David, by Michelangelo (The Accademia Gallery, Florence) is an example of high Renaissance art The Renaissance ( !

" #rnes$ns#, %" #rnsns#, French pron&nciation" '$ns ( s), *talian" Rinascimento, French" Renaissance, from ri+ ,again, and nascere ,birth,)'-) .as a c&lt&ral movement that spanned ro&ghly the -/th to the -0th cent&ry, beginning in *taly in the 1ate Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of 2&rope3 The term is also &sed more loosely to refer to the historical era, b&t since the changes of the Renaissance .ere not &niform across 2&rope, this is a general &se of the term3 As a c&lt&ral movement, it encompassed a flo.ering of literat&re, science, art, religion, and politics, and a res&rgence of learning based on classical so&rces, the development of linear perspective in painting, and grad&al b&t .idespread ed&cational reform3 Traditionally, this intellect&al transformation has res&lted in the Renaissance being vie.ed as a bridge bet.een the Middle Ages and the Modern era3 Altho&gh the Renaissance sa. revol&tions in many intellect&al p&rs&its, as .ell as social and political &pheaval, it is perhaps best 4no.n for its artistic developments and the contrib&tions of s&ch polymaths as 1eonardo da 5inci and Michelangelo, .ho inspired the term ,Renaissance man,3'6)'7) There is a consens&s the Renaissance began in Florence, T&scany in the -/th cent&ry3'/) 5ario&s theories have been proposed to acco&nt for its origins and characteristics, foc&sing on a variety of factors incl&ding the social and civic pec&liarities of Florence at the time8 its political str&ct&re8 the patronage of its dominant family, the Medici8 '9)':)

and the migration of Gree4 scholars and texts to *taly follo.ing the Fall of ;onstantinople at the hands of the <ttoman T&r4s3'0)'=)'>) The Renaissance has a long and complex historiography, and there has been m&ch debate among historians as to the &sef&lness of Renaissance as a term and as a historical delineation3'-?) %ome have called into @&estion .hether the Renaissance .as a c&lt&ral ,advance, from the Middle Ages, instead seeing it as a period of pessimism and nostalgia for the classical age,'--) .hile others have instead foc&sed on the contin&ity bet.een the t.o eras3'-6) *ndeed, some have called for an end to the &se of the term, .hich they see as a prod&ct of presentism A the &se of history to validate and glorify modern ideals3'-7) The .ord Renaissance has also been &sed to describe other historical and c&lt&ral movements, s&ch as the ;arolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the -6th cent&ry3 ;ontents - <vervie. 6 <rigins 63- 1atin and Gree4 Bhases of Renaissance h&manism 636 %ocial and political str&ct&res in *taly 637 Clac4 Death#Blag&e 63/ ;&lt&ral conditions in Florence 7 ;haracteristics 73- D&manism 736 Art 737 %cience 73/ Religion 739 %elf+a.areness / %pread /3- Eorthern 2&rope /36 Bort&gal /37 ;roatia /3/ %pain /39 2ngland /3: France /30 Germany /3= D&ngary /3> Eetherlands /3-? Boland /3-- R&ssia 9 Distoriography 93- ;onception 936 Debates abo&t progress : <ther Renaissances 0 %ee also = Eotes > References >3- Brimary so&rces -? 2xternal lin4s

'edit) <vervie. Renaissance

Topics Architect&re Dance 1iterat&re M&sic Bainting Bhilosophy %cience Technology Farfare Regions 2ngland France Germany *taly Eetherlands Eorthern 2&rope Boland %pain vGdGe

1eonardo da 5inciHs 5itr&vian Man sho.s clearly the effect .riters of Anti@&ity had on Renaissance thin4ers3 Cased on the specifications in 5itr&vi&sHs De architect&ra aro&nd -9?? years before, Da 5inci tried to dra. the perfectly proportioned man3 The Renaissance .as a c&lt&ral movement that profo&ndly affected 2&ropean intellect&al life in the early modern period3 Ceginning in *taly, and spreading to the rest of 2&rope by the -:th cent&ry, its infl&ence .as felt in literat&re, philosophy, art, politics, science, religion, and other aspects of intellect&al in@&iry3 Renaissance scholars employed the h&manist method in st&dy, and searched for realism and h&man emotion in art3'-/) Renaissance thin4ers so&ght o&t in 2&ropeHs monastic libraries and the cr&mbling CyIantine 2mpire the literary, historical, and oratorical texts of anti@&ity, typically .ritten in 1atin or ancient Gree4, many of .hich had fallen into obsc&rity3 *t is in their ne. foc&s on literary and historical texts that Renaissance scholars differed so mar4edly from the medieval scholars of the Renaissance of the -6th cent&ry, .ho had foc&sed on st&dying Gree4 and Arabic .or4s of nat&ral sciences, philosophy and mathematics, rather than on s&ch c&lt&ral texts3 Renaissance h&manists did not reJect ;hristianity8 @&ite the contrary, many of the RenaissanceHs greatest .or4s .ere devoted to it, and the ;h&rch patroniIed many .or4s of Renaissance art3 Do.ever, a s&btle shift too4 place in the .ay that intellect&als approached religion that .as reflected in many other areas of c&lt&ral life3'-9) *n addition, many Gree4 ;hristian .or4s, incl&ding the Gree4 Ee. Testament, .ere bro&ght bac4 from CyIanti&m to Festern 2&rope and engaged Festern scholars for the first time since late anti@&ity3 This ne. engagement .ith Gree4 ;hristian .or4s, and partic&larly the ret&rn to the original Gree4 of the Ee. Testament promoted by h&manists 1orenIo 5alla and 2rasm&s, .o&ld help pave the .ay for the Brotestant Reformation3 Artists s&ch as Masaccio strove to portray the h&man form realistically, developing techni@&es to render perspective and light more nat&rally3 Bolitical philosophers, most famo&sly EiccolK Machiavelli, so&ght to describe political life as it really .as, that is to &nderstand it rationally3 A critical contrib&tion to *talian Renaissance h&manism Bico della Mirandola .rote the famo&s text ,De hominis dignitate, (<ration on the Dignity of Man, -/=:), .hich consists of a series of theses on philosophy, nat&ral tho&ght, faith and

magic defended against any opponent on the gro&nds of reason3 *n addition to st&dying classical 1atin and Gree4, Renaissance a&thors also began increasingly to &se vernac&lar lang&ages8 combined .ith the introd&ction of printing, this .o&ld allo. many more people access to boo4s, especially the Cible3'-:) *n all, the Renaissance co&ld be vie.ed as an attempt by intellect&als to st&dy and improve the sec&lar and .orldly, both thro&gh the revival of ideas from anti@&ity, and thro&gh novel approaches to tho&ght3 %ome scholars, s&ch as Rodney %tar4,'-0) play do.n the Renaissance in favor of the earlier innovations of the *talian city states in the Digh Middle Ages, .hich married responsive government, ;hristianity and the birth of capitalism3 This analysis arg&es that, .hereas the great 2&ropean states (France and %pain) .ere absol&tist monarchies, and others .ere &nder direct ;h&rch control, the independent city rep&blics of *taly too4 over the principles of capitalism invented on monastic estates and set off a vast &nprecedented commercial revol&tion .hich preceded and financed the Renaissance3 'edit) <rigins

Florence, the center of Renaissance Main article" *talian Renaissance Most historians agree that the ideas that characteriIed the Renaissance had their origin in late -7th cent&ry Florence, in partic&lar .ith the .ritings of Dante Alighieri (-6:9A-76-) and Francesco Betrarca (-7?/A-70/), as .ell as the painting of Giotto di Condone (-6:0A -770)3'-=) %ome .riters date the Renaissance @&ite precisely8 one proposed starting point is -/?-, .hen the rival geni&ses 1orenIo Ghiberti and Filippo Cr&nelleschi competed for the contract to b&ild the bronIe doors for the Captistery of the Florence ;athedral (Ghiberti .on)3'->) <thers see more general competition bet.een artists and polymaths s&ch as Cr&nelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Masaccio for artistic commissions as spar4ing the creativity of the Renaissance3 Let it remains m&ch debated .hy the Renaissance began in *taly, and .hy it began .hen it did3 Accordingly, several theories have been p&t for.ard to explain its origins3 D&ring the Renaissance, money and art .ent hand in hand3 Artists depended totally on patrons .hile the patrons needed money to s&stain geni&ses3 Fealth .as bro&ght to *taly in the -/th, -9th, and -:th cent&ries by expanding trade into Asia and 2&rope3 %ilver mining in Tyrol increased the flo. of money3 1&x&ries from the 2astern .orld, bro&ght home d&ring the ;r&sades, increased the prosperity of Genoa and 5enice3'6?) 'edit) 1atin and Gree4 Bhases of Renaissance h&manism

*n star4 contrast to the Digh Middle Ages, .hen 1atin scholars foc&sed almost entirely on st&dying Gree4 and Arabic .or4s of nat&ral science, philosophy and mathematics,'6-) Renaissance scholars .ere most interested in recovering and st&dying 1atin and Gree4 literary, historical, and oratorical texts3 Croadly spea4ing, this began in the -/th cent&ry .ith a 1atin phase, .hen Renaissance scholars s&ch as Betrarch, ;ol&ccio %al&tati (-77-A -/?:), EiccolK deH Eiccoli (-7:/A-/70) and Boggio Cracciolini (-7=?A-/9> AD) sco&red the libraries of 2&rope in search of .or4s by s&ch 1atin a&thors as ;icero, 1ivy and %eneca3'66) Cy the early -9th cent&ry, the b&l4 of s&ch 1atin literat&re had been recovered8 the Gree4 phase of Renaissance h&manism .as no. &nder .ay, as Festern 2&ropean scholars t&rned to recovering ancient Gree4 literary, historical, oratorical and theological texts3'67)

;ol&ccio %al&tati3 nli4e the case of those 1atin texts, .hich had been preserved and st&died in Festern 2&rope since late anti@&ity, the st&dy of ancient Gree4 texts .as very limited in medieval Festern 2&rope3 Ancient Gree4 .or4s on science, maths and philosophy had been st&died since the Digh Middle Ages in Festern 2&rope and in the medieval *slamic .orld (normally in translation), b&t Gree4 literary, oratorical and historical .or4s, (s&ch as Domer, the Gree4 dramatists, Demosthenes and Th&cydides and so forth), .ere not st&died in either the 1atin or medieval *slamic .orlds8 in the Middle Ages these sorts of texts .ere only st&died by CyIantine scholars3 <ne of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars .as to bring this entire class of Gree4 c&lt&ral .or4s bac4 into Festern 2&rope for the first time since late anti@&ity3 This movement to reintegrate the reg&lar st&dy of Gree4 literary, historical, oratorical and theological texts bac4 into the Festern 2&ropean c&rric&l&m is &s&ally dated to ;ol&ccio %al&tatiHs invitation to the CyIantine diplomat and scholar Man&el ;hrysoloras (c3-799A-/-9) to Florence to teach Gree43'6/) 'edit) %ocial and political str&ct&res in *taly

A political map of the *talian Benins&la circa -/>/ The &ni@&e political str&ct&res of late Middle Ages *taly have led some to theoriIe that its &n&s&al social climate allo.ed the emergence of a rare c&lt&ral efflorescence3 *taly did not exist as a political entity in the early modern period3 *nstead, it .as divided into smaller city states and territories" the !ingdom of Eaples controlled the so&th, the Rep&blic of Florence and the Bapal %tates at the center, the Milanese and the Genoese to the north and .est respectively, and the 5enetians to the east3 Fifteenth+cent&ry *taly .as one of the most &rbanised areas in 2&rope3'69) Many of its cities stood among the r&ins of ancient Roman b&ildings8 it seems li4ely that the classical nat&re of the Renaissance .as lin4ed to its origin in the Roman 2mpireHs heartland3'6:) Distorian and political philosopher M&entin %4inner points o&t that <tto of Freising (c3 ---/A--9=), a German bishop visiting north *taly d&ring the -6th cent&ry, noticed a .idespread ne. form of political and social organiIation, observing that *taly appeared to have exited from Fe&dalism so that its society .as based on merchants and commerce3 1in4ed to this .as anti+monarchical thin4ing, represented in the famo&s early Renaissance fresco cycle Allegory of Good and Cad Government in %iena by Ambrogio 1orenIetti (painted -77=A-7/?) .hose strong message is abo&t the virt&es of fairness, J&stice, rep&blicanism and good administration3 Dolding both ;h&rch and 2mpire at bay, these city rep&blics .ere devoted to notions of liberty3 %4inner reports that there .ere many defences of liberty s&ch as Matteo BalmieriHs (-/?:A-/09) celebration of Florentine geni&s not only in art, sc&lpt&re and architect&re, b&t ,the remar4able efflorescence of moral, social and political philosophy that occ&rred in Florence at the same time,3'60) 2ven cities and states beyond central *taly, s&ch as the Rep&blic of Florence at this time, .ere also notable for their merchant Rep&blics, especially the Rep&blic of 5enice3 Altho&gh in practice these .ere oligarchical, and bore little resemblance to a modern democracy, they did have democratic feat&res and .ere responsive states, .ith forms of participation in governance and belief in liberty3'6=)'6>)'7?) The relative political freedom they afforded .as cond&cive to academic and artistic advancement3'7-) 1i4e.ise, the position of *talian cities s&ch as 5enice as great trading centres made them

intellect&al crossroads3 Merchants bro&ght .ith them ideas from far corners of the globe, partic&larly the 1evant3 5enice .as 2&ropeHs gate.ay to trade .ith the 2ast, and a prod&cer of fine glass, .hile Florence .as a capital of textiles3 The .ealth s&ch b&siness bro&ght to *taly meant large p&blic and private artistic proJects co&ld be commissioned and individ&als had more leis&re time for st&dy3'7-) 'edit) Clac4 Death#Blag&e <ne theory that has been advanced is that the devastation ca&sed by the Clac4 Death in Florence, .hich hit 2&rope bet.een -7/= and -79?, res&lted in a shift in the .orld vie. of people in -/th+cent&ry *taly3 *taly .as partic&larly badly hit by the plag&e, and it has been spec&lated that the res&lting familiarity .ith death ca&sed thin4ers to d.ell more on their lives on 2arth, rather than on spirit&ality and the afterlife3'76) *t has also been arg&ed that the Clac4 Death prompted a ne. .ave of piety, manifested in the sponsorship of religio&s .or4s of art3'77) Do.ever, this does not f&lly explain .hy the Renaissance occ&rred specifically in *taly in the -/th cent&ry3 The Clac4 Death .as a pandemic that affected all of 2&rope in the .ays described, not only *taly3 The RenaissanceHs emergence in *taly .as most li4ely the res&lt of the complex interaction of the above factors3'-?) The plag&e .as carried by fleas on sailing vessels ret&rning from the ports of Asia, spreading @&ic4ly d&e to lac4 of proper sanitation" the pop&lation of 2ngland, then abo&t /36 million, lost -3/ million people to the b&bonic plag&e3 FlorenceHs pop&lation .as nearly halved in the year -7/03 As a res&lt of the decimation in the pop&lace the val&e of the .or4ing class increased, and commoners came to enJoy more freedom3 To ans.er the increased need for labor, .or4ers traveled in search of the most favorable position economically3'7/) The demographic decline d&e to the plag&e had some economic conse@&ences" the prices of food dropped and land val&es declined by 7? to /? percent in most parts of 2&rope bet.een -79? and -/??3'79) 1andholders faced a great loss b&t for ordinary men and .omen, it .as a .indfall3 The s&rvivors of the plag&e fo&nd not only that the prices of food .ere cheaper b&t also fo&nd that lands .ere more ab&ndant, and that most of them inherited property from their dead relatives3 'edit) ;&lt&ral conditions in Florence

1orenIo deH Medici, r&ler of Florence and patron of arts *t has long been a matter of debate .hy the Renaissance began in Florence, and not else.here in *taly3 %cholars have noted several feat&res &ni@&e to Florentine c&lt&ral life .hich may have ca&sed s&ch a c&lt&ral movement3 Many have emphasiIed the role

played by the Medici, a ban4ing family and later d&cal r&ling ho&se, in patroniIing and stim&lating the arts3 1orenIo deH Medici (-//>A-/>6) .as the catalyst for an enormo&s amo&nt of arts patronage, enco&raging his co&ntryman to commission .or4s from FlorenceHs leading artists, incl&ding 1eonardo da 5inci, %andro Cotticelli, and Michelangelo C&onarroti3'9) The Renaissance .as certainly &nder.ay before 1orenIo came to po.er8 indeed, before the Medici family itself achieved hegemony in Florentine society3 %ome historians have post&lated that Florence .as the birthplace of the Renaissance as a res&lt of l&c4, i3e3 beca&se ,Great Men, .ere born there by chance3'7:) Da 5inci, Cotticelli and Michelangelo .ere all born in T&scany3 Arg&ing that s&ch chance seems improbable, other historians have contended that these ,Great Men, .ere only able to rise to prominence beca&se of the prevailing c&lt&ral conditions at the time3'70) 'edit) ;haracteristics 'edit) D&manism Main article" Renaissance h&manism *n some .ays D&manism .as not a philosophy per se, b&t rather a method of learning3 *n contrast to the medieval scholastic mode, .hich foc&sed on resolving contradictions bet.een a&thors, h&manists .o&ld st&dy ancient texts in the original, and appraise them thro&gh a combination of reasoning and empirical evidence3 D&manist ed&cation .as based on the programme of H%t&dia D&manitatisH, that being the st&dy of five h&manities" poetry, grammar, history, moral philosophy and rhetoric3 Altho&gh historians have sometimes str&ggled to define h&manism precisely, most have settled on ,a middle of the road definition333 the movement to recover, interpret, and assimilate the lang&age, literat&re, learning and val&es of ancient Greece and Rome,3'7=) Above all, h&manists asserted ,the geni&s of man 333 the &ni@&e and extraordinary ability of the h&man mind3,'7>) D&manist scholars shaped the intellect&al landscape thro&gho&t the early modern period3 Bolitical philosophers s&ch as EiccolK Machiavelli and Thomas More revived the ideas of Gree4 and Roman thin4ers, and applied them in criti@&es of contemporary government3 Bico della Mirandola .rote .hat is often considered the manifesto of the Renaissance, a vibrant defence of thin4ing, the <ration on the Dignity of Man3 Matteo Balmieri (-/?:A -/09), another h&manist, is most 4no.n for his .or4 Della vita civile (,<n ;ivic 1ife,8 printed -96=) .hich advocated civic h&manism, and his infl&ence in refining the T&scan vernac&lar to the same level as 1atin3 BalmieriHs .ritten .or4s dra.n on Roman philosophers and theorists, especially ;icero, .ho, li4e Balmieri, lived an active p&blic life as a citiIen and official, as .ell as a theorist and philosopher and also M&intilian3 Berhaps the most s&ccinct expression of his perspective on h&manism is in a -/:9 poetic .or4 1a cittN di vita, b&t an earlier .or4 Della vita civile (<n ;ivic 1ife) is more .ide+ ranging3 ;omposed as a series of dialog&es set in a co&ntry ho&se in the M&gello co&ntryside o&tside Florence d&ring the plag&e of -/7?, Balmieri expo&nds on the @&alities of the ideal citiIen3 The dialog&es incl&de ideas abo&t ho. children develop mentally and physically, ho. citiIens can cond&ct themselves morally, ho. citiIens and states can ens&re probity in p&blic life, and an important debate on the difference bet.een that .hich is pragmatically &sef&l and that .hich is honest3 The h&manists believed that it is important to transcend to the afterlife .ith a perfect mind and body3 This transcending belief can be done .ith ed&cation3 The p&rpose of

h&manism .as to create a &niversal man .hose person combined intellect&al and physical excellence and .ho .as capable of f&nctioning honorably in virt&ally any sit&ation3'/?) This ideology .as referred to as il &omo &niversal, an ancient Greco+ Roman ideal3 The ed&cation d&ring Renaissance .as mainly composed of ancient literat&re and history3 *t .as tho&ght that the classics provided moral instr&ction and an intensive &nderstanding of h&man behavior3 'edit) Art Main articles" *talian Renaissance painting, Renaissance painting, and Renaissance architect&re

The ;reation of Adam by Michelangelo The Renaissance mar4s the period of 2&ropean history at the close of the Middle Ages and the rise of the Modern .orld3 *t represents a c&lt&ral rebirth from the -/th thro&gh the middle of the -0th cent&ries3 2arly Renaissance, mostly in *taly, bridges the art period d&ring the fifteenth cent&ry, bet.een the Middle Ages and the Digh Renaissance in *taly3 *t is generally 4no.n that Renaissance mat&red in Eorthern 2&rope later, in -:th cent&ry3 '/-) <ne of the disting&ishing feat&res of Renaissance art .as its development of highly realistic linear perspective3 Giotto di Condone (-6:0A-770) is credited .ith first treating a painting as a .indo. into space, b&t it .as not &ntil the demonstrations of architect Filippo Cr&nelleschi (-700A-//:) and the s&bse@&ent .ritings of 1eon Cattista Alberti (-/?/A-/06) that perspective .as formaliIed as an artistic techni@&e3'/6) The development of perspective .as part of a .ider trend to.ards realism in the arts3'/7) To that end, painters also developed other techni@&es, st&dying light, shado., and, famo&sly in the case of 1eonardo da 5inci, h&man anatomy3 nderlying these changes in artistic method, .as a rene.ed desire to depict the bea&ty of nat&re, and to &nravel the axioms of aesthetics, .ith the .or4s of 1eonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael representing artistic pinnacles that .ere to be m&ch imitated by other artists3'//) <ther notable artists incl&de %andro Cotticelli, .or4ing for the Medici in Florence, Donatello another Florentine and Titian in 5enice, among others3 ;onc&rrently, in the Eetherlands, a partic&larly vibrant artistic c&lt&re developed, the .or4 of D&go van der Goes and Oan van 2yc4 having partic&lar infl&ence on the development of painting in *taly, both technically .ith the introd&ction of oil paint and canvas, and stylistically in terms of nat&ralism in representation3 (For more, see Renaissance in the Eetherlands)3 1ater, the .or4 of Bieter Cr&eghel the 2lder .o&ld inspire artists to depict themes of everyday life3'/9)

1eonardo da 5inci %elf+portrait, his Mona 1isa, The 1ast %&pper and 5itr&vian Man are examples of Renaissance art *n architect&re, Filippo Cr&nelleschi .as foremost in st&dying the remains of ancient classical b&ildings, and .ith rediscovered 4no.ledge from the -st+cent&ry .riter 5itr&vi&s and the flo&rishing discipline of mathematics, form&lated the Renaissance style .hich em&lated and improved on classical forms3 Cr&nelleschiHs maJor feat of engineering .as the b&ilding of the dome of Florence ;athedral3'/:) The first b&ilding to demonstrate this is claimed to be the ch&rch of %t3 Andre. b&ilt by Alberti in Mant&a3 The o&tstanding architect&ral .or4 of the Digh Renaissance .as the reb&ilding of %t3 BeterHs Casilica, combining the s4ills of Cramante, Michelangelo, Raphael, %angallo and Maderno3

Mona 1isa by 1eonardo da 5inci is a master piece of Renaissance and .orld art The Roman orders types of col&mns are &sed" T&scan, Doric, *onic, ;orinthian and ;omposite3 These can either be str&ct&ral, s&pporting an arcade or architrave, or p&rely decorative, set against a .all in the form of pilasters3 D&ring the Renaissance, architects aimed to &se col&mns, pilasters, and entablat&res as an integrated system3 <ne of the first

b&ildings to &se pilasters as an integrated system .as in the <ld %acristy (-/6-A-//?) by Filippo Cr&nelleschi3'/0) Arches, semi+circ&lar or (in the Mannerist style) segmental, are often &sed in arcades, s&pported on piers or col&mns .ith capitals3 There may be a section of entablat&re bet.een the capital and the springing of the arch3 Alberti .as one of the first to &se the arch on a mon&mental3 Renaissance va&lts do not have ribs3 They are semi+circ&lar or segmental and on a s@&are plan, &nli4e the Gothic va&lt .hich is fre@&ently rectang&lar3 The Renaissance artists .ere not pagans altho&gh they admired anti@&ity and they also 4ept some ideas and symbols of the medieval past3 Eicola Bisano (c3 -66?+c3 -60=) imitated classical forms by portraying scenes from the Cible3 The An&nciation by Eicola Bisano, from the Captistry at Bisa, demonstrates that classical models infl&enced *talian art before the Renaissance too4 root as a literary movement '/=) 'edit) %cience Main articles" Distory of science in the Renaissance and Renaissance technology

-9/7H 5esali&sH st&dies inspired interest in h&man anatomy3

Galileo Galilei3 Bortrait in crayon by Renaissance sc&lptor 1eone 1eoni The rediscovery of ancient texts and the invention of printing democratiIed learning and allo.ed a faster propagation of ideas3 C&t the first period of *talian Renaissance is often seen as one of scientific bac4.ardness" h&manists favo&red the st&dy of h&manities over nat&ral philosophy or applied mathematics3 And their reverence for classical so&rces f&rther enshrined the Aristotelian and Btolemaic vie.s of the &niverse3

2ven tho&gh, aro&nd -/9?, the .ritings of Eicholas ;&san&s .ere anticipating ;opernic&sP heliocentric .orld+vie., it .as made in a non+scientific fashion3 %cience and art .ere very m&ch intermingled in the early Renaissance, .ith polymath artists s&ch as 1eonardo da 5inci ma4ing observational dra.ings of anatomy and nat&re3 De set &p controlled experiments in .ater flo., medical dissection, and systematic st&dy of movement and aerodynamics8 he devised principles of research method that lead to FritJof ;apra classifying him as ,father of modern science,3'/>) *n -/>6 the discovery of the ,Ee. Forld, by ;hristopher ;ol&mb&s challenged the classical .orld+vie., as the .or4s of Btolemy (geography) and Galen (medicine) .ere fo&nd not al.ays to match everyday observations" a s&itable environment .as created to @&estion scientific doctrine3 As the Brotestant Reformation and ;o&nter+Reformation clashed, the Eorthern Renaissance sho.ed a decisive shift in foc&s from Aristotelean nat&ral philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences (botany, anatomy, and medicine)3'9?) The .illingness to @&estion previo&sly held tr&ths and search for ne. ans.ers res&lted in a period of maJor scientific advancements3 %ome have seen this as a ,scientific revol&tion,, heralding the beginning of the modern age3'9-) <thers as an acceleration of a contin&o&s process stretching from the ancient .orld to the present day3'96) Regardless, there is general agreement that the Renaissance sa. significant changes in the .ay the &niverse .as vie.ed and the methods so&ght to explain nat&ral phenomena3'97) Traditionally held to have beg&n in -9/7, .hen .ere first printed the boo4s De h&mani corporis fabrica (<n the For4ings of the D&man Cody) by Andreas 5esali&s, .hich gave a ne. confidence to the role of dissection, observation, and mechanistic vie. of anatomy3,'97) and also De Revol&tionib&s, by the Eicola&s ;opernic&s3 The revol&tionary thesis of ;opernic&sH boo4 .as that the 2arth moved aro&nd the %&n3 %ignificant scientific advances .ere made d&ring this time by Galileo Galilei, Tycho Crahe and Oohannes !epler3'9/) Berhaps the most significant development of the era .as not a specific discovery, b&t rather a process for discovery, the scientific method3'97) This revol&tionary ne. .ay of learning abo&t the .orld foc&sed on empirical evidence, the importance of mathematics, and discarded the Aristotelian ,final ca&se, in favor of a mechanical philosophy3 2arly and infl&ential proponents of these ideas incl&ded ;opernic&s and Galileo and Francis Cacon'99)'9:) The ne. scientific method led to great contrib&tions in the fields of astronomy, physics, biology, and anatomy3 'edit) Religion Main articles" Brotestant Reformation and ;o&nter+Reformation

Alexander 5*, a Corgia Bope infamo&s for his corr&ption

Adoration of the Magi and %olomon adored by the M&een of %heba from the Farnese Do&rs by Gi&lio ;lovio mar4s the end of the *talian Renaissance of ill&minated man&script together .ith the *ndex 1ibror&m Brohibitor&m3 The ne. ideals of h&manism, altho&gh more sec&lar in some aspects, developed against a ;hristian bac4drop, especially in the Eorthern Renaissance3 *ndeed, m&ch (if not most) of the ne. art .as commissioned by or in dedication to the ;h&rch3'-9) Do.ever, the Renaissance had a profo&nd effect on contemporary theology, partic&larly in the .ay people perceived the relationship bet.een man and God3'-9) Many of the periodHs foremost theologians .ere follo.ers of the h&manist method, incl&ding 2rasm&s, Q.ingli, Thomas More, Martin 1&ther, and Oohn ;alvin3 The Renaissance began in times of religio&s t&rmoil3 The late Middle Ages sa. a period of political intrig&e s&rro&nding the Bapacy, c&lminating in the Festern %chism, in .hich three men sim&ltaneo&sly claimed to be tr&e Cishop of Rome3'90) Fhile the schism .as resolved by the ;o&ncil of ;onstance (-/-/), the -9th cent&ry sa. a res&lting reform movement 4no.n as ;onciliarism, .hich so&ght to limit the popeHs po.er3 Altho&gh the papacy event&ally emerged s&preme in ecclesiastical matters by the Fifth ;o&ncil of the 1ateran (-9--), it .as dogged by contin&ed acc&sations of corr&ption, most famo&sly in the person of Bope Alexander 5*, .ho .as acc&sed vario&sly of simony, nepotism and fathering fo&r illegitimate children .hilst Bope, .hom he married off to gain more po.er3'9=)

;h&rchmen s&ch as 2rasm&s and 1&ther proposed reform to the ;h&rch, often based on h&manist text&al criticism of the Ee. Testament3'-9) *ndeed, it .as 1&ther .ho in <ctober -9-0 p&blished the >9 Theses, challenging papal a&thority and criticiIing its perceived corr&ption, partic&larly .ith regard to its sale of ind&lgences3 The >9 Theses led to the Reformation, a brea4 .ith the Roman ;atholic ;h&rch that previo&sly claimed hegemony in Festern 2&rope3 D&manism and the Renaissance therefore played a direct role in spar4ing the Reformation, as .ell as in many other contemporaneo&s religio&s debates and conflicts3 *n an era follo.ing the sac4 of Rome in -960 and prevalent .ith &ncertainties in the ;atholic ;h&rch follo.ing the Brotestant Reformation, Bope Ba&l *** came to the papal throne (-97/A-9/>), to .hom Eicola&s ;opernic&s dedicated De revol&tionib&s orbi&m coelesti&m (<n the Revol&tions of the ;elestial %pheres) and .ho became the grandfather of Alessandro Farnese (cardinal), .ho had paintings by Titian, Michelangelo, and Raphael, and an important collection of dra.ings and .ho commissioned the masterpiece of Gi&lio ;lovio, arg&ably the last maJor ill&minated man&script, the Farnese Do&rs3 'edit) %elf+a.areness Cy the -9th cent&ry, .riters, artists and architects in *taly .ere .ell a.are of the transformations that .ere ta4ing place and .ere &sing phrases li4e modi antichi (in the anti@&e manner) or alle romana et alla antica (in the manner of the Romans and the ancients) to describe their .or43 *n the -77?s Betrarch referred to pre+;hristian times as anti@&a (ancient) and to the ;hristian period as nova (ne.)3'9>) From BetrarchHs *talian perspective, this ne. period (.hich incl&ded his o.n time) .as an age of national eclipse3'9>) 1eonardo Cr&ni .as the first to &se tripartite periodiIation in his Distory of the Florentine Beople (-//6)3':?) Cr&niHs first t.o periods .ere based on those of Betrarch, b&t he added a third period beca&se he believed that *taly .as no longer in a state of decline3 Flavio Ciondo &sed a similar frame.or4 in Decades of Distory from the Deterioration of the Roman 2mpire (-/7>A-/97)3 D&manist historians arg&ed that contemporary scholarship restored direct lin4s to the classical period, th&s bypassing the Medieval period, .hich they then named for the first time the ,Middle Ages,3 The term first appears in 1atin in -/:> as media tempestas (middle times)3':-) The term la rinascita (rebirth) first appeared, ho.ever, in its broad sense in Giorgio 5asariHs 5ite deH piR eccellenti architetti, pittori, et sc&ltori *taliani (The 1ives of the Artists, -99?, revised -9:=)3':6)':7) 5asari divides the age into three phases" the first phase contains ;imab&e, Giotto, and Arnolfo di ;ambio8 the second phase contains Masaccio, Cr&nelleschi, and Donatello8 the third centers on 1eonardo da 5inci and c&lminates .ith Michelangelo3 *t .as not J&st the gro.ing a.areness of classical anti@&ity that drove this development, according to 5asari, b&t also the gro.ing desire to st&dy and imitate nat&re3':/) 'edit) %pread *n the -9th cent&ry, the Renaissance spread .ith great speed from its birthplace in Florence, first to the rest of *taly, and soon to the rest of 2&rope3 The invention of the printing press allo.ed the rapid transmission of these ne. ideas3 As it spread, its ideas diversified and changed, being adapted to local c&lt&re3 *n the 6?th cent&ry, scholars began to brea4 the Renaissance into regional and national movements3 'edit) Eorthern 2&rope

Main article" Eorthern Renaissance The Renaissance as it occ&rred in Eorthern 2&rope has been termed the ,Eorthern Renaissance,3 Fhile Renaissance ideas .ere moving north from *taly, there .as a sim&ltaneo&s so&th.ard spread of some areas of innovation, partic&larly in m&sic3':9) The m&sic of the -9th cent&ry C&rg&ndian %chool defined the beginning of the Renaissance in that art and the polyphony of the Eetherlanders, as it moved .ith the m&sicians themselves into *taly, formed the core of .hat .as the first tr&e international style in m&sic since the standardiIation of Gregorian ;hant in the >th cent&ry3':9) The c&lmination of the Eetherlandish school .as in the m&sic of the *talian composer, Balestrina3 At the end of the -:th cent&ry *taly again became a center of m&sical innovation, .ith the development of the polychoral style of the 5enetian %chool, .hich spread north.ard into Germany aro&nd -:??3 The paintings of the *talian Renaissance differed from those of the Eorthern Renaissance3 *talian Renaissance artists .ere among the first to paint sec&lar scenes, brea4ing a.ay from the p&rely religio&s art of medieval painters3 At first, Eorthern Renaissance artists remained foc&sed on religio&s s&bJects, s&ch as the contemporary religio&s &pheaval portrayed by Albrecht DSrer3 1ater on, the .or4s of Bieter Cr&egel infl&enced artists to paint scenes of daily life rather than religio&s or classical themes3 *t .as also d&ring the Eorthern Renaissance that Flemish brothers D&bert and Oan van 2yc4 perfected the oil painting techni@&e, .hich enabled artists to prod&ce strong colors on a hard s&rface that co&ld s&rvive for cent&ries3'::) A feat&re of the Eorthern Renaissance .as its &se of the vernac&lar in place of 1atin or Gree4, .hich allo.ed greater freedom of expression3 This movement had started in *taly .ith the decisive infl&ence of Dante Alighieri on the development of vernac&lar lang&ages8 in fact the foc&s on .riting in *talian has neglected a maJor so&rce of Florentine ideas expressed in 1atin3':0) The spread of the technology of the German invention of movable type printing boosted the Renaissance, in Eorthern 2&rope as else.here8 .ith 5enice becoming a .orld center of printing3 'edit) Bort&gal

,Terra Crasilis,, -9-> map by Bedro Reinel and 1opo Domem, Miller Atlas, French Eational 1ibrary in Baris Altho&gh *talian Renaissance had a modest impact in Bort&g&ese arts, Bort&gal .as infl&ential in broadening the 2&ropean .orldvie.,':=) stim&lating h&manist in@&iry3 Renaissance arrived thro&gh the infl&ence of .ealthy *talian and Flemish merchants .ho invested in the profitable commerce overseas3 As the pioneer head@&arters of 2&ropean exploration, 1isbon flo&rished in the late -9th cent&ry, attracting experts .ho made

several brea4thro&ghs in mathematics, astronomy and naval technology incl&ding Bedro E&nes, OoTo de ;astro, Abraham Qac&to and Martin Cehaim3 ;artographers Bedro Reinel, 1opo Domem, 2steban GUmeI and Diogo Ribeiro made cr&cial advances to help mapping the .orld3 Apothecary TomV Bires and physicians Garcia de <rta and ;ristUbal Acosta collected and p&blished .or4s on plants and medicines, soon translated by Flemish pioneer botanist ;arol&s ;l&si&s3 *n architect&re, the h&ge profits of the spice trade financed a s&mpt&o&s composite style in the first decades of the -:th cent&ry, the Man&eline, incorporating maritime elements3 ':>) The main painters being E&no GonWalves, GregUrio 1opes and 5asco Fernandes3 *n m&sic, Bedro de 2scobar and D&arte 1obo, and fo&r songboo4s, incl&ding the ;ancioneiro de 2lvas3 *n literat&re, %X de Miranda introd&ced *talian forms of verse, Cernardim Ribeiro developed pastoral romance8 Gil 5icente plays f&sed it .ith pop&lar c&lt&re, reporting the changing times, and 1&Ys de ;amZes inscribed the Bort&g&ese feats overseas in the epic poem the 1&siads3 Travel literat&re specially flo&rished" OoTo de Carros, ;astanheda, AntUnio GalvTo, Gaspar ;orreia, D&arte Carbosa, FernTo Mendes Binto, among others, described ne. lands and .ere translated and spread .ith the ne. printing press3':=) After Joining the Bort&g&ese exploration of CraIil in -9??, Amerigo 5esp&cci coined the term Ee. Forld,':>) in his letters to 1orenIo di Bierfrancesco deH Medici3 The intense international exchange prod&ced several cosmopolitan h&manist scholars" Francisco de Dolanda, AndrV de Resende and DamiTo de Gois, a friend of 2rasm&s .ho .rote .ith rare independence on the reign of !ing Man&el *8 Diogo and AndrV de Go&veia, .ho made relevant teaching reforms via France3 Foreign ne.s and prod&cts in the Bort&g&ese factory in Ant.erp attracted the interest of Thomas More'0?) and D&rer to the .ider .orld3'0-) There, profits and 4no.+ho. helped n&rt&re the D&tch Renaissance and Golden Age, especially after the arrival of the .ealthy c&lt&red Oe.ish comm&nity expelled from Bort&gal3 'edit) ;roatia Main article" Renaissance in ;roatia 'edit) %pain Main article" %panish Renaissance The Renaissance arrived in the *berian penins&la thro&gh the Mediterranean possessions of the Aragonese ;ro.n and the city of 5alencia3 *ndeed, many of the early %panish Renaissance .riters come from the !ingdom of Aragon, incl&ding A&siNs March and Ooanot Martorell3 *n the !ingdom of ;astile, the early Renaissance .as heavily infl&enced by the *talian h&manism, starting .ith .riters and poets starting .ith the Mar@&is of %antillana, .ho introd&ced the ne. *talian poetry to %pain in the early -9th cent&ry3 <ther .riters, s&ch as Oorge Manri@&e, Fernando de RoJas, O&an del 2ncina, O&an CoscXn AlmogXver and Garcilaso de la 5ega, 4ept a close resemblance to the *talian canon3 Mig&el de ;ervantesHs masterpiece Don M&ixote is credited as the first Festern novel3 Renaissance h&manism flo&rished in the early -:th cent&ry, .ith infl&ential .riters s&ch as philosopher O&an 1&is 5ives, grammarian Antonio de EebriJa or nat&ral historian Bedro de MexYa3 1ater %panish Renaissance tended to.ards religio&s themes and mysticism, .ith poets s&ch as fray 1&is de 1eUn, Teresa of [vila and Oohn of the ;ross, and treated iss&es related to the exploration of the Ee. Forld, .ith chroniclers and .riters s&ch as *nca

Garcilaso de la 5ega or CartolomV de las ;asas, giving rise to a body of .or4, no. 4no.n as %panish Renaissance literat&re3 The late Renaissance in %pain also sa. the rise of artists s&ch as 2l Greco, and composers s&ch as TomXs 1&is de 5ictoria and Antonio de ;abeIUn3 'edit) 2ngland Main article" 2nglish Renaissance

,Fhat a piece of .or4 is a man, ho. noble in reason, ho. infinite in fac&lties, in form and moving ho. express and admirable, in action ho. li4e an angel, in apprehension ho. li4e a god\, ] from Filliam %ha4espeareHs Damlet3 *n 2ngland, the 2liIabethan era mar4ed the beginning of the 2nglish Renaissance .ith the .or4 of .riters Filliam %ha4espeare, ;hristopher Marlo.e, 2dm&nd %penser, %ir Thomas More, Francis Cacon, %ir Bhilip %idney, Oohn Milton, as .ell as great artists, architects (s&ch as *nigo Oones .ho introd&ced *talianate architect&re to 2ngland), and composers s&ch as Thomas Tallis, Oohn Taverner, and Filliam Cyrd3 'edit) France Main article" French Renaissance *n -/>9 the *talian Renaissance arrived in France, imported by !ing ;harles 5*** after his invasion of *taly3 A factor that promoted the spread of sec&larism .as the ;h&rchHs inability to offer assistance against the Clac4 Death3 Francis * imported *talian art and artists, incl&ding 1eonardo da 5inci, and b&ilt ornate palaces at great expense3 Friters s&ch as FranWois Rabelais, Bierre de Ronsard, Ooachim d& Cellay and Michel de Montaigne, painters s&ch as Oean ;lo&et and m&sicians s&ch as Oean Mo&ton also borro.ed from the spirit of the *talian Renaissance3 *n -977, a fo&rteen+year old ;aterina deH Medici, (-9->A-9=>) born in Florence to 1orenIo ** deH Medici and Madeleine de la To&r dHA&vergne married Denry, second son of !ing Francis * and M&een ;la&de3 Tho&gh she became famo&s and infamo&s for her role in FranceHs religio&s .ars, she made a direct contrib&tion in bringing arts, sciences and m&sic (incl&ding the origins of ballet) to the French co&rt from her native Florence3 'edit) Germany Main article" German Renaissance *n the second half of the -9th cent&ry, the spirit of the age spread to Germany and the 1o. ;o&ntries, .here the development of the printing press (ca3 -/9?) and early Renaissance artists li4e the painters Oan van 2yc4 (-7>9A-//-) and Dieronym&s Cosch (-/9?A-9-:) and the composers Oohannes <c4eghem (-/-?A-/>0), Oacob <brecht

(-/90A-9?9) and Oos@&in des BreI (-/99A-96-), predated the infl&ence from *taly3 *n the early Brotestant areas of the co&ntry h&manism became closely lin4ed to the t&rmoil of the Brotestant Reformation, and the art and .riting of the German Renaissance fre@&ently reflected this disp&te3'06) Do.ever, the gothic style and medieval scholastic philosophy remained excl&sively &ntil the t&rn of the -:th cent&ry3 2mperor Maximilian * of Dabsb&rg (R&ling"-/>7A-9->) .as the first tr&ly Renaissance monarch of the Doly Roman 2mpire, later 4no.n as ,Doly Roman 2mpire of the German Eation, (Diet of ;ologne -9-6)3 'edit) D&ngary The Renaissance style came directly from *taly d&ring the M&attrocento to D&ngary first in the ;entral 2&ropean region, than4s to the development of early D&ngarian+*talian relationships A not only in dynastic connections, b&t also in c&lt&ral, h&manistic and commercial relations A gro.ing in strength from the -/th cent&ry3 *talian architect&ral infl&ence became stronger in the reign of Qsigmond than4s to the ch&rch fo&ndations of the Florentine %colaries and the castle constr&ctions of Bipo of <Iora3 The relationship bet.een D&ngarian and *talian Gothic styles .as a second reason A exaggerated brea4thro&gh of .alls is avoided, preferring clean and light str&ct&res3 The ne. *talian trend combined .ith existing national traditions to create a partic&lar local Renaissance art3 Acceptance of Renaissance art .as f&rthered by the contin&o&s arrival of h&manist tho&ght in the co&ntry3 Many yo&ng D&ngarians st&dying at *talian &niversities came closer to the Florentine h&manist center, so a direct connection .ith Florence evolved3 The gro.ing n&mber of *talian traders moving to D&ngary, specially to C&da, helped this process3 Ee. tho&ghts .ere carried by the h&manist prelates, among them 5itVI OXnos, archbishop of 2sItergom, one of the fo&nders of D&ngarian h&manism3'07) D&ring the long reign of emperor %igism&nd of 1&xemb&rg the Royal ;astle of C&da became probably the largest Gothic palace of the late Middle Ages3 !ing Matthias ;orvin&s (r3 -/9=A-/>?) reb&ilt the palace in early Renaissance style and f&rther explanded it3'0/)'09) After the marriage in -/0: of 4ing Matthias to Ceatrice of Eaples, C&da became one of the most important artistic centres of the Renaissance north of the Alps3'0:) The most important h&manists living in MatthiasH co&rt .ere Antonio Confini and the famo&s D&ngarian poet Oan&s Bannoni&s3'0:) AndrXs Dess set &p a printing press in C&da in -/063 Matthias ;orvin&sHs library, the Cibliotheca ;orviniana, .as 2&ropeHs greatest collections of sec&lar boo4s" historical chronicles, philosophic and scientific .or4s in the -9th cent&ry3 Dis library .as second only in siIe to the 5atican 1ibrary3 (Do.ever, the 5atican 1ibrary mainly contained Cibles and religio&s materials3)'00) *n -/=>, Cartolomeo della Fonte of Florence .rote that 1orenIo de Medici fo&nded his o.n Gree4+1atin library enco&raged by the example of the D&ngarian 4ing3 ;orvin&sHs library is part of E2%;< Forld Deritage3'0=) <ther important fig&res of D&ngarian Renaissance" CXlint Calassi (poet), %ebestyVn TinUdi 1antos (poet), CXlint Ca4far4 (composer and l&tenist)

2rasm&s of Rotterdam in -967 as depicted by Dans Dolbein the Lo&nger 'edit) Eetherlands Main article" Renaissance in the Eetherlands 'edit) Boland Main article" Renaissance in Boland

BoIna^ ;ity Dall reb&ilt from the Gothic style by Giovanni Catista di M&adro (-99?A -999) An early *talian h&manist .ho came to Boland in the mid+-9th cent&ry .as Filip ;allimach&s3 Many *talian artists came to Boland .ith Cona %forIa of Milan, .hen she married !ing Qygm&nt * of Boland in -9-=3'0>) This .as s&pported by temporarily strengthened monarchies in both areas, as .ell as by ne.ly established &niversities3'=?) The Bolish Renaissance lasted from the late -9th to the late -:th cent&ry and is .idely considered to have been the Golden Age of Bolish c&lt&re3 R&led by the Oagiellon dynasty, the !ingdom of Boland (from -9:> 4no.n as the Bolish+1ith&anian ;ommon.ealth) actively participated in the broad 2&ropean Renaissance3 The m&lti+ national Bolish state experienced a s&bstantial period of c&lt&ral gro.th than4s in part to a cent&ry .itho&t maJor .ars A aside from conflicts in the sparsely pop&lated eastern and so&thern borderlands3 The Reformation spread peacef&lly thro&gho&t the co&ntry (giving rise to the Bolish Crethren), .hile living conditions improved, cities gre., and exports of

agric&lt&ral prod&cts enriched the pop&lation, especially the nobility (sIlachta) .ho gained dominance in the ne. political system of Golden 1iberty3 'edit) R&ssia Renaissance trends from *taly and ;entral 2&rope infl&enced R&ssia in many .ays, tho&gh this infl&ence .as rather limited d&e to the large distances bet.een R&ssia and the main 2&ropean c&lt&ral centers, on one hand, and the strong adherence of R&ssians to their <rthodox traditions and CyIantine legacy, on the other hand3 Brince *van *** introd&ced Renaissance architect&re to R&ssia by inviting a n&mber of architects from *taly, .ho bro&ght ne. constr&ction techni@&es and some Renaissance style elements .ith them, .hile in general follo.ing the traditional designs of the R&ssian architect&re3 *n -/09 the Colognese architect Aristotele Fioravanti came to reb&ild the ;athedral of the Dormition in the Mosco. !remlin, damaged in an earth@&a4e3 Fioravanti .as given the -6th+cent&ry 5ladimir ;athedral as a model, and prod&ced a design combining traditional R&ssian style .ith a Renaissance sense of spacio&sness, proportion and symmetry3

The Balace of Facets on the ;athedral %@&are of the Mosco. !remlin3 *n -/=9 *van *** commissioned the b&ilding of a royal Terem Balace .ithin the !remlin, .ith Aloisio da Milano being the architect of the first three floors3 Aloisio da Milano, as .ell as the other *talian architects, also greatly contrib&ted to the constr&ction of the !remlin .alls and to.ers3 The small ban@&eting hall of the R&ssian Tsars, called the Balace of Facets beca&se of its facetted &pper story, is the .or4 of t.o *talians, Marco R&ffo and Bietro %olario, and sho.s a more *talian style3 *n -9?9, an *talian 4no.n in R&ssia as AleviI Eovyi or AleviI FryaIin arrived in Mosco.3 De may have been the 5enetian sc&lptor, Alevisio 1amberti da Montagne3 De b&ilt -6 ch&rches for *van ***, incl&ding the ;athedral of the Archangel, a b&ilding remar4able for the s&ccessf&l blending of R&ssian tradition, <rthodox re@&irements and Renaissance style3 *t is believed that the ;athedral of the Metropolitan Beter in 5yso4opetrovs4y Monastery, another .or4 of AleviI Eovyi, later served as an inspiration for the so called octagon+on+ tetragon architect&ral form in the Mosco. Caro@&e of the late -0th cent&ry3

Theoto4os and The ;hild, the late -0th cent&ry R&ssian icon by !arp Qolotaryov, .ith a notably realistic depiction of faces and clothing3 Cet.een the early -:th and the late -0th cent&ries, ho.ever, an original tradition of stone tented roof architect&re had been developed in R&ssia3 *t .as @&ite &ni@&e and different from the contemporary Renaissance architect&re else.here in 2&rope, tho&gh some researches call that style HR&ssian GothicH and compare it .ith the 2&ropean Gothic architect&re of the earlier period3 The *talians, .ith their advanced technology, may have infl&enced the invention of the stone tented roof (the .ooden tents .ere 4no.n in R&ssia and 2&rope long before)3 According to one hypothesis, an *talian architect called Betro4 Maly may have been an a&thor of the Ascension ;h&rch in !olomens4oye, one of the earliest and most prominent tented roof ch&rches3'=-) Cy the -0th cent&ry the infl&ence of Renaissance painting res&lted in R&ssian icons becoming slightly more realistic, .hile still follo.ing most of the old icon painting canons, as seen in the .or4s of Cogdan %altanov, %imon sha4ov, G&ry Ei4itin, !arp Qolotaryov and other R&ssian artists of the era3 Grad&ally the ne. type of sec&lar portrait painting appeared, called pars_na (from ,persona, A person), .hich .as transitional style bet.een abstract iconographics and real paintings3 *n the mid -:th cent&ry R&ssians adopted printing from ;entral 2&rope, .ith *van Fyodorov being the first 4no.n R&ssian printer3 *n the -0th cent&ry printing became .idespread, and .oodc&ts became especially pop&lar3 That led to the development of a special form of fol4 art 4no.n as l&bo4 printing, .hich persisted in R&ssia .ell into the ->th cent&ry3 A n&mber of technologies of Renaissance period .as adopted by R&ssians from 2&rope rather early, and perfected s&bse@&ently to became a part of strong domestic tradition3 Mostly these .ere military technologies, s&ch as cannon casting adopted at least in the -9th cent&ry3 The Tsar ;annon, .hich is the .orldHs largest bombard by caliber, is the masterpiece of R&ssian cannon ma4ing3 *t .as cast in -9=: by Andrey ;ho4hov, and is notable also by its rich relief decoration3 Another technology, that according to one hypothesis originally .as bro&ght from 2&rope by *talians, res&lted in the development of vod4a, the national beverage of R&ssia3 As early as -7=: the Genoese ambassadors bro&ght the first a@&a vitae (,the living .ater,) to Mosco. and presented it to Grand

D&4e Dmitry Dons4oy3 The Genoese li4ely got this beverage .ith the help of the alchemists of Brovance, .ho &sed the Arab+invented distillation apparat&s to convert grape m&st into alcohol3 A Moscovite mon4 called *sidore &sed this technology to prod&ce the first original R&ssian vod4a c3 -/7?3'=6) 'edit) Distoriography 'edit) ;onception The term .as first &sed retrospectively by the *talian artist and critic Giorgio 5asari (-9--A-90/) in his boo4 The 1ives of the Artists (p&blished -99?)3 *n the boo4 5asari .as attempting to define .hat he described as a brea4 .ith the barbarities of gothic art" the arts had fallen into decay .ith the collapse of the Roman 2mpire and only the T&scan artists, beginning .ith ;imab&e (-6/?A-7?-) and Giotto (-6:0A-770) began to reverse this decline in the arts3 According to 5asari, anti@&e art .as central to the rebirth of *talian art3'=7) Do.ever, it .as not &ntil the ->th cent&ry that the French .ord Renaissance achieved pop&larity in describing the c&lt&ral movement that began in the late+-7th cent&ry3 The Renaissance .as first defined by French historian O&les Michelet (-0>=A-=0/), in his -=99 .or4, Distoire de France3 For Michelet, the Renaissance .as more a development in science than in art and c&lt&re3 De asserted that it spanned the period from ;ol&mb&s to ;opernic&s to Galileo8 that is, from the end of the -9th cent&ry to the middle of the -0th cent&ry3'=/) Moreover, Michelet disting&ished bet.een .hat he called, ,the biIarre and monstro&s, @&ality of the Middle Ages and the democratic val&es that he, as a vocal Rep&blican, chose to see in its character3'-?) A French nationalist, Michelet also so&ght to claim the Renaissance as a French movement3'-?) The %.iss historian Oacob C&rc4hardt (-=-=A-=>0) in his Die ;&lt&r der Renaissance in *talien (-=:?), by contrast, defined the Renaissance as the period bet.een Giotto and Michelangelo in *taly, that is, the -/th to mid+-:th cent&ries3 De sa. in the Renaissance the emergence of the modern spirit of individ&ality, .hich had been stifled in the Middle Ages3'=9) Dis boo4 .as .idely read and .as infl&ential in the development of the modern interpretation of the *talian Renaissance3'=:) Do.ever, C&c4hardt has been acc&sed of setting forth a linear Fhiggish vie. of history in seeing the Renaissance as the origin of the modern .orld3'-6) More recently, historians have been m&ch less 4een to define the Renaissance as a historical age, or even a coherent c&lt&ral movement3 Randolph %tarn, Distorian at the niversity of ;alifornia Cer4eley, stated" ,Rather than a period .ith definitive beginnings and endings and consistent content in bet.een, the Renaissance can be (and occasionally has been) seen as a movement of practices and ideas to .hich specific gro&ps and identifiable persons vario&sly responded in different times and places3 *t .o&ld be in this sense a net.or4 of diverse, sometimes converging, sometimes conflicting c&lt&res, not a single, time+bo&nd c&lt&re,3'-6) 'edit) Debates abo&t progress %ee also" ;ontin&ity thesis

Bainting of the %t3 Cartholome.Hs Day Massacre, an event in the French Fars of Religion, by FranWois D&bois There is debate abo&t the extent to .hich the Renaissance improved on the c&lt&re of the Middle Ages3 Coth Michelet and C&rc4hardt .ere 4een to describe the progress made in the Renaissance to.ards the modern age3 C&rc4hardt li4ened the change to a veil being removed from manHs eyes, allo.ing him to see clearly3'7:) *n the Middle Ages both sides of h&man conscio&sness A that .hich .as t&rned .ithin as that .hich .as t&rned .itho&t A lay dreaming or half a.a4e beneath a common veil3 The veil .as .oven of faith, ill&sion, and childish prepossession, thro&gh .hich the .orld and history .ere seen clad in strange h&es3'=0) ]Oacob C&rc4hardt, The ;iviliIation of the Renaissance in *taly <n the other hand, many historians no. point o&t that most of the negative social factors pop&larly associated .ith the medieval period A poverty, .arfare, religio&s and political persec&tion, for example A seem to have .orsened in this era .hich sa. the rise of Machiavellian politics, the Fars of Religion, the corr&pt Corgia Bopes, and the intensified .itch+h&nts of the -:th cent&ry3 Many people .ho lived d&ring the Renaissance did not vie. it as the ,golden age, imagined by certain ->th+cent&ry a&thors, b&t .ere concerned by these social maladies3'==) %ignificantly, tho&gh, the artists, .riters, and patrons involved in the c&lt&ral movements in @&estion believed they .ere living in a ne. era that .as a clean brea4 from the Middle Ages3':6) %ome Marxist historians prefer to describe the Renaissance in material terms, holding the vie. that the changes in art, literat&re, and philosophy .ere part of a general economic trend from fe&dalism to.ards capitalism, res&lting in a bo&rgeois class .ith leis&re time to devote to the arts3'=>) Oohan D&iIinga (-=06A->/9) ac4no.ledged the existence of the Renaissance b&t @&estioned .hether it .as a positive change3 *n his boo4 The Faning of the Middle Ages, he arg&ed that the Renaissance .as a period of decline from the Digh Middle Ages, destroying m&ch that .as important3'--) The 1atin lang&age, for instance, had evolved greatly from the classical period and .as still a living lang&age &sed in the ch&rch and else.here3 The Renaissance obsession .ith classical p&rity halted its f&rther evol&tion and sa. 1atin revert to its classical form3 Robert %3 1opeI has contended that it .as a period of deep economic recession3'>?) Mean.hile George %arton and 1ynn Thorndi4e have both arg&ed that scientific progress .as perhaps less original than has traditionally been s&pposed3'>-) Finally, Ooan !elly arg&ed that the Renaissance led to greater gender dichotomy, lessening the agency .omen had had d&ring the Middle Ages3 '>6) %ome historians have beg&n to consider the .ord Renaissance to be &nnecessarily loaded, implying an &nambig&o&sly positive rebirth from the s&pposedly more primitive ,Dar4 Ages, (Middle Ages)3 Many historians no. prefer to &se the term ,2arly Modern, for

this period, a more ne&tral designation that highlights the period as a transitional one bet.een the Middle Ages and the modern era3'>7) <thers s&ch as Roger <sborne have come to consider the *talian Renaissance as a repository of the myths and ideals of .estern history in general, and instead of rebirth of ancient ideas as a period of great innovation '>/) 'edit) <ther Renaissances The term Renaissance has also been &sed to define periods o&tside of the -9th and -:th cent&ries3 ;harles D3 Das4ins (-=0?A->70), for example, made a case for a Renaissance of the -6th cent&ry3'>9) <ther historians have arg&ed for a ;arolingian Renaissance in the =th and >th cent&ries, and still later for an <ttonian Renaissance in the -?th cent&ry3 '>:) <ther periods of c&lt&ral rebirth have also been termed ,renaissances,, s&ch as the Cengal Renaissance, al+Eahda or the Darlem Renaissance3 'edit) %ee also Main article" <&tline of the Renaissance *talian Renaissance Feser Renaissance Gilded .oodcarving 1ist of Renaissance fig&res 1ist of Renaissance str&ct&res Medical Renaissance Age of 2nlightenment %cientific Revol&tion Festern c&lt&re 1a Renaissance en M&estion -+6 by 1ina M&rr Eehme 'edit) Eotes ` ,Renaissance, <nline 2tymology Dictionary,3 2tymonline3com3 http"##...3etymonline3com#index3phpasearchbrenaissancecsearchmodebnone3 Retrieved 6??>+?0+7-3 ` CC; %cience and Eat&re, 1eonardo da 5inci Retrieved on May -6, 6??0 ` CC; Distory, Michelangelo Retrieved on May -6, 6??0 ` C&r4e, B3, The 2&ropean Renaissance" ;entre and Beripheries (Clac4.ell, <xford ->>=) ` a b %trathern, Ba&l The Medici" Godfathers of the Renaissance (6??7) ` Beter Carenboim, %ergey %hiyan, Michelangelo" Mysteries of Medici ;hapel, %1<5<, Mosco., 6??:3 *%CE 9+=9?9?+=96+6 ` 2ncyclopedia Critannica, Renaissance, 6??=, <32d3 ` Dar, Michael D3 Distory of 1ibraries in the Festern Forld, %carecro. Bress *ncorporate, ->>>, *%CE?=-?=706/6 ` Eor.ich, Oohn O&li&s, A %hort Distory of CyIanti&m, ->>0, !nopf, *%CE?:0>/9?==6 ` a b c d Crotton, O3, The Renaissance" A 5ery %hort *ntrod&ction, < B, 6??:3 ` a b D&iIanga, Oohan, The Faning of the Middle Ages (->->, trans3 ->6/) ` a b c %tarn, Randolph3 ,Renaissance Red&x, The American Distorical Revie. 5ol3-?7 Eo3- p3-6/ (%&bscription re@&ired for O%T<R lin4) ` The *dea of the Renaissance, Richard Doo4er, Fashington %tate niversity Febsite (Retrieved on May 6) ` Berry, M3 D&manities in the Festern Tradition, ;h3 -7

` a b c d <pen niversity, 1oo4ing at the Renaissance" Religio&s ;ontext in the Renaissance (Retrieved on May -?, 6??0) ` <pen niversity, 1oo4ing at the Renaissance" rban economy and government (Retrieved May -9, 6??0) ` %tar4, Rodney, The 5ictory of Reason, Random Do&se, EL" 6??9 ` %ee belo., &nder ,%o&rces,3 ` Fal4er, Ba&l Robert, The Fe&d that spar4ed the Renaissance" Do. Cr&nelleschi and Ghiberti ;hanged the Art Forld, (Ee. Lor4, Berennial+Darper ;ollins, 6??7) ` %every, Merle8 Thomas b Allen, Ross Cennett, O&les C Cillard, R&ssell Co&rne, 2d.ard 1ano&tte, David F Robinson, 5erla 1ee %mith (->0?)3 The Renaissance A Ma4er of Modern Man3 Eational Geographic %ociety3 *%CE ?=0?//?>-=3 ` For information on this earlier, very different approach to a different set of ancient texts (scientific texts rather than c&lt&ral texts) see 1atin translations of the -6th cent&ry, and *slamic contrib&tions to Medieval 2&rope3 ` 13D3 Reynolds and Eigel Filson, %cribes and %cholars" A g&ide to the transmission of Gree4 and 1atin 1iterat&re ;larendon Bress, <xford, ->0/, p3--7+-673 ` 13D3 Reynolds and Eigel G3 Filson, %cribes and scholars p3 -678 -7?A-703 ` 13D3 Reynolds and Eigel G3 Filson, %cribes and scholars, p3 -->, -7-3 ` !irshner, O&li&s, Family and Marriage" A socio+legal perspective, *taly in the Age of the Renaissance" -7??A-99?, ed3 Oohn M3 EaJemy (<xford niversity Bress, 6??/) p3=> (Retrieved on -?+?9+6??0) ` C&rc4hardt, Oacob, The Revival of Anti@&ityH, The ;iviliIation of the Renaissance in *taly (trans3 by %3G3;3 Middlemore, -=0=) ` %4inner, M&entin, The Fo&ndations of Modern Bolitical Tho&ght, vol *" The Renaissance8 vol **" The Age of Reformation, ;ambridge niversity Bress, p3 :> ` %4inner, M&entin, The Fo&ndations of Modern Bolitical Tho&ght, vol *" The Renaissance8 vol **" The Age of Reformation, ;ambridge niversity Bress, p3 :>) ` %tar4, Rodney, The 5ictory of Reason, Ee. Lor4, Random Do&se, 6??9 ` Martin, O3 and Romano, D3, 5enice Reconsidered, Caltimore, Oohns Dop4ins niversity, 6??? ` a b C&rc4hardt, Oacob, The Rep&blics" 5enice and Florence, The ;iviliIation of the Renaissance in *taly, translated by %3G3;3 Middlemore, -=0=3 ` For more, see Carbara T&chmanHs boo4, A Distant Mirror3 ` The 2nd of 2&ropeHs Middle Ages" The Clac4 Death niversity of ;algary .ebsite3 (Retrieved on April 9, 6??0) ` EetIley, Batricia D3 1ife D&ring the Renaissance3%an Diego"1&cent Coo4s, *nc3, ->>=3 ` Da&se, %3 c Maltby, F3 (6??-)3 A Distory of 2&ropean %ociety3 2ssentials of Festern ;iviliIation (5ol3 6, pp3 6-0)3 Celmont, ;A" Thomson 1earning, *nc3 ` a b C&rc4hardt, Oacob, The Development of the *ndivid&al, The ;iviliIation of the Renaissance in *taly, translated by %3G3;3 Middlemore, -=0=3 ` %tephens, O3, *ndivid&alism and the c&lt of creative personality, The *talian Renaissance, Ee. Lor4, ->>? p3 -6-3 ` C&r4e, B3, The spread of *talian h&manism, in The impact of h&manism on .estern 2&rope, ed3 A3 Goodman and A3 Mac!ay, 1ondon, ->>?, p3 63 ` As asserted by GianoIIo Manetti in <n the Dignity and 2xcellence of Man, cited in ;lare, O3, *talian Renaissance3

` Da&se, %3 c Maltby, F3 (6??-)3 A Distory of 2&ropean %ociety3 2ssentials of Festern ;iviliIation (5ol3 6, pp3 6/9A6/:)3 Celmont, ;A" Thomson 1earning, *nc3 ` ,2arly Renaissance + 2arly Renaissance Art,3 D&ntfor3com3 http"##...3h&ntfor3com#arthistory#renaissance#earlyrenaiss3htm3 Retrieved 6?--+?0+-03 ` ;lare, Oohn D3 c Millen, Alan, *talian Renaissance, 1ondon, ->>/, p3 -/3 ` %tor4, David G3 <ptics and Realism in Renaissance Art (Retrieved on May -?, 6??0) ` 5asari, Giorgio, 1ives of the Artists, translated by George C&ll, Beng&in ;lassics, ->:9, *%CE ?+-/+?//+-:/+:3 ` Beter Cr&eghel Ciography, Feb Gallery of Art (Retrieved on May -?, 6??0) ` Doo4er, Richard, Architect&re and B&blic %pace (Retrieved on May -?, 6??0) ` %aalman, Do.ard (->>7)3 Filippo Cr&nelleschi" The C&ildings3 Q.emmer3 *%CE ?60-?-?:073 ` Da&se, %3 c Maltby, F3 (6??-)3 A Distory of 2&ropean %ociety3 2ssentials of Festern ;iviliIation (5ol3 6, pp3 69?A69-)3 Celmont, ;A" Thomson 1earning, *nc3 ` ;apra, FritJof, The %cience of 1eonardo8 *nside the Mind of the Great Geni&s of the Renaissance, Ee. Lor4, Do&bleday, 6??03 2xha&stive 6??0 st&dy by FritJof ;apra sho.s that 1eonardo .as a m&ch greater scientist than previo&sly tho&ght, and not J&st an inventor3 *n science theory and in cond&cting act&al science practice, 1eonardo .as innovative3 *n ;apraHs detailed assessment of many s&rviving man&scripts 1eonardoHs science is more in t&ne .ith holistic non+mechanistic and non+red&ctive approaches to science .hich are becoming pop&lar today3 ` Allen Deb&s, Man and Eat&re in the Renaissance, (;ambridge" ;ambridge niv3 Br3, ->0=)3 ` C&tterfield, Derbert, The <rigins of Modern %cience, -7??A-=??, p3 viii ` %hapin, %teven3 The %cientific Revol&tion, ;hicago" niversity of ;hicago Bress, ->>:, p3 -3 ` a b c Crotton, O3, ,%cience and Bhilosophy,, The Renaissance" A 5ery %hort *ntrod&ction < B, 6??:3 ` ,%cientific Revol&tion, in 2ncarta3 6??03 '-) ` 5an Doren, ;harles (->>-) A Distory of !no.ledge Callantine, Ee. Lor4, pages 6--A 6-6, *%CE ?+7/9+707-:+6 ` C&r4e, Beter (6???) A %ocial Distory of !no.ledge" From G&tenberg to Diderot Bolity Bress, ;ambridge, Massach&setts, page /?, *%CE ?+0/9:+6/=/+0 ` ;atholic 2ncyclopedia, Festern %chism (Retrieved on May -?, 6??0) ` ;atholic 2ncyclopedia, Alexander 5* (Retrieved on May -?, 6??0) ` a b Mommsen, Theodore (->/6)3 ,BetrarchHs ;onception of the HDar4 AgesH,3 %pec&l&m (;ambridge MA" Medieval Academy of America) -0 (6)" 66:A6/63 doi"-?367?0#6=9:7:/3 O%T<R 6=9:7:/3 ` 1eonardo Cr&ni, Oames Dan4ins, Distory of the Florentine people, 5ol&me -, Coo4s -A /, (6??-), p3 xvii3 ` Albro., Martin, The global age" state and society beyond modernity (->>0), p3 6?93 ` a b Banofs4y, 2r.in3 Renaissance and Renascences in Festern Art, Ee. Lor4" Darper and Ro., ->:?3 ` The <pen niversity G&ide to the Renaissance, Defining the Renaissance (Retrieved on May -?, 6??0)

` %ohm, Bhilip3 %tyle in the Art Theory of 2arly Modern *taly (;ambridge" ;ambridge niversity Bress, 6??-) ` a b 1Xng, Ba&l Denry3 ,The %o ;alled Eetherlands %chools,, The M&sical M&arterly, 5ol3 69, Eo3 -3 (Oan3, ->7>), pp3 /=A9>3 (%&bscription re@&ired for O%T<R lin43) ` Bainting in <il in the 1o. ;o&ntries and *ts %pread to %o&thern 2&rope, Metropolitan M&se&m of Art .ebsite3 (Retrieved April 9A6??0) ` ;elenIa, ;hristopher, (6??/) The 1ost *talian Renaissance" D&manists, Distorians, and 1atinHs 1egacy3 Caltimore, Oohns Dop4ins niversity Bress ` a b niversity, Cro.n, The Oohn ;arter Cro.n 1ibrary3 ,Bort&g&ese <verseas Travels and 2&ropean Readers,3 Bort&gal and Renaissance 2&rope3 O;C 2xhibitions3 http"##...3bro.n3ed&#Facilities#Oohnd;arterdCro.nd1ibrary#Bort&gal#<verseas3html3 Retrieved -> O&ly 6?--3 ` a b Cergin, %pea4e, Oennifer and Thomas G3 (6??/)3 2ncyclopedia of the Renaissance and the Reformation3 *nfobase B&blishing3 *%CE ?=-:?9/9-03 http"##boo4s3google3com#boo4saidb5<b/h*p022=;clpgbBB-cd@b2ncyclopediae6?of e6?thee6?Renaissancee6?ande6?the e6?ReformationcpgbBB-fvbonepagec@cfbfalse3 ` CietenholI, Beter G3 , Thomas Crian De&tscher (6??7)3 ;ontemporaries of 2rasm&s" a biographical register of the Renaissance and Reformation, 5ol&mes -+73 niversity of Toronto Bress3 p3 663 *%CE ?=?6?=900:3 http"##boo4s3google3com#boo4sa idbhr&M7=:%fFc;clpgbRA-+BA66cd@bBort&g&esee6?Factorye6?ine6?Ant.erp e6?Thomase6?MorecpgbRA-+BA66fvbonepagec@bBort&g&esee6?Factorye6?in e6?Ant.erpe6?Thomase6?Morecfbfalse3 ` 1ach, Donald Frederic4 (->>/)3 Asia in the ma4ing of 2&rope" A cent&ry of .onder3 The literary arts3 The scholarly disciplines ( niversity of ;hicago Bress, ->>/ ed3)3 *%CE ?66:/:07773 http"##boo4s3google3com#boo4sa idbhh27sBL0=s?;clpgbBA:cd@bBort&g&esee6?Factorye6?ine6?Ant.erpe6?D&rer e6?M<recpgbBA:fvbonepagec@bBort&g&esee6?Factorye6?ine6?Ant.erp e6?D&rere6?M<recfbfalse3 Retrieved 6?--+?0+-93 ` Revie. of 1e.is %pitI, The Religio&s Renaissance of the German D&manists3 Revie. by Gerald %tra&ss, 2nglish Distorical Revie., 5ol3 =?, Eo3 7-/, p3-9:3 Available on O%T<R (s&bscription re@&ired)3 ` ,the infl&ences of the florentine renaissance in h&ngary,3 FondaIione+delbianco3org3 http"##...3fondaIione+delbianco3org#inglese#relaI??d?-#mester3htm3 Retrieved 6??>+?0+ 7-3 ` Distory section" Mi4lUs Dorler" C&dapest mgemlV4ei *, Cp" ->99, pp3 69>A7?0 ` Bost+.ar reconstr&ction" 1XsIlU Gerh" A helyreXllYtott b&dai vXr, Cp, ->=?, pp3 --A:?3 ` a b ;IigXny, 1UrXnt, A Distory of D&ngarian 1iterat&re, ,The Renaissance in D&ngary, (Retrieved on May -?, 6??0) ` Marc&s Tanner, The Raven !ing" Matthias ;orvin&s and the Fate of his 1ost 1ibrary (Ee. Daven" Lale 3B3, 6??=) ` '6)'dead lin4) ` %forIa, (-/>/,e26e=?e>7,-990),->9=3html Distory of Boland on Bolish GovernmentHs .ebsite (Retrieved on April /A6??0) ` For example, the re+establishment of Oagiellonian niversity in -7:/3

` The first stone tented roof ch&rch and the origins of the tented roof architect&re by %ergey Qagraevs4y at R&sArch3r& (R&ssian) ` Bo4hleb4in 53 53 # ijklmnopq r3 r3 (6??0)3 The history of vod4a # stujvpw xjyop3 Mosco." Tsentrpoligraph # z{quv|jlp}v~3 p3 6063 *%CE 9+>96/+-=>9+73 ` ,Defining the Renaissance, <pen niversity,3 <pen3ac3&43 http"##...3open3ac3&4#Arts#renaissance6#defining3htm3 Retrieved 6??>+?0+7-3 ` Michelet, O&les3 Distory of France, trans3 G3 D3 %mith (Ee. Lor4" D3 Appleton, -=/0) ` C&rc4hardt, Oacob3 The ;iviliIation of the Renaissance in *taly (trans3 %3G3; Middlemore, 1ondon, -=0=) ` Gay, Beter, %tyle in Distory, Ee. Lor4" Casic Coo4s, ->0/3 ` C&rc4hardt, Oacob3 ,The ;iviliIation of the Renaissance in *taly,3 http"##...3boisestate3ed&#co&rses#hy7?>#docs#b&rc4hardt#6+-3html3 Retrieved A&g&st 7-, 6??= ` %avonarolaHs pop&larity is a prime example of the manifestation of s&ch concerns3 <ther examples incl&de Bhilip ** of %painHs censorship of Florentine paintings, noted by 2d.ard 13 Goldberg, ,%panish 5al&es and T&scan Bainting,, Renaissance M&arterly (->>=) p3>-/ ` Renaissance For&m at D&ll niversity, A&t&mn ->>0 (Retrieved on -?+?9+6??0) ` 1opeI, Robert %3, and Mis4imin, Darry A3, The 2conomic Depression of the Renaissance, 2conomic Distory Revie., 6nd ser3, -/ (->:6), pp3 /?=A6:3 Available on O%T<R (s&bscription re@&ired) ` Thorndi4e, 1ynn (->/7) Renaissance or Brenaissancea in ,%ome Remar4s on the M&estion of the <riginality of the Renaissance,, Oo&rnal of the Distory of *deas 5ol3 /, Eo3 -, Oan3 ->/73 Available on O%T<R (s&bscription re@&ired) ` !elly+Gadol, Ooan3 ,Did Fomen Dave a Renaissancea, Cecoming 5isible" Fomen in 2&ropean Distory3 2dited by Renate Cridenthal and ;la&dia !oonI3 Coston" Do&ghton Mifflin, ->003 ` Greenblatt, %3 Renaissance %elf+Fashioning" From More to %ha4espeare, niversity of ;hicago Bress, ->=?3 ` <sborne, Roger, ;iviliIation" a ne. history of the Festern .orld, Begas&s Coo4s, 6??:3 ` Das4ins, ;harles Domer, The Renaissance of the T.elfth ;ent&ry, ;ambridge" Darvard niversity Bress, ->603 ` D&bert, Oean, 1H2mpire carolingien, (2nglish" The ;arolingian Renaissance, translated by Oames 2mmons, Ee. Lor4" G3 CraIiller, ->0?3 'edit) References Crotton, Oerry3 The Renaissance" A 5ery %hort *ntrod&ction (6??:) excerpt and text search C&rc4hardt, Oacob The ;iviliIation of the Renaissance in *taly (-=:?), a famo&s classic8 excerpt and text search 6??0 edition8 also complete text online C&r4e, B, The 2&ropean Renaissance" ;entre and Beripheries *%CE ?+:7-+->=/9+= ;ronin, 5incent->:>), The Flo.ering of the Renaissance, *%CE ?0-6:>==/;ronin, 5incent(->>6), The Renaissance, *%CE ???6-9/--? ;ampbell, Gordon3 The <xford Dictionary of the Renaissance3 (6??7)3 =:6 pp3 online at < B 2rgang, Robert (->:0), The Renaissance, *%CE ?+//6+?67->+0 Ferg&son, Fallace !3 (->:6), 2&rope in Transition, -7??A-9??, *%CE ?+?/+>/???=+=

Fletcher, %tella3 The 1ongman ;ompanion to Renaissance 2&rope, -7>?A-97?3 (6???)3 7/0 pp3 Grendler, Ba&l F3, ed3 The Renaissance" An 2ncyclopedia for %t&dents3 (6??7)3 >0? pp3 Grendler, Ba&l F3 ,The F&t&re of %ixteenth ;ent&ry %t&dies" Renaissance and Reformation %cholarship in the Eext Forty Lears,, %ixteenth ;ent&ry Oo&rnal %pring 6??>, 5ol3 /? *ss&e -, pp -=6 Dale, Oohn3 The ;iviliIation of 2&rope in the Renaissance3 (->>/)3 :/= pp38 a magistral s&rvey, heavily ill&strated excerpt and text search Dall, Cert %3 Feapons and Farfare in Renaissance 2&rope" G&npo.der, Technology, and Tactics (6??-) excerpt and text search Das4ins, ;harles Domer (->60), The Renaissance of the T.elfth ;ent&ry, *%CE ?+:0/+ 0:?09+Datta.ay, Michael, ed3 A ;ompanion to 2nglish Renaissance 1iterat&re and ;&lt&re3 (6???)3 0/0 pp3 Oensen, De 1amar (->>6), Renaissance 2&rope, *%CE ?+7>9+==>/0+6 Oohnson, Ba&l3 The Renaissance" A %hort Distory3 (6???)3 ->0 pp3 excerpt and text search !ing, Margaret 13 Fomen of the Renaissance (->>-) excerpt and text search !risteller, Ba&l <s4ar, and Michael Mooney3 Renaissance Tho&ght and its %o&rces (->0>) excerpt and text search Ea&ert, ;harles G3 Distorical Dictionary of the Renaissance3 (6??/)3 9/- pp3 Batric4, Oames A3, ed3 Renaissance and Reformation (9 vol 6??0), -9=/ pages8 comprehensive encyclopedia Bl&mb, O3 D3 The *talian Renaissance (6??-) excerpt and text search Baoletti, Oohn T3 and Gary M3 Rad4e3 Art in Renaissance *taly (/th ed3 6?--) Robin, Diana8 1arsen, Anne R38 and 1evin, ;arole, eds3 2ncyclopedia of Fomen in the Renaissance" *taly, France, and 2ngland (6??0) /9>p3 Ro.se, A3 13 The 2liIabethan Renaissance" The 1ife of the %ociety (6???) excerpt and text search R&ggiero, G&ido, ed3 A ;ompanion to the Forlds of the Renaissance3 (6??6)3 9:- pp3 R&ndle, David, ed3 The D&tchinson 2ncyclopedia of the Renaissance3 (->>>)3 /7/ pp38 n&mero&s brief articles online edition %pea4e, Oennifer and Thomas G3 Cergin, eds3 2ncyclopedia of the Renaissance and the Reformation3 (6??/)3 99? pp3 %tarn, Randolph3 ,A Bostmodern Renaissancea, Renaissance M&arterly 6??0 :?(-)" -A6/ in BroJect M %2 Trivellato, Francesca3 ,Renaissance *taly and the M&slim Mediterranean in Recent Distorical For4,, Oo&rnal of Modern Distory (March 6?-?), 5ol3 =6, Eo3 -" -60A-993 T&rner, Richard E3 Renaissance Florence (6??9) excerpt and text search Fard, A3 The ;ambridge Modern Distory3 5ol -" The Renaissance (->?6) older essays by scholars8 emphasis on politics 'edit) Brimary so&rces Cartlett, !enneth, ed3 The ;iviliIation of the *talian Renaissance" A %o&rceboo4 (6nd ed3 6?--) Ross, Oames Cr&ce, and Mary M3 Mc1a&ghlin, eds3 The Bortable Renaissance Reader (->00) excerpt and text search 'edit) 2xternal lin4s

Fi4imedia ;ommons has media related to" Renaissance Fi4iso&rce has original text related to this article" The ;iviliIation of the Renaissance in *taly Ancient and Renaissance .omen by Dr3 Deborah 5ess Eotable Medieval and Renaissance Fomen Renaissance %tyle G&ide *nteractive Reso&rces Florence" 7D Banoramas of Florentine Renaissance %ites(2nglish#*talian) *nteractive Glossary of Terms Relating to the Renaissance M&ltimedia 2xploration of the Renaissance R%% Ee.s Feed" Get an entry from 1eonardoHs Oo&rnal delivered each day 5irt&al Oo&rney to Renaissance Florence 2xhibits ;ollection A Renaissance 1ect&res and Galleries 1eonardo da 5inci, Gallery of Baintings and Dra.ings The Cagatti 5alsecchi M&se&m Renaissance in the ,Distory of Art, The *dea of the Renaissance The %ociety for Renaissance %t&dies 'sho.)v G d G eRenaissance GeneralRenaissance G 2arly modern 2&rope G -6th cent&ry G Digh Renaissance Cy field Architect&re G Art G Dance G 1atin G 1iterat&re G Magic G Medicine G M&sic G Bhilosophy G %cience G Technology G Theatre G Farfare

Cy 2nglish G Flemish G French G German G *talian G Eorthern 2&ropean G Bolish G region %panish 1ists ;omposers G Fig&res G %tr&ct&res

'sho.)v G d G eBeriods of the Distory of 2&rope Brehistoric 2&rope G ;lassical anti@&ity G 1ate Anti@&ity G Middle Ages G Renaissance G 2arly modern 2&rope G Modern 2&rope 'sho.)v G d G eArt movements 9th to Merovingian G ;arolingian G <ttonian G Romanes@&e G *nternational Gothic G -=th Renaissance (-/th+-9th) G Mannerism (-:th) G ;aravaggisti (-:th) G Caro@&e + cent&ry ;lassicism (-0th) G Rococo + Eeoclassicism + Romanticism (-=th)

EaIarene G Realism G Distoricism G Ciedermeier G GrSnderIeit G CarbiIon school G ->th Bre+Raphaelites G Academic G *mpressionism G Bost+*mpressionism G Eeo+ cent&ry impressionism G Divisionism G Bointillism G ;loisonnism G 1es Eabis G %ynthetism G %ymbolism G D&dson River %chool ;&bism G <rphism G B&rism G %ynchromism G 2xpressionism G %c&ola Romana G Abstract expressionism G !inetic art G Ee&e !Snstlervereinig&ng MSnchen G Der Cla&e Reiter G Die CrSc4e G Ee. <bJectivity G Dada G Fa&vism G Eeo+Fa&vism G Brecisionism G Art Eo&vea& G Ca&ha&s G De %tiJl G Art Deco G <p art G 5ienna %chool of Fantastic Realism G Bop art G Bhotorealism G F&t&rism G Metaphysical art 6?th G Rayonism G 5orticism G %&prematism G %&rrealism G ;olor Field G Minimalism G cent&ry Eo&vea& rValisme G %ocial realism G 1yrical Abstraction G Tachisme G ;<CRA G Action painting G *nternational Typographic %tyle G Fl&x&s G 1ettrism G 1etterist *nternational G %it&ationist *nternational G ;oncept&al art G *nstallation art G 1and art G Berformance art G %ystems art G 5ideo art G Eeo+expressionism G Eeo+Dada G <&tsider art G 1o.bro. G Ee. media art G Lo&ng Critish Artists Dyperrealism G *ntervention art G %t&c4ism *nternational G Remodernism G 6-st *MMAG*E2cB<2%*A G Bse&dorealism G %o&nd art G %&perstro4e G %&perflat G cent&ry %oFlo %&perflat G Relational art G 5ideo game art Related Avant+garde G Modern art G Bostmodern art articles Retrieved from ,http"##en3.i4ipedia3org#.#index3phpa titlebRenaissancecoldidb/9:0/?6=-, 5ie. page ratings Rate this page Rate this page Bage ratings FhatHs thisa ;&rrent average ratings3 Tr&st.orthy <bJective ;omplete Fell+.ritten * am highly 4no.ledgeable abo&t this topic (optional) * have a relevant college#&niversity degree *t is part of my profession *t is a deep personal passion The so&rce of my 4no.ledge is not listed here * .o&ld li4e to help improve Fi4ipedia, send me an e+mail (optional)
email@examp

Fe .ill send yo& a confirmation e+mail3 Fe .ill not share yo&r address .ith anyone3 (Brivacy policy) %&bmit ratings %aved s&ccessf&lly Lo&r ratings have not been s&bmitted yet Lo&r ratings have expired Blease reeval&ate this page and s&bmit ne. ratings3 An error has occ&red3 Blease try again later3 Than4s\ Lo&r ratings have been saved3 Blease ta4e a moment to complete a short s&rvey3 %tart s&rveyMaybe later Than4s\ Lo&r ratings have been saved3 Do yo& .ant to create an acco&nta An acco&nt .ill help yo& trac4 yo&r edits, get involved in disc&ssions, and be a part of the comm&nity3 ;reate an acco&ntor1og inMaybe later Than4s\ Lo&r ratings have been saved3 Did yo& 4no. that yo& can edit this pagea 2dit this pageMaybe later ;ategories" Renaissance French loan.ords French .ords and phrases Distorical eras Distory of 2&rope Distory of *taly Medieval philosophy Didden categories" All articles .ith dead external lin4s Articles .ith dead external lin4s from O&ly 6??> Articles .ith R&ssian lang&age external lin4s Fi4ipedia indefinitely move+protected pages Articles containing *talian lang&age text Articles containing French lang&age text Good articles Bersonal tools 1og in # create acco&nt Eamespaces Article Disc&ssion 5ariants 5ie.s Read 2dit 5ie. history Actions

%earch Top of Form

Search

Cottom of Form Eavigation Main page ;ontents Feat&red content ;&rrent events Random article Donate to Fi4ipedia *nteraction Delp Abo&t Fi4ipedia ;omm&nity portal Recent changes ;ontact Fi4ipedia Toolbox Fhat lin4s here Related changes pload file %pecial pages Bermanent lin4 ;ite this page Rate this page Brint#export ;reate a boo4 Do.nload as BDF Brintable version 1ang&ages Afri4aans Alemannisch AragonVs Ast&rian& AI$rbaycanca Cn+lm+g_ {l~vto~w {l~vto~w (u~v~o{x~) Cosans4i CreIhoneg l}~vtop ;atalN x~l~

;eb&ano es4y ;ymraeg Dans4 De&tsch 2esti 2spaol 2speranto 2&s4ara FiJi Dindi Froys4t FranWais Frys4 F&rlan Gaeilge GNidhlig Galego Drvats4i Cahasa *ndonesia *nterling&a slens4a *taliano Casa Oa.a ~~~ !is.ahili 1atina 1atvie& 1tIeb&ergesch 1iet&vi 1imb&rgs Magyar ~o{yjqtop - Cahasa Melay& Eederlands Eedersa4sisch

 Eors4 (bo4ml) Eors4 (nynors4) <ccitan Biemontis BlattdSStsch Bols4i Bort&g&s Romn tpqto ttop %eelters4 %h@ip %icilian& %imple 2nglish %lovenina %lovenina v|top # %rps4i %rps4ohrvats4i # v|tojkvx~utop %&omi %vens4a Tagalog TSr4We TSr4menWe ov~qto~ 5neto Ting 5it 5Zro Fest+5lams Finaray emait4a This page .as last modified on 6- <ctober 6?-- at 6-"/?3 Text is available &nder the ;reative ;ommons Attrib&tion+%hareAli4e 1icense8 additional terms may apply3 %ee Terms of &se for details3 Fi4ipedia is a registered trademar4 of the Fi4imedia Fo&ndation, *nc3, a non+profit organiIation3

;ontact &s Brivacy policy Abo&t Fi4ipedia Disclaimers Mobile vie.