flowrate (Q) in m3/s =

u2/2g (m) Z (m) E

EXPERIMENT No. 2 STUDY OF FLOW MEASUREMENT

Rotameter reading (lph) 60 100 150 200 250

Rotameter reading (Lph) 60 100 150 200 250

Time required for 1.5 lit. (sec) t

Pressure difference across orifice (m)

= 0.0185 m = 9.81 m/s2 = 1.5x 10-3m-3 = 998 kg/m3 = 1.00x10-3 kg/m.s 53

Rotameter reading (lph) 60 100 150 200 250

CALCULATIONS a) Venturimeter Inlet area of the venturimeter (a1) =

Throat area of the venturimeter (a2) = 54

Venturimeter constant (K) =

a1xa2 a12 a22

Actual discharge (Qa) =

Qa Actual discharge = QT Theoritical discharge

xd 2 m2 4 V Actual discharge (Qa)= m3/s t a2 Theoretical discharge (QT)= 2 2 a1 a2

Time required for 1.5 liters (sec)

V Actual discharge (Qa)= m3/s t

Rotameter reading (lph) 60 100 150 200 250

d) Rotameter Actual discharge =

1.5x3600 Time required for1.5 liter water

Error = Rotameter reading- actual discharge Accuracy=

ID NO _______________ BATCH NO_ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE

MARKS OBTAINED_ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE_____

MARKS OBTAINED_ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE_____

MARKS OBTAINED_ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE_____

MARKS OBTAINED_ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE_____

MARKS OBTAINED_ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE_____

MARKS OBTAINED_ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE_____

MARKS OBTAINED_ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE_____ 38

MARKS OBTAINED_ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE____ 90

MARKS OBTAINED_ INSTRUCTORS SIGNATURE_____