Consumer Behavior Models in Tourism Analysis Study Muhannad M.A Abdallat, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor Hesham El Sayed El - Emam, Ph.D. Assistant Professor

Department of Tourism and Hospitality, Faculty of Tourism and Archeology King Saud University ABSTRACT

The theories of consumer decision-making process assume that the consumers purchase decision process consists of steps through which the buyer passes in purchasing a product or service. However, this might not be the case. Not every consumer passed through all these stages when making a decision to purchase and in fact, some of the stages can be skipped depending on the type of purchases. The reasons for the study of consumers helps firms and organizations improve their marketing strategies by understanding issues such as The psychology of how consumers think, feel, reason, and select between different alternatives !e.g., brands, products"# The psychology of how the consumer is influenced by his or her environment !e.g., culture, family, signs, media"# The behavior of consumers while shopping or making other marketing decisions# $imitations in consumer knowledge or information processing abilities influence decisions and marketing outcome#
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How consumers motivation and decision strategies differ between products, that differ in their level of importance or interest that they entail for the consumer# and

How marketers can adapt and improve their marketing campaigns and marketing strategies to more effectively reach the consumer.

2.2 Consumer Behavior The study of consumer behavior focuses on how individuals make decisions to spend their available resources !time, money, effort" on consumption-related items !%chiffman and &anuk, '(()". The field of consumer behavior covers a lot of ground. *ccording to %olomon !'((+", consumer behavior is a study of the processes involved when individuals or groups select, purchase, use, or dispose of products, services, ideas, or e,periences to satisfy needs and desires.

The official definition of consumer behavior given by -elch

!'((." is /the

process and activities people engage in when searching for, selecting, purchasing, using, evaluating, and disposing of products and services so as to satisfy their needs and desires. -ehavior occurs either for the individual, or in the conte,t of a group, or an organization. 0onsumer behavior involves the use and disposal of products as well as the study of how they are purchased. 1roduct use is often of great interest to the marketer, because this may influence how a product is best positioned or how we can encourage increased consumption.

*ndreason !'(+2" proposed one of the earliest models of consumer behavior. This model is shown in 3igure 4.'.The model recognizes the importance of information in the consumer decision-making process. 5t also emphasizes the importance of consumer attitudes although it fails to consider attitudes in relation to repeat purchase behavior.

Fi"ure #.$ Andreason, A.% &$'() Attitudes and *onsumer +eha,ior- A Decision Model in !e. %esearch in Marketin" &ed. l. Preston/. 0nstitute o1 +usiness and Economic %esearch, 2ni,ersity o1 *ali1ornia, +erkeley , pp%1/01

5nformation
Advocate impersonal sources 'ntrinsic attri"utes ()trinsic attri"utes Price availa"ility 'ndependent impersonal sources Advocate personal sources 'ndependent personal sources 'nformation storage Attitudes to*ards sources Perceived "eliefs, #orms, $alues of significant others% Attitudes to*ards product, su"stitutes, complement

1onstraints

'ncome, "udget piorities, physical capacity, household capacity

Personality

Hold !o Select

es -ther purchase decisions

Filtration

+eliefs

Feelings Search Disposition #o action

-*nership

Direct e)perience

,ants ,ant strength

Other customer Decision-makers

Key Direct Flo*s Feed"ac.s

&

* second model, which concentrates on the buying decision for a new product, was proposed by Nicosia !'()+". This model is shown in 3igure 4.4. The model concentrates on the firm6s attempts to communicate with the consumer, and the consumers6 predisposition to act in a certain way. These two features are referred to as 3ield 7ne. The second stage involves the consumer in a search evaluation process, which is influenced by attitudes. This stage is referred to as 3ield Two. The actual purchase process is referred to as 3ield Three, and the post-purchase feedback process is referred to as 3ield 3our. This model was criticized by commentators because it was not empirically tested !8altman, 1inson and *ngelman, '()9", and because of the fact that many of the variables were not defined !$unn, '():".

1erhaps, the most fre;uently ;uoted of all consumer behavior models is the Howard-%heth model of buyer behavior, which was developed in '(+(. This model is shown in 3igure 4.9. The model is important because it highlights the importance of inputs to the consumer buying process and suggests ways in which the consumer orders these inputs before making a final decision. The Howard-%heth model is not perfect as it does not e,plain all buyer behavior. 5t is however, a comprehensive theory of buyer behavior that has been developed as a result of empirical research !Horton, '(.:". %chiffman and &anuk !'(()" mentioned that many early theories concerning consumer behavior were based on economic theory, on the notion that individuals act rationally to ma,imize their benefits !satisfactions" in the purchase of goods and services. * consumer is generally thought of as a person who identifies a need or desire, makes

a purchase, and then disposes of the product during the three stages in the consumption process in 3igure4.4 !%olomon, '((+" 2.2.1 NICOSIA MODE This model focuses on the relationship between the firm and its potential consumers. The firm communicates with consumers through its marketing messages !advertising", and the consumers react to these messages by purchasing response. $ooking to the model we will find that the firm and the consumer are connected with each other, the firm tries to influence the consumer and the consumer is influencing the firm by his decision. 3ield '
Su"field 1 Firms Attri"ute 3essage ()posure Su"field 1onsumers Attri"utes 4(specially Predisposition

*ttitude

Search

and evaluation

=,perience >otivation 3ield : 3eedback

1onsumption Decision 4Action5

3ield 4 %earch *nd evaluation 7f mean<end!s" relation!s" !1reaction field"

3ield 9 *ct of 1urchase

1urchasing -ehavior !i"ure2#2. Ni$osia Model o% Consumer De$ision &ro$esse Sour$e' Ni$osia( )1*+,-.

The Nicosia model is divided into four ma?or fields !ield 1' The $onsumer attitude .ased on the %irms/ messa"es. The first field is divided into two subfields. The first subfield deals with the firms marketing environment and communication efforts that affect consumer attitudes, the competitive environment, and characteristics of target market. %ubfield two specifies the consumer characteristics e.g., e,perience, personality, and how he perceives the promotional idea toward the product in this stage the consumer forms his attitude toward the firms product based on his interpretation of the message. !ield 2' sear$h and evaluation The consumer will start to search for other firms brand and evaluate the firms brand in comparison with alternate brands. 5n this case the firm motivates the consumer to purchase its brands. !ield 0' The a$t o% the 1ur$hase The result of motivation will arise by convincing the consumer to purchase the firm products from a specific retailer. !ield 2' !eed .a$3 This model analyses the feedback of both the firm and the consumer after purchasing the product. The firm will benefit from its sales data as a feedback, and the consumer will use his e,perience with the product affects the individuals attitude and predispositions concerning future messages from the firm.

The Nicosia model offers no detail e,planation of the internal factors, which may affect the personality of the consumer, and how the consumer develops his attitude toward the product. 3or e,ample, the consumer may find the firms message very interesting, but virtually he cannot buy the firms brand because it contains something prohibited according to his beliefs. *pparently it is very essential to include such factors in the model, which give more interpretation about the attributes affecting the decision process. 2.2.2 4O5ARD#S4ET4 MODE This model suggests three levels of decision making '. The first level describes the e,tensive problem solving. *t this level the consumer does not have any basic information or knowledge about the brand and he does not have any preferences for any product. 5n this situation, the consumer will seek information about all the different brands in the market before purchasing. 4. The second level is limited problem solving. This situation e,ists for consumers who have little knowledge about the market, or partial knowledge about what they want to purchase. 5n order to arrive at a brand preference some comparative brand information is sought. 9. The third level is a habitual response behavior. 5n this level the consumer knows very well about the different brands and he can differentiate between the different characteristics of each product, and he already decides to purchase a particular product. *ccording to the Howard-%heth model there are four ma?or sets of variables# namely

a- In1uts. These input variables consist of three distinct types of stimuli !information sources" in the consumers environment. The marketer in the form of product or brand information furnishes physical brand characteristics !significative stimuli" and verbal or visual product characteristics !symbolic stimuli". The third type is provided by the consumers social environment !family, reference group, and social class". *ll three types of stimuli provide inputs concerning the product class or specific brands to the specific consumer. 5nputs 7utputs %timuli display
Significative a% 8uality "% Price c% Distinctive d% Service e% Availa"ility Sym"olic a% 8uality "% Price c% Distinctive d% Service e% Availa"ility Social a% Family "% 9eference groups c% Social class Attention 'ntention Purchase

1erceptual 0onstructs

$earning 0onstructs

1onfidence -vert search 'ntention

Attitude Stimulus am"iguity 3otives +rand 1ompre/ hension 1hoice 1riteria

Attitude

+rand 1omprehe n/ sion

Attention

Percept/ ual "ias

!i"ure 2#0 A Sim1li%ied Des$ri1tion o% the Theory o% Buyer Behavior Sour$e' 4o6ard( and Sheth(&102 )1*,*-

.- &er$e1tual and earnin" Constru$ts, The central part of the model deals with the psychological variables involved when the consumer is contemplating a decision. %ome of the variables are perceptual in nature, and are concerned with how the consumer receives and understands the information from the input stimuli and other parts of the model. 3or e,ample, stimulus ambiguity happened when the consumer does not understand the message from the environment. 1erceptual bias occurs if the consumer distorts the information received so that it fits his or her established needs or e,perience. information $earning about constructs criteria category, for consumers goals,

brands,

evaluation

alternatives,

preferences and buying intentions are all included. The proposed interaction 5n between the different variables in the perceptual and learning constructs and other sets give the model its distinctive advantage. $- Out1uts The outputs are the results of the perceptual and learning variables and how the consumers will response to these variables !attention, brand comprehension, attitudes, and intention". d- E7o"enous)E7ternal- varia.les =,ogenous variables are not directly part of the decision-making process. However, some relevant e,ogenous variables include the importance of the purchase, consumer personality traits, religion, and time pressure.

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The decision-making process, which Howard-%heth >odel tries to e,plain, takes place at three 5nputs stages %ignificance, %ymbolic and %ocial stimuli. 5n both significative and symbolic stimuli, the model emphasizes on material aspects such as price and ;uality. These stimuli are not applicable in every society. @hile in social stimuli the model does not mention the basis of decision-making in this stimulus, such as what influence the family decisionA This may differ from one society to another.

3inally, no direct relation was drawn on the role of religion in influencing the consumers decision-making processes. Beligion was considered as e,ternal factor with no real influence on consumer, which give the model obvious weakness in anticipation the consumer decision.

2.2.0 EN8E #9O

AT#B AC95E

MODE

This model was created to describe the increasing, fast-growing body of knowledge concerning consumer behavior. This model, like in other models, has gone through many revisions to improve its descriptive ability of the basic relationships between components and subcomponents, this model consists also of four stages#

!irst sta"e' de$ision#1ro$ess sta"es The central focus of the model is on five basic decision-process stages 1roblem recognition, search for alternatives, alternate evaluation !during which beliefs may lead to the formation of attitudes, which in turn may

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result in a purchase intention" purchase, and outcomes. -ut it is not necessary for every consumer to go through all these stages# it depends on whether it is an e,tended or a routine problem-solving behavior.
'nput 'nformation Processing
()posure 'nternal search

Decision Process
Pro"lem 9ecognition Search

$aria"les 'nfluencing Precision Process

'ndividual 1haracteristics < 3otives $alues ?ifestyle Personality

Attention Stimuli< 3ar.eter/ Dominated, other 1omprehension Perception 3 ( 3 9 = =ielding> Acceptance Alternative evaluation

+eliefs

Attitude

Social 'nfluences < 1ulture 9eference group Family

'ntention

Purchase Situational 'nfluences

9etention ()ternal search -utcomes

Dissatisfaction

Satisfaction

!i"ure 2#2.The En"el#9ollat#Bla$36ell Model o% Consumer Behavior. Sour$e' En"el ( Bla$36ell( and Miniard()1**:- 1a"e No *: Se$ond sta"e' In%ormation in1ut *t this stage the consumer gets information from marketing and nonmarketing sources, which also influence the problem recognition stage of the decision-making process. 5f the consumer still does not arrive to a

specific decision, the search for e,ternal information will be activated in order to arrive to a choice or in some cases if the consumer e,perience dissonance because the selected alternative is less satisfactory than e,pected. Third sta"e' in%ormation 1ro$essin" This stage consists of the consumers e,posure, attention, perception, acceptance, and retention of incoming information. The consumer must first be e,posed to the message, allocate space for this information, interpret the stimuli, and retain the message by transferring the input to long-term memory. !ourth sta"e' varia.les in%luen$in" the de$ision 1ro$ess This stage consists of individual and environmental influences that affect all five stages of the decision process. 5ndividual characteristics include motives, values, lifestyle, and personality# the social influences are culture, reference groups, and family. %ituational influences, such as a consumers financial condition, also influence the decision process.

This model incorporates many items, which influence consumer decision-making such as values, lifestyle, personality and culture. The model did not show what factors shape these items, and why different types of personality can produce different decision-makingA How will we apply these values to cope with different personalitiesA Beligion can e,plain some behavioral characteristics of the consumer, and this will lead to better understanding of the model and will give more comprehensive view on decision-making.

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2.2.2 Bettman/s In%ormation &ro$essin" Model o% Consumer Choi$e -ettman !'()(" in his model describes the consumer as possessing a limited capacity for processing information. He implicate that the consumers rarely analyze the comple, alternatives in decision making and apply very simple strategy. 5n this model there are seven ma?or stages. Sta"e No. 1' &ro$essin" $a1a$ity 5n this step he assumes that the consumer has limited capacity for processing information, consumers are not interested in comple, computations and e,tensive information processing. To deal with this problem, consumers are likely to select choice strategies that make product selection an easy process. Sta"e No. 2' Motivation >otivation is located in the center of -ettman model, which influence both the direction and the intensity of consumer choice for more information in deciding

1&

3otivation @oal hierarchy

Attention

Perceptual encoding

Scanner and interrupt mechanisms

interrupt interpretation and response

Processing capacity

'nformation acAuisition and evaluation

3emory search Perceptual ()ternal search

Scanner and interrupt mechanisms

'nterrupt interpretation and response

Decision Processes

Scanner and interrupt mechanisms

'nterrupt interpretation and response

1onsumption and learning processes

Scanner and interrupt mechanisms

'nterrupt interpretation and response

!i"ure 2.: the Bettman In%ormation#&ro$essin" Model o% Consumer Choi$e Sour$e' Bettman. )1*+*-. &1 2;2 -etween the alternatives >otivation is provided with hierarchy of goals mechanism that provides a series of different sub-goals to simplify the choice selection. This mechanism suggests that the consumers own e,perience in a specific area of market and he doesnt need to go through the same hierarchy every time to arrive at a decision, which make this mechanism serves as an organizer for consumer efforts in making a choice. No concern was given on religious motives, and how religion may motivate the consumer in his decision. >ost of the general
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theories of motivation such as >aslows hierarchy of needs !'()C" emphasizes self-achievement, the need for power, and the need for affiliation. Sta"e No. 0' Attention and 1er$e1tual en$odin". The component of this step is ;uite related to the consumer6s goal hierarchy. There are two types of attention# the first type is voluntary attention, which is a conscious allocation of processing capacity to current goals. The second is involuntary attention, which is automatic response to disruptive events !e.g., newly ac;uired comple,

information". -oth different types of attention influence how individuals proceed in reaching goals and making choices. The perceptual encoding accounts for the different steps that the consumer needs to perceive the stimuli and whether he needs more information. Sta"e No. 2' In%ormation a$<uisition and evaluation 5f the consumer feels that the present information is inade;uate, he will start to look for more information from e,ternal sources. Newly ac;uired information is evaluated and its suitability or usefulness is assessed. The consumer continues to ac;uire additional information until all relevant information has been secured, or until he finds that ac;uiring additional information is more costly in terms of time and money. Sta"e No. :' Memory 5n this component the consumer keeps all the information he collects, and it will be the first place to search when he need to make a choice. 5f

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this informations is not sufficient, no doubt he will start looking again for e,ternal sources. Sta"e No. ,' De$ision &ro$ess This step in -ettmans model indicates that different types of choices are normally made associated with other factors, which may occur during the decision process. %pecifically, this component deals with the application of heuristics or rules of thumb, which are applied in the selection and evaluation of specific brand. These specific heuristics a consumer uses are influenced by both individual factors !e.g., personality differences" and situational factors !e.g., urgency of the decision"# thus it is unlikely that the same decision by the same consumer will apply in different situation or other consumer in the same situation.

Sta"e No. +' Consum1tion and earnin" &ro$ess 5n this stage, the model discusses the future results after the purchase is done. The consumer in this step will gain e,perience after evaluating the alternative. This e,perience provides the consumer with information to be applied to future choice situation. -ettman in his model emphasize on the information processing and the capacity of the consumer to analyze this information for decision making, but no e,planation was given about the criteria by which the consumer accepts or refuses to process some specific information.

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2.2.: Sheth#Ne6man 8ross Model o% Consum1tion =alues *ccording to this model, there are five consumption values influencing consumer choice behavior. These are functional, social, conditional, emotional, and epistemic values. *ny or all of the five consumption values may influence the decision. Darious disciplines !including economics, sociology, several branches of psychology, marketing and consumer behavior" have contributed theories and research findings relevant to these values, !%heth et al. '(('". =ach consumption value in the theory is consistent with various components of models advanced by >aslow !'()C", &atona !'()'", &atz !'(+C", and Hanna !'(.C". 3ive consumption values form the core of the model
Functional $alue 1onditional $alue
1onsumer 1hoice +ehavior

Social $alue

(motional $alue

(pistemic $alue

!i"ure 2#,' The %ive values in%luen$in" Consumer Choi$e Behavior Sour$e' Sheth( Ne6man( and 8ross )1**1- &11:*#1+; The %irst value' !un$tional value To %heth et al. !'(('" the functional value of an alternative is defined as

17

EThe perceived utility ac;uired from an alternative for functional, utilitarian, or physical performance. *n alternative ac;uires functional value through the possession of salient functional, utilitarian, or physical attributes. 3unctional value is measured on a profile of choice attributes.E Traditionally, functional value is presumed to be the primary driver of consumer choice. This assumption underlies economic utility theory advanced by >arshall !'.(C" and %tigler !'(2C" and popularly e,pressed in terms of Erational economic man.E *n alternatives functional value may be derived from its characteristics or attributes, !3erber, '()9" such as reliability, durability, and price. 3or e,ample, the decision to purchase a particular automobile may be based on fuel economy and maintenance record. -y identifying the dominant function of a product !i.e., what benefits it provides", marketers can emphasize these benefits in their

communication and packaging. *dvertisements relevant to the function prompt more favorable thoughts about what is being marketed and can result in a heightened preferences for both the ads and the product, !%olomon '((+#'+C". &atz !'(+C" developed the functional theory of attitudes. He identifies four attitudes based on the functional values '" Ftilitarian function. The utilitarian function is related to the basic principles of reward and punishment. @e develop some of our attitude

1:

toward products simply based on whether these products provide pleasure or pain. 4" Dalue-e,pressive function. *ttitude that performs a value-e,pressive function e,presses the consumers central values or self-concept. * person forms a product attitude not because of its ob?ective benefits, but because of what the product says about him or her as a person. 9" =go-defensive function. *ttitude formed to protect the person, either from e,ternal threats or internal feelings, perform an ego-defensive function. =,ample of this function is deodorant campaigns that stress the dire, embarrassing conse;uences of being caught with underarm odor in public. :" &nowledge function. %ome attitude is formed as a result of a need for order, structure, or meaning. This need is often present when a person is in an ambiguous situation or is confronted with a new product. The se$ond value' So$ial value %heth et al. !'(('#'+'" defined social value of an alternative as EThe perceived utility ac;uired from an alternative association with one or more specific social groups. *n alternative ac;uires social value through association with positively or negatively stereotyped

demographic, socioeconomic, and cultural-ethnic groups. %ocial value is measured on a profile choice imagery.E %ocial imagery refers to all relevant primary and secondary reference groups likely to be supportive of the product consumption. 0onsumers

ac;uire positive or negative stereotypes based on their association with varied demographic !age, se,, religion", socioeconomic !income, occupation", cultural<ethnic !race, lifestyle", or political, ideological segments of society. 0hoices involving highly visible products !e.g., clothing, ?ewelry" and good service to be shared with others !e.g., gifts, products used in entertaining" are often driven by social values. 3or e,ample, a particular make of automobile is being chosen more for the social image evoked than for its functional performance. =ven products generally thought to be functional or utilitarian, are fre;uently selected based on their social values. The third value' Emotional value %heth et al. !'(('# '+'" defined emotional value of an alternative as EThe perceived utility ac;uired from an alternatives capacity to arouse feelings or affective states. *n alternative ac;uires emotional value when associated with specific feelings or when precipitating those feelings. =motional values are measured on a profile of feelings associated with the alternative.E 0onsumption emotion refers to the set of emotional responses elicited specifically during product usage or consumption e,perience, as described either by the distinctive categories of emotional e,perience and e,pression !e.g., ?oy, anger, and fear" or by the structural dimensions underlying emotional categories such as pleasantness< unpleasantness, rela,ation<action, or calmness<e,citement. Goods and

services are fre;uently associated with emotional responses !e.g. the fear aroused while viewing horror movie". =motional value is often associated with aesthetic alternatives !e.g. religion, causes". However, more tangible and seemingly utilitarian products also have emotional values. 3or e,ample, some foods arouse feeling of comfort through their association with childhood e,periences, and consumers are sometimes said to have Elove affairsE with their cars. * number of different attempts have been made to identify the various emotions that people e,perience. 5zard !'())" develops the ta,onomy of affective e,perience approach that describes the basic emotion that people feel. He measures emotions using ten fundamental categories interest, ?oy, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, and guilt. This approach has been used e,tensively by consumer researchers, for e,ample, @estbrook and 7liver !'(('". The %ourth value' E1istemi$ value %heth et al. !'((' #'+4" defined epistemic value as EThe perceived utility ac;uired from an alternatives capacity to arouse curiosity, provide novelty, and<or satisfy a desire for knowledge. *n alternative ac;uires epistemic value by items referring to curiosity, novelty, and knowledge.E =pistemic issues refer to reasons that would ?ustify the perceived satisfaction of curiosity, knowledge, and e,ploratory needs offered by the product as a change of pace !something new, different". =ntirely

new e,perience certainly provides epistemic value. However, an alternative that provides a simple change of pace can also be imbued with epistemic value. The alternative may be chosen because the consumer is bored or satiated with his or her current brand !as in trying a new type of food", is curious !as in visiting a new shopping comple,", or has a desire to learn !as in e,periencing another culture". The concept of epistemic values has been influenced by theory and by several important areas of research. =,ploratory, novelty seeking, and variety seeking motives have been suggested to active product search, trial, and switching behavior, !Howard and %heth '(+(". 7ne of the most significant contributors to the study of the optimal stimulation and arousal has been -erlyne !'()C", who contends that individuals are driven to maintain an optimal or intermediate level of stimulation. 3inally, Hirschman !'(.C" has advanced innovativeness, or a consumer propensity to adopt new products. The !i%th value' Conditional value %heth et al. !'(('#'+4" defined the conditional value as EThe perceived utility ac;uired by an alternative is the result of the specific situation or set of circumstances facing the choice maker. *n alternative ac;uires conditional value in the presence of antecedent physical or social contingencies that enhance its functional or social value. 0onditional value is measured on a profile of choice contingencies.E

*n alternatives utility will often depend on the situation. 3or e,ample, some products only have seasonal value !e.g., greeting cards", some are associated with once in a life events !e.g., wedding dress", and some are used only in emergencies !e.g., hospital services". %everal areas of in;uiry have also influenced conditional value. -ased on the concept of stimulus dynamism advanced by Hall !'(+9", Howard !'(+(" recognized the importance of learning that takes place as a result of e,perience with a given situation. Howard and %heth !'(+(" then e,tended Howards earlier work by defining the construct inhibitors as noninternalized forces that impede buyers preferences. The concept of inhibitors was more formally developed by %heth !'():" in his model of attitude-behavior relationship as anticipated situations and une,pected events. Becognizing that behavior cannot be accurately predicted based on attitude or intention alone, a number of researchers during the '()Cs investigated the predictive ability of situational factors !e.g., %heth '():". The five consumption values identified by the theory make differential contributions in specific choice conte,ts. 3or e,ample, a consumer may decide to purchase coins as an inflation hedge !functional value", and also realize a sense of security !emotional value" from the investment. %ocial, epistemic, and conditional values have little influence. 7f course, a choice may be influenced positively by all five consumption values 3or e,ample, to a first-time home buyer, the purchase of a home might provide functional value !the home contains more space than the present apartment", social values !friends are also buying homes",

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emotional values !the consumer feels secure in owning a home", epistemic value !the novelty of purchasing a home is en?oyable", and conditional value !starting a family".

2.2., Solomon Model o% $om1arison 1ro$ess

1-#SU3(9CS P(9SP(1T'$( 3A9K(T(9CS P(9SP(1T'$(

P9(PU91HAS( 'SSU(S

Ho* does a consumer decide that he>she needs a productB ,hat are the "est sources of information to learn more a"out alternative choicesB

Ho* are consumer attitudes to*ard products formed and>or changedB ,hat cues do consumers use to infer *hich products are superior to othersB

PU91HAS( 'SSU(S

's acAuiring a product a stressful or pleasant e)perienceB ,hat does the purchase say a"out the consumerB

Ho* do situational factors, such as time pressure or store displays, affect the consumerDs purchase decisionB

P-STPU91HAS( 'SSU(S

Does the product provide pleasure or perform its intended functionB Ho* is the product eventually disposed of, and *hat are the environmental conseAuences of this actB

,hat determines *hether a consumer *ill "e satisfied *ith a product and *hether he>she *ill "uy it againB Does this person tell others a"out his>her e)periences *ith the product and affect their purchase decisionsB

!i"ure 2.+ Model o% $om1arison 1ro$ess Sour$e' Solomon )1**,- &100

3igure 4.) e,plains some of the issus that are addressed during each stage of the consumption process. The /e,change, in which two or more organizations or people give and receive something of value, is an integral part of marketing. He also suggested that consumer behavior involves many

different actors. The purchaser and user of a product might not be the same person. 1eople may also act as influences on the buying processes. 7rganizations can also be involved in the buying process. >uch of marketing activity, they suggest, concentrates on adapting product offerings to particular circumstances of target segment needs and wants. 5t is also common to stimulate an already e,isting want through advertising and sales promotion, rather than creating wants. The definitions and models, which have been presented so far, have been from general marketing theory. Tourism is, by its very nature, a service rather than a product, which may have a considerable effect on consumer behavior. 2.2.+ Stimulus#Res1onse Model o% Buyer Behavior >iddleton !'((:" presented an adapted model of consumer behavior tourism, which was termed the stimulus-response model of buyer behavior. The model is shown in 3igure 4... This model is based on the four interactive components with the central component identified as 6buyer characteristics and decision process6.

Stimulus 0n3ut

*ommunication channels

+uyer characteristics and decision 3rocess *ommunication 1ilters

Purchase out3uts &res3onse/

Moti,ation Demographic economic and social position Psychographic characteristic Product +rand Price -utlet

9ange of competitive produced and mar.eted "y the tourist industry

Advertising Sales promotion +rochures Personal selling P9

?earning

Perception Friends Family 9eference @roup #eeds ,ants @oals ()perience Attitudes

Post/purchase and post/consumption feelings

!i"ure 2.> a Stimulus#Res1onse Model o% Buyer Behavior Sour$e' Middleton )1**2- &1 1;2#112

The model separates out motivators and determinants in consumer buying behavior and also emphasizes the important effects that an organization can have on the consumer buying process by the use of communication channels. %chmoll !'())" ;uoted in 0ooper et al. !'((9", developed a model which hypothesized that consumer decisions were a result of four elements as follows travel stimuli, including guide books, reports from other travelers and advertising and promotion personal and social determinants of travel behaviour including motivators, desires and e,pectations

e,ternal variables, including destination images, confidence in travel trade intermediaries and constraints such as cost and time

0haracteristics and features of the service destination such as the perceived link between cost and value and the range of attractions and amenities offered.

2.2.> Model o% Travel#Buyin" Behavior Mathieson and 5all >athieson and @all !'(.4" suggested a linear five-stage model of travel buying behaviour, which is shown in 3igure 4.(.
'nformation collection and evaluation image Travel decision 4choice "et*een alternatives5

Felt need> travel desire

Travel preparation and travel e)periences

Travel satisfaction outcome and evaluation

!i"ure 2.* Model o% Travel#Buyin" Behavior Sour$e' Mathieson and 5all )1*>2- 1*:

2.2.* Model o% Consumer De$ision#Ma3in" !rame6or3 Gilbert !'(('" suggested a model for consumer decision-making in which is shown in 3igure 4.'C This model suggests that there are two levels of factors that have an effect on the consumer. The first level of influences is close to the person and includes psychological influence such as perception and learning. The second level of influences includes those, which have been developed during the socialization process and include reference groups and family influences. *ll these models that have been adapted for tourism offer

some into the consumer behavior process involved during the purchase postpurchase decision stages.

Socioeconomic influences 3otivation or energiEers 1onsumer or Decision/ma.er

1ultural influences

Perception

Personality> attitude 9eference group influences

?earning

Family influences

!i"ure 2.1; Consumer De$ision#Ma3in" !rame6or3 Sour$e' 8il.ert( )1**1- In Coo1er )Ed.-. &1.+>#1;:

2.2.1; Inte"rated Model o% Sel%#Con"ruity and !un$tional Con"ruity in E71lainin" and &redi$tin" Travel Behaviour * more encompassing approach to the understanding of 0%<H can be found in %irgy6s evaluative congruity models of consumer behavior !%irgy '(.9# %irgy and Tyagi '(.+". %irgy e,plains the theoretical position associated with 0%<H in terms of discrepancies between perceived and normative outcome levels. *ccording to his theory, satisfaction is a function of evaluative

congruity, which is a cognitive matching process in which a perception is compared to evoke referent cognition for the purpose of evaluating a stimulus ob?ect<action.

The result of the cognitive process is postulated to produce either a motivational or an emotional state. 0%<H is viewed as an emotional state because it prompts the consumer to evaluate alternative courses of action to reduce an e,isting dissatisfaction state and<or to obtain future satisfaction state !%irgy '(.9# '(.:# %irgy and Tyagi '(.+". 3urther, 0%<H is viewed as a function of one or more congruities between perceptual !perceived value" and evoked referent !evoked value" states.

1roblem recognition !dissatisfaction" is the function of a directional discrepancy between the valence level of the perceived performance of a good<service and the valence level of a referent !standard of comparison or performance e,pectation". The Enegative incongruityE condition !a state of negative performance perception and positive referent state" is hypothesized to produce the second highest dissatisfaction or problem recognition, followed by Enegative congruityE !a state of negative performance perception and negative performance e,pectation", Epositive congruityE !a state of positive performance perception and positive e,pectation" and Epositive incongruityE !a state of positive performance perception and negative performance e,pectation", respectively.

The theory of self concept was supported in empirical studies involving consumer evaluation of the automobile, typewriter, a bachelor6s degree, and a house !%irgy '(.:# '(.)". %irgy !'(.4b" further argues that product images should be classified as being EfunctionalE and Esymbolic.E The functional images of a product include the physical benefits associated with the product,

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whereas the symbolic images refer to the stereotypic personality images consumers have of a specific product often e,pressed in terms of the typical user image.

Belatedly, %irgy !'(.4b" argues that 0%<H is not only an evaluative function of the consumer6s e,pectation and performance evaluation, but it is also an evaluative function of the consumer6s self-image and product image congruity. That is, the consumer6s self-concept should be understood in order to truly understand the individual6s satisfaction or dissatisfaction. %elf-concept, defined as Ethe totality of the individual6s thoughts and feelings having reference to himself as an ob?ect,E has been construed from a multidimensional perspective !Bosenberg '()(". The satisfaction level would be the lowest because the purchase of the product serves no function to the maintenance of either the self-esteem or self-consistency motives. -ased on the review of literature on 0%<H as related to the evaluative congruity models and self-concept, a logical interpolation can be drawn with respect to 0%<H in tourism as related to the role of the tourist6s perception of destination images. That is, 0%<H in tourism is a function of both !'" the evaluative congruity of a tourist6s e,pectation of destination and his<her perceived outcome of the destination e,perience# and !4" the evaluative congruity of a tourist6s selfimage and his<her perception of the destination6s value-e,pressive image. Heference to him as an ob?ect,E has been construed from a multi-dimensional perspective !Bosenberg '()(".

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3or instance, the term Eactual selfE refers to how a person perceives one6s self, and Eideal selfE refers to how a person presents one6s self to others !Bosenberg '()(". The self-image<product image congruity model in essence describes the effect of the cognitive matching process between valuee,pressive attributes of a given product and the consumer self-concept on consumer decisions such as product preference, purchase intentions, purchase behavior, product satisfaction<dissatisfaction, and product loyalty !%irgy '(.4b". The theory e,plains the effect of self-image congruence on consumer attitude through the mediating effects of two self-concept motives self-esteem and self-consistency. *ccording to the self-image<product-image congruity

model, a consumer6s specific value-laden self-image belief interacts with a corresponding value-laden product-image perception in terms of the typical user image in a product purchase. The result of such an interaction occurs in the form of the following four congruity conditions. !irst( a ?1ositive sel%#ima"e $on"ruity ,I occurs when there e,ists a state of positive self-congruity !a low discrepancy between one6s actual self-image and the product image" and a state of positive ideal self-congruity !a low discrepancy between one6s ideal self-image and the product image". That is, a product image matches up with one6s actual self-image as well as with his<her ideal self-image. %uch a situation would result in high consumer satisfaction because, by purchasing or identifying himself<herself with this product, the consumer would reach an emotional state that enhances his<her self-esteem motive and reinforces his<her self-consistency motive.

Se$ond( a ?1ositive sel%#ima"e in$on"ruity E condition occurs when there e,ists a state of negative self-congruity !a high discrepancy between one6s actual self-image and the product image", but a state of positive ideal selfcongruity !low discrepancy between one6s ideal self-image and the product image". 5n this situation the individual might be motivated to purchase the product but his<her satisfaction level would be moderate. This occurs

because, while the purchase would enhance one6s self-esteem motive, the self-esteem motive would conflict with his<her self-consistency motive. Third( a ?ne"ative sel%#ima"e in$on"ruity E condition is the opposite of the Epositive self-image incongruityE condition. That is, there is a state of positive self-congruity !low discrepancy between one6s actual self-image and the product image," but a state of negative ideal self-congruity !high discrepancy between one6s ideal self-image and the product image". The situation again would result in a moderate satisfaction level because the individual6s selfconsistency motive would conflict with his<her self-esteem motive. !inally( ?ne"ative sel%#ima"e $on"ruityE occurs when there e,ists negative self-congruity !high discrepancy between ones actual self-image and the product image," as well as negative ideal congruity !high discrepancy between his<her ideal self-image and the product image." The satisfaction level would be the lowest because the purchase of the product serves no function to the maintenance of either the self-esteem or self-consistency motives. >odel of self-congruity and travel behavior is depicted in 3igure4.'' the model posits that various aspects of the destination and its atmosphere are related to the destination visitor image. The destination visitor image is then evaluated in light of specific dimensions of the tourists self-concept to

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determine the degree of self-congruity which is systematically related to travel behavior.

Destination $isitor 'mage Destination (nvironment Tourist Self/1oncept Functional/ 1ongruity Self/ 1ongruity Self/ 1ongruity

Tourist Perceived Utilitarian Destination Attri"utes

Tourist 'deal Utilitarian Destination Attri"utes

!i"ure 2.11 an Inte"rated Model o% Sel%#Con"ruity and !un$tional Con"ruity in E71lainin" and &redi$tin" Travel Behaviour Sour$e Si"ry and 8re6al )1**+- &1 22*#221.

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2.0 Desi$$ation Hifferent models of consumer behavior describe satisfaction as the final output of the decision process or incorporate it in the feedback mechanism linking completed e,periences to future behavior. 3or e,ample# Nicosia !'()+" attributes the state of 0%<H to the dominant interest in the Efinal actE of consumers that is the purchase of product. 3urther, the concept of 0%<H is given greater emphasis in the works of >cNeal !'()9", =ngel and -lackwell !'(.4", and Howard and %heth !'(+), '(+(, and '()9". 5n their consumer behavior models, satisfaction is shown as the final output in the framework of purchase decisions.

These buyer behavior models postulate that if the actual outcome of a product is ?udged to be better than or e;ual to the e,pected, the buyer will feel satisfied. 5f, on the other hand, actual outcome is ?udged not to be better than e,pected, the buyer will be dissatisfied. This disconfirmation paradigm of 0%<H can be also found in the works of %uprenant !'())"# Hunt !'())"# and 7liver !'()), '(.C".

The theory of self-concept advances the notion that every self-image has a value association, which determines the degree of positive, or negative effect felt when that self-image is activated. This value component associated with a particular self-image replaces the traditional constructs of ideal self-image, ideal social-image, etc. 0orrespondingly, every product image has also a value component reflective of the affective intensity associated with attribute.

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* specific value-laden self-image interacts with a corresponding value-laden product image and the result occurs in the form of positive self-congruity !match between a positive product image and a positive self-image", positive self-incongruity !match between a positive product image and negative selfimage", negative self-incongruity !match between a negative product image and a positive self-image", or negative self-congruity !match between a negative product image and negative self-image". %irgy et.al !4CCC" added on further by stating that tourists perception of the destination !type and ;uality of resorts, prices, hotel ambiance, atmosphere, etc" is likely to influence the formation and change of the destination visitor image. Given that self-concept is multidimensional in nature !actual, ideal, social, ideal social self", at issue is the particular dimension of the self-concept evoked in the psychological process of self-congruity J the matching of the tourists self-concept with the destination visitor image.

5n addition to evaluating a destination by focusing on the symbolic !personlike" attributes of the destination, tourists may also evaluate destinations based on the destinations functional or utilitarian attributes. The match

between the destinations level of a utilitarian attribute and the tourists e,pectation of the attribute is referred to as functional congruity J may also affect destination travel and may be related to self-congruity.

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Re%eren$es *ndeason,*.B. !'(+2" *ttitudes and 0onsumer -ehaviour * Hecision >odel in New Besearch in >arketing ! 1reston". 5nstitute of -usiness and -elch, G.=. !'().".I-elief %ystem and the Hifferential Bole of the %elf0oncept 5n *dvances in 0onsume Besearch, Dol .2 ed . &eith H.Hunt, *nn *rbor, >ichigan *ssociation for 0onsumer Besearch. -elch,G.=.,and $andon, =.$., !'())"I Hiscriminate Dalidity of a 1roduct. *nchored %elf-0oncept >easure.I Kournal of >arketing Besearch, ': 424-2+. -erlyne. H.3 !'()C" @ovelty. 0omple,ity and Hedonic Dalue perception psycnophysics . November 4).-4.+ -ettman, K.B. !'()(". *n 5nformation 1rocessing Theory of 0onsumer 0hoice Beading, >* *ddison-@esley, *dvances in >arketing %eries, :C4 0ooper, 0.1. !'((9" Tourism 1rinciples and 1ractice. 1itman, $ondon. =ngel, K.3., -lackwell, B.H and >iniard, 1.@. !'((2" 0onsumer -ehavior. 3erber. Bobert !'()9" 0onsumer =conomics a %urvey a Kournal of economics $iterature '' Hecember, '9C9-'9:4 Gilbert, H.0. !'(('" L*n =,amination of the 0onsumer -ehavior 1rocess Belated to Tourism. L 5n 1rogress in Tourism, Becreation and Hospitality >anagement, edited by 0.1. 0ooper .$ondon -elhaven, pp.).-'C2 Hall =leanor B. !'((C" >arketing taa growing minority population market facts a !'" 2+-2(

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