Direct Torque Control for Interior Permanent Magnet Synchronous

Motors with Respect to Optimal Efficiency

Michael Meyer, Tobias Grote, Joachim Bcker
Paderborn University
Institute oI Power Electronics and Electrical Drives
33095 Paderborn, Germany
Phone: 49 5251 60 2211
E-Mail: meyerlea.upb.de, grotelea.upb.de, boeckerlea.upb.de
URL: http://wwwlea.upb.de

Keywords
Interior permanent magnet synchronous motor , EIIiciency-optimal operation , Direct torque and
Ilux control , Hybrid electric vehicle
Abstract
Due to their high torque and power per volume ratio, interior permanent magnet synchronous motors
(IPMSM) are widespread electrical machines Ior traction drive applications, e.g. in the drive train oI
hybrid electric vehicles (HEV). IPMSM exhibit a signiIicant degree oI saliency along the rotor
circumIerence. Thus, in order to exploit the Iull potential oI an IPMSM drive, it is mandatory to utilize
the reluctance torque. As a result, using a rotor Ilux oriented torque control, the clear separation
between Ilux and torque generating currents is no longer possible, i.e. that the determination oI the
reIerence currents Ior the subordinated current control is rather diIIicult. Furthermore, drive
applications demand Ior a wide constant power range with Ilux weakening ratios oI up to 1:5 or even
higher. However, Ilux weakening operation demands Ior additional measures to ensure that the current
controllers dispose oI a minimum amount oI voltage reserve, which is necessary to govern transients
and to compensate Ior disturbances. In this contribution a Direct Torque Control (DTC) structure is
proposed to cope with the aIore mentioned problems. In a DTC structure, torque and Ilux are
controlled directly. Hence, the approach is very well suited Ior operation at saturated voltage.
Furthermore, with torque and Ilux as control variables, it is not necessary to determine any reIerence
currents. However, the proposed structure utilizes two Look Up Tables (LUT) Ior the determination oI
eIIiciency-optimal set values Ior Ilux and torque. The LUT are generated based on measurement
results. So, they do already account Ior saturation eIIects. The proposed DTC structure has been
implemented and veriIied on a test bed.
1. Introduction
Requirements Ior electrical traction drives, e.g. Ior railway applications or in the drive train oI hybrid
electrical vehicles (HEV), are a wide constant power range as well as a high ratio oI torque and power
per volume. Due to the development oI modern permanent magnet materials, such as !"#$% or &'(),
the power and torque density oI permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSM) increased
signiIicantly. Thus, this motor type becomes more and more attractive Ior drive applications. Highly
utilized machines are oIten designed as interior permanent magnet synchronous motors (IPMSM) with
the magnets embedded in the rotor structure. This results in a signiIicant degree oI saliency and in
additional reluctance torque. Hence, optimal operation oI IPMSM is bound to exploit not only the
main torque component, which is proportional to the *-axis current, but also that extra reluctance
torque, which depends on the product oI "- and *-axis current components. As a result, the "-axis
current oI the motor must not be controlled to zero, as it is common with non-salient PMSM.
Thus, the major problem is to Iind that combination oI "- and *-axis currents, which aims Ior best
eIIiciency, considering also the current and voltage limitation at a certain motor speed and DC link
voltage. In |1-6| proposals Ior this problem have been presented.
Direct Torque Control for Interior Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors with Respect to Optimal Efficiency MEYER Michael
EPE 2007 - Aalborg ISBN : 9789075815108 P.1
Another characteristic requirement Ior traction drives is the wide constant-power range. To exploit the
Iull torque and power potential oI the drive during Ilux weakening, an operation at or very close to the
voltage limit is mandatory. However, using a Ilux-oriented control structure with the voltage as
actuating variable Ior the subordinated current control, an operation at the voltage limit is diIIicult,
because no voltage reserve is leIt Ior the disposal oI the current controllers to compensate Ior
disturbances or to govern transients. Thus, it becomes necessary to introduce e.g. a voltage controller,
which has to care about a certain amount oI voltage reserve to guarantee the Iunctionality oI the
current control. The overall control structure with the nonlinear torque and voltage control loops
becomes rather complex and diIIicult to design. In |7| such a torque control structure is proposed
using Look Up Tables (LUT).
In this paper, a Direct Torque Control (DTC) structure is proposed. DTC was presented Iirst by
Takahashi et al. |8|. The utilization oI DTC Ior PMSM drives is discussed in |9-10|. Control variables
oI DTC are Ilux and torque. As the Ilux is controlled directly, DTC is very well suited Ior an operation
in the constant-power range. Further on, as DTC does not comprise an inner current control loop, there
is no need to determine any reIerence currents. However, the problem with DTC is then to determine
optimal Ilux and torque set values with respect to optimal eIIiciency and accounting Ior the current
and voltage limitation. For this purpose two LUT are utilized by the control structure proposed in this
paper.
2. Modeling of IPMSM
In the rotor-Iixed "+* reIerence Irame, the voltage equations oI the IPMSM are given by

* * ,& " " " "
- . - . ,- / e + =


0 ,& " " ,& * * * *
- . - . ,- / e e + + + =


(1)

The motor torque results as
( )
* " * " 0
- - . . 0 1 ) (
2
3
+ = (2)

where
* "
/ / , "- and *-axis voltage components
* "
- - , "- and *-axis current components
, Stator resistance
* "
. . , "- and *-axis inductances
,&
e Electrical angular velocity
0
Permanent magnet Ilux
max
2 Maximum length oI the stator current space vector
"3
4 DC link voltage
0
Number oI pole pairs

Voltages and currents are restricted by the constraints given in (3) and (4). Neglecting the ohmic
voltage drop, assuming steady state operation and considering that the magnitude oI the voltage vector
is limited to 4
max
, (4) can be derived directly Irom (1).

2
max
2 2
2 - -
* "
s + (3)

max
2 2
3
) ( ) ( 4
4
- . - .
"3
* * " " 0 ,&
= s + + e
(4)

Dividing (4) by the rotor electrical Irequency e
,&
, the voltage limit Ior a given rotor speed can be
expressed in terms oI a maximum Ilux vector magnitude
max
, which is given by (5).
Direct Torque Control for Interior Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors with Respect to Optimal Efficiency MEYER Michael
EPE 2007 - Aalborg ISBN : 9789075815108 P.2

,&
"3
,& * * " " 0
4
- . - .
e
e
3
) ( ) ( ) (
max
2 2
= s + + =
(5)

Looking at (5), the geometric shape oI lines oI constant Ilux in -
"
/-
*
coordinates are ellipses. In Fig. 1,
the circle oI maximum current and three constant-Ilux ellipses, which correspond to the voltage limit,
Ior a constant DC link voltage, at three diIIerent rotor speeds e
1
, e
2
and e
3,
are depicted. The center
point oI the constant Ilux ellipses is given by the short circuit current oI the motor.

0 , = =
*
"
0
"
-
.
-


(6)

The dashed green lines are lines oI constant torque.

Fig. 1: Characteristic curves oI an IPMSM in terms oI stator currents
3. Efficiency Optimal Operation of an IPMSM Considering Current and
Flux Limits
Operating the motor in a loss-minimal way means that a desired torque is generated with a current
space-vector oI minimum length. Each constant torque curve can be reached with a unique minimum-
amplitude current space-vector. The geometric location oI all minimum-amplitude current space-
vectors Iorms the maximum-torque-per-current curve. In Fig. 1 this curve is depicted in blue.
Operating points on the maximum-torque-per-current curve
Whenever conIormable with current and Ilux limit, operating points on the maximum-torque-per-
current curve are chosen. Thus, Ior suIIicient low rotor speeds (e
,&
5e
1
), the maximum torque
magnitude 1
1
is only limited by the maximum current. This maximum torque can be generated in
operating point (. It should be noted that a negative "-axis current is applied to the motor in this
operating point. Its purpose is not Ilux weakening due to the voltage limit but an optimal exploitation
oI the reluctance torque.

Direct Torque Control for Interior Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors with Respect to Optimal Efficiency MEYER Michael
EPE 2007 - Aalborg ISBN : 9789075815108 P.3
Operating points at the voltage limit
For higher rotor speeds the strategy to choose only operating points on the maximum-torque-per-
current curve can no longer be sustained. Assuming that
max
(e
2
) represents the voltage limit, the
torque 1
3
is the maximum torque, which can still be realized on the maximum-torque-per-current
curve in operating point %. II the desired torque exceeds 1
6
, the operating point has to be shiIted along
the ellipse oI constant Ilux towards higher torque values. A more negative "-axis current than
necessary Ior an optimal exploitation oI the reluctance torque is introduced into the motor in order to
keep the induced voltage within the allowed limit. The motor drive is now operated at the voltage
limit. The maximum reachable torque is reduced to 1
2
that is generated in operating point 7, at the
intersection point oI current and voltage limiting curves.
II the center point oI the ellipses oI constant Ilux is located within the circle oI maximum current, i.e.
iI the maximum current oI the motor exceeds the short circuit current, there is no electrical limitation
Ior the rotor speed. In this case, Ior suIIicient high rotor speeds, the maximum torque reachable will
just be limited by the voltage, and the operating point, in which this torque is generated, is located on
the cyan maximum-torque-per-voltage curve. Assuming that
max
(e
3
) represents the voltage limit, a
maximum torque 1
4
can be generated in operating point 8. Thus, the dashed yellow maximum-torque-
per-voltage-and-current curve comprises all operating points, where maximum torque Ior a given
voltage limit can be generated.
4. Implemented DTC Structure
Based on the considerations oI the last chapter an eIIiciency-optimal torque control structure, which
considers voltage and current limit and uses DTC, can be deduced. The resulting structure, which
provides torque and Ilux reIerence values to the actual DTC, is shown in Fig. 2. It utilizes two LUT.
The Iirst LUT
)09
(1) comprises all combinations oI torque and Ilux values on the optimum-torque-
per-current curve, where a desired torque is generated with a minimum length current space-vector.
The second LUT 1
max
() comprises all combinations oI torque and Ilux values on the dashed yellow
maximum-torque-per-voltage-and-current curve. With that LUT the maximum producible torque 1
max

Ior a given Ilux limit
max
can be determined.

The Iunction oI the control structure can be explained as Iollows: Given a desired torque 1:, the
respective eIIiciency optimal Ilux value on the maximum-torque-per-current curve is obtained Irom
the LUT
)09
(1). It is then limited to
max
, which represents the voltage limit at a given DC link
voltage and rotor speed. The resulting Ilux value ;;: is the reIerence Ilux Ior the actual DTC
structure. The reIerence torque is limited to a maximum value producible with a Ilux magnitude oI
;:; using the LUT 1
max
(). The complete control structure is depicted in Fig. 3. The actual torque and
Ilux values are obtained Irom an observer structure labeled with 'Flux and Torque Observer.



Fig.2: ReIerence torque and Ilux determination with respect to optimum eIIiciency
Direct Torque Control for Interior Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors with Respect to Optimal Efficiency MEYER Michael
EPE 2007 - Aalborg ISBN : 9789075815108 P.4
Switching
Table
Flux- &
Torque
Observer
+
-
+
-

m
T*
lim
,S,*
T
est
,
est
,
v
b
v
a
v
c
U
dc
i
b
i
a
u

T
,S,
u(v)
u,u
PMSM
3~
Encoder

est

n

n
(
est
)
nverter
Reference
Torque & Flux
Determination
T*
,
RS
,
U
dc

Fig. 3: Overall Control Structure
Generation of the look up tables
The proposed control structure has been implemented on a test bed, using an IPMSM with the
Iollowing data:
Table I: Parameter of the IPMSM
Number oI pole pairs
0
3
Stator resistance
, 0,06O
Magnet Ilux linkage
0
427mVs
"-axis inductance
"
. 1,51mH
*-axis inductance
*
. 2,97mH
Maximum phase current
max
2 196A

For the generation oI the necessary LUT, inIormation about the generated torque and Ilux Ior all
reasonable -
"
/-
*
current combinations is required. This inIormation could be generated using the data oI
the motor parameters .
"
, .
*
,
0
. Particularly, iI iron saturation has to be regarded, the data should be
obtained either by detailed FEA calculations or directly by experiment. For this purpose, a grid oI -
"
/-
*

current combinations has to be generated and applied to the IPMSM, while a Iixed rotor speed is
impressed to the machine. For each applied current combination, the generated torque is measured.
The Ilux values can be obtained indirectly by evaluating the steady state stator voltages, which are
necessary to sustain the applied currents. The advantage oI this method is that the generated LUT do
already account Ior saturation eIIects, which usually must not be neglected Ior highly utilized IPMSM.
Fig. 4 shows the Ilux and torque values obtained. The generated LUT
)09
(1) and 1
max
() are depicted
in Fig. 5.
Direct Torque Control for Interior Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors with Respect to Optimal Efficiency MEYER Michael
EPE 2007 - Aalborg ISBN : 9789075815108 P.5

Fig. 4: Characteristic curves oI IPMSM


Fig. 5: Generated Look Up Tables
5. Measurement Results
Fig. 6 to 10 show experimental results oI the implemented control structure.
Transient behavior of the control structure
In Fig. 6 and 7 the transient response with respect to a reIerence torque step is depicted. The results oI
Fig. 6 were recorded in the constant torque range at a rotor speed Iixed to 1000rpm. A torque reIerence
step Irom 0Nm to 150Nm was applied to the motor drive. Reaching the reIerence torque in less than
2ms, the torque step response proves the superb dynamic perIormance oI the DTC. As the drive is
operating in the constant-torque range, the Ilux reIerence values are obtained Irom the LUT
)09
(1:).
Direct Torque Control for Interior Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors with Respect to Optimal Efficiency MEYER Michael
EPE 2007 - Aalborg ISBN : 9789075815108 P.6
So, simultaneously with the torque reIerence step, the Ilux reIerence changed according to the
maximum-torque-per-current-curve. It can be seen, that during the torque and Ilux step response the "-
axis current increases temporarily. This results on the one hand in a poor exploitation oI the reluctance
torque during the transient process making the Ilux step response considerably quicker than the torque
step response. On the other hand it ensures that during the transient process the length oI the Ilux
vector suIIices Ior the generation oI the desired torque. Hence, unstable operating conditions are
avoided.

In Fig. 7 a torque step response during Ilux weakening with Iixed rotor speed oI 2300rpm is shown.
The Ilux reIerence value is determined by the voltage limit and given by the maximum available Ilux
;
max
;, which is only inIluenced indirectly via a non constant DC link voltage by the torque reIerence
step (see Fig. 2). Due to the operation in the Ilux weakening range, the torque step response is
considerably slower compared to Fig. 6.

Steady state behavior of the control structure
In Fig. 8 and 9 the steady state behavior oI the control structure is examined.
In Fig. 8 the reIerence torque is increased linearly, while the rotor speed is kept constant at 500rpm.
As the drive is not operated at the voltage limit, the reIerence Ilux is chosen according to LUT
)09
(1<.
The currents develop accordingly in an eIIiciency-optimal way. The torque is limited to a maximum
value, so that the maximum current 2
max
is not exceeded.
In Fig. 9 the reIerence torque is increased linearly again, but this time the constant rotor speed is
chosen to 2300rpm. From the Ilux development in Fig. 9 can be obtained that due to the rising Ilux in
*-direction at time 90,9s the Ilux limit
max
is reached. A Iurther increase oI torque is realized by
shiIting the operating point along the Ilux limit ellipse towards higher torque values. From the
development oI the "/*-currents can be concluded, that the motor is operated in an eIIiciency-optimal
way, accounting Ior current and voltage limit.

Fig. 6: Torque Step Response at 1000rpm Fig. 7: Torque Step Response at 2300rpm
Direct Torque Control for Interior Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors with Respect to Optimal Efficiency MEYER Michael
EPE 2007 - Aalborg ISBN : 9789075815108 P.7

Fig. 8: Experimental results at 500 rpm Fig. 9: Experimental results at 2300 rpm

6. Conclusions
In this contribution a DTC structure is presented, which allows an eIIiciency optimal operation oI an
IPMSM in the constant torque as well as in the Ilux weakening range. It utilizes two Look Up Tables
(LUT) to generate the set values Ior Ilux and torque in a way that the reluctance torque is optimally
exploited, while current and voltage limit are considered. As the LUT are generated based on
measurement results, they do already account Ior saturation eIIects, which oIten must not be neglected
Ior highly utilized IPMSM. The developed DTC structure has been implemented on a test bed. Steady
state and transient measurement results are presented, which prove its ability, to operate the motor in
an eIIiciency optimal way in both the constant-torque and Ilux weakening range. Stable operation and
a satisIying torque rise time were achieved in the complete area oI operation. As the Ilux step response
is considerably quicker than the torque step response, unstable operating conditions are avoided.
Compared to Iield-oriented solutions the proposed control structure is very well suited Ior Ilux-
weakening operation, which is a major advantage in traction drive applications. Another considerable
advantage oI the proposed control structure is its easy implementation.
References
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Direct Torque Control for Interior Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors with Respect to Optimal Efficiency MEYER Michael
EPE 2007 - Aalborg ISBN : 9789075815108 P.8
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Direct Torque Control for Interior Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors with Respect to Optimal Efficiency MEYER Michael
EPE 2007 - Aalborg ISBN : 9789075815108 P.9