WATER through the INTEGUMENT of BUILDINGS

: LEARNING from ADAPTATIONS of XEROPHILES

by

JOSE JOAQUIN SANCHEZ, M. ARCH

A THESIS IN ARCHITECTURE

MASTER OF SCIENCE

copyright page?

Acknowledgments
saving for later

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................ i ABSTRACT................................................................................................................... iv LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... v Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 1 1.1 1.2 2 Discussion of the Problem .................................................................................. 1 Objective ............................................................................................................. 2

BACKGROUND RESEARCH ..................................................................................... 3 2.1 2.2 2.2.1 2.3 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.4 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 Water Scarcity ..................................................................................................... 3 Defining Desert Environments ............................................................................ 6 Chihuahuan Desert ......................................................................................... 7 Strategies for Water Efficiency in the Built Environment ................................... 8 Rainwater Harvesting ...................................................................................... 8 Wastewater Reuse .......................................................................................... 8 Adaptation to Arid Environments ....................................................................... 8 Xerophytes ...................................................................................................... 9 Xerophilous Fauna ........................................................................................ 12 Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 18

DESIGN RESEARCH .............................................................................................. 19

BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................... 20

ii

iii

ABSTRACT
saving for later

iv

LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 2.1.1 WATER STRESS INDICATOR (WSI) IN MAJOR BASINS ......................................................................4 FIGURE 2.1.2 GLOBAL MAP OF ARID LANDS ................................................................................................................4 FIGURE 2.4.1 CYLINDROPUNTIA (OPUNTIA) BIGELOVII, JOSHUA TREE NATIONAL PARK, CA ......................... 11 FIGURE 2.1.3 ESTIMATED POPULATION DENSITY IN 2015 ......................................................................................5 FIGURE 2.4.2 COLOR TONES OF DESERT ANIMALS .................................................................................................. 14 FIGURE 2.4.3 SEM DORSAL SKIN OF M. HORRIDUS .................................................................................................. 15 FIGURE 2.4.5 DISTRIBUTION OF WATER DROPLET MILLISECONDS AFTER CONTACT TO INTEGUMENT OF FIGURE 2.4.4 PHRYNOSOMA CORNUTUM AND MOLOCH HORRIDUS, DORSAL VIEW ............................................ 16
SEVERAL LIZARDS .................................................................................................................................................17

FIGURE 2.4.6 HONEYCOMB MICRO-ORNAMENTATION ............................................................................................ 17

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1

Discussion of the Problem

The increasing global issue on water scarcity has placed a lot of pressure on

water conservation strategies. There are a few strategies already implemented within the construction industry, yet not powerful or efficient enough to make a valuable impact on the issue at hand. Naturally, a multitude of efficient strategies for water conservation may already be observed through nature. Desert biota have evolved to very harsh conditions in which temperatures are intense and the environment is arid. Their adaptive strategies have allowed them to survive and flourish. Many of these adaptations for survival may be observed through the integument of many desert flora and fauna. Similarly in architecture, the facade is one of the most important components of a building in protecting its' inhabitants from the environment and the harsh conditions. The building envelope filters the exterior environment from the interior where humans may live and interact comfortably. A problem currently faced by architects is how to implement water conservation strategies with their designs. Most of these systems are rudimentary by design and functionality. They are implemented as "add-ons" to a building, a scheme in which the catchment source, transportation or flow of the water, storage component, wastewater reuse systems, and mechanical systems are completely separate entities.

1.2

Objective

2
2.1 Water Scarcity

BACKGROUND RESEARCH

The survival of all known living things depends on one substance, water. Although Earth contains large sums of water, only a fraction is readily available for consuming. We will first look at various statistics involving water to understand the global issue. While water covers approximately 70% of the Earths surface, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) estimated freshwater to account for about 2.5% of global water. From the global freshwater, about 70%, over two-thirds, is locked up in glaciers and permanent snow cover, in other words, not easily nor readily accessible. Water that is accessible is found as groundwater, nearly 30% of freshwater, and on the surface as rivers and lakes, which account for a measly 0.3% of freshwater. Although groundwater does encompass less than one-third of freshwater, groundwater sources are being depleted at a faster rate than they are able to replenish. At this point I would like to point out the distinct correlation between the locations of water stress in major basins and the locations of drylands, arid environments, seen in Error! Reference source not found. and Figure 2.1.2. Drylands are classified as zones where precipitation is offset by evapotranspiration, evaporation from surfaces and transpiration by plants. The UNEP defines drylands as tropical and temperate areas with an aridity index of less than 0.65. The drylands are further classified into four sub-types: hyper-arid, arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid lands. It is in these dryland environments that water overuse is damaging the environment globally in major basins. The high overuse seems to occur in regions heavily dependent on

irrigated agriculture, areas undergoing rapid urbanization, and rapid industrial development. UNEP estimates that 1.4 billion people are currently living in river basin areas that are closed, meaning that water use is exceeding the minimum recharge levels, or are near closure.

Figure 2.1.1 Water Stress Indicator (WSI) in Major Basins

Figure 2.1.2 Global Map of Arid Lands

(Millenium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005)

Figure 2.1.3 Estimated Population Density in 2015

The dangers of global water shortages and safe access to potable water is greatly affecting nearly two billion people around the world, that is nearly 30% of the world's population. Due to population growth rates, development pressures, and changing needs and values, equitable sharing of water resources has become a complex issue. It is anticipated by the World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP) that most population growth will occur in developing countries, with regions that are already experiencing water stress and in areas with limited access to potable water and adequate sanitation facilities. The growing competition between different countries and sectors has been placing increasing strain on the quality and quantity of freshwater supplies. The U.N. Population Division estimates that by 2025, the world's population will surpass 8 billion, with the possibility of nearly two-thirds of them living under water stressed condition and nearly one-quarter, 1.8 billion, living in severe water scarce regions, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FOA).

The WWAP did a breakdown and calculated the use of freshwater into three sectors: 70% used for irrigation, 20% for industry, and 10% used for domestic use. In a study, Buildings and their Impact on the Environment (2009), the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) concluded that building occupants account for nearly 13% of total water use in the U.S. per day. The U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) reported that an estimated 40% of water used in large cities in developing countries is lost due to leaky systems. Currently in the U.S., treating, pumping, and heating water accounts for about 8% of energy demand. Worldwide, over 80% of wastewater is not collected or treated.

2.2

Defining Desert Environments

The Desert has been praised as "an environment unspoilt by the hand of man so

that one can more clearly observe the interaction of plant and animal upon each other, and the dependence of the living creatures upon climate and other physical conditions (Buxton, 1923)." Extremely-arid, arid, and semi-arid environments take up about one-third of the Earths land surface. These regions, better known as deserts, are not particularly defined by temperature, but rather by the lack of precipitation. While arid regions characteristically receive less than 10 inches of precipitation a year, the rate of evaporation and evapo-transpiration greatly decreases the amount of rainfall fauna and flora are able to absorb and collect. Poised in such harsh extremes of heat and aridity, deserts are among the most fragile ecosystems on the planet. Even so, an estimated two billion people, 25% of the world's population, live in desert environments. Looking back at Figure 2.1.1 and Figure 2.1.2, the correlation between arid environments and

water scarcity shows the problems cities in deserts will be facing. Water will become more scarce and the environment will become harsher. Different strategies and solutions should be looked in to in order to adapt our built environment to withstand and overcome these problems. There are various movements looking to improve our built environment and allow it to work with natural systems. The USGBC has implemented the LEED system and addresses the issues of water through its Water Efficiency credits. Yet we can find more inspiration and strategies already implemented and functioning in nature, a look into biomimicry.

2.2.1 Chihuahuan Desert

This desert covers 175,000 square miles 1, making it one of the top three largest desert regions in North America and the Western Hemisphere. The Chihuahuan Desert straddles the U.S.-Mexico border in the central and northern portions of the Mexican Plateu, stretching from the southeastern corner of Arizona across southern New Mexico and west Texas in the United States. It runs deep into central Mexico, including the state of Chihuahua, northwest Coahuila, northeast Durango, and parts of Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi. This desert is usually called a rain shadow desert because two massive mountain ranges border this region, the Sierra Madre Occidental to the west and the Sierra Madre Oriental to the east. These mountains block most of the moisture from the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean from reaching the land, and are the main reason that this desert developed. The Chihuahuan Desert is considered a high-elevation desert because a greater portion of the desert lies above 4,000 ft. in elevation. Winters in the
1 Sources, such as the WorldWildLife and DesertUSA claim the Chihuahuan Desert reaches up to 196,700 square miles, which would make it the largest desert in North America, second in the western hemisphere. 7

Chihuahuan Desert are typically cool where nighttime temperatures drop below freezing over 100 times a year on average. During summers, daytime high temperatures average between 95 to 104 degrees Fahrenheit. Unlike the other deserts, the Chihuahuan Desert does not have a winter rain season. Instead, over 90% of the annual rainfall occurs between the summer months of July and October. This correlation of summer seasonal rainfall and summer seasonal high temperatures greatly increases the amount of moisture potentially lost through evaporation and evapo-transpiration, compared to the amount of moisture gained through precipitation.

2.3

Strategies for Water Efficiency in the Built Environment

2.3.1 Rainwater Harvesting

Rainwater harvesting is nothing new in the construction industry. Archeological evidence attests to the capture of rainwater in China dating back 6000 years. In Israel, ruins of cisterns are still visible that were used to store runoff from hillsides for agricultural and domestic purposes over 4000 years ago(Gould & Nissen-Petersen, 1999). In India,

2.3.2 Wastewater Reuse

2.4

Adaptation to Arid Environments

For survival in arid environments, two necessities are essential; moisture-

capture and moisture-conservation, and defense against both the physical and climatic environments. Arid conditions create problems for all desert organisms, therefore

water must not only be obtained by diverse means, but also effectively conserved. The biota must have defensive mechanisms for predators as well as protect mechanisms for the hard conditions(Lull, 1920). The biological processes of animal tissues can function only within a relatively narrow temperature range. If this range is exceeded, through high or low temperatures, the organism more than likely dies. This creates a delicate life in the desert, yet both plants and animals have been able to flourish.

2.4.1 Xerophytes
(still have more information to organize in this section) Desert plants have adapted several ways to obtain water and to store water. While some desert flora store water in their leaves, roots, and stems (as other plants do), other desert plants have long taproots that penetrate to the water table if present or have adapted to the weather by having wide-spreading roots to absorb water from a greater area of the ground. A succulent plant must be able to guard its water hoard in a desiccating environment and use it as efficiently as possible. The stems and leaves of most species have waxy cuticles that render them nearly waterproof when the stomata is closed. Water is further conserved by reduced surface areas; most succulents have few leaves, no leaves or leaves that are deciduous in dry Moisture suspended in the air and which, while it may form dew, is not actually precipitated in the form of rain, must be rendered available, and this may be brought about by one of two ways, possibly by the deliquescence of the salty encrustation so characteristic of desert plants or by the mechanical collection of dew by the hairs which bedeck their surface. In either case, the water instead of evaporating back into the atmosphere may be largely absorbed by the plant. The saline coat and the pubescence

are therefore hygroscopic (having the property of readily imbibing moisture from the atmosphere) in their effect. Whether or not the plant can utilize the moisture thus collected is, however, open to question (Lull, 1920). Most days, the aridity allows the sun to shine unfiltered, cloudless, through the atmosphere continuously from sunrise to sunset. This intense solar radiation produces very high summer temperatures which are lethal to non-adapted plants. At night much of the accumulated heat radiates through the same clear atmosphere and the temperature drops dramatically. Daily fluctuations of 40F (22C) are not uncommon when humidity is very low. Microphylly (the trait of having small leaves) is primarily an adaptation to avoid overheating and reduces water loss. A broader surface has a deeper boundary layer of stagnant air at its surface, which impedes convective heat exchange. A larger leaf requires transpiration through open stomates for evaporative cooling. Since the hottest time of year is also the driest, water is not available for transpiration. Desert plants that do have large leaves produce them only during the cool or rainy season or else live in shaded microhabitats. There are a few mysterious exceptions, such as Datura wrightii (Jimson Weed) and Asclepias erosa (Desert Milkweed). Perhaps their large tuberous roots provide enough water for transpiration even when the soil is dry. Leaf or stem color, orientation, and self-shading are still more ways to adapt to intense light and heat. Desert foliage comes in many shades (rarely in typical leafgreen) such as gray-green, blue-green, gray, or even white. The light color is usually due to a dense covering of trichomes (hairlike scales), but is sometimes from a waxy secretion on the leaf or stem surface. Lighter colors reflect more light (heat) and thus

10

remain cooler than dark green leaves. Other plants have leaves or stems with vertical orientations; two common examples are jojoba and prickly pear cactus. This orientation results in the photosynthetic surface facing the sun most directly in morning and late afternoon. Photosynthesis is more efficient during these cooler times of day. Prickly pear pads will burn in summer if their flat surfaces face upward. Some cacti create their own shade with a dense armament/network of spines that shade the stems, keeping them cooler than the surrounding air; Cylindropuntia bigelovii (Teddy-bear Cholla), Figure 2.4.1, is one of the most striking examples. The spines not only shade the Teddy-bear Cholla, they are also a very light color to reflect the solar heat. Columnar growth forms maximize exposure to light early and late in the day while avoiding excessive heat from the mid-day sun. Many Barrel Cactus lean to the south so that a minimum of body surface is exposed to the drying effect of the midday sun. Cactus pay a price for these water-saving adaptations -- slow growth. Growth may be as little as 1/4 inch per year in the Barrel Cactus, and most young sprouts never reach maturity.

Figure 2.4.1 Cylindropuntia (Opuntia) bigelovii, Joshua Tree National Park, CA (World Botanical Associates, 2013) 11

Other plants have developed rosettes of succulent leaves that collect dew and fog. Yet another group of woody plants may drop their leaves during dry times and often have long taproots as well. Many desert plants have adopted an ephemeral life cycle, surviving as seeds, bulbs or dormant shrubs for long periods between unpredictable rains.

2.4.2 Xerophilous Fauna

Most fauna native to desert environments have evolved both behavioral and physiological mechanisms to solve the heat and water problems. Many xerophile animals (more specifically mammals and reptiles) are crepuscular, that is, they are active only at dusk and again at dawn; times when temperatures begin to lower or before they get too high. Many others are completely nocturnal, restricting all their activities to the cooler temperatures of the night. Bats, many snakes and rodents, and some larger mammals like foxes and skunks, are nocturnal; and can be found sleeping in a cool den, cave, or burrow by day. Similarly, smaller desert animals, including many mammals, reptiles, insects, and amphibians, burrow below the surface of the soil or sand to escape the high temperatures from the desert surface. Rodents have been observed to plug the entrances to their burrows to keep out hot, desiccating air. Rhinos on the other hand, relish wallowing in mud, which helps cool them especially during the hottest months and helps protect them from parasites. Water storage, ectopic fat storage and structural adaptations, shape and size, of desert organisms are important adaptations for desert animals. Low values for resting metabolic rate at thermo-neutrality are

12

reported for many desert mammals, and it is suggested that this helps these animal to conserve both energy and water. Desert animals have also have evolved various morphological characteristics, in which all contribute, in one way or another, toward xerophilous adaptations. Equally ingenious are the diverse mechanisms various animal species have developed to acquire, conserve, recycle, and condense moisture to water. Coloration is perhaps the most conspicuous of the adaptations, which not only furnish protection against other animals, but is also used to minimize, or maximize, absorption of solar heat. Colors observed on pelage and integument of these animals are generally light and tinted-gray, tan, brown, or red, harmonizing with the color of the surrounding sand or rock (Lull, 1920). To avoid overheating, desert cottontails have behavioral higher activity periods at night, have light-colored fur, and most interestingly, large ears with blood vessels just below the skin level that can radiate body heat to the air.

13

Figure 2.4.2 Color Tones of Desert Animals (counterclockwise from topleft): Armadillo, Desert Tortoise, Diamondback Rattlesnake, Kangaroo Rat, Jack Rabbit (Desert USA, 2012)

Several desert lizard species, classified as horned lizards, have developed special morphological characteristics to collect water with their bodies' surfaces and "transport" the captured water to the mouth for ingestion. Nature's way of rain- or moisture-harvesting. The water can originate from air humidity, fog, dew, rain or even from humid soil. There are a few lizards observed to have such rain-harvesting capabilities, of which two stand above the rest: the Moloch horridus (Thorny Devil) and the Phrynosoma cornutum (Texas Horned Lizard). In 1923, H.W. Davey and Buxton first recorded observations of the integument of a Moloch horridus, Thorny Devil, readily absorbing water from a puddle and drawing the absorbed water towards its' head. This absorption demonstrated hygroscopic properties of the integument enabling what was called "trans-cutaneous" absorption of
14

water from dew or water puddles. In 1962, Bentley and Blumer contradicted the first theories of absorption through trans-cutaneous action and demonstrated that the M. horridus actually drinks the water by passively transporting it through capillary action of the skin to the mouth. In 1982, Gans, Merlin, and Blumer, reexamined the M. horridus skin with the aid of Scanning Electron Micro-scope (SEM) photographs, Figure 2.4.3, and attributed the water-flow to capillary forces generated by channels between the lizard's scales. In 1987, Schwenk and Greene described a similar system in Phrynocephalus helioscopus (sunwatcher toadhead agama), yet reported a stereotyped posture exhibited by the species whenever it was sprayed with water. The posture involved lowering of the head, raising the splayed hindquarters, and protruding the tongue to initiate capillary action.

Figure 2.4.3 SEM dorsal skin of M. horridus

The lizard Phrynosoma cornutum demonstrated similar behavior, yet including a stereotyped posture of flattening the body and spreading of the dorsal surface to maximize interception of raindrops. Comparable behavior has not been observed in the M. horridus (Sherbrooke, 1990). Presence of integument capillary microstructures,

15

similarly as reported with the M. horridus, was confirmed on the P. cornutum, but capillary flow seems to be less effective for this lizard (Sherbrooke, 1990). For the P. cornutum, capillary transport of water was reported to be more significant during light precipitation, as the water amount collected by the integument is not large enough to flow towards the mouth by gravity alone.

Figure 2.4.4 Phrynosoma cornutum and Moloch horridus, dorsal view (Rowe, Maisano, Humphries, Hodges, & Pianka, 2013)

In a more detailed report in 1993, Philip Withers described the volume of water held in the interscalar capillary system to be about 3.7% of the M. horridus' body mass. He concluded that one ecological role of the hydrophilic skin of the thorny devil is the direct absorption of rain that falls onto the skin, uptake from puddles, and enables water absorption from moist sand through the capillary system. In 2011, a team from Germany tested the application of a water droplet onto the integument of three species, M. horridus, P. cornutum, and Phrynocephalus arabicus. The application led in all three species to an almost immediate spreading of the water as shown in Figure
16

2.4.5. They concluded that the honeycomb-like micro-structure on the three lizards created a 'superhydrophilic' surface (Comanns, et al., 2011).

Figure 2.4.5 Distribution of water droplet milliseconds after contact to integument of several lizards

Figure 2.4.6 Honeycomb Micro-ornamentation

17

(A) M. horridus shows the honeycomb-like micro-ornamentation all around (B) P. cornutum shows clear honeycomb micro structures, but mainly at periphery of the scales. (C) Phrynocephalus arabicus honeycomb structures appear like dimples. (D) (E) and (F) shows the micro ornamentations marked for better orientation

2.4.3 Conclusion
The intention of studying the behavioral, physiological, and morphological adaptations of desert biota is to understand how they efficiently collect rainwater and conserve what water they ingest. Certain morphological adaptations of cacti allow maximum retention of water and decreased evapotranspiration. The various reports on these animals demonstrate how certain systems, interscalar capillary channels and integument patterns, work together to transport water for ingestion. Once imbibed, the physiological and behavioral adaptations allow for maximum conservation of water through the dry seasons. A building's integument may similarly work as a system to maximize rainwater harvesting, minimize evapotranspiration, and retain water for consumption or reuse. This may be achieved through a couple or several materials working together, each with their set properties to achieve a similar goal; conserve water. A building's skin will not only protect us from the harsh environment, but will also work as nature does to provide its inhabitants with water.

18

DESIGN RESEARCH

19

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Buxton, P. A. (1923). Animal Life in Deserts : A Study of the Fauna in Relation to the Environment. London: Edward Arnold & Co. Comanns, P., Effertz, C., Hischen, F., Staudt, K., Bohme, W., & Baumgartner, W. (2011, April). Moisture Harvesting and Water Transport Through Specialized Micro-Structures on the Integument of Lizards. Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology, 204-214. Crawford, C. S. (1981). Biology of Desert Invertebrates. New York: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. Davey, H. W. (1923). The Moloch Lizard, Moloch horridus. Victorian Naturalist, 58-60. Desert USA. (2012, November). Retrieved from DesertUSA: http://www.desertusa.com Food and Agriculture Organization. (2013, April 3). FOA Water. Retrieved from FOA.org: http://www.fao.org/nr/water/ Gould, J., & Nissen-Petersen, E. (1999). Rainwater Catchment Systems for Domestic Supply: Design, Construction and Implementation. London: Intermediate Technology Publications. Gutterman, Y. (2002). Survival Strategies of Annual Desert Plants. New York: Springer-Verlag Belin Heidelberg. Louw, G., & Seely, M. (1982). Ecology of Desert Organisms. New York: Longman Group Limited. Lull, R. S. (1920). Organic Evolution. New York: The MacMillan Company. Lusk, P., & Simon, A. (2009). Building to Endure: Design Lessons of Arid Lands. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.

20

Millenium Ecosystem Assessment. (2005). Millenium Assessment Reports. Retrieved from http://www.millenniumassessment.org/en/index.aspx Mishra, A. (2001). The Radiant Raindrops of Rajasthan. New Delhi: Research Foundation for Science, Technology, and Ecology. Peterson, C. C. (1998, September). Rain-Harvesting Behavior by a Free-Ranging Desert Horned Lizard (Phrynosoma platyrhinos). The Southwestern Naturalist, 43(3), 391-394. Rowe, T., Maisano, J., Humphries, J., Hodges, W., & Pianka, E. (2013, Septempber). Retrieved from Digital Morphology: http://www.digimorph.org/ Sherbrooke, W. C. (1990, September). Rain-Harvesting in the Lizard, Phrynosoma cornutum: Behavior and Integumental Morphology. Journal of Herpetology, 24(3), 302-308. Texas Water Development Board. (2005). The Texas Manual on Rainwater Harvesting. Austin. UN Water. (2013, March). Statistics. Retrieved March 2013, from UNWater.org: http://www.unwater.org/ UNEP. (2013, June). Vital Water Graphics. Retrieved from UNEP.org: http://www.unep.org/dewa/vitalwater/rubrique17.html Vesely, M., & Modry, D. (2002). Rain-Harvesting Behavior in Agamid Lizards (Trapelus). Journal of Herpetology, 36(2), 311-314. Ward, D. (2009). The Biology of Deserts. New York: Oxford University Press Inc. Whitford, W. G. (2002). Ecology of Desert Systems. San Diego: Elsevier Science Ltd. Wiscombe, T. (2009). Structural Ecologies. Beijing: AADCU Publication.

21

Withers, P. (1993, September). Cutaneous Water Acquisition by the Thorny Devil (Moloch horridusL Agamidae). Journal of Herpetology, 27, 265-270. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1565146 World Botanical Associates. (2013, October 7). Opuntia Cactaceae. Retrieved from World Botanical: http://www.worldbotanical.com/opuntia.htm

22