MECH 301! HEAT TRANSFER!

Thursday!11:00 12:30 !Walker LT! Friday !10:00 11:30 !Chadwik ROTB! Dr.Volfango Bertola! Harrison Hughes/Walker, Room UG43! Volfango.Bertola@liverpool.ac.uk!

Course outline!
1.! 2.! 3.! 4.! 5.! Introduction (1 lecture)! Heat conduction (5 lectures)! Convection (3 lectures)! Radiation (3 lectures)! Heat Exchangers (3 lectures)!

Books!
Text Books! ! Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, F.M. Incropera & D.P. De Witt (Wiley)! Reference! ! Heat Transfer: A Basic Approach, N. zisik (McGraw Hill)! ! Heat Transfer, J.P. Holman (McGraw Hill)! ! Thermal-Fluid Sciences: An Integrated Approach, S.R. Turns (CUP)! Advanced! ! Conduction of Heat in Solids, H.S. Carslaw & J.A. Jaeger (OUP)! ! Convective Heat and Mass Transfer, W.M. Kays & M.E. Crawford (McGraw Hill)! ! Convective Heat Transfer, A. Bejan (Wiley)! ! Radiative Transfer, H.C. Hotell & A. Sarom (McGraw Hill)!

Assessment!
"Assessment! "Examination! (May)! Duration"! 3 hours"! Timing! (Semester)"! "2! % of nal mark"! "80! "20! Resit opportunity"! BEng. :Yes Next session"! N / A"!

4 continuous "Throughout Take home"! assessments"! the semester!

Exam Answer 4 questions of 6 questions cover: conduction, convection, radiation, heat exchangers Assignments In Weeks 4-6-8-10 (Problem sheet - submit one week later)

Assignments!
! 4 Problem sheets with 3/4 questions 5 marks each (total: 20% of the nal mark)! ! Purposes: (1) encourage study / revision throughout the semester; (2) self-assessment (feedback!)! ! Submissions ONLY through VITAL! ! Group working OK but submissions MUST be independent! ! Assignments may require more than the lecture notes (e.g., material properties) you MUST nd the relevant information on your own (books, web, etc.)! ! Submission deadlines are strict. DO NOT ask for extensions, etc. Submit Mitigating Circumstance if necessary! ! Feedback: (1) individual comments on VITAL; (2) worked solutions available ~1 week after submission deadline !

Email reply policy!

Case 1! Important, individual queries Reply ASA(Reasonably)P! Case 2! ! Repeated queries (i.e., more students asking the same or similar questions) ! ! Queries of general interest ! Reply to all class via VITAL and/or discussion in classroom! Case 3! Any queries about exam or assignment questions (e.g. should I focus more on this topic or on that topic? or which equation shall I use to answer this question?) ! NO REPLY!

"

Some (important) things!

! No cheating, no plagiarism, etc.! ! Attend lectures (boring lecture more useful than no lecture) ATTENDANCE IS RECORDED (PollEverywhere)! ! Dont be late (attendance poll closes ~30 min after scheduled beginning of lecture)! ! Do not wait until one week before the exam to start studying!! To answer polls on PollEverywhere! SMS to: 020 3322 5822! http://www.polleverywhere.com/mech301!

Lecture 1! Introduction to heat transfer!

Heat transfer!
T T1 1! .! Q! T2 T2 !
If T1 = T2 the systems are at equilibrium (and vice-versa)! If T1 T2 the systems are NOT at equilibrium: there is a heat transfer from the hot system to the cold system!

Simplest idea: the heat transfer rate per unit area (or the heat ux) is proportional to the temperature difference!

q = Q/A= h(T1 T2)!

h is the so-called heat transfer coefcient (indeed, a coefcient of ignorance!)!

.!

In general, heat transfer occurs according three different modes:! Conduction:! Energy exchange at molecular scale.! Solids, uids at rest! Convection:! Conduction + macroscopic mass transport.! Typical of uids! Radiation:! Energy exchange among bodies in vacuum!

Heat transfer examples!

Conduction!

T1!
Forced Convection!

T1 > T2!

T2!

No movement medium!

of

T 3! T 1!
Free Convection!

T2! T3 > T1 & T2 > T1!

T 3!

Heat transfer principally due to background uid ow!

T 1!

Tamb!

T1 > Tamb! Temperature difference initiates uid ow and subsequently heat transfer!

Heat transfer examples!

Radiation!

Sun!
No medium required for heat transfer!

Earth!
Phase Change Heat Transfer!

Ice! Water!

Latent Heat!

Energy transfer occurs by virtue of the latent heat of the phase change!

Conduction: a molecular mechanism!

Consider two particles with different energies:! If they collide, the high-energy particle gives some of its energy to the lowenergy particle! The energy of particles is proportional to temperature: E = KBT! T! hot! High-energy! .! q! Low-energy! x!

cold! This mechanism is called DIFFUSION, and occurs equally in solids, liquids and gases (not in vacuum!!!)!

Fouriers law!
To calculate the heat transfer rate, we need a phenomenological relationship (no way to get it using equilibrium thermodynamics!):! .! Fouriers law! q = -k dT/dx! Heat ux: heat transfer rate per unit area, perpendicular to the direction of transfer! T!
dx! dT!

.! q!

x! ! The heat ux is proportional to the temperature GRADIENT (dT/dx)! ! The minus sign indicates that heat ows from higher temperatures to lower temperatures (i.e., takes into account the 2nd Principle)! ! k is a property of the material called thermal conductivity (another coefcient of ignorance!) Its metric units are W/(mK)!

Thermal conductivity!
Thermal conductivity is a property of the material! Gases have very low k! Metals have high k! Thermal conductivity may depend on temperature:! k = k(T)! Thermal conductivity may depend on the position! k = k(x,y,z)! It could be even worse: thermal conductivity may depend even on the direction we are looking at (in general, k is a TENSOR!!!)! e.g. composite materials are often strongly anisotropic! K = kij(x, y, z, T(x, y, z))!

Example problem #1.1!

The wall of an industrial furnace is constructed from 0.15 m thick reclay brick having a thermal conductivity of 1.7 W/mK. Measurements made during steady-state operation reveal temperatures of 1400 K and 1150 K at the inner and outer surfaces, respectively. What is the rate of heat loss through a wall which is 0.5 m by 3 m on a side?!

Convective heat transfer!

Convection is the heat transfer mode characteristic of uids!

Molecular diffusion (microscopic)!

Bulk motion (macroscopic)!

Most important example: heat transfer between a surface and a uid ow:! u! T! Tw !
U(y)! T(y)!

Velocity decreases from u (free stream) to zero (wall): velocity boundary layer! Temperature varies between T (free stream) and Tw (wall): thermal boundary layer! Tw > T or Tw < T!

The thickness of the two boundary layers is not the same in general!!!! Forced convection: uid motion is imposed by external means (e.g. a fan)! Free convection: uid motion is induced by buoyancy!

Convective Heat Transfer!

Forced Convection! Free Convection!

Mixed Convection!

! Forced Convection! ! In forced convection, the heat transfer takes place principally due to the background uid ow.! ! Free Convection! ! In free convection, the temperature distribution initiates the ow which subsequently transfers heat.! ! Mixed Convection! !There are contributions of both forced and free convection.!

The heat transfer coefcient! .! Its metric units are W/(m2K)! Q = h A (Tw T)!
Not so many choices to increase the heat transfer rate:! ! Increase the area of the heat transfer surface (technical and economic constraints)! ! Increase the temperature difference between the uid and the surface (technical and environmental constraints)! Typical values of the heat transfer coefcient:!

Heat transfer with phase change is the best option to increase the heat ux when we have limited temperature differences!

Local and average heat transfer coefcients!

Development of boundary layers!

If the boundary layers change with the position, h will change too! Other reasons for non-uniformity: change of the uid temperature (e.g. uid heated in a pipe), of the uid velocity (convergent/divergent tube), etc.! Thus, h is a LOCAL heat transfer coefcient (= depends on the position)! h= 1! A! 1! L! One can also dene AVERAGE heat transfer coefcients!

#!
A!

hx dA!

h=

#!
L!

hx dX!

In general: h (or hx) = h(!, , k, cP, w, g, a, D, "T, etc)!

Radiative heat transfer!

TT 1!1!
Vacuum:! No conduction! Radiation ! ! No convection (e.m. waves $ photons) !

.! Q!

T2!

Every object having a nite temperature emits energy by radiation ! E = hP% ! % = c/&' (frequency)! hP = 6.62 x 10-34! (Plancks const.)! c = 3 x 108 m/s!

Ideal and real surfaces!

We assume that radiation occurs only among surfaces, and that any uid that may be there is transparent to radiation (non-participating)! Ideal surfaces: q = (T4 ! ( = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2K4! Stefan-Boltzmann constant! q1)2 = (T14 ! Real surfaces: q = *(T4 ! 0 < * < 1! Emissivity! Irradiation (G)! Reected (GR)! Emitted (E)! q2)1 = (T24 !

T1!

T 2!

The NET heat ux from the hot surface to the cold one .! = ( (T 4 T 4)! is:!q 1-2 1 2

G = GReected + GAbsorbed! Net heat ux = !E + GR G ! ! !E + GR GR GA! ! !E GA !

Identifying heat transfer modes!

q1: free convection from the coffee to the ask! q2: conduction through the ask! q3: free convection from the ask to the air space! q4: free convection from the air space to the cover! q5: net radiation exchange between the outer surface of the ask and the inner surface of the cover! q6: conduction through the cover! q7: free convection from the cover to the room air! q8: net radiation exchange between the outer surface of the cover and the surroundings!

Relationship to Thermodynamics!
First Law: conservation of energy! Ein, Eout: !rates of internal energy transfer in and out, respectively, across the surface of the system due to heat transfer! .! Eg: !rate of internal energy generation within the system! .! Est: !rate of internal energy storage within the system! Ein + Eg Eout = "Est!

.! .!

Ein + Eg = Est + Eout!

.!

.! .!

.!

Second Law: heat cannot ow spontaneously from a lower temperature to a higher temperature! Heat transfer phenomena occur in different modes but are always spontaneous (= they follow the 2nd Law)! Heat transfer is non-reversible!

Example problem #1.2 !

An uninsulated steam pipe passes through a room in which the air and walls are at 25C. The outside diameter of the pipe is 70 mm, and its surface temperature and emissivity are 200C and 0.8, respectively. If the coefcient associated with free convection heat transfer from the surface to the air is 15 W/m2, what is the rate of heat loss from the surface per unit length of pipe?!