River Energy Budgets With Special Reference To River Bed Processes

River energy budgets with special reference to river
bed processes
E. C. Evans,
+
G. R. McGregor and G. E. Petts
School of Geography, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
Abstract:
This paper uses detailed hydrometeorological data to evaluate the inuence of channel bed processes on the
river energy budget at an experimental site on the regulated River Blithe, Staordshire, UK. Results from a
pilot study are presented for eight days during July, September, October and November 1994.
Total energy gains were dominated by net short-wave radiation (97
.
60%) with signicant contributions
fromsensible heat exchange and friction (1
.
17 and 1
.
06%, respectively) and minor additions fromcondensation
and bed conduction (0
.
16 and 0
.
01%, respectively). Net long-wave radiation, evaporation, conduction into the
river bed, sensible heat transfer and the energy advected during evaporation accounted for 53
.
98, 23
.
56, 16
.
27,
5
.
25 and 0
.
94% of the total heat losses. On average, over 82% of the total energy transfers occurred at the air
water interface. Approximately 15% of the total energy exchanges occurred at the channel bed, but maximum
daily heat exchanges accounted for up to 24% of the daily total energy transfer. The amount of short-wave
radiation attenuated in the water column, and values measured at the channel bed varied considerably from
those calculated using a standard coecient. Values of bed conduction varied in response to dierent vertical
thermal proles in the channel bed, reecting the variable inuence of sedimentology and groundwater ux.
Fluctuations in levels of periphyton and macrophyte cover were also shown to have a signicant eect on
energy uxes at the channel bed. #1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
KEY WORDS river; energy budgets; airwater exchange; watersediment exchange
INTRODUCTION
Relatively few energy budget studies have been carried out in water bodies (Budyko, 1958), and the majority
of those executed have focused on lakes (Anderson, 1952; Dutton and Bryson, 1962; Frempong, 1983;
Robertson and Barry, 1985) rather than rivers (Webb and Zhang, 1997). Interest in water temperature has
been renewed recently in the light of possible global climate change (Cooter and Cooter, 1990; Stefan and
Sinokrot, 1993; Webb and Nobilis, 1994) and detailed knowledge of all energy budget components will be
required to predict future changes on aquatic ecosystems accurately. A number of authors have formulated
models to predict water temperatures in rivers based on heat budget processes, although most have used
remote meteorological data and not specic on-site measurements (Raphael, 1962; Delay and Seanders,
1966; Morse, 1970; Bowles et al., 1977; Krajewski et al., 1982; Bravo et al., 1993). Energy balances may vary
considerably in response to the local channel characteristics and detailed measurements in, and adjacent to,
the channel are required for accurate temperature prediction, especially in small streams. Small streams
respond more rapidly to inputs of energy, and local parameters such as topography, vegetation and
substratum characteristics exert much stronger inuences than in larger rivers (Smith, 1972).
The objective of this pilot study was to assess the inuence of the river bed, as an energy store/source, on a
river's energy budget and the temporal variability of this inuence.
CCC 08856087/98/04057521$1750
Received 23 July 1996
#1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Accepted 9 April 1997
Hydrological Processes
Hydrol. Process. 12, 575595 (1998)
+
Correspondence to: E. C. Evans.
Energy budgets
Heat transfer within water is complex and may occur by convection and advection as well as by radiation
and conduction (Oke, 1978). River temperatures are primarily controlled by the uxes of heat energy,
aecting the channel (Pluhowski, 1970; Stevens et al., 1975). Figure 1 displays a schematic diagram of the
radiation and energy cascades experienced at the airwater interface and the channel bed. Climatic variables
such as air temperature, solar radiation, relative humidity, cloud cover and wind speed exert a strong
inuence on the thermal regime of the river (Sinokrot and Stefan, 1994) in conjunction with the amount of
water in the channel (Smith, 1972). These hydrometeorological parameters may be spatially and temporally
variable and result in complex water temperature patterns. Inputs may be derived from short-wave solar,
long-wave atmospheric and forest radiation; condensation; precipitation; internal friction; and chemical and
biological processes. Energy may also be transferred advectively from upstream, tributaries, rainfall and
groundwater ows. Losses occur because of the reection of solar radiation, back radiation, evaporation and
downstream ows. The transfer of sensible heat and exchange of heat between the river and its bed may
represent an energy gain or loss. The dierent relationships are summarized below.
The total net heat exchange at the airwater interface comprises of
Q
sn
= +Q
+
Q
e
Q
w
Q
c
+Q
h
Q
p
(1)
where Q
sn
= total net heat exchange at airwater interface, Q
+
= heat ux due to net radiation, Q
e
and
Q
w
= heat ux due to evaporation, Q
c
= heat ux due to condensation, Q
h
= heat ux due to sensible heat
transfer and Q
p
= heat ux due to precipitation, and the net radiation budget (Q
+
) is composed of
Q
+
= K K ] L L
r
L ]
= K
+
L
+
(2)
where, K = incoming short-wave solar radiation, K ]= reflected short-wave solar radiation, L =
incoming long-wave atmospheric radiation, L
r
= reflected long-wave atmospheric radiation, L ]= long-
wave radiation emitted to atmosphere, K
+
= net short-wave solar radiation and L
+
= net long-wave
atmospheric radiation.
The total net heat exchange at the channel bed comprises of
Q
bn
= +Q
+
b
+Q
cd
+Q
cv
+Q
ad
+DQ
s
(3)
where Q
bn
= total net heat exchange at the channel bed, Q
+
b
= heat ux due to net bed radiation,
Q
cd
= heat ux due to bed conduction, Q
cv
= heat ux due to convective heat transfers with bed,
Q
ad
= heat ux due to advective transfers with bed and DQ
s
= heat storage within the bed, and the net
radiation budget (Q
+
b
) is composed of
Q
+
b
= K
b
K
b
] L
b
L
b
]
= K
+
b
L
+
b
(4)
where K
b
= incoming short-wave solar radiation to the bed, K
b
]= reflected short-wave solar radiation at
the bed, L
b
= long-wave radiation to the bed, L
b
]= long-wave radiation emitted to the channel water,
K
+
b
= net short-wave solar radiation to the bed and L
+
b
= net long-wave radiation at the bed.
The water column may exchange heat energy across both interfaces, and gain energy through friction at the
bed and banks, resulting in an energy budget that comprises of
Q
n
= +Q
sn
+Q
bn
Q
f
(5)
where Q
n
= total heat energy exchange and Q
f
= heat ux due to friction.
#1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. HYDROLOGICAL PROCESSES, VOL. 12, 575595 (1998)
576 E. C. EVANS ET AL.
Figure 1. Conceptual model of radiation and energy transfers at the airwater interface and channel bed of a shallow river
RIVER ENERGY BUDGETS AND RIVER BED PROCESSES 577
The predictive ability of temperature models will depend upon the treatment of the boundary conditions
between the water and the atmosphere, and the water and the river bed (Hondzo and Stefan, 1994). Previous
authors have ignored heat exchange at the channel bed or suggested that values were negligible, although a
growing number now recognize that this may provide a signicant component of the energy budget in
shallow rivers (Brown, 1969; Comer and Grenney, 1977; Joss and Resele, 1987; Hondzo and Stefan, 1994).
Heat exchanges with the channel bed may occur by advective and convective processes (Vaux, 1968;
Thibodeaux and Boyle, 1987) in addition to conductive and radiative ones (Comer and Grenney, 1977).
SITE
A single site was used on the River Blithe, 300 metres downstream from the Blitheld Reservoir, Staord-
shire, UK (Figure 2). A tributary of the River Trent, it has a catchment of 109 km
2
, the majority of which is
under agricultural production. Blitheld Reservoir has a capacity of 18 000 million litres, a maximum depth
of 14 m and an area of 320 hectares, creating one of the largest lowland reservoirs in the UK.
The riparian zone is rough pasture and there are no trees or bushes shading the channel, which has a
northsouth orientation. The channel has low, sloping banks and its average wetted perimeter during the
study period was 4
.
9 m. The compensation ow from the reservoir was approximately 22
.
7 million litres a
day during the study period (0263 m
3
s
1
) giving an average water depth of 0
.
18 m at the site. All releases
were made via the large stilling pool and a sh farm.
The valley oor is underlain by coarse pebbly alluvial gravel, which is at least 5 metres thick. The river bed
is primarily composed of gravel, the rie site has a poorly sorted armour layer with a mean b-axis of 0
.
25 m.
Sediment ner than 2 mm accounts for approximately 20% (by weight) of the substratum to a depth of
60 cm. During the study the bed was covered with a dense layer of periphyton with lamentous algae
Figure 2. The River Blithe below Blitheld Reservoir showing the location of the monitoring site
(Cladophora), which was heavily silted in places. A second rie approximately 25 m downstream, was also
utilized for comparative purposes.
The total eld study period was from 19 July to 1 August 1994 and from 7 September to 11 November
1994, giving 80 days of eld measurements. For this pilot study individual days were selected from this data
set representing a range of meteorological conditions. Eight days were chosen for detailed study, four days
with predominantly clear skies and four overcast, cloudy days. One clear and one overcast day was selected
for each month studied by utilizing the pattern of incoming short-wave solar radiation as an indicator of
cloud conditions. The clear days were represented by 22 July, 9 September, 23 October and 5 November, and
the overcast days by 21 July, 25 September, 29 October and 8 November. The heat uxes aecting the
channel may also display considerable day to day variability and this is the subject of further investigation.
METHODS
Detailed hydrometeorological variables were recorded on site at 15 minute intervals by equipment located in,
above and adjacent to the river. The major parameters used in the study are listed in Table I with details of
which were recorded or calculated and the location of the instruments.
Table I. Recorded and calculated variables in the study, plus location of instrumentation
Variable Recorded/calculated Location of sensor(s)
Net radiation (Q
+
) R 1 m above airwater interface
Incoming long-wave radiation (L ) C N/A
Reected long-wave radiation (L
r
) C N/A
Emitted long-wave radiation (L ]) C N/A
Incoming short-wave radiation (K ) R 1 m above airwater interface
Reected short-wave radiation (K ]) R 1 m above airwater interface
Air temperature (T
a
) R 1 m and 2 m above airwater interface
Wind speed (U) R 1 m and 2 m above airwater interface
Relative humidity (R
h
) R 1 m and 2 m above airwater interface
Water temperature (T
w
) R Within water column
Saturation vapour pressure (E
w
) C N/A
Vapour pressure (E
a
) C N/A
Evaporation/condensation rate (E
v
) C N/A
Latent heat of vaporization (L) C N/A
EEvaporative heat ux (Q
e
) C N/A
Atmospheric pressure (p) R Adjacent to channel
Bowen ratio (B
r
) C N/A
Sensible heat exchange (Q
h
) C N/A
Energy removed by evaporated water (Q
w
) C N/A
Precipitation (P
r
) R Adjacent to channel
Precipitation temperature (T
b
) R Adjacent to channel
Energy gained from uid friction (Q
f
) C N/A
Heat ux in precipitation (Q
p
) C N/A
Net bed radiation (Q
+
b
) C N/A
Incoming long-wave radiation (L
b
) C N/A
Emitted long-wave radiation (L
b
]) C N/A
Incoming short-wave radiation (K
b
) R Immediately above watersediment interface
Reected short-wave radiation (K
b
]) C N/A
Thermal conductivity of substratum (K) C N/A
Bed temperature (bT) R 5 and 40 cm below watersediment interface
Radiation absorbed by bed (R
ad
) C N/A
Heat ux due to bed conduction (Q
g
) C N/A
Heat ux within bed (Q
hf
) R Minus 5 cm
Radiation components at the airwater interface
Net radiation (Q
+
) and short-wave components (K ; K ]) were measured directly (Table I).
Long-wave radiation. This was calculated using the following methods.
(a) Long-wave radiation emitted from the water (L ]) was calculated using the StefanBoltzmann law
and an emissivity value of 0
.
97 for water (Anderson, 1954)
L ]= es(T
w
)
4
(6)
where L ]= long-wave radiation (Wm
2
), e = emissivity of water (0
.
97), s = StefanBoltzmann constant
(5669 10
8
) and T
w
= surface water temperature (K).
(b) Long-wave atmospheric radiation (L ) was calculated by rearranging Equation (2), which results
in
L L
r
= Q
+
(K
+
L ]) (7)
where L = long-wave atmospheric radiation (Wm
2
), K
+
= net short-wave solar radiation (Wm
2
)
and L
r
= reflected long-wave atmospheric radiation (Wm
2
).
(c) Reected long-wave atmospheric radiation (L
r
) has been previously calculated to be approximately
0
.
03 for water temperatures between 0 and 308C (Anderson, 1952), and was calculated by
L
r
= L R
v
(8)
where L
r
= reflected long-wave atmospheric radiation (Wm
2
) and R
v
= reflectivity value (0
.
03).
Radiation components at the channel bed
Incoming short-wave radiation to the bed was measured directly (Table I).
Reected short-wave radiation from the channel bed. This was calculated by
K
b
]= K
b
: a
cb
(9)
where a
cb
= albedo of the channel bed (0
.
05).
Incoming long-wave radiation to the channel bed. This was calculated using Equation (6) utilizing the water
column as the eective atmosphere with an emissivity value of 0
.
97.
Long-wave radiation emitted from the channel bed. Equation (6) was applied to calculate emitted long-wave
radiation in conjunction with the temperature of the bed at 5 cm below the channel bed and an emissivity
value of 0
.
98 for the substratum (Oke, 1978).
Net radiation at the channel bed. Equation (4) was utilized to calculate the net radiation budget (K
+
b
).
Channel water and substratum temperatures
Values were recorded at 12 and 24 minute intervals using miniature self-contained temperature data
loggers, corresponding time periods were matched with the meteorological variables and missing values were
calculated by linear interpolation. This procedure altered daily means, maxima, minima and ranges up to
0
.
028C.
Non-radiative heat exchange at the airwater interface
Evaporation/condensation. Evaporation was calculated using the relevant factors evaluated by Penman
(1948) in the form used by Webb and Zhang (1997)
E
v
= 0165(08 U=100)(E
w
E
a
) (10)
where E
v
= evaporation=condensation rate (mm day
1
), U = wind speed 2 m above the channel
(km day
1
), E
w
= saturation vapour pressure at water surface temperature (mb), E
a
= vapour pressure at
air temperature (mb).
Saturation vapour pressure was calculated using the MagnusTetons formula (Murray, 1967)
E
w
(mb) = 61078 exp[1726939(T
w
27316)=T
w
3586] (11)
where T
w
= surface water temperature (K).
Vapour pressures were calculated by dividing the relative humidity by 100 and multiplying the saturation
vapour pressure.
The evaporative heat ux was calculated by the formula outlined in Webb and Zhang (1997)
Q
e
= E
v
Lp (12)
where Q
e
= evaporative ux (Wm
2
), L = latent heat of vaporization (8C Jg
1
) and p = specific weight of
water (g cm
3
).
The latent heat of vaporization is temperature dependent and was varied as a function of water tempera-
ture as determined by Budyko (1958)
L = 249964 251(T
w
27316) (13)
where T
w
= water temperature (K).
The Penman-type empirical formula from Webb and Zhang (1997) was chosen on the basis that it was
derived specically for a number of small British rivers and was most tting for use in this study.
Energy removed by evaporated water. Energy is advectively removed during evaporation which is not
accounted for in the conductive energy term (Parker and Krenkel, 1970). The term is relatively small
and may be computed from the equation below in the form used by Frempong (1983) and Sturrock et al.
(1992)
Q
w
= d
+
c
+
E
+
v
[(T
e
27316) (T
b
27316)] (14)
where Q
w
= energy advected by loss of mass of evaporated water (Wm
2
), d = density of evaporated water
(kg
1
m
3
), c = specific heat of water (J kg
1
K
1
), T
e
= temperature of evaporated water, equal to T
w
(K)
and T
b
= base temperature equal to that of precipitation (K).
Afull discussion on the criteria for the selection of the base temperature are given in Anderson (1952). The
base temperature was set as that of precipitation (Sturrock et al., 1992), recorded on the closest day (this was
always within 24 hours).
Sensible heat. The sensible heat ux was calculated using the Bowen ratio according to Bowen (1926) and
Anderson (1952), both dened the constant as approximately 0
.
61
B
r
= {061 10
3
p[(T
w
27316) T
a
]=(E
w
E
a
)] (15)
where B
r
= Bowen ratio (dimensionless), T
w
= water temperature (K) and p = atmospheric pressure (mb).
The sensible heat exchange was then calculated by the formula
Q
h
= E
v
B
r
(16)
where Q
h
= sensible heat exchange (Wm
2
).
Non-radiative heat exchange at the channel bed
Energy transfer between the channel water and the substratum was calculated using the thermal con-
ductivity of the bed sediments, the vertical temperature gradient into the substratum and the amount of
radiation absorbed by the bed material using the ux gradient equation (Webb and Zhang, 1997)
Q
cd
= K
+
T
g
R
ad
(17)
where Q
cd
= bed conduction (Wm
2
), K = thermal conductivity of bed sediments (Jm
1
s
1
8C
1
),
T
g
= vertical temperature gradient (8C m
1
) and R
ad
= radiation absorbed by the bed (Wm
2
).
The rate of temperature change with depth was presumed to have an approximate linear relationship, as
reported in Evans et al. (1995), allowing simple calculation of the vertical temperature gradient (T
g
). How-
ever, groundwater up-welling and changes in sedimentological composition can alter the rate of temperature
change. Vertical temperature gradients were calculated for the head of the rie, where surface water was
probably down-welling into the river bed and groundwater was least likely to be encountered (Evans and
Petts, 1997). Dierent scenarios were also calculated using vertical temperature gradients from the rie tail
and an adjacent rie (Evans and Petts, 1997) to demonstrate the spatial variation in river bed temperatures
and its impact on bed conduction.
Samples of bed material to a depth of 60 cm were taken using an established freeze-coring method
(Petts et al., 1989). The volume of the bed material was determined in the eld by water displacement. Wet
and dry sediment weights were recorded allowing the calculation of wet and dry bulk densities. Values of dry
bulk density were used to derive the thermal conductivity of the substratum from gures in Lapham (1989).
The radiation absorbed by the river bed (R
ad
) was calculated following Webb and Zhang (1997)
R
ad
= (1 r)(1 d)K
b
(18)
where r = fraction adsorbed by surface layer of river bed (0
.
6), d = fraction reected by river bed surface
(0
.
05) and K
b
= short-wave radiation measured on river bed (Wm
2
).
Short-wave radiation reaching the river bed (K
b
) was measured directly by a pyranometer attached to a
metal pole driven into the substratum. The river bed was covered with a dense layer of dark green periphyton
and algae during the entire study period and the attributed albedo (0
.
05) was derived from Oke (1978) and
Dale and Gillespie (1977). The fraction of radiation held by the surface layer of the river bed (r) was
determined as 0
.
6 by Comer (1976).
Fluid friction. Energy gained from uid friction was calculated using the following equation by Theurer et al.
(1984)
Q
f
= 9805(F=W)S (19)
where Q
f
= heat from uid friction (Wm
2
), F = volume of ow (m
3
s
1
), W = average wet width of
channel (m) and S = slope of channel (mm
1
).
Other heat uxes
Transfer of heat in precipitation (Q
p
) was calculated fromthe temperature and volume of incoming rainfall
recorded by a thermistor positioned in the neck of a rain gauge. Values were judged to be insignicant even
on days of heavy rainfall. The amount of heat energy generated by biological and chemical processes was
also assumed to be negligible.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Water temperatures in the channel
On average, approximately 72% of the variation in water temperature was accounted for by air
temperature and incoming short-wave radiation, the inclusion of other parameters caused a negligible
improvement. Correlations of water temperatures and air temperatures ranged between 0
.
928 on 21 July to
0
.
023 on 8 November. Correlations of water temperatures with incoming short-wave radiation varied from
0
.
802 on 22 July to 0
.
064 on 5 November. Crisp and Howson (1982) demonstrated that mean air
temperature accounted for 8696% of the variance of water temperature in unregulated streams in northern
England. The inuence of the stable thermal regime of Blitheld Reservoir probably caused lower
correlations on the River Blithe. Water temperatures of the reservoir releases varied little and yielded
insignicant r
2
values (501) when correlated with air temperatures and incoming short-wave radiation,
demonstrating the rapid equilibration of the reservoir discharges to ambient conditions within only 300 m of
the dam.
The total energy balance
Daily totals of incoming and outgoing heat energy to the river were in close agreement (Table II). The
average imbalance of thermal energy expressed as a percentage of total incoming heat was 4
.
25% during the
sampling period. This may be accounted for by changes in the heat storage within the river water as it is
heated, or errors caused by the calculation of the energy balance components. The river bed has a greater
thermal memory than the overlying water, consequently uxes calculated for any single day may be partly an
artefact of the previous day's conditions.
Table II. Values of energy ux gains and losses to the channel water during the study period (MJ m
2
day
1
)
Clear days Overcast days
22/07/94 09/09/94 23/10/94 5/11/94 21/07/94 25/09/94 29/10/94 8/11/94
K
+
gain 21
.
80 13
.
09 9
.
17 5
.
88 11
.
54 2
.
15 2
.
00 0
.
91
Q
c
gain 0
.
11
Q
h
gain 0
.
18 0
.
38 0
.
24
Q
f
gain 0
.
09 0
.
09 0
.
09 0
.
09 0
.
09 0
.
09 0
.
09 0
.
09
Q
cd
gain 0
.
01
Total energy gain 22
.
07 13
.
18 9
.
64 5
.
97 11
.
87 2
.
24 2
.
09 1
.
12
L
+
loss 9
.
44 6
.
90 6
.
13 5
.
20 5
.
38 1
.
25 1
.
53 0
.
15
Q
e
loss 6
.
15 3
.
07 2
.
27 0
.
31 3
.
69 0
.
18 0
.
04
Q
h
loss 1
.
30 0
.
38 0
.
49 0
.
41 0
.
92
Q
cd
loss 4
.
21 2
.
11 0
.
91 0
.
45 2
.
69 0
.
42 0
.
06
Q
w
loss 0
.
34 0
.
07 0
.
10 0
.
11 0
.
01
Total energy loss 20
.
14 13
.
45 9
.
41 6
.
34 11
.
87 2
.
35 2
.
04 1
.
07
Dierence 1
.
93 0
.
27 0
.
23 0
.
37 0
.
00 0
.
11 0
.
05 0
.
05
K
+
= net short-wave radiation, L
+
= net long-wave radiation, Q
e
= evaporative ux, Q
h
= sensible heat ux, Q
cd
= conductive heat
ux at channel bed, Q
f
= energy gained from friction, Q
w
= energy used in evaporation
On average, during the sample days over 82%of the total energy uxes occurred at the airwater interface,
approximately 15% at the channel bed and the remainder within the channel by frictional processes. Daily
heat uxes at the channel bed contributed as much as 24% of the total daily energy ux (5 November) and as
little as 0
.
05% (8 November). Clearly, the airwater interface represents the most important boundary for
exchanges of energy but the channel bed may form a signicant thermal sink in summer. At the end of the
study period the bed appeared to change to a thermal source for the river.
Radiation components at the airwater interface
Net all-wave radiation (Q
+
) was the main input to the energy balance at the airwater interface. The out-
going long-wave radiation emitted by the water represents the largest daily mean component of the energy
budget, followed by incoming atmospheric long-wave radiation and incoming short-wave solar radiation
(e.g. Figure 3). Reected short-wave and long-wave radiation were of minor importance; 7 and 3%, respect-
ively, of the incoming values were reected at the airwater interface. At night, net radiation was entirely
composed of net long-wave radiation (L
+
), values were therefore negative as losses exceeded gains. During the
day net radiation was positive, representing a surface radiant surplus since net short-wave radiation inputs
exceeded net long-wave losses. The net all-wave radiation was in phase with the incoming and net short-wave
radiation.
Net short-wave radiation (K
+
) levels were highest for the clear day in July and lowest for the overcast day
in November (Table III). The daily pattern of incoming short-wave solar radiation never resulted in a smooth
symmetrical curve indicating the presence of clouds. Although cloud cover may reduce incoming short-wave
radiation this input may still be signicant on overcast days (e.g. 21 July). Individual daily values of reected
short-wave radiation ranged between 6% in July to 8% in November. The albedo of the water surface
exhibited a diurnal variation, with highest values in the early evening and early morning and lowest values in
the late morning.
The daily net long-wave radiation budget (L
+
) was always negative, as outgoing long-wave radiation was
greater than the incoming long-wave (atmospheric) radiation. Average daily values of net long-wave radiation
ranged between 944 and 520 MJ m
2
on the clear days and 538 and 015 MJ m
2
on the overcast
days (Table III). Mean daily values of net long-wave radiation were less strongly negative on the overcast days
owing to increased atmospheric emissivity and lower dierentials between air and water temperatures. The
surface water displayed a small daily temperature range, less than 28C, causing an average daily variation of
5 Wm
2
in outgoing long-wave radiation on the study days. Incoming long-wave radiation was relatively
stable on the overcast days (range 5100 Wm
2
). However, incoming long-wave radiation displayed far
greater variability on the predominantly clear days (range 4170 Wm
2
) owing to changes in atmospheric
emissivity levels which are a function of air temperature, water vapour and carbon dioxide (Oke, 1978).
Table IV displays back calculated daytime and nighttime values of atmospheric emissivity. Dierences in
mean daylight and nocturnal values were small on overcast days (mean range of 0
.
04) and far greater on the
clear days (mean range of 0
.
19). The daily mean value of atmospheric emissivity for 22 July is in agreement
Table III. Radiation values at the airwater interface for clear and overcast days (MJ m
2
day
1
)
22/07/94 09/09/94 23/10/94 5/11/94 21/07/94 25/09/94 29/10/94 8/11/94
Q
+
12
.
36 6
.
19 3
.
04 0
.
68 6
.
16 0
.
90 0
.
47 0
.
77
K
+
21
.
80 13
.
09 9
.
17 5
.
88 11
.
54 2
.
15 2
.
00 0
.
91
L
+
944 690 613 520 538 125 153 015
Q
+
= net all-wave radiation, K
+
= net short-wave radiation, L
+
= net long-wave radiation
Table IV. Mean values of atmospheric emissivity for clear and overcast days
22/07/94 09/09/94 23/10/94 5/11/94 21/07/94 25/09/94 29/10/94 8/11/94
Daylight hours 0
.
61 0
.
69 0
.
62 0
.
71 0
.
77 0
.
90 0
.
88 0
.
89
Night 0
.
81 0
.
83 0
.
84 0
.
91 0
.
84 0
.
91 0
.
91 0
.
92
Total 0
.
69 0
.
74 0
.
76 0
.
82 0
.
79 0
.
90 0
.
90 0
.
91
Figure 3. Radiation components at the airwater interface. Note the dierent scales for the clear and overcast days.(Q
+
= net all-wave,
K
+
= net short-wave, L
+
= net long-wave, K = incoming short-wave, K ]= outgoing short-wave, L = incoming long-wave,
L ]= long-wave back, L
r
= reflected long-wave)
with previously published values for clear sky conditions, e.g. Hills and Viskanta (1976). The clear day
atmospheric emissivities increased between July and November, suggesting colder conditions and increasing
atmospheric moisture, these factors also explain the higher nighttime emissivities.
Attenuation of short-wave radiation in the water column
Net short-wave radiation crossed the airwater interface penetrating the water column, a large proportion
was absorbed and reected, the remainder reached the channel bed. The ratio of net short-wave radiation at
the airwater interface to net short-wave radiation at the channel bed varied from approximately 41% in
July to 25% in November. The pyranometer on the channel bed recording short-wave radiation became
obscured, probably by lamentous algae, for a short period of time in October, registering uncharacter-
istically low values. A mean value was calculated from adjacent data in October and utilized to calculate net
short-wave radiation at the bed. Recorded values of incoming short-wave radiation to the bed were, on
average, 44% lower than values calculated using an attenuation coecient (Webb and Zhang, 1997)
(Figure 4).
This dierence most likely relates to the physics of radiant energy transfer in water. Viskanta and Toor
(1972) stressed that the transmission and internal absorption of solar radiation through water does not
behave in an exponential manner, as it depends upon multiple scattering by water molecules and impurities.
A reduction in the solar zenith angle may markedly reduce the absorption of solar radiation near the air
water interface, e.g. a decrease fromcos y = 1 to 0
.
3 reduces the rate of absorption by a factor of seven (Hills
and Viskanta, 1976). This is especially important as most short-wave radiation is absorbed near the surface
(in the upper 10 cm approximately) with turbulent diusion dominating energy transfer in the lower layers
(Hills and Viskanta, 1976).
Radiation components at the channel bed
Net all-wave bed radiation represented a signicant energy balance component at the channel bed.
Generally, the channel bed gained radiant energy during the day, as net short-wave inputs exceeded net long-
wave outputs, and lost radiant energy at night (e.g. Figure 5).
Incoming and outgoing long-wave radiation constituted the two largest radiative energy uxes to the
channel bed. However, values were of a similar magnitude, owing to similar temperatures and emissivities of
the channel water and the substratum, and resulted in low values of net bed long-wave radiation (Table V).
Mean daily values of L
+
b
were slightly negative on seven of the study days. The mean daily value of L
+
b
exhibited a slightly positive value on 22 July, representing a net long-wave energy gain to the substratum,
owing to a greater temperature dierential between the channel water and the substratum. Long-wave
radiation uxes at the channel bed displayed stable daily values as variations in channel water and sub-
stratum temperatures were small (528C).
Incoming values of short-wave radiation to the channel bed (K
b
) dominated Q
+
b
on the clear days and
the overcast day in July. Mean daily inputs of short-wave radiation to the substratum were high on these
days, 458 MJ m
2
on average, and outputs (K
b
]) to the channel water were minimal as only 5% of
incident short-wave radiation was reected at the channel bed. The overcast days in September, October and
Table V. Radiation values at the channel bed during the study period (MJ m
2
day
1
)
22/07/94 09/09/94 23/10/94 5/11/94 21/07/94 25/09/94 29/10/94 8/11/94
Q
+
b
8
.
98 3
.
99 2
.
00 1
.
18 4
.
64 0
.
25 0
.
16 009
K
+
b
8
.
86 4
.
34 2
.
35 1
.
51 4
.
73 0
.
59 0
.
51 0
.
23
L
+
b
0
.
12 035 035 034 009 034 036 032
Q
+
B
= net bed all-wave radiation, K
+
b
= net bed short-wave radiation, L
+
b
= net bed long-wave radiation
Figure 4. Dierences between short-wave radiation measured by the bed pyranometer (BP) and calculated using an attenuation
coecient (AC). Calculated values of bed conduction using data from the bed pyranometer (BC1) and from the attenuation coecient
(BC2) are also shown
Figure 5. Radiation components at the channel bed. (Q
+
b
= net all-wave, K
+
b
= net short-wave, L
+
b
= net long-wave, K
b
= incoming
short-wave radiation, K
b
]= outgoing short-wave, L
b
= incoming long-wave, L
b
]= long-wave back)
November experienced far lower inputs of short-wave radiation to the substratum, 140 MJ m
2
on average,
resulting in low Q
+
b
values. On 8 November the mean daily net all-wave radiation at the channel bed was
negative, indicating that the substratum was acting as a radiant energy source to the channel water, as net
long-wave outputs from the substratum (032 MJ m
2
) exceeded net short-wave inputs from the channel
water (023 MJ m
2
).
Energy exchanges at the airwater interface
Heat uxes across the airwater interface are inuenced by radiation, evaporation, condensation and
sensible heat transfer (Figure 1). Energy transfers in precipitation were calculated and deemed negligible.
Radiative heat uxes. The net all-wave radiation (Q
+
) represented the largest daily ux of energy at the air
water interface on all of the study days. Mean Q
+
values were positive and ranged between 1236 MJ m
2
on
22 July and 047 MJ m
2
on 29 October (Table III). Net short-wave and net long-wave radiation constituted
97
.
60 and 53
.
98% of the total channel energy gains and losses, respectively, during the study period.
Latent heat uxes (Q
e
and Q
c
). Evaporation (Q
e
) from the river surface occurred on all of the study days. Q
e
attained a maximum instantaneous value of 1638 Wm
2
on 22 July. Maximum losses generally occurred
in the afternoon and early evening with minimum losses in the early hours of the morning (Figure 6). Daily
Q
e
totals varied between 615 and 004 MJ m
2
, for 22 July and 29 October, respectively (Table II).
Evaporation accounted for 23
.
56% of the total energy losses from the channel, while condensation (Q
c
)
accounted for only 0
.
16% of the total channel energy gains during the study period.
Results derived from Webb and Zhang's formulae (1997) were compared with values computed using
formulae outlined in McMillan (1973), Frempong (1983) and Sinokrot and Stefan (1994), using a wind
function equation (no. 20) from Gulliver and Stefan (1986). The alternative formulae gave virtually identical
evaporation trends as those derived from Webb and Zhang (1997). Linear regression analysis with results
from Webb and Zhang (1997) yielded r
2
values greater than 0
.
95 in all cases at the 95% condence level
(p < 0001). Calculated evaporation values fromMacMillan (1973) were 2%lower, fromSinokrot and Stefan
(1994) were 3% higher and from Frempong (1983) were 13% lower than those of Webb and Zhang (1997).
Energy removed in evaporating water (Q
w
). This term was not included in the conductive energy term of the
evaporative heat ux. However, it was relatively small, accounting for 0
.
94% of the total energy losses from
the channel.
Sensible heat transfer (Q
h
). Mean daily exchanges of energy owing to sensible heat transfer resulted in net
energy gains to the channel water from the atmosphere on three of the study days. On average, the channel
water lost energy to the atmosphere by sensible heat exchange on the remaining study days.
Instantaneous inputs to the channel by sensible heat transfer across the airwater interface reached a peak
value of 32 W m
2
during the overcast day in July. Daily sensible heat gains ranged between 0
.
38 and
018 MJ m
2
(Table II). On average, sensible heat transfer accounted for 1
.
17% of the total energy gained
by the channel water during the study days.
Sensible heat losses attained a maximum value of 2620 W m
2
on 9 September, while daily losses
ranged between 130 MJ m
2
(9 September) and 038 MJ m
2
(5 November). Sensible heat transfer
accounted for 5
.
25% of the total energy losses from the channel averaged across the study period.
Values of sensible heat transfer calculated from alternative formulae outlined in McMillan (1973),
Frempong (1983) and Sinokrot and Stefan (1994) mirrored the results derived from the formulae in Webb
and Zhang (1997). Linear regression analysis with results from Webb and Zhang (1997) yielded r
2
values
greater than 0
.
95 in all cases at the 95% condence level (p < 0001). Calculated transfers of sensible heat
from Macmillan (1973) were 7% higher, from Sinokrot and Stefan (1994) were 30% higher and from
Frempong (1983) were 15% higher than those of Webb and Zhang (1997).
Figure 6. Energy budget components for selected study days. The clear and overcast days have been plotted on dierent scales.
(Q
+
= net all-wave radiation, Q
e
= evaporation, Q
h
= sensible heat, Q
cd
= bed conduction, Q
c
= condensation)
Energy exchanges at the channel bed
Fluxes of energy may be exchanged between water in the channel and the substratum by radiative,
conductive, convective and advective processes (Figure 1).
Radiative heat uxes. Net all-wave inputs to the channel bed attained a peak value of 367 W m
2
on 22 July.
Mean daily values of net bed all-wave radiation demonstrated that the substratum acted as a daily energy
sink on seven of the study days (Table V). Daily average net all-wave inputs to the substratum exhibited a
maximum value of 898 MJ m
2
on 22 July and minimum value of 009 MJ m
2
on 8 November. Refer
to the section entitled `radiation components at the channel bed'.
Conductive heat ux (Q
cd
). The conductive heat ux term (Q
cd
) at the channel bed was calculated using
radiative uxes and vertical temperature gradients into the substratum, which probably resulted from a
mixture of conductive, convective, advective and radiative processes. Consequently, the conductive term
(Q
cd
) probably incorporates a proportion of the other heat ux components within the channel bed
(Q
+
b
; Q
cv
; Q
ad
). The total net heat exchange at the channel bed (Q
bn
) was not calculated, as advective and
convective heat uxes were not recorded individually.
Values of conductive heat exchange at the channel bed were constantly negative on the study days in July
and September, signifying outputs of energy from channel water to the substratum during the day and night.
Temperatures in the channel water continually exceeded those in the substratum and diel short-wave
radiation inputs were high (Table II). The study days in October and November exhibited positive heat ux
values at night, indicating an energy gain to the channel water from the substratum, as substratum tempera-
tures exceeded those of the channel water. During the day, heat ux values gradually turned negative as
short-wave radiation inputs to the channel bed increased (Figure 6).
Heat ux losses (Q
cd
) from the channel water to the substratum peaked at 1558 W m
2
on 22 July, and
fell to a minimum of 45 W m
2
on 8 November. Energy gains to the channel water from the substratum
attained a maximum value of 500 W m
2
on 29 October and 5 November, and a minimum value of zero on
the days in October and November. Mean daily values of the heat ux at the channel bed ranged from 421
to 001 MJ m
2
for 22 July and 8 November, respectively (Table II).
Vertical thermal proles into the substratum measured at the tail end of ries revealed signicantly
dierent daily mean conductive heat ux values (Table VI). Although thermal conductivity values varied
spatially they exerted a much smaller inuence on the conductive heat ux values compared with the vertical
thermal proles. Mean daily conductive heat ux values calculated using vertical thermal proles from
adjacent locations were approximately 5 and 12% higher at the rie tails and 14% lower at the head of
the adjacent rie. Mean daily conductive heat ux values were just 1
.
39% lower using mean thermal
conductivity values compared with individual thermal conductivity values for specic sections. Values from
Table VI. Values of bed conduction calculated using vertical thermal proles from dierent sections of two adjacent
ries (MJ m
2
day
1
); negative values indicate that the bed is acting as an energy sink and positive values signify that
the bed is acting as an energy source to the channel water (the site was located on the head of rie 1)
Rie 1 head Rie 2 head Rie 1 tail Rie 2 tail Range
22/07/94 421 381 486 462 1
.
05
09/09/94 211 194 246 257 0
.
63
23/10/94 091 087 077 100 0
.
23
5/11/94 045 036 011 040 0
.
34
21/07/94 269 232 323 304 0
.
91
25/09/94 042 018 053 060 0
.
42
29/10/94 006 0
.
01 0
.
21 004 0
.
27
8/11/94 0
.
01 0
.
15 0
.
36 0
.
17 0
.
35
Table VI indicate that on 29 October the head of rie 1 and the tail of rie 2 were acting as sinks for channel
water energy, yet the tail of rie 1 and the head of rie 2 were behaving as energy sources. Modifying the
albedo of the channel bed from 0
.
05 to 0
.
20 and 0
.
40 reduced conductive heat ux values between the
channel water and the substratum by approximately 14 and 32%. This signies that seasonal changes in
periphyton cover on the river bed may exert a signicant control on bed conduction rates and subsequently
on water temperatures within the river bed, especially at shallow depths. Conductive heat ux values (Q
cd
) at
the channel bed were approximately 30% higher using an attenuation coecient to calculate values of short-
wave radiation incident on the channel bed (Webb and Zhang, 1997), compared with conductive heat uxes
derived from recorded values of incident short-wave radiation at the channel bed (Figure 4).
Recorded values from the heat ux plates 5 cm below the channel bed (Q
hf
) followed virtually identical
trends to the calculated values of bed conduction (r
2
= 095, p < 0001). The bed conduction calculation
determines heat uxes occurring within the upper metre of the substratum and explains the lower heat ux
values from the heat ux plates, which were at a much shallower depth (Figure 7). Results from the two heat
ux plates displayed considerable heterogeneity despite being located only a few cms apart. Lag times
between incoming short-wave radiation reaching the channel bed and heat ux plate records were calculated
using rst-dierenced cross-correlation coecients. Results demonstrated a signicant lag at 15 minutes with
cross-correlation values consistently greater than 0
.
70. On average, 81% of the variation in the recorded
values from the heat ux plate were attributable to incoming short-wave radiation. The remaining variation
may be explained by convective and advective processes.
Heat ux due to uid friction (Q
f
)
Thermal energy was also added to the channel water by uid friction. However, daily gains were con-
tinually small (009 MJ m
2
) accounting for 1
.
06% of the total energy gains during the study days.
CONCLUSIONS
Air temperature and incoming short-wave radiation exerted the major control on water temperatures in the
channel. This was in agreement with results from previous studies (Crisp and Howson, 1982; Stefan and
Preud'homme, 1993; Webb and Walling, 1993). However, the thermal regime at the study site was still
strongly inuenced by homothermous discharges from the reservoir, despite rapid equilibration to ambient
meterological conditions. Net all-wave radiation constituted the dominant source of energy at the airwater
interface, and represented the largest energy ux acting upon the water in the channel (Brown, 1969;
Sinokrot and Stefan, 1993; Webb and Zhang, 1997). Generally, radiative uxes displayed a high level of
temporal variation, uctuations were attributed to the amount and height of cloud cover, ambient air
temperatures and atmospheric moisture contents. Cloudiness had a marked eect on net all-wave radiation
(Q
+
). Cloudy conditions tended to reduce the dierential between incoming and outgoing long-wave
radiation. Water surface albedo was not constant, displaying a distinct diurnal pattern, and the variation in
daily means over the study period was attributed to the changing zenith angle of the sun.
Evaporation accounted for approximately one-quarter (23
.
56%) of all heat lost fromthe channel water and
was in general agreement with gures from previous studies on British rivers (Webb and Zhang, 1997) and
lakes (Frempong, 1983). Sensible heat uxes were less signicant, accounting for 1
.
17% of the total energy
inputs and 5
.
25%of the total energy outputs. Heat uxes owing to friction, energy advected fromevaporating
water and condensation were of small magnitude and generally only constituted a minor proportion of the
daily energy budget. However, the majority of the heat uxes varied considerably in both their magnitude and
contribution to the total energy budget in response to meteorological conditions. Only the heat ux owing to
friction remained constant in magnitude because of the stable hydrological regime of the regulated river.
The results demonstratge that the use of exponential attenuation coecients (derived from Beer's and
Bouguer's laws) to calculate the amount of short-wave radiation reaching the river bed may lead to signi-
cant errors. The percentage of short-wave radiation reaching the channel bed displayed daily variation,
Figure 7. Dierences between values of bed conduction and results from heat ux plate 1. Note the dierent scales
#
1
9
9
8
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o
h
n
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e
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&
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o
n
s
,
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.
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Y
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R
O
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E
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,
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.
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,
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7
5
5
9
5
(
1
9
9
8
)
R
I
V
E
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E
N
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3
which was attributed to uctuating turbidity values (Kirk, 1985; Roos and Pieterse, 1994), and generally
decreased from July to October owing to the changing solar zenith angle. Incoming short-wave radiation
dominated the net bed radiation budget (Q
+
b
), which may form a signicant component of the river bed
energy budget and exert a strong inuence on subsurface temperature patterns, especially at shallow depths
during the summer months.
Conductive heat uxes at the channel bed represented a signicant proportion of the river energy budget,
accounting for 16
.
27% of the total heat output and 0
.
01% of total energy input to the river during the study
days. The river bed represented a signicant energy sink during the summer months, being colder than the
overlying water, and displayed signicant spatial variation in bed conduction rates. Values of bed conduction
calculated from the other rie sections altered the proportion of the total daily energy transfer occurring at
the channel bed by up to 16%. The proportion of total energy transfers taking place at the channel bed during
the study period ranged between 13 and 17% using bed conduction values calculated from adjacent rie
sections. Spatial heterogeneity may be further elevated in winter if groundwater directly upwells at the tail of
the rie and great care should be taken in selecting the location of thermal proles when evaluating bed
conduction over a reach. Results from the heat ux plates also demonstrated considerable micro-scale
variations in subsurface heat transfers. River beds are seldomuniformand considerable heterogeneity may be
caused by the uctuating albedo of the channel bed in response to seasonal changes in the levels of peri-
phyton, macrophyte and silt cover, changes in sedimentological composition and varying proportions of
surface water and groundwater.
Clearly, river energy budgets are complex, with daily variation in magnitude and composition of
individual components which govern diel uctuations in water temperature both in the river channel and
bed. Detailed characterization of all energy uxes will be required if climatic models are to predict accurately
any future changes in the thermal regimes of rivers and assess their eect on uvial ecosystems. The thermal
regime of the channel water is of primary importance to the well-being of aquatic communities and any
changes induced by global warming may lead to subtle shifts in the structure of faunal and oral com-
munities. The role of river beds should not be ignored as they constitute an important energy store/source
and represent an ecotone that forms an important habitat for aquatic invertebrates, a hatchery for salmonid
and invertebrates eggs and a prominent area for stream metabolism. The inuence of disturbances on river
beds generated by greenhouse warming must also be accurately modelled as temperature changes in these
areas may induce alterations to factors such as adult invertebrate sex ratios, size at maturity, timing of
emergence, macrophyte distribution, periphyton cover and hatching times for salmonid eggs.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Craig Evans wishes to thank the Grundy Educational Trust for nancial support during this study. Access to
the site and meteorological records was kindly provided by South Staordshire Water Company plc.
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River Energy Budgets With Special Reference To River Bed Processes

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