Summary of the Equations of Fluid Dynamics

Reference: Fluid Mechanics, L.D. Landau & E.M. Lifshitz 1 Introduction Emission processes give us diagnostics with which to estimate important parameters, such as the density, and magnetic field, of an astrophysical plasma. Fluid dynamics provides us with the capability of understanding the transport of mass, momentum and energy. Normally one spends more than a lecture on Astrophysical Fluid Dynamics since this relates to many areas of astrophysics. In following lectures we are going to consider one principal application of astrophysical fluid dynamics accretion discs. Note also that magnetic fields are not included in the following. Again a full treatment of magnetic fields warrants a full course. 2 The fundamental uid dynamics equations The equations of fluid dynamics are best expressed via conservation laws for the conservation of mass, momentum and energy.

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2.1 Conservation of mass

ni vi S

Consider the rate of change of mass within a fixed volume. This changes as a result of the mass flow through the bounding surface.

dV = v i n i dS t
V S

Using the divergence theorem,

Control volume for assessing conservation of mass.

d V + xi ( vi ) dV = 0 t V V ----( v i ) dV = 0 -+ t x i
V

The continuity equation Since the volume is arbitrary,

( vi ) = 0 -----+ t x i

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2.2 Conservation of momentum Consider now the rate of change of momentum within a volume. This decreases as a result of the flux of momentum through the bounding surface and increases as the result of body forces (in our case gravity) acting on the volume. Let
ij n j S

ni

ij = Flux of i component of momentum in the j direction

and

f i = Body force per unit mass

then

v dV = ij n j dS + f i dV t i
V S V

There is an equivalent way of thinking of ij , which is often useful, and that is, ij n j dS is the i th component of the force exerted on the fluid exterior to S by the fluid interior to S .

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Again using the divergence theorem,

ij ( vi ) + dV = f i dV t x j V V ij ( vi ) + = fi x j t
Gravity For gravity we use the gravitational potential

fi =
For a single gravitating object of mass M

G xi

GM G = --------r

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and for a self-gravitating distribution

2 G = 4 G ( xi ) ------------------d 3 x G = G xi xi
V

where G is Newtons constant of gravitation. Expressions for ij The momentum flux is composed of a bulk part plus a part resulting from the motion of particles moving with respect to the centre of mass velocity of the fluid ( v i ) . For a perfect fluid (an approximation often used in astrophysics), we take p to be the isotropic pressure, then

ij = v i v j + p ij
The equations of motion are then:

G ( vi ) + ( v i v j + p ij ) = xi x j t G p ( vi ) + ( vi v j ) = xi x j xi t
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There is also another useful form for the momentum equation derived using the continuity equation.

v i v i ( vi ) + ( vi v j ) = vi + + vi (v j) + v j t t x j t x j x j v i v i = vi + (v j) + + v j x j t t x j = v i t + v j v i x j

Hence, another form of the momentum equation is:

G p = ------ -------- + v j t x j x i x i v i v i
On dividing by the density

v i t

+ vj

v i

1 p G - --------- -----= -x j x i x i

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Differentiation following the motion This is a good place to introduce differentiation following the motion. For a function f ( x i, t ) , the variation of

f following the motion of a fluid element which has coordinates xi = xi ( t )

is given by:

f f df f f d xi ------- = + + vi ----- = xi t dt t x i dt
Hence, the momentum equation can be written compactly as

dv i G p - = ----- dt xi xi

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2.3 Thermodynamics
m S U V p Element of fluid and the variables used to describe its state.

Before going on to consider the consequences of the conservation of energy, we consider the thermodynamics of a comoving volume element. (See the figure at left.)

Define:

m = Mass of element = Internal energy density per unit volume P = pressure (as above) s = entropy per unit mass T = temperature (in degrees Kelvin)

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We have the following quantities for the volume element:

m U = Total internal energy = ----- S = Entropy = ms m V = volume = --

The second law of thermodynamics tell us that the change in entropy of a mass of gas is related to changes in other thermodynamic variables as follows:

kTdS = dU + pdV m m - + pd -- kT d ( ms ) = d ----- 1 ( + p) 1 - + pd -- = -- d - d --------------- kTds = d - 2 ( + p) - d kTds = d ---------------

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Specific enthalpy A commonly used thermodynamic variable is the specific enthalpy:

+p h = ----------
In terms of the specific enthalpy, the equation

1 - + pd -kTds = d -
becomes

+ p p 1 dp - d -- + pd -- = dh ----kTds = d ----------
For a parcel of fluid following the motion, we obtain, after dividing by the time increment of a volume element,

ds d ( + p) d - ----- = ----- --------------- kT --- dt dt dt ds dh 1 dp - ----- = ----- -kT ---dt dt dt

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The fluid is adiabatic when there is no transfer of heat in or out of the volume element:

d ( + p) d - ----- = 0 ----- --------------- dt dt ds - = 0 kT ---dt dh 1 dp - = 0 - --------- -dt dt

The quantities ds , d ,dp etc. are perfect differentials, and these relationships are valid relations from point to point within the fluid. Two particular relationships we shall use in the following are:

kT kT

s = h t t t

s h p = xi xi xi

2.3.1 Equation of state The above equations can be used to derive the equation of state of a gas in which the ratio of specific heats ( = c p c v ) is a constant. Consider the following form of the entropy, internal energy, pressure relation:

( + p) - d kTds = d ---------------

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In a perfect gas,

kT p = ---------m p
where is the mean molecular weight and

p = ( 1 ) + p =
Hence,

- d m p ( 1 ) ds = d --- d - d m p ( 1 ) ds = ----- - m p ( 1 ) ( s s 0 ) = ln ln ----- = exp [ m p ( 1 ) ( s s 0 ) ] = exp [ m p ( 1 ) s ]

(We can discard the s 0 since the origin of entropy is arbitrary.)

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We therefore have,

= exp [ m p ( 1 ) s ] p = ( 1 ) exp [ m p ( 1 ) s ] = K ( s )
The function K ( s ) is often referred to as the pseudo-entropy. For a completely ionised monatomic gas = 5 3. 2.4 Conservation of energy Take the momentum equation in the form:

v i t

+ v j

G P = ------ --------x j x i x i v i v i

and take the scalar product with the velocity:

G P - v i --------= v i ----- vi + v j vi t x j x i x i v i G P 1 1 - v v + v j -- v v = vi v i -------- - xi x i t 2 i i x j 2 i i

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That is,

G p 1 2 1 2 -- v = vi - v + v j v i -------- - xi x i x j 2 t 2
Before, we used the continuity equation to move the and v j outside the differentiations. Now we can use the same technique to move them inside and we recover the equation:

G p 1 2 1 2 -- v + -- v v j = vi v i -------- x 2 x x i t 2 i j
The aim of the following is to put the right hand side into some sort of divergence form. Consider first the term

vi

P s h = kT v i vi xi xi xi ds s h - kT v i = kT ---dt t xi h ds - + h vi = kT --- xi dt t t

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We now eliminate the

term using continuity, viz t = ( vi ) t xi

and we obtain

vi

p ds h - h ( vi ) vi = kT --- xi dt t xi xi ds - = kT ---( hv i ) dt t x i

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The term

vi

G xi

= =

( G v i ) + G ( v i ) xi xi ( G v i ) G t xi

G = ( G v i ) ( G ) + t xi t
When the gravitational potential is constant in time,

G t
Hence, the energy equation

= 0 vi

G xi

( G v i ) ( G ) t xi

G P 1 2 1 2 -- v + -- v v j = vi v i -------- x 2 x x i t 2 i j

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becomes

ds 1 2 1 2 - -- v + -- v v j = kT ---( hv i ) x 2 dt t x t 2 j i ( G v i ) ( G ) xi t
Bringing terms over to the left hand side:

ds 1 2 1 2 -- v + + G + -- v v j + hv j + G v j = kT --- x 2 dt t 2 j
When the fluid is adiabatic

ds - = 0 kT ---dt
and we have the energy equation for a perfect fluid:

1 2 1 2 -- v + + G + -- v v j + hv j + G v j = 0 t 2 x j 2

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The total energy per unit volume is

1 2 - v + + G = Kinetic + internal + gravitational energy E = -2

and the energy flux is

1 2 1 2 - v + h + v i - v v i + hv i + G v i = -F E, i = - 2 2 = Kinetic + enthalpy + gravitational fluxes

3 Fluids with viscosity In most astrophysical contexts we do not have to consider molecular viscosity since it is generally small. However, we do need to consider viscosity in circumstances where it is important to discuss the means whereby energy is dissipated in a fluid. 3.1 The momentum ux in a viscous uid The starting point for considering viscosity is the momentum flux. We put

ij = v i v j + p ij ij

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where, the viscous stress tensor, ij , is given by

2 - ij v k, k + ij v k, k ij = v i, j + v j, i - 3 = 2 s ij + ij v k, k
The tensor

1 2 - v i, j + v j, i -- ij v k, k s ij = - 2 3
is the (trace-free) shear tensor of the fluid and

v k, k
is the dilation, which is important in compressible fluids. The complete equations of motion are therefore:

G p ij ( vi ) + ( vi v j ) = + xi t x j xi x j

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3.2 Energy conservation If we now take the scalar product of the momentum equation with v i we obtain

G ij P 1 2 1 2 ----------v = vi vi v + v j + vi xi x i x j x j 2 t 2
that is, the same as before, but with the additional term

vi
Hence the energy equation becomes

ij x j

( v ) v x j i ij i, j ij

1 2 1 2 -- v + + G + -- v v j + hv j + G v j v i ij x 2 t 2 j ds - v i, j ij = kT ---dt

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The quantity v i ij n j is interpreted as the work done on the fluid by the viscous force; hence its appearance with terms that we associate with the energy flux. This is not the full story, however. When there is momentum transport associated with viscosity, there is also a heat flux, q which is often represented as being proportional to the temperature gradient with a heat conduction coefficient , i.e.

qi =
We then write the full energy equation as

T xi

1 2 1 2 -- v + + G + -- v v j + hv j + G v j v i ij + q j x 2 t 2 j ds - v i, j ij + q j, j = kT ---dt
Conservation of energy is expressed by:

1 2 1 2 -- v + + G + -- v v j + hv j + G v j v i ij + q j = 0 x 2 t 2 j
and the entropy changes according to

ds - = v i, j ij q j, j kT ---dt
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The term v i, j ij represents viscous heating and the term q j, j represents escape of heat from the volume resulting from the heat flux. The viscous heating term can be written:
2 ij v i, j = 2 s ij s ij + v k ,k

remembering the definition of the shear tensor:

1 2 - v i, j + v j, i -- ij v k, k s ij = - 2 3

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